Schemata for building a clause [ S NP VP][ NP Det N] [ VP V NP] Objectives: Describing English...
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Transcript of Schemata for building a clause [ S NP VP][ NP Det N] [ VP V NP] Objectives: Describing English...
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Schemata for building a clause
[S NP VP] [NP Det N] [VP V NP]
Objectives: • Describing English• Arriving at a universal inventory of such schematas
(the structure building devices used in every language)
• that may constitute the basis for language acquisition
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Invisible structures S
NP VP
Det N V NP
Det N
some linguist hates every cat
no human speaks every language
[S NP VP] [NP Det N] [VP V NP]
S NP VP NP Det N VP V NP
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A few more pieces: More VP
S
NP VP
Det N Aux V NP
Det A Nevery cat will eat a fat mouse
[[every cat]NP [will eat [a fat mouse]NP]VP]S
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More VP
• [VP V NP] [VP Aux V NP]
• hit Bill will hit Bill
has
does
• [VP V] runs John runs
• [VP (Aux) V (NP)]
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More NP
• [NP Det A N]
The black horse
• [NP N]
Dogs bark
John sings
• [NP (Det) (A) N]
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Generating Constituent Structure
[[every cat]NP [will eat [a fat mouse]NP]VP]S
• S NP VP [NP VP]S
• NP (Det) (A) N [(Det) (A) N]NP
• VP (Aux) V (NP) [(Aux) V (NP)]NP
• i. N {cat, cats, Leo, …}
ii. V {snore, eat, love, …}
iii. Det {every, the …}
iv. Aux {will, has, …}
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Local adjustments
Agreementa. i. he loves Joe ii. they love Joe
lovesV{3rd, SG} loveV{3rd, PL}
heN{3rd, SG} theyN{3rd, PL}
b. i. S [NPF VPF] ii. VPF VF NPSubcategorization• i. Leo ate ii. Leo ate pizza
iii. *Leo loved iv. *Leo died Bill
love: __ NP die: __ eat: __(NP)
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Prepositional Phrases:Internal structure and external distribution
[with [every good intention]NP]PP
[just after lunch][right in] John walked right in
PP (Adv) P (NP) [(Adv) P (NP)]PP
a. I spoke just after lunch with every good intentionb. A chat just after lunch with every good intention is
badly neededNP (Det) (A) N (PP*)VP (Aux) (Adv) V (NP) (PP*)VP be PP/AP/NP be on the roof/clever/ a doctor
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What we got so far
• John runs• Some dogs run in the park• John hit Bill in the kitchen• * John hit in the kitchen• A man with a beard is on the roof• John ate every sandwhich on the table• John saw the woman with dark eyes in the park
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How to get there
S
NP VP
Det N PP PP
P NP P NP
Det N Det N
A man with a beard is on the roof• NP Det N PP NP Det N• VP is PP PP P NP
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Recursion
a. PP (Adv) P (NP)b. NP (Det) (A) N (PP*)i. most cats love meii. most cats [from Italy] love meiii. most cats [from [a city in Italy]] love meiv. most cats [from [a city in [the mountains in Italy]]]
love meProductivity: we can produce (and understand) an indefinite number of phrases while having only verylimited cognitive resources
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Structural ambiguity
I threatened the boy with a knifea. i. the boy I threatened was with a knife
ii. the threatening was with a knife
b. i. I [threatened [the boy]NP [with a knife]PP]VP
ii. I [threatened [the boy with a knife ]NP ]VP
• i. VP ii. VP
V NP PP V NP
[the boy] [with a knife] [the boy][ with a knife]
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Structural ambiguity and constituency tests
I threatened the boy with a knife– Proforms
i. I threatened him with a knifeCannot mean the boy was with a knife
ii. I threatened himb. Dislocation
i. It is the boy I threatened with a knifeCannot mean the boy was with a knife
ii. It is the boy with a knife that I threatenedCannot mean the threatening was with a knife
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Pronominalization patterns
I [threatened [the boy with a knife]NP]
i. I threatened him with a knife
ii. I threatened him• *(i) (ii)
I [threatened [the boy]NP [with a knife]PP]
(i) * (ii)
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Pervasiveness of structural ambiguity
• An uncle of the boy from Rome complained
• I have met many clever women and men
• John does not think that Mary left and Bill complained
• Mary declared that John attacked Bill in the garden
• Flying planes can be dangerous
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Factors that affect ambiguity resolution
• The semantics of the items involvedI saw the boy with a red sweaterI saw the boy through a hole in the wall
• Contextual knowledgeI saw the boy with my binocular
• World knowledgeI didn’t recognize the boy with a hatI recognized the boy with my eyes
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Structural vs. lexical ambiguity
• I went to the bank
• Ho comprato una piantina
(I) have bought a little plant/ a map
• I found the bug I found the flea
• I threatened the boy with a knife
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More recursion
• VP V CP CP C S C that
say, claim, believe, know,… __ CP
John claims that Mary smokes
John said that Bill claims that Mary smokes
John said that Bill claims that Mary knows that every cat is on the roof
….
