Science for test

7/30/2019 Science for test

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Science

(Handout she gave)

Unit 1: unity and diversity among living things

1-1 Concept of life.1. Biology: a branch of science dealing with the study of living things

(bios meaning life and logos meaning reasoning of study) 2. Definition of life: here as some criteria that are shared by, and

unique to (all) living things. Highly ordered Cellular basis

Requires energy Responds to stimuli* Grow and develop Reproduce (these 2 are related) Transfer genetic information from one generation to the

next

*Examples of stimuli and response

Stimulus (plural: stimuli)

Any change in the environment that causes an organism to react (response) in some way, such as a muscular response, or ahormonal response.

Response

An organisms reaction in order to best cope with the change

Stimulus ResponseBright or darkness Pupils constrict or dilateBabys cry Nursing mom produces milk

(regulated by hormone, prolactin)Severe danger Fight or flight instinct: body

produces adrenalin which makesyou faster and stronger*

Sunshine from one direction Plants bend toward sun(phototropism)


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C: Respiration:

Once we have ingested energy-rich food, for example: glucose, we needa way to break down the food in order to release useable energy calledATP (Adenosine TriPhopshate.)

There are two different type of respiration 1) aerobic, uses need O 2 as areactant. 2) Anaerobic, does not use O 2.

Chemical equation for Aerobic (Cellular) respiration:

Glucose (C 6H12O6)+ O2 carbon dioxide+ water (+ATP)

( ) ( )(Reactants. ) (Products. )

So we get fuel, glucose, from our food, we get O 2 from breathing, andthrough the process of cellular respiration the glucose is burned toproduces simpler compounds (O 2+H2O) and energy-rich ATP.

Aerobic (cellular) vs. Anaerobic Respiration

Both processes are similar because glucose is broken down and ATP isproduced. However, there are many important differences.

Aerobic AnaerobicRequires O 2 as a reactant Does not use O 2Chemically breaks down glucoseinto tiny compounds

Does not break down glucose aswell.

Very efficient: A lot of ATP (about 36) molecules are produces forevery glucose

Not as efficient only 2 ATP produceglucose

Done by mammals, animals, plants,fungi

Done by certain bacteria

(*Note)

1. When we speak about respiration we usually speak about breathing. This is still true - it is respiration on a big, whole body,level. We breathe in order to take in O 2, so that we can do


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respiration on a tiny, cellular and molecular level, which is shownby the equation.

2. Comparing photosynthesis and aerobic respiration:

Photosynthesis review: Photosynthesis is a process unique ingreen plants (and some microorganisms) in which simpleinorganic compounds can be converted to food energy byharnessing energy from sunlight. Green plants can do this becauseonly they possess structures inside their cells, called chloroplasts(which contain chlorophyll and necessary enzymes.) Since greenplants can make their own food they are always the 1 st step in anyfood chain. They are called Autotrophs (auto self, trophs food.)

(In contrast, all other organisms depend on green plants directlyor indirectly and these are called heteretrophs.

Chemical equation for photosynthesis: Carbon dioxide + Water+ Sunlight------- Glucose + Oxygen (These are reactants) (These are products)

Chemical equation for cellular respiration:

Glucose (C 6H12O6)+ O2 carbon dioxide+ water (+ATP)

Notice the similarity between this equation and that of cellularrespiration

DRAWING IN NOTEBOOK

Notice how the reactants of photosynthesis are the products of respiration (vise versa)

D: Excretion: All organisms need a system in order to removemetabolic waste. All living things are constantly performing thousands

of chemical changes in order to stay alive and healthy. (Ex: respiration isa chemical change)

As a result, a lot of metabolic product accumulates; some maybecome toxic at higher concentrations.

The process of excretion involves the removal of these products.System: Excretory system


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Organs: Kidney, bladder, liver, skin (to a smaller extend sincesweat contains some metabolic products) (In mammals)

E: Synthesis: Synthesis means building up, among the chemical changesliving things undergo, one type is synthesis in which smaller moleculesare chemically combined to build longer more complex molecules.

EX: we will learn about macromolecules (macro means big), which areformed in living things by chemical combination of many smallersubunits called monomers. DNA is a macromolecule called nucleic acids.It is composed of monomers called nucleons. Carbohydrates are anothertype of macromolecule. They are composed of monomers calledmonosaccharaides (simple sugars)

F: Regulation: Living things are ale to maintain favorable conditions byhaving different systems work together in a coordinated way, and bybeing able to respond appropriately to stimuli.

G: Growth: All living things grow and develop.

Growth: Organisms get larger in a (fairly) proportional way by havingcells increase in size, or increase in number (by cell division calledmitosis)

Develop: As an organism matures, new structures, abilities, behaviors,

chemical production, develop.H: Reproduction: Reproduction is essential that organisms are able toreproduce, so that genetic material can be passed from generation togeneration and the species can continue to survive.

Asexual and sexually


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See vocabulary and definitions (in package she gave.)Note: These are only some branches of biology. There are morecategories and subcategories.Many of these categories overlap.

7. Levels of organization:We have seen that a big theme, a major idea in biology is how organismsare so well organized, with smaller structures form larger structures,which form larger structures and so on. In this section we look at someof these structures from smaller to larger.

[A] Atoms: An atom is the smallest part of an element that still has thecharacteristics of that element.All of the atoms of one element are similar to each other but different from atoms of other elements.

