SCAVENGERS AND DECOMPOSERS IN AN INDUSTRIAL PARK SYSTEM: A CASE STUDY OF BURNSIDE INDUSTRLAL PARK

By

Janice Noronha

Submitted in partial Nfillrnent of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmentai S tudies

Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia

August, 1999

@Copyright by Janice Noronha, 1999

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Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................... iv ......................................................................... LIST OF FIGURES . TABLES AND MAPS vi . . ........................................................................................................................... ABSTRACT vil ...

....................................................................................................... LIST OF DEFINITIONS VIH

ACKNO WLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... x

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION ....................................... ............ .................................... 1 ......................................................... THE PROBLEMATIC NATURE OF INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS 1 . ........................................................................................................... INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY 3

............................................................................................................ RESEARCH QUESTION -6 ............................................................................................... OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH 7

..................................................................................................................... THESIS OUTLiNE 8

............................... CHAPTER 2: THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY 10 ............................................................................. BACKG ROUND TO INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY 10

.......................................................................................... DEFINING NDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY 12 APPLYING THE NATURAL SYSTEM METAPHOR ................................................................................... 14

...................................... Immal rire Ecosystents vers ris Mature Ecosyst ems: The A nalogy -15 ......... Defining Boundaries for Naturai and industrial Park Ecosysierns ....... ............ 18

......................................... Describing Industrial P a r h in the Context of Natural Systems 21 DEVELOPING AN INDUSTRIAL ECOSYSTEM FROM MATURE ECOSYSTEM DYNAMICS ............. 24

................................................................................................................ Marerial Cycling -25 Detrivore Dynamics .................................................................................................................................. 27

............................................................................................................................. Decomposer Dynarn ics 29 .................................................................................................................... Energy C y c h g 35

.................................................................................................. Oprimizat ion of Materials -37 ............................................................ Developing a Cieun System .......................... ,... 40

SUPPORTING TOOLS FOR INDUSTRIAL ECOSYSTEM DEVELOPMENT ............................................ 41 ....................................................................................... Coopemtion Amongst Businesses 41

Park Management Support and Government Support ........................................................ 43

CHAPTER 3: EXPERIENCES DEVELOPING ECO-PARK PROJECTS .................. 46 THE EUROPEAN EXPERIENCE .................................................................................................................... 46 THE AMERICAN EXPERIENCE .......................... ,.. ............................ 47 THE CANADIAN EXPERIENCE .................................................................................................................... 49

Barriers r O the Progression of Eco-industriai Park Developments .................................. 5 0 ..................................................................................... Environmental Benefits ........ .....,... 51

.............................................................................................................. Economic Benefits -52 - 4 ........................................................................................................... Commrtniîy Benefirs -33

CHAPTER 4: BURNSIDE INDUSTRIAL PARK: A CASE STUDY ................... ....... .. 54 HISTORY OF THE PARK ............................................................................................................................... 54

List of Figures. Tables and Maps

FIGURES Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4

Figure 5 Figure 6

MAPS Map 1 Map 2

TABLES Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7

Table 8

Table 9

Table 10

Table 11 Table 12 Table 13 Table 14 Table 15 Table

Table

Table

The nitrogen cycle .......................................................................................... 26 The carbon fibre cycle that includes Burnside Industrial Park ...................... 33 A mode1 food web at Burnside Industriai Park .............................................. 34 Functions that promote and support material cycling in Burnside Industriai

............................................................................................................... Park -64 .................................................... Geographic boundaries of material cycles 105

Bumside Industrial Park: A complex material cycling system ...................... 106

......*....................... ......................................*.... Burnside Industrial Park .. -56 Distribution of the sampled population at Burnside Industrial Park .............. 73

Charactenstics of immature and mature ecological systems ......... .. .............. 17 Scavengers and decomposers in an industrial ecosystem ............................. -30

............................................ Themes identified in the Burnside niche survey 62 .................... Distribution of companies samples in Burnside Industrial Park 74