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What Phrase Structure [ = Constituent Structure] is
• Native speakers develop spontaneously an implicit knowledge about well formed structures in their language
• Words are put together into constituents (not into structureless sequences of words)
• This can be seen through a series of tests (having to do with coordination, dislocation, etc.) that tap the speakers’ knowledge
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The theory of Phrase Structure
• Constituent structure can be characterized through a set of rules/schemata of the form
X Y1,…,Yn [X Y1,…Yn]
where X and Yi are drawn from an inventory of linguistic categories- All languages (and all machines) can be described through generalizations of rules of this sort
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Evidence for the theory of phrase structure
• How it accounts for constituency tests
• How it explains structural ambiguity
• How it explains the productivity of language
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Summary again
1. S NP VP
2. CP C S
3. NP (Det) (A) N (PP*)
4. VP (Aux) (Adv) V (NP)(CP) (PP*)
5. PP (Adv) P (NP)
These rules characterize our knowledge of
English
(the competence of a native speaker)
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The competence/performance distinction
• Performance: the use of our knowledge in concrete speech acts* John too much wine drank* He like MaryDo you like beans? * I like
• Things that enter into performance: state of attention/health, what you have ingested, sudden changes in plans,…
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What is next
• Of all the conceivable ways of forming languages, humans seem to have evolved one that has rather specific properties (e.g. it has a constituent structure of a certain sort).How can we characterize them?
• There are very diverse ways of getting at this.- Through mathematical considerations about the ‘generative power’ of natural languages- Through empirical refinement of our hypotheses
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Towards a better theory of Phrase Structure
1. S NP VP
2. CP C S
3. NP (Det) (A) N (PP*)
4. VP (Aux) (Adv) V (NP)(CP) (PP*)
5. PP (Adv) P (NP)
Phrases tend to have a center (the head)
XP YP X ZP
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Directions to explore
• Maybe all phrases have a head (including those that do not seem to)
• The structure of major constituents remains rather flat; maybe we should take a second look
VP
Aux V NP CP PP
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Towards a better theory of phrase structure: A second look at the VP
VP
Adv V NP PPoften smokes [a cigarette] [in the garden]
John often smokes a cigarette in the gardenMary does tooMary rarely doesMary rarely does in the kitchen* Mary rarely does the pipe in the garden
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Binary branching within the VP
VP
Adv VP
VP PP
V NP
John often smokes a cigarette in the garden
Mary does too
Mary rarely does
Mary rarely does in the kitchen
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The coordination test
VP1
Adv VP2
VP3 PP
V NP
John [[often smokes a cigarette in the garden]
and [rarely smokes a cigar in the bedroom]] VP1
John often [[smokes a cigarette in the garden] and [drinks
beer in the living room]] VP2John often [smokes a cigarette and drinks beer] in the garden VP3
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A left-right asymmetry
[VP Adv VP] [VP VP PP] [VP V NP]John often drinks wine in the kitchen after dinner with friends…* John often rarely sometimes… drinks beer* John often drinks wine juice after dinner
[VP Adv V’] [V’ V’ PP] [V’ V NP]Non rec. Rec. Non rec.
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Findings
The VP comes in binary branching layerswith both recursive and non recursive strata VP = V’’
Adv V’
V’ [in the park]PP
often V NPsmokes [a cigarette]
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Arguments: [V NP]V’ vs. Adjuncts: [V’ NP]V’
Arguments: non recursive and closer to the head
a. i. I ate pizza ii.* I ate lunch pizza
iii. I ate pizza in the park
iv. ? I ate in the park pizza
Adjuncts: recursive and freer in order
I ate pizza for lunch in the park
I ate pizza in the park for lunch