Ex: All models of atoms are the same as each other and all models of carbon atoms are the same as each other but gold atoms are different then carbon atoms.

[B] Molecules: Clusters of atoms that are chemically bound to eachother. The atoms of a molecule may be the same as each other (in whichcase the molecule is an element) or different (the molecule is a

compound)Ex O2 (Oxygen gas) this is a molecule and it is also an element.Because: Composed of atoms of the same element.PICTURE IN Notebook Ex: H2O (water) this is a molecule and it is also a compound.Because: Composed of atoms of different elements.

[C] Complex Molecules: In biology we talk about four types of hugemolecules called macromolecules. Each macromolecule is composed of many similar units, smaller compounds called monomers (a general

term).The monomers come together chemically by chemical changes called

synthesis reactions.

What makes one type of macromolecules different from the other isthe type of monomer that composes it.


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An overview of the four macromolecules:

Monomers Polymer (macromolecules)Monosaccharaides (simple sugars) CarbohydratesAmino acids ProteinsGlycerol and fatty acids LIPID (includes fats and more)Nucleotides Nucleic acid (DNA, RNA)

[D] Supra molecular Assemblies

Ex: Organelles, which are tiny structures inside cells that have aparticular function. An example of organelles: Endoplasmic Reticulum it is involved in transport inside a cell.

Note about Structure and FunctionA major theme in biology is that of structure and function. At alllevels (in all sizes) parts, or structures, are built with features that help them do specific jobs they are meant to carry out.

Ex: The shape of a red blood cell, and is shaped liked a biconcave disc

Why does this matter?

RBC (red blood cell) function: to carry O 2 to body tissues (we need O 2 tocarry out respiration)

To do this a RBC must: Have a larger surface area (to soak in maximum amount of

oxygen) Be flexible to squeeze through tiny blood vessels

This is a red blood

cell


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The biconcave shape fills this need best. It has a lot of surface areacompared to its smaller size (though a sphere would be best) but itsslightly flattened shape provides it with more flexibility.

[E] Cells: The unit of structure and function of all living things. Even thetiniest organism is composed of one cell: unicellular other ismulticellular.

Even in the same organism we have different types of cells, each typewith its own unique structure and function (see RBC note, above)

The cell is the first, smallest, most basic, level of organization of livingthings.

(See photocopy: cell organism)

[F] Tissues: Group of similar cells that together have a certain function.Often in biology, we divide tissues into four main categories:

1. Muscle tissue: - Movement contracting and relaxing2. Nervous tissue: - In brain, spinal cord, and sensory organs.3. Epithelial tissue: - Associated with covering and protection4. Connective tissue: - includes blood, bone, ligaments

[G] Organs: These are many tissues that work together to perform afunction (remember: structure and function!)

Ex: Hand is an organ composed of:

Epithelial tissue (skin) Muscle tissue (around bones, helps move) Nerve (we feel sensations) Connective (blood, bones)

Other Examples: Lungs, heart, kidneys, thyroid gland, pituitary[H] Organ Systems: Many different organs that work together toperform a function (structure and function)

*See coloring book for examples and read text


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Ex: Endocrine system: It is a system of endocrine glands that secretehormones into circulatory system. This system contains many glands:Thyroid, pituitary, testes, ovaries, adrenal, and pancreas.

[I] Organisms: One complete living thing. All of the organ systems work together in a coordinated way to ensure one complete, healthy, livingthing.

J) Populations: All of the organisms of the same type living in a certainarea.EX:

All of the humans in room 051. All of the trout in lake Manitou. All of the dogs in Trudeau Park.

K) Community: All of the populations in an area and the interactionsbetween them.Ex: Spiders and humans in a classroom. Spiders bite and scare humans.Humans kill spiders.Ex: Describing the different species in a food chain (or web,) some prey,(most are both.) On the park Ladybugs eat grass. Aphids eat Ladybugs.

L) Ecosystem: Includes a community and all of the abiotic (non-living)

factors that affect the community.Ex: a puddle on Kellert. Different populations (insect types, earthworms,spiders...) interact and are also affected by abiotic factors: moisture, oil,and temperature...

M) Biome: A very large ecosystem having similar Abiotic factorsthroughout.Ex: tropical rainforest, boreal forest, marine biomes, and freshwaterbiomes.

N) Biosphere: The entire area of earth that contains organisms. Allecosystems on earth make up the biosphere.

First test ends here


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Structures of the cell (handout number 2){A} The cell theory

Includes 2 basic points:

1. The cell is the unit of structure and function of all living things2. All cells come from pre-existing calls through cell division process(mitosis and meiosis)

{B} Historical Development of cell Theory

Anton van Leeuwenhoek: Dutch. Using simple microscopes discoveredone-celled organisms, sperm cells, and blood cells.

Robert Hooke: English. Saw structure of hollow spaces, which is named:cells . He invented the scale. When you put weight the spring will go

more down because of the force.Hooks Law: Hookes law is about the way springs contract and expand.It is a law of mechanics and physics by Robert Hooke.

This theory of elasticity says the extension of a spring is proportional tothe load applied to it. Many materials obey this law as long as the loaddoes not exceed the material's elastic limit. Materials for which Hooke'slaw is useful are known as linear-elastic.

Spring equation: F = KX

The spring equation shows Hooke's law with equations.

Robert Brown: English. Discovered the cell nucleus.