.................................. Level of overlap for the scavengers and decomposers 76 Specialists and generaiist scavengers ............................................................. 77 Waste Collection: Specialists and generalists scavengers, and secondary waste collector companies ............................................................................ -79 Percentage of business generated in Burnside Industrial Park by waste collecting scavengers .................................................................................... -82 Remanufacture: Specialists and secondary companies that rernanufacture materials ........................................................................................................ -85 Percentage of business generated in the Park by re-manufacturing

....................................................................................................... specialists 86 Reuse: Specialists, generalists and secondary reuse companies ................... -88 Percentage of business for reuse scavengers ................. .... .................... 89 Repair: Specialist and secondary repair companies ....................................... 90 Percentage o f business for repair specialists .................................................. 91 Most common materials segregated for reuse, recycling, and/or treatment .. 93 Percentage of business generated by companies producing/selling environrnentall y friendly products ................................................................. 95 Percentage of business generated by companies that provide Environmental management services ................. ...... ................................ -97 Redundancy of materials dealt with by scavengers ....................................... 104

Abstract

The large volume of complex toxic waste and pollutant released into the environment has remained an issue of considerable concern. This concem has crystallized around the need to resolve the conflicting desires between economic development and environmental protection by promoting sustainable industrial activities. In response to these aspirations, industrial ecology has ernerged to guide the development of sustainable industrial systems. Its premise is that industrial systems should aim to mimic natural system material cycling attributes to develop industrial ecosystems. The consumption and recycling of detritus, and the scavenger and decomposer organisms that execute these functions in natural systems are viewed by many industrial ecologists as critical in the cycling of materials.

The objective of this research is to evaluate the theoretical and practical application of industrial ecology principles to an existing industrial park system. The study tests the naturat system metaphor by examining the roles and interactions of scavengers, decomposers and other companies that support and promote material cycling hc t ions in Burnside Industrial Park, located in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia.

Quantitative and qualitative data were gathered from a sample of eighty-seven companies in the Park using a persond interview method. A review of the related Ii terature establis hed a theoretical frarnework for the study, demonstrating that the natural system metaphor could be applied to an industrial park system. The practical application of the natural systern metaphor involved the documentation of the roles and interactions perfonned by scavengers, decomposers and other companies that support the material cycling functions of reuse, repair, remanufacture, waste collection, and recycling at Burnside Industrial Park. The results demonstrate that these cornpanies not only perform key functions that enable materials to be cycled, but also, that they deal in a diverse range of materials. Many of the Company interactions were analogous to the interactions of organisms in a natural system. In addition, the study highlighted the complexities associated with descnbing the business community structure at the Park in the context of a natural system. As a result, the study concludes that greater efforts should be directed at those companies in the Park that perform key material cycling functions as secondary component of their business. Finally, the study showed that while most scavenger and decomposer companies were generating some business in the Park, further oppominities exist to enhance relationships with other companies. Accordingly, the recornmendations offered in the final chapter provide suggestions on measures that could be taken to promote and support the scavenger and decomposer functions within the Park.

As the developrnent of industrial park ecosystems takes on a higher profile, information regarding scavenger and decomposer roles will be important. This study provides valuable information on the type o f business functions and cornrnunity interactions that can promote and support material cycling activities in an industrial park.

vii

List of Definitions

Business community: Any group of businesses (or business units) from different secton occurring in a particular area.

Environmentally friendly product: Those products that have limited environrnental impacts. are safe in their intended use, are efficient in their consumption of energy and natural resources, and that can be recycled, reused or disposed of safely.

Cornpetition: The interaction between businesses in the same sector or between categories in a sector in which some expand at the expense of others.

Decomposer company: Any company conducting recycling as the pnmary function of the company, breaking down complex organic molecules into simpler nutrient, metallic and other components.

Diversity: The richness or number of different companies, materials and sectors within an industrial zone.