Matthias Schleiden: German. Stated that all plants were composed of cells. Theodor Schwann: German. Stated that animals were composed of cells Schleiden and Schwann are considered to have established the celltheory of the structure of living things.

Rudolph Virchow: German. Stated that all cells arise from pre-existing

cells, thus completing the cell theory in its modern form.

{C} Exceptions to the cell theory


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- Viruses. Which consist of DNA or RNA (macro molecules, proteins) in aprotein capsule, reproduce themselves inside living cells, but are not cells them. (Viruses). Seem in many ways livings yet are not made of cells.

- Some organelles (chloroplasts, mitochondria. Inside the cell) seem likecells themselves- they have DNA and they can duplicate (reproduce it)themselves.

- The first cell must have arisen from non-cellular structures.

D) Techniques of cell study: Much of what we know today about cellscomes from our use of the compound (because it involves 2 lenses, theocular, which is also called the eyepiece and objective lenses) light microscope. See parts and functions on pg. 9 #1-8

This is a labeled microscope found on pg. 11.

Notes Page 10 (fill in the blanks)

1. Total magnification is the product of the magnification of eachlens. Ex: 40x15=600.Resolving power, or resolution describes how well you candistinguish between two separate points. (Sharpness) Asmagnification increases, resolving power decreases.

2. A light microscope works because lenses (like those in your eyes)cause rays of light to bend, change direction, which results in theobject appearing (in this case) larger. This new view of the object:is called an image


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3. Describes the path of light:(memorize it)Light Source Mirror Diaphragm

Stage Opening Thin, Transparent specimenObjective lens Body Tube Eyepiece

Your eyes4. As magnification increases these 2 factors decrease: A) Resolution(See Note 1) B) field of vision:

How much of the wholepicture do you see?

Ex: Stevies microscope uses a 10x eyepiece and has 2 objectives,100x and 20x. When Stevie uses the low power objective, he sees 50cells. Then he switches to high power objective how many cells do he

sees now?Case Magnification Number of Cells1 10x20=200 502 10x100=1000 ?How do you solve this?

When magnification becomes 5x more (1000/200) then he sees 5x less,so there are 10 cells.

Case Magnification Number of Cells1 10x20=200 502 10x100=1000 10Ex: Menachem uses a microscope with a 15xocular and two objectives. When he uses the 50xobjective he sees 250 cells. Later he switchesobjectives and then he sees 800 cells. What is themagnifying power of the new, 2 nd objective?

Case Magnifying Number of Cells

1 15x50=750 2502 ? 800

How do you solve this? The number of cells increased by 3.2x more (800/250=3.2) So the magnifying is 3.2x less (750/3.2=234.4) This magnification is from 2 senses, one that is 15x. So the other is

234.4=15 X

Whenmagnification

increases, youwill see a zoomedin image. Whichmeans that youwill see less of thewhole picture.


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234.4/15=15.6 X =15.6 so the Objective Lens is 15.6x

Case Magnifying Number of Cells1 15x50=750 250

2 15x15.6=234.4 800

5. If the objective is extremely tiny, any light microscope do not effectively work bigger than 2000x, because of resolutionproblems, you can use an electron microscope, as this depends onstreams of electrons which does not behave like light.

Scanning electron microscope Transition electron microscope

- Enlarged 3D Image - Enlarged 2D ImageDissecting Microscope:

This has two oculars so you can benefit from stereovision. Magnification is not so high (50x) It works with light and lenses. Useful for conducting experiments with tiny instruments

and tiny samples.

You use this microscope while you do the experiments.

6. Ultracentrifuge: As in any centrifuge, mixtures are separatedaccording to density. For example a sample of blood can separate usinga centrifuge like this:

When magnification decreases you will see azoomed out image, which means that you willpicture.


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An ultracentrifuge works the same way, but spins faster so it canseparate substances with more similar densities, such as different

parts of cells or different sized-DNA molecules.7. Micro dissection instruments: LOOK AT THE PACKAGE PG 10

8. Staining: Sometime we add dyes to see better contrast. Some partsof cells will soak up the dye more than others, so you can see the parts.

In our class, we will use Iodine solution.

Note: Not in handout she gave

Lab experiment: Observation of onion sell using a compound light microscope.

1) Introduction: (Contains back ground info, aim, hypothesis.) Wehave been learning about cells, cell theory, and about themicroscope. Our aim today is to view onion cells (as example of aplant cell) using a compound light microscope.

2) Materials and Methods:(tells you what you used, how you didexperiment.)We prepared onion cell slides by taking a very thin membrane

from a layer of an onion. We placed this (trying to keep it in oneflat layer) on a glass slide. We added a small amount of Iodinesolution; the Iodine solution was prepared by dissolving a smallamount of solid elemental iodine in methanol (= methyl alcohol)to produce an orange/brown solution.


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Results (simply present results, in words, graphs, diagrams)

Depending on which sample or microscope was used, we were able tosee geometrically shaped units, attached to one another.

Conclusion (Discussion): (Summarize the results, additional ideas,sources, future experiments, ideas.)

In this lab we were fairly successful we were able to see the outline of onion cells and perhaps some nuclei were visible.

Using the techniques we used, we didnt expect to see a cell membrane,which lies inside the cell wall, or any structures other than the nucleus.

This diagram shows some of the main parts of a cell. Note that a cell isunique to plant cells. Animal cells have no cells wall.

Animals cells, which have no cells walls, are much rounder inappearance. Using light microscopes also help us appreciate some of theconcepts learned previously.

Increase magnification smaller field of vision Increase magnification decreased resolution Image is inverted up/down, left/right

Ex: R

Hand out pg. 11 notes #9

mu metric prefix:

m CHECK IN NOTEBOOK

Multiplying by 1: Practice

Object Image

Prefix Meter


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m2=

= 2.5 X 101m2

Eitan is exactly 15 years old. How many second has he lived?

==

You have 150$. You need to buy tennis balls. Each pack contains fourtennis balls. Each pack costs 6$. You use two tennis balls for every 5games you play. How many games can be used with 150$?

= = = 250

games

You are running a kollel program. You promise each kid 2 slices pizzasfor every hour they learn. Each cost pie cost 15.00$ and has 8 slices in it.

You have 25,000 dimes (10 cents) how many kids can learn for anhours. How many hours of learning can you finance

25000 dimes X

X

=

666.7 hours

Using the multiplying by one technique we take care of our units, whichallows us to automatically take care of our numbers. Sometimesmultiplying by one eliminates they need to memorize certain equations.

EX: Speed is the relation of distance and time. You can memoriesequations that relate distance, speed, and time. Or you can use speed asyour relationship (your fraction=1) to solve any problem:

Problem: A car has a speed of 12m/s. how long does it take to travel1km?

1km X = = 83.3333 seconds.

Problem: A car has a speed of 12m/s. How far does it go in one hour.


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1hr= =

= X = 43,200 meters.

Example: Density is a quantitative characteristic that describes howmuch mass if a substance is packed into a certain volume.

Every substance has its own characteristic, no matter how much stuff you have. If you double the mass, then the volume will double as well. It is all-proportional, and the relationship remains the same.

EX: Imagine different samples of water:

Sample 1: m=10g, v=10ml, d= 10g/10ml= 1g/ml

Sample 2:m=57g, v= 57, d= = 1g/ml

Sample 3: 12000g=m, 12000ml=v, 1g/ml

Density of H 2O is always 1g/ml.

Ex: Imagine different sample of gold.

Sample 1: 10g=m, 0.52ml=v d=

Sample 2:

Sample 3:

Density of gold is always 19g/ml.

Once again, we can use the density of a substance as a relationship(fraction that=1) to convert units of mass volume.

Ex: Copper has a density of 8.9g/ml. What would be the volume of 5kg of copper?

Part of Cells page 16


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Note: Even in the same organism (ex: human) Cells are differentiated sothat different cells are built to do different jobs.

Ex: RBC (biconcave disc) Muscle cells (specialized to contact, relax, movement) Nerve cells (specialized to transmit impulse)

[A] Cell Membrane (plasma membrane)

The cell membrane is found in all types of cells. Its semi-permeable,which means that it selectively, allows certain materials to go insideand outside the cell. In fact, if we examine the cell membrane moreclosely, we see that is a very complex structure.

Fluid Mosaic Model Of Cell Membrane:

The name of this model reminds us that the cell membrane is amoving, changing, complex structure, which is a mosaic of different smaller structures. A cell membrane is composed of units calledphospholipids. This is phospholipid.

The phosphate head : Is known to be hydrophilic, which means that is lives water. It likes to be in water, and it mixes well inside it.

The Lipid Tails : They are known to be hydrophobic, which meansthat it hates water. They are greasy, fatty, which do not mix wellwith water.

The big question: If a cell membrane separates a cell from itsenvironment, and if the cell is watery in the inside, and surrounded bywater on the outside. Why are there these fatty parts in a cell membrane(lipids) are hydrophobic? And where do they go?

The answer: Phospholipid bilayer


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The phosphate heads, meaning the hydrophilic part, see water on theinside and the outside of the cell, the lipid tails, which are hydrophobic,avoiding contact with H 20.

There are other added components to this lipid bilayer, for example,proteins are embedded and dispersed throughout the membrane.

Some of these proteins are important in the transport of specificsubstances across the cell membrane. F inal complete picture of fluidmosaic model: On a piece of paper

DONE FOR SECOND TEST23

[B] Cytoplasm (p.16)

The cytoplasm is a watery substance inside the cell. Many substances,nutrients are dissolved inside. Different organelles are dispenses inside

the cytoplasm.[C]

1) Nucleus The nucleus is the control center of the cell. The nucleuscontains chromosomes, which are made of many genes, which aremade of DNA, which provides the instructions for all cell activities.

The Nuclear Membrane: 1) separates nucleus from rest of thecell. 2) Structure is similar to plasma membrane

Nucleolus: 1) there is a few per nucleus 2) It is involved for

synthesis of some types of RNA Nucleoplasm: 1) similar to cytoplasm of the whole cell, thenucleoplasm is the background liquid of the nucleus.

2) Chromosomes and Chromatin One form changes into the other. This consists of DNA, associated with proteins.


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Centrioles

Centrioles are located in animal cells Photo of one:

Found near the nucleus It is important in cell division

Endoplasmic Reticulum

It is involved in the transport of materials within the cells It is a membranous organelle with many folds, channels Works closely with Golgi Apparatus

There are two types of E.R

The Endoplasmic Reticulum helps to transport substances (ex: proteins)that are made in the cell, to be brought out of the cell.

Ribosomes

Smooth

No ribosomes

Rough

Has ribosomes


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Ribosomes are tiny spherical structures actually composed of 2

subunits It is at the ribosomes that proteins get made. Some ribosomes are on rough ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum); some

are loose in the cytoplasm.