Food Web: The interacting relationships of businesses within an industrial system based on the transfer of energy or materials.

Generalist Company: A scavenger or decomposer company that deals in more than one type of material.

Industrial Ecosystem: A community of manufacturing and service businesses seeking enhanced environmental and economic performance through collaboration in managirtg environmental and resource issues including energy, water and materials. By working together the comrnunity of businesses seeks a collective benefit which is greater than the sum of the individual benefits each company would realize if it optimized its individual performance only.

Industrial Park: A large tract of land, sub-divided and developed for the use of several firrns simuItaneously, distinguished by its shareable infrastructure and close proximity of firms.

Niche: The fùnctional position of a business in its business environment.

Recycling: The process of taking in a material and converting it to another state so that it cari be used for another use.

viii

Remanufacture: The process of modiming an item so that it is more durable and has a longer life.

Repair: The process of refurbishing an item to bring it back to its original state so that it can be reused.

Reuse: The function of using an item again for its original purpose, without any treatment or modification.

Scavenger Company: A company that performs waste recovery, reuse, repair and remanufacture activities as the primary function of the business.

Specialist Company: A scavenger or decomposer company that deals in only one type of material.

Waste Recovery: The extraction and collection of materials fiom the waste Stream to be taken else where for recycling or reuse.

Acknowledgements

1 wish to express my appreciation to my thesis committee for their advice and guidance throughout the production of this thesis. 1 was very fortunate to have had Ray Cote as my supervisor. His wisdom and dedication to the field of industrial ecology was instrumental in shaping my own understanding of an area that was so new and challenging. Thank you for al1 the quick feedback that you provided, and for thinking clearly and carehilly about what it al1 means. With your help 1 w s able to reflect and recharge so that 1 could finaily complete a well thought out product. 1 would also like to thank Ji11 Grant and Don Patton for reading and rereading al1 my drafk, and for providing suggestions on how to make this thesis into a better final product. Your comrnents were detailed, extremely constructive and insightfid. In addition to my committee, 1 would iike to extend my gratitude to James Boxa11 who developed the maps and offered advice on my study.

My gratitude goes out to Tom Rath, from the Business Parks Office, who made this thesis possible by providing the fhding and support for this worthwhile study. Much thanks goes out to al1 the companies who took the time to participate in the study. Ail the participants were particularly helpfùl and friendly despite their own busy schedules. In addition, 1 thank Hank Kuchlin for driving me to and from the Park during the interview period at a time when the bus strike made travelling extremely inconvenient.

1 would like to thank al1 the students, faculty and staff at SRES, who have directly or indirectly encowaged and supported my endeavours at the school. Thank you to al1 my closest friends who listened endlessly to me while 1 "thought out loud". In particular, Tara Wochesen, Haley Wilson, Graham Stinson and Glenn Scott. 1 am especially grateful to Car1 Brabander, who? with a patient ear and open heart helped me to think - through my findings. Thank you for al1 your advice and for openly challenging my ideas. Finally, my sincerest gratitude goes out to my family, especially my mother, who even from far away gave me the moral support to pursue my studies hirther. 1 am especially indebted to Bruce Noronha for his generosity in helping to fund my studies throughout this program.

Each person named in this acknowledgement has added his or her unique gifi to the completion of this thesis. Thank you. 1 hope that this thesis provides a wealth of knowledge to al1 those who read it. The developrnent and completion of this thesis has been instrumental in not only teaching me about the practical value of applying theory to the real world, but also, it has taught me a great deal about my own person. It certainly has been a character building experience.