Golgi Apparatus

Vacuoles

Storage sacs Store water, nutrients, water Many small ones in animal cells Few large ones in plant cell

[D] Structures: Structures are found on the outside of all cells.

Cilium: (plural Cilia)

Many tiny hair-like projections, which are located on the outsideof some cells, which function to:- Clear away debris- Move in a coordinated way to allow the cell to move.

Flagellum (plural: flagella)

Golgi is

A series of sacs (connected)Works closely with ERProteins are ready to betransported out to go from ER toGolgiAt the Golgi, modification are doneto finally prepare the protein fortransport


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Its is 1 or 2 longer projections (longer than the cilia) which beator whip creating a motor and propelling the cell

Located on the outside of some cells

[E] Extracellular Materials

Just a reminder that cells arent located alone (vacuum.) Fluidssurround them with different substances dissolved in these fluids.

In addition, there are sometimes solid substances such as calciumdeposits or proteins, which surround the cells.

[F] Plant Cells Also Have:

Cell walls is located outside the membrane, it help keep plantscells firm and water-filed without bursting

Chloroplasts:o The organelle responsible for photosynthesis.o It is oval, double membrane structureso They Contain Thylakoid Discs which contain chlorophyll o The whole structure is green, and is why plants greeno Chlorophyll and enzymes inside chloroplasts are

responsible for the ability to undergo photosynthesis.

o Prokaryotic VS. Eukaryotic

Prokaryotic EukaryoticHave no nuclei They have nucleiGenetic material is loose inCytoplasm

Fungi, plants, Animals AreEukaryotic


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Bacterial cells are prokaryotic When we speak of Eukaryoticorganism we are mentioning that it has only Eukaryotic cells.

Plant VS Animals Cells

Plants AnimalsHave Chloroplasts Dont Have Cell wall Dont Dont Have LysosomesDont Have CentriolesHave few large vacuoles Have many small vacuoles

The Chemistry of Life[A] Chemical Elements

1. Definition: Elements are pure substances that cannot be broken down into

anything simpler, not even by chemical changes.2. Elements in living things: There are two categories: 1. Most common (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen) 96% 2. Less common (Sulfur, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Iron, Calcium,

Sodium, Chlorine and Potassium) 4% 1 LOOK AT TABLE FOR MORE INFO

3. Symbol (you have to know the symbols in package)4. Atoms: An atom is the smallest part of an element that still has the

characteristics of that element. All of the atoms of one element aresimilar to each other but different from atoms of other elements .

1 We dont have to know the percentage; its just for us to show that it is the most common category.

At first, glance it is fairly easy to distinguish plant cells and animal cells,because plant cells look more rigid and geometric (cell wall) and most of itsvolume is taken up by a large vacuole.


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5. Ions: Recall that atoms have equal numbers of protons andelectrons, which makes the atom neutral.

o Sometimes an atom will gain electron(s), which makes theparticle a negative Ion.

o Sometimes an atom will lose electrons, which makes theparticle a positive Ion.

An Ion is a charged (not neutral) particle that results an atomhas gained or lost electrons.

An atom becomes an Ion by a chemical change, which meansthat they have entirely different characteristics.

EX:

Nao

Atom (Neutral) Na+

Ion (Positive)Reactive Metal Found in table salt Reacts explosively with water Tastes salty

Dissolves in water

Note: In Biology we care about Ions, because it is essential that there is a proper concentration of Ions dissolved in our waterybody fluids, inside and outside our cells. A healthy balance of electrolytes is essential for our nervous system and muscularsystem (and other systems) to work properly.

Classification of Matter

Matter is anything that has mass and volume (solid, liquid, or gazes.)There are many ways to classify matter. Here is one:


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Matter

Pure: It is the opposite of mixture, it is either a compound or an element,and something that is pure cannot be broken down into anythingsimpler by a physical change. (Compounds are pure because they can be

broken down, but only by a chemical change.)The particles that compose a pure substance are all the same as eachother.

[B] Chemical Compounds

1. A pure substance composed of 2 or more elements that havechemically combined.

2. Formula: We use formulas to indicate how many atoms of eachelement are in one molecule of the compound.Molecule Formula Structure formEx: H2O shows how many atomsof each type

OH. HShows how atoms in a moleculeare connected

Homogeneous Heterogeneous

MixturePure Mixture (solution)

Element Compound


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Sample Problem

(a) Draw a particle model that represents a sample of MgCl 2

(b) Choose all of the words that correctly describe the sample. If yes, saywhy! ( Highlighted is right)

Heterogeneous

Homogeneous: All pure things are homogeneous. There is only 1 kind of particle. They have the same properties through

Pure

Mixture

Solution

CompoundElement

Pg. 20.

3. Inorganic Compounds: Compounds that are not unique to livingthings. They may be important to living things, they may be foundin living, but they can also be found in non-living things.

Inorganic compounds are usually small and simple. (In termsof number of atoms) Inorganic compounds may have carbon or hydrogen, but not

both. If there is no carbon or hydrogen they are inorganic. Example of inorganic compounds

Mg

Cl Cl

MgCl ClMg Cl

Cl

All particles are identical, all compounds are pure.