A substantial portion of global environrnental problems are directly related to the

resource use of industrial systems. At present, most industrial systems operate in a linear

manner by extracting finite resources and releasing large quantities of complex tosic

materials into the environment either directly or when products reach the end of thsir

useful life. In other words, resources flow through such systems without much concern

for their origin or about the destination of wastes. Inputs are unrelated to outputs, as

industrial systems take what they need Iiom a vast area with no regard for the

consequences (Girardet. 1992:23). This type of industrial development has placed an

enormous stress on natural systems, ultimately threatening the survival of the biosphere

(Girardet. 1993). The effects fiom such industrial activities have become seriously

manifested within cities. given the concentration of intense economic processes that must

cater to high levels of consumption and increasing urban populations. As a result,

problems of waste and pollution have been increasing at unprecedented levels

contributing significantly to environrnental problems. In Maser's (1 990, vii) words:

"[we] c m no longer maximize both quantity and quaiity simultaneously; past abundance has become present limitations and, if we are not careful, füture scarcity."

In response to these environrnental problems, there have been growing demands for

industrial development to become more sustainable. Today, industry is increasingly

being pressured to find new ways to improve resource eficiency and minimize the

creation of wastes and pollutants being reteased into the environment.

The Problemafic Nature of Industrial Systems

Over the last three decades, governments worldwide have been gaining an

awareness of the senousness of environrnental problems associated with urban

developments. ultimately recognizing the critical and interdependent relationship that

exists between the economy and the environrnent- This interdependent relationship was

initially highlighted in 1972 at the UN Conference on Human Enviroment at Stockholm.

which formally linked economic development with environmental responsibility

(Kirkwood. 1995). During the 1970s and mid 1980s, the primary reaction to dealing

with the negative effects of industry on the environment was to control pollution by

putting in place an infiastructure of media-specific legislation and regulatory controls to

capture pollutants after they had been created. The rationale for this type of waste

management strategy was based on two underlying principles: the assimilative capacity

concept and the control concept.

The principle of assimilative capacity assurned that the environrnent possessed a

certain capacity to assimilate anthropogenic wastes. or render them harmless by diluting

and dispersing them. In accordance with this principle, the first waste management

strategies attempted to determine the assimilative capacity of an area to define what

seerned to be safe levels of emission into the environrnent. The second principle of

control assumed that environmental damage could be M e r avoided by controlling the

manner. time. and rate at which pollutants entered the environment (Jackson, 1993). As a

result, a variety of pollution control strategies developed to focus on the control and

treatment of emissioos and wastes. The control mechanisms typically consisted of

regulatory standards prohibiting the release of emissions. These control- oriented

solut ions were driven by media-specific environmental quality objectives or emission

limits. directed for the most part, at point source discharges into specific media such as

air. water, and soil.

InitiaIIy, the pollution control strategies were considered fairly effective in

treating emissions and wastes before their release as pollutants. However, môny of the

assumptions regarding environmental capacity were misjudged, resulting in significant

failures in reducing industry's impact on the environment (Jackson, 1993). The

shortcomings associated with pollution controI solutions have been cmcial in highlighting

the need for a new approach to dealing with industrial systems. First, the end-of-pipe

emission and waste treating devices were designed to treat the symptoms of the problem.

without addressing the causes at the non-technicd and technical levels (Baas et al., 1994).

In addition. non-point sources of pollution such as fertilizers, pesticides, automobiles, air

conditioners, and refrigerators were not adequately addressed. Second, the end-of-pipe

technologies designed to regulate one pollutant in one environmental medium. ofien

resulted in the contamination of another (Environment Canada, 1994). In this sense the

problem was merely transferred to another medium at great energy and material costs. In

some cases. Iarger quantities of polluting materials were produced causing equally serious

environmental problems. ïhird, the costs incurred for control-oriented management

strategies have increased enormously, especially with regard to the aggregate costs of

regulating more complex environmental risks (Environrnent Canada. 1994).

Furthemore. control regulations associated with pollution control strategies were costly

and cumbersome, leading to potentially inefficient regulatory structures and problems of

non-cornpliance. Finally, end-of-pipe technology represented a significant technological

market with an associated economic inertia, which encouraged the continued generation

of waste and worked against any attempt to reduce pollution at the source (Jackson,

1993). Despite a myriad of pollution control mechanisms, the total quality of the

environment did not improve and the increasing scale of anthropogenic impacts on the

environment had begun to surpass the carrying capacity of biological systems.

The inefficiencies associated with pollution control culminated in the

determination to find a new approach that would more effectively ded with the

environmental problems being created by industrial development. It was critical for a

mindset to develop that viewed the industrial system as part of the biosphere, recognizing

the interdependent relationship between industry and the environment. It was not until

the late 1 980s that the concept of sustainable development became formally accepted as a

central theme for dealing with the environmental problems being created by industry. In

the 1987 Brundtland Report of the World Commission on Environrnent and Development

(WCED, 1987) chaired by Gro Harlem Brundtland, the concept of sustainable

development was broadly defmed as: 'development that meets the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs'. While a

variety of interpretations for sustainable development have emerged, the concept has

today become cornrnonly accepted as a means of reconciling the sometimes conflicting

desires for development and environmental protection (Kirkwood and Longley, 1995).

Five years later, the concept of sustainable development remained a central theme of the

global cornmunity at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in C

1992, which concluded that the environment could no longer be d isco~ected fiom

deveiopment (Sloep et al., 1995).

It is from this perspective that many governments and institutions have begun to

recognize that efforts to improve the living environment must focus on changing the way

in which our industrial systems operate. Not only are these changes necessary for human

self-interest. but also for the sake of a 'sustainable' relationship between industrial

systems and the biosphere on which humanity ultimately depends. To this end, it has

been suggested that industrial systems should be rethought and reorganized to

approximate nature's circular metabolism if they are to become ecologically viable

(Girardet, 199223). From this view, many theorists believe that the industrial system has

its own ecosystem properties govemed by complex flows of material, energy and

information, which rely heavily on the resowces and services provided by the biosphere

(Erkman, 1997). To encourage the circular metabolism that is commonly found within

natural systems, an industrial system would need to operate in a manner where every

output by an organism (industry) c m also be an input that renews and sustains the living

environment (Allenby and Fullerton, 1991 -92). In order for industrial systems to operate

in a tnily sustainable manner and develop circular resource flows that reduce waste and

minimize the levels of pollution, it will be necessary to change the current industrial

system.

Industrial Ecology

Industrial ecology is a new field of study that has developed in the last decade as a

conceptual basis for proposing that industrial systems c m mature into ecologically

sustainable systems. Its basic premise is that industrial systems should mimic the

rnaterial cycling behaviour of natural systems to develop an industrial ecosystem based

on these attributes (Tibbs. 1992). In the cyciicai industrial ecosystem, energy and material

flows would be used eficiently, products and by-products would be designed with the

environment in mind, and the wasted energy and materials generated !tom production

would no longer be discarded but redirected back into the system as raw materials for

other processes. The behaviow of the scavenger and decomposer organisms within

natural systems is of particular interest to industrial ecologists as such organisms perform

key functions in the material cycling process. According to Cote et al. (1994) scavengers

and decomposers m u t become established within an industrial system network if the

objective of material cycling is to be fùlly realized. Through its emphasis on greater

operational efficiencies simitar to those seen in mature natural systems. industrial ecology

is today emerging as an attractive concept that provides a different perspective on how

industry can reduce waste production while at the same time achieve economic and

environmental benefits.

The application of industrial ecology principles is, however, still at an elementary

stage. In fact, it is only recently that the concept has been applied to industrial parks,

which are now becoming recognized by many industrial ecologists (PCSD, 1994) as ideal

locations for the development of industrial ecosystems. Given the clearly defined spatial

areas within which many industrial parks operate and the management systems,

responsibilities and liabilities that define parks, many industrial ecologists postulate that

industrial parks are excellent settings for deveioping industrial ecosystem characteristics

(RTI, IDI, and TJCG, 1994). Furthemore, industrial parks may have characteristics that

are analogous to natural ecosystems. The diversity of businesses and the intricate

network of energy and materials flowing through these production and consumption

systems have been compared by industrial ecologists to the energy and materials flowing

through naturd systems (RTI, ID1 and TJCG, 1994).