Compounds are formed from 2 or more elements that are chemically combined. Here there are 2 elements (mgand Cl)

It has more then 2 elements so it is not an element


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Compound FormulaCarbon dioxide Co 2Hydrochloric acid HClSodium Chloride NaClCalcium Carbonate CaCO 3

4. Organic Compounds: They are unique to living things, produceduniquely by living things.

Organic compounds tend to be large, more complex (moreatoms inside)

Organic compounds must have at least carbon and hydrogen insideCompound FormulaGlucose C6H12O6 you need to knowMethane CH 4 you need to knowEthane C 2H6

5. Importants of water H2O is extremely important in biology. Organisms mass is largely composed of H 2O (About 70%) H2O is an important solvent (part of solution that allows

dissolving to occur Many chemical reactions in living things occur in H 2O H2O is often a reactant or a product in biochemical

reactions. (Chemical reactions occurring in an organism)

[C] Kind of Organic Compounds

Overview: There are four different types of organic macromolecules.Each type is unique because of the monomer (building block) that composes it.

1. Carbohydrates: Elements inside: Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen


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Generally, there are x more Hydrogen atoms compared tooxygen atoms.

o EX: Glucose: C6H12O6 o Sucrose: C 12H22O11

(a) Monosaccharide

The monomer of all carbohydrates Ex: Glucose, galactose, fructose Often have the formula C 6H12O6

(b) Disaccharides

They have 2 monosaccharaides chemically combined Often have the formula C 12H22 O11 This is the formula for sucrose, maltose, Lactose (They are different in the way that the atoms are linked)

The Big Question:

If a typical monosaccharide is C 6H12O6, and disaccharide is composed of 2 monosaccharaides that are chemically combined, why isnt thedisaccharide C 12H24O12 ? When it is C 12H22O11 . Some atoms seem to havedisappeared!

The answer is:Dehydration Synthesis: When 2 monomers (here we seemonosaccharide), which are monomers of carbohydrates, need tochemically join together, they need to first be made chemically sticky(chemically attracted.) When one monomer loses 1 Hydrogen atom, onemonomer loses OH together. This allows a chemical bond to formbetween 2 monomers. The H and OH also bind, create H 2O. So 1 H2O isreleased for each connection that is made.


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Word Equation: General

Monomer+ Monomer Dimer (2 monomers)+ H 2O

You see in this word equation that dehydration synthesis is for thebuilding up of all kinds of macromolecules.

Specific for Carbohydrates:

Monosaccharide+ Monosaccharide disaccharide+ H2O

Glucose+ Glucose Maltose+ H 2O

Glucose+ Galactose Lactose+ H 2O

Glucose+ Fructose Sucrose+ H 2O

Note: Dehydration synthesis is not only for carbohydrates. It is the way

any monomer of any macromolecule gets chemically joined. Dehydration synthesis is not only for monomers being added to

monomers. It can be for 1 monomer to be added to a long chain orfor 2 long chains to be connected.

(c) Polysaccharides

Many monomers, monosaccharaides chemically combined They may combine in straight chains or in brackets.


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TO EXPLAIN YOU SOMETHING (SACHER WROTE ON BOARD)

Polymer (macromolecule)

Examples of Polysaccharides

Many carbohydrates are composed only of glucose monomers, yet theyare different from each other in the way they are chemically linked

EX: Glycogen a carbohydrate in mammals.

StarchCarbohydrates in plants.

Carbohydrates ProteinNucleic Acid

Lipids

nosaccharaides

monomer)

Disaccharides

(2 monomers)

Polysaccharides

(many monomers)

Complex CarbohydratesSugars


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Cellulose

Mainfunctions of

Carbohydrates: A source of energy

Carbohydrates, even complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides) can bebroken down into monosaccharide. As we have seen, monosaccharidelike glucose can be used as reactant for cellular respiration. ATP is

produced (recall ATP is our bodys energy currency.) Note: Monosaccharaides and disaccharides are called sugars. We canusually recognize the chemical names of sugars by seeing the ose at the end of their names.

Note: When we talk about food energy, we use the unit calories. Onecalorie is very small. So we use Calories (1 Calorie: 1 kcal [make surethere is a capital C in calories])

Every gram of carbohydrates (regardless of the type) packs in 4calories.

Another way to measure energy is in Joules (capital). Every Joule isabout 4x smaller than every calorie

1 calorie (small)= 4.2J

1 Calorie (big)= 4.2kJ

Used for measuring food

Note: A secondary, less common function of carbohydrates: somecomplex carbohydrates provide structure

Ex: Cellulose in the cell walls of plant cells.

Cellulose is a good source of fiber since we cannot break it down chemically. We dont get energy from it, but it helpskeep our digestive system healthy.


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Hydrolysis : Recall dehydration synthesis: In order to chemically link monomers together, one molecule of H 2O is released for eachconnection.

The Big Question: How do we separate a monomer from a chain that isalready there?

The Big Answer: For every bond that is broken, 1 molecule of H 2O isused (as a reactant)

This process is the opposite of dehydration synthesis. It is calledHydrolysis.

Hydrolysis

Monomer+Monomer

Dehydration Synthesis

In hydrolysis water is necessary so one OH can be added to onemonomer and the other H can be added to the other monomer.

2. Lipids (pg. 26)

Elements: C, H, and O

Unlike carbs, there is no 2:(to) 1 ratio of Hydrogen to Oxygen.Most lipids are fats and oils.

Enzyme

Chemical ChangeMonomer+Monomer

Enzymes

Chemical Change

Monomer+MonomerDimer

Fats are solid at roomtemperature.