In order for an industnal park ecosystem to develop it is vital that a diverse mix of

tenants are established to support and actuate material cycling hinctions. The industrial

park ecosystem should open opportunities for developing new businesses or attracting

firms that would support the cycling of materials and energy similar to the scavengers and

decomposers in natural systems (Lowe, 1997). In an industrial park ecosystem,

cornpanies that perform reuse. waste recovery, remmufacture, refurbish, and recycle

functions would be critical in facilitating material cycling within the system. Other

supportive functions that facilitate waste reduction and material cycling include those

companies that produce and sel1 environmentally fnendly products and those that provide

environmental management services. It is postulated that by attracting and encouraging

these types of companies in an industrial park more materials will be cycled within the

park.

Research Question

This study tests the theoretical b a i s and practical application of the natural

system metaphor prescribed by industrial ecologists to industrial park systems. The

fol lowing research questions are addressed:

Can the naturai system metaphor prescribed by industrial ecologists be theoretically

applied to an industrial park?

What are the roles and interactions of scavengers, decomposers, and other companies

that support material cycling fùnctions within an existing industrial park?

How c m these types of companies be promoted and enhanced in the park system to

foster the recycling of materials?

The study will draw upon the experiences of Bumside Industrial Park, located in

Dartmouth, Nova Scotia. Burnside Industrial Park presents an ideal case study for this

assessment given that since 1991 the park has been targeted as a test site for the

application of industrial ecology principles (Cote et al., 1994). A number of research

projects have already been undertaken at the Park to investigate ways to close loops,

reduce waste, and minimize pollution. By 1997, the park gained international recognition

when it was used as the main case study in the preparation of a guide to Environmental

Management of Industrial Estates published by UNEP's Industry and Environment Office

(UNEP, 1997). In light of these developments, Bumside Industrial Park has been chosen

as the case study of interest.

In attempting to answer the second and third research question the study describes

the nature, type and number of businesses within Bumside Industrial Park operating as:

scavengers (businesses that recover materials fiom the waste stream for recycling or

reuse. remanufacture products, reuse materials, and, refkbish materials); decomposers

(businesses that conduct in-house recycling practices); producers/sellers of

environmentally fnendly products; and, companies that provide environmental

management services. In addition, the study identifies the diversity, redundancy.

interactions and distribution of these companies in the Park system. Finally, the study

documents those factors that have influenced and in some cases inhibited the

development of these fùnctions in the Park.

Objective of the Research

Over the past decade, a number of industrial parks worldwide have started to

embrace industrial ecology principles with the aim of creating industnal ecosystems.

Despite these endeavours, many industriai parks are still at an elementary stage in their

ability tc practically apply many of the principles of industrial ecology. While the

theoretical basis for the creation of an industrial ecosystem is an appealing one, the

conditions necessary for an industrial park to move forward and operate as a fûnctional

industrial ecosystem are still unclear. In particular, there has been limited information

regarding the cntical role of scavengers and decomposers, and how some of their

functions c m be mimicked by businesses within maturing industrial parks. The relatively

few studies conducted on documenting business developments that reuse. re-manufacture.

refurbish. recover, recycle, produce and sel1 environrnentally friendly products and

provide environmental management systems make this research question highly relevant

to the industrial ecology field of study. By docurnenting scavenger and decomposer roles

and other supportive business functions, this research will contribute valuable knowledge

about businesses that are performing tùnctions many industrial ecologists highlight as

critical for the implementation of industrial ecosystems. Not only will the study

contribute to the field of industrial ecology, but it will also provide valuable insights to

the businesses operating within the Park and their contributions to industrial ecosystem

dynarnics. The results from this study serve as useful data for future evaluations of how

material cycIing roles are developing within the Park.

This thesis is presented in seven chapters. Chapter two provides a detailed

discussion of the evolution of industrial ecology examining the how the namal systern

metaphor can be applied to an industrial park system; it emphasizes the material cycling

attributes of natwal systems and provides a detailed account of scavenger and

decomposer roles for industrial ecosystems. Chapter three takes an in depth look at

industrial ecology applications worldwide, illustrating research initiatives that are

currently being undertaken and the research gaps that need to be filled. Chapter four

presents a profile of Burnside Industrial Park, providing its history, development and

characteristics. It also highlights the industrial ecology research work that has been

conducted at the Park since 199 1. Chapter five discusses the method chosen for this

research, including the ethical issues considered for the study and the limitations that

were experienced. Chapter six presents the results in the form of tables and graphs.

Chapter seven concludes the study by providing a discussion of the results and a set of

recommendations aimed at promoting and enhancing the roles o f scavengers,

decomposers and other companies that support material cycling at Burnside Industrial

Park.

CHAPTER TWO: THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY

Background to Industrial Ecology

Since the onset of the vision portrayed by sustainable development, various tools

and strategies directed at curbing the negative effects of industrial development began to

appear throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included: Pollution Prevention,

Eco-Efficiency. Environmental Management, Total Quality Environmental Management,

Waste Minimization. Design for the Environment. and Life-Cycle Analysis (Cote, 1995).

These types of strategies began to take a more anticipatory and preventative approach to

dealing with industrial activities, as opposed to the traditional reactionary and treatrnent

response of pollution control. For the most part, these strategies have begun to form a

framework for an improved environmental problem-solving approach based on a process-

inteçrated focus that attempts to close material cycles. The 1990 poticy paper by the

Canadian Manufacturers Association (cwrently known as the Alliance of Manufacturers

and Exporters of Canada) addressed many of these strategies. The paper States that the

cornmitment of industry to sustainable development must include 'ways to recycle and

re-use materials. to adapt manufacturing processes to exchange spent materials with

others who can make use of them. ..use less virgin material.. .consume less energy

and.. .produce less wasteT (Canadian Manufacturers Association, 1990). It is from this

perspective that industrial ecology is emerging in Canada, to provide industry with an

opportunity to improve its own economic eficiency and environmental performance

while offering a broad and holistic fiarnework for restructuring the industrial production

and consumption system in a manner that is compatible with the notions of sustainability.

The field of industrial ecology was initially developed and taken seriously in the

1970s in Japan, and has only recently become recognized in the western world as a useh1

concept for industrial development. During the late 1960s, a team of Japanese experts

from a diverse array of disciplines were commissioned by the Ministry of Trade and

Industry (MITI) to explore the possibilities of orienting the development of the Japanese

econorny towards activities that would be less dependent on the consumption of materials

(Erkrnan. 1997). By the 1970s, the group produced its final report 'A Vision for the

1970s.' which basically concluded that considering econornic activity in an ecoIogicaI

contest was highly valuable if the country wanted to think about reducing the

environmental costs associated with industrialization. As part of the recommendation

from the report, MIT1 set up approximately 15 work groups, one of which was the

Industrial Ecology Working Group. By 1973, two reports were published by the Group.

Lvhich greatly influenced Japanese policies and research program directions (Erkman,

1997). Japan is therefore touted as k i n g the first country to take industrial ecology

concepts from the academic philosophical level to a more practical and applied level.

While countries in Europe and the US had already felt the presence of industrial ecology

concepts in some form or other, the concept had remained rather philosophical in nature.

and was never encouraged or practiced to any great extent.

Frosch and Gallopoulos (1989) of General Motors resurrected the term industrial

ecology in the Western world; in 1989 they called for the establishment of industrial

ecosystems in their article "Strategies for Manufactunng", published in Scienrific

American. The article emphasized the need to change industrial systems from a linear

process where raw matenals are used and waste produced, to a cyclicaI process where

wasted resources are directed back into the systern to close material and product cycles.