Oil is liquid at room temperature


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Fats and oils are called triglycerides, because there are 3 fatty acidchains attached to one glycerol.

Dehydration synthesis occurs in 3 places to form this triglyceride,so 3 H 2O water molecules are released.

When we speak of healthier, unsaturated fats, or more worrisomesaturated fats. We are referring to the chemical structure of the type of fatty acid

Unsaturated fats are usually liquid at room temperature but saturated fat is solid and can collect in blood vessels, leading to heart disease.

Note: Not all lipids are fats. Other lipids include cholesterol andother steroids, waxes etc.

Lipids

Functions of Lipids

One single triglyceride

Fats, Oils Steroids Waxes Phospholipids

Many more

Most CommonType


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Main Function: Source and storage of energy

Fats Have: 9 Calories/gram

Other lipids have other function, for example in cell membranes. Fats

are also extremely important in the proper development of our nervoussystem.

3. Proteins: Pg. (30) Elements that are inside most proteins C, H, O, N and S. Building Blocks of Proteins

Amino Acids

Every amino acid looks like this. Notice that there is H, C, O, and N

always. R is the extra part that makes each amino acid (there are 20types of amino acids.) The R may be as simple as a single H atom (inGlycine) or much more complex. Some amino acids have Sulfur, S as part of this R group, which is why most Amino Acids will have some sulfurinside.

The Huge Variation among Different Proteins

Proteins have many different functions:

Example:o Enzymes (of which there are thousands of different one)o Structureo Hemoglobin is a protein (In RBC, helps carry O 2)o Transport across cell membraneo Help Blood clot after injuries


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o Antibodies are types of proteins (there are thousands of types)

The Big Question:

How can one type of macromolecule, composed of the same monomers(building blocks called amino acids.) Be responsible for such a divers set of functions.

The Big Answer:

Its all about the R; there are 20 different amino acids because of 20different R. Among the smallest amino acid chain has about 100 aminoacids.

At each position there are 20 different amino acid choices.

How many 100 Amino Acids peptides (chain of Amino Acid) arepossible?

That is equal to 20 100 !!!!

So imagine how many proteins (which are often made of more then 1

peptide) can be formed from the same 20 amino acids.

Many

Amino acid Peptide

Once again, the amino acids (monomers) chemically combine by theprocess of dehydration synthesis.

[See Photocopy]

SomePolypeptide

Proteins


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AA+AA2 Dipeptide+H 2O

(The bond that forms between neighboring AA is called a peptide bond.)

One AA loses OH from carboxyl group; one loses AA H from amino

group.4. Nucleic Acids This class of macromolecules includes DNA and RNA. Nucleotide=monomer More Later!

Genetics

Genetics is the study of heredity.

In our study of genetics we will learn how traits are passed down fromone generation to the next.

As we study genetics, realize that

All healthy humans have many traits that are common; we sharemany of the same genes. (In some ways our genes are alike)

All healthy humans are unique in appearance, personality, andintelligence In part because of each of our unique genomes (insome ways genes are different)

In this unit we focus on genetics but understand that ourenvironment also plays a role in who we are and who we become.

Nature Vs. Nurture Argument

We understand that both of these arguments hold some truth.

We are who we are becauseof our genes

We are who we are because of ourexperiences


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Today we know a lot about genes, DNA, chromosomes, etc. But we willstart our discussion of genetics with

Gregor Mendelo Father of Geneticso Born in mid 1800so Developed theories of genetics that are applicable today

(without knowing about genes, chromosomes)o His interesting data went unnoticing for years as it was

published in a mathematics journal, uninteresting to thereaders.

Mendels Famous Pea Plant Experiments

Pea plants turned out to be an excellent choice because:

They are genetically quite simple They have a lot of traits that are easy to measure and come in 2

simple, opposite varieties. Ex: Flowers: white or purple Height: tall or short Seed color: yellow or green Texture: smooth or wrinkled.

His First Big Experiments:

1. Mendel took a pure tall plant and mated it with a pure short plant.

What does it mean by pure??

Pure means: that pants parents grandparents (All ancestors) all hadthat same trait.

Parents Tall x Short

Children

This result was shocking. Did the short trait completely disappear?

100% tall plants

P1

F1


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2. Experiment 2: He mated 2 members of the F 1 generation witheach other

Tall x Tall

First: Review of Experiment of 1 and 2P1 Parents Tall x Short

Children

The T represents tall (dominant gene) the t represent shirt (gene.) Thet's and T's on the outside represent each gene of the second-generationpea plant. The inside represents the possible outcome. Since T isdominant 75% is tall.

Mendel's conclusions:Concept of unit characters: all traits are by factors (genes alleles that occur in pairs (ex: a pure tall pea plant has two tall alleles, TT)Law of segregation: When an individual produces gametes (sex cells:egg in female; sperm in make) the 2 alleles separate so that each single

F1

75% tall and 25%short F2

100% tall plantsF1

75% tall and 25%short

F2


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cell receives one gene. (This way, during fertilization the offspring willhave, once again, 2 alleles for each trait.)Principal of dominance and recessive: When there are two possiblevariations if a trait (now we call these genes, or alleles) one may mask

the effect of the other.The one that makes the other: dominant The one that gets masked: RecessiveIn pea plants, for example, the tall allele is dominant and the short alleleis recessive.Some important vocabulary words:Phenotype: The outward appearance of a trait. Ex: tall (pea plants),short (pea plants), Type A blood (in humans), Brown eyes (humans),blue eyes (humans), green eyes (humans),

Genotype:

The genetic make-up, the 2 alleles of a certain type.

So if you know the genotype (and you know which one is dominant)then you can determine the phenotype.

But if you know the phenotype you may not know the genotype. Theonly way you will know if the phenotype is recessive.

Example: Color in pea plants:

Yellow: Dominant

Green: Recessive (getting covered up)

Y= Yellow, y=Green

Possible Genotypes Phenotype

YY YellowYy Yellowyy Green

Homozygous (pure):


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Both alleles are the same Terms like homozygous dominant or homozygous recessive

are ways to describe the genotype

Heterozygous (hybrid)

The two alleles are different each other.

Practice with Punnett Squares (Problems):

In humans, cystic fibrosis is a recessive disease. Determine theprobability (phenotype, genotype) ratio of kids born to a purehealthy mom and a carrier (heterozygous) Dad.

C C

C CC CCc Cc ccc= cystic fibrosis

C= Healthy Mom

Phenotype: 100% healthy

Genotype: 50% CC 50% Cc (50% homozygous dominant, 50%heterozygous)

A pedigree is a chart showing the transfer of a trait from generationto generation:

Short sightedness is dominant.


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Q: Fill in all possible genotypes.S- short sightedness

s- normal vision

Example 2

Legend: N-grey eyes n-non-grey eyes

1: Is grey eyes dominant or recessive?

They are recessive because A and B are normal eyes, had a childwith (c) grey eyes


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2: fill in as many genotypes as possible.

More Punnet square examples

1. Huntingtons disease is a dominant disease: An affected

heterozygous mom marries a healthy dad.Find the phenotype and the genotype (probabilities/ratio) of their kids.

h hH Hh Hhh hh hh

H- affected, diseaseH- healthy

Phenotype: It is a 1:1 ratio, 50% sick: 50% healthy

Genotype: 1:1 ratio 50% heterozygous: 50% homozygous recessive.


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Carrier means heterozygous.

2. Another example In humans cystic fibrosis is a recessive disease If 2 carriers marry

what is the phenotype and genotype ratio of the kids? Note: Carrier is often used to describe the genotype of a healthy

individual who is heterozygous for a recessive disease. C-healthy c- sic Mom- Cc Dad- Cc

C cC CC Ccc Cc cc

Phenotype: three children are healthy and one is sick Genotype: 1 CC: 2Cc: 1cc

Note: This hybrid cross is the famous cross from Mendels experiment when F 1 generation (tall) gave rise to 25% short in F 2 generation.

Punnet Square

In humans, suppose brown eyes are dominant over blue eyes. A blue-eyed mom marries a heterozygous dad. Predict phenotypes andgenotypes of the offspring.

B bb Bb bbb Bb bb

Phenotype: 50% brown eyes, 50% blue eyes

Genotype: 2Bb: 2bb

B- brown dad- Bb

b- blue Mom- bb


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Multiple Alleles examples:

Some traits have more than 2 possible alleles, although each individualcan only have 2 alleles of them.

Ex: Human: A, B, And O Blood Types. This is an example of multipleAlleles.

Blood types refer to various proteins that we may or may not have onthe surface of our RBC.

Phenotype Whats on our RBC Blood type A A protein is on RBCBlood type B B protein on your RBCBlood type AB A and B protein on your RBC

Blood type O Neither A nor B proteins arepresent

What are the alleles responsible for theses different blood types?

A allele Dominant B allele Dominant O allele Recessive

Genotypes and possible Phenotype:

Phenotype GenotypeType A AA (homo), AO (hetero)

Type B BB (homo), BO (hetero)Tybe AB AB (hetero)Type O OO (homo)

Blood Types and Punnet Squares:

Co-dominant


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1. A Dad, heterozygous for blood type B, marries a mom with ABblood type. Predict the genotypes and phenotypes of theiroffspring.

Dad: BO

Mom: AB

B OA AB AOB BB BO

Phenotype: 25%AB, 25%A, 50% B

Genotype: 1AB: 1AO: 1BB: 1BO

2. What are the genotypes of 2 parents who can have kids of everyblood type?

A OB AB BOO AO OO

(Missing from natys) Note: Although A, B, O blood types, and Rh+ and Rh- blood types

are about proteins on the RBC, they are completely different characteristics (traits) and they are completely independent of each other. So if you are blood type A, you may be RH+ or you maybe RH-. One trait does not affect in the other.

A Very Very Important Note about Genetics

We now know more than Mendel did. We know that in our cells we havechromosomes (46 chromosomes in every human somatic cell.)

Regularbody cells,not gametecells


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Chromosomes contain DNA, and long streches of DNA of thesechromosomes are divided into smaller units of these genes. So genes arecomposed of streches of DNA.

The Big Question :

What is the connection between these genes (DNA) that are inside ourcells, and our traits some of which are common to all healthyindividuals, and some which are what makes each of us unique.

The Big Answer:

Genes are like blue prints. They give instructions so that a very specificmolecule of a very specific molecule of RNA (another amino acid) can bemade, and this molecule of RNA gives instructions so that a very specific

protein can be made. It is theses proteins that are responsible for ourtraits.

Hair color/eye color Peanut allergies Ability to digest lactose Type A blood

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