Frosch and Gallopoulos attracted a new wave of attention to the field of industrial

ecology, bringing with it a revived consciousness in the practical value of the

characteristics and functions of natural systems. Since that time, the concept of industrial

ecology has evolved considerably bringing with it a number of different definitions and

concepts. As yet, however, there is no standard definition for industrial ecology, thereby

illustrating that the concept is continually developing.

Defining Indusfrial Ecology

Despite the lack of a concrete definition, much of the literature on industrial

ecology tends to portray three main features regarding the core elements of industrial

ecology thinking. First, industrial ecology proponents generally agree that current

industrial activity must change in order to secure the fùture of our planet. As Frosch and

Gallopoulos ( 1989: 4) put it 'O.. . industrial ecology is k i n g applied to guide the alteration

of industrial ecosystems toward greater economic and environmental sustainability".

Therefore the ultimate goal driving the field of industrial ecology is to provide a strategy

towards attaining the visionary goal of sustainable development. In doing so, it will be

necessary to balance industrial activity with nature and enable development to "meet the

needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their

needs" (WCED. 1987). In order to achieve this baIance Stead and Stead (1996) assert

that industrial systems need to determine which type of business activities fit into the

earth's carrying capacity and to define the optimal levels of those activities. The focus

of this approach is to provide goods and services with less pollution and wastes, more

recycling, more renewable energy sources. and safer products for the ecosystem.

Secondly, most proponents of industrial ecology agree that a system based

approach should be taken when dealing with the environmental problems that have been

created by industrial development. The emphasis has been placed on addressing the

whole industrial system and its parts in relation to the biosphere. By doing so, industrial

ecologists acknowledge the inter-connectedness of the industrial systems with its

surrounding environment. In this way, the organization would see itself as a part of a

greater society and natural environment to which its survivaI is tied. According to

Graedel (1993) industrial ecology is the study of al1 interactions between industrial

systems and the environment. Patel (1992) also emphasizes the system based approach

when he stresses the importance of exarnining each process and network within the

industrial ecosystem as a dependent and inter-related part of a larger whole. Finaily

Allenby (1994) reiterates this point when he stresses the need to view the industrial

system not in isolation from its surrounding systems but in concert with them. In

Allenby's words (1992: 49) "industrial ecology ... consists of a system view of human

economic activity and its interrelationships with fundamental biological, chemical and

physical systems with the goal of establishing and maintaining the human species at

Ievels that can be sustained indefinitely."

By incorporating a systems approach into the definition of industrial ecology the

concept has evolved into an umbrella term which supports a wide variety of tools and

strategies. As Lowe purs it "industrial ecology is a systemic organizing framework for

the many facets of environmental management." T'herefore industrial ecology provides

an over arching framework for considering other environmental management tools and

strategies including: Pollution Prevention, Eco-Eficiency, Environmental Management,

Total Quality Environmental Management, Waste Minimization, Design for the

Environment. and Life-Cycle Analysis. Al1 of these tools and strategies have today

become integral components in the transformation towards more sustainable industrial

activities.

Thirdly, proponents of the concept of industrial ecology believe that in order to

achieve sustainability it is necessary to procure higher economic and environmental

efficiencies within industrial systems. The goal is to encourage industrial systems to

operate efficiently and in doing so minimize the levels of waste produced during the

industrial transformation of materials (Siddiqui, 1994). The eficiency of industrial

systems is also advocated amongst proponents of eco-efficiency. Eco-efficiency, the

business response to the challenge of sustainable development, is defined as:

"[tlhe delivery of competitively pnced goods and services that satisfy human needs and bnng quality of li fe, while progressively reducing environmental impacts and resource intensity throughout the life cycle, to a level at least in line with the earth's estirnated carrying capacity."

(Business Council for Sustainable Development: 4; Geneva, 1992)

In attaining the goal of sustainable development, eco-efficiency strives to: reduce the

matenal intensity of goods and services; reduce the intensity of goods and services;

reduce toxic dispersion; enhance matenal recyclability; maximize sustainable use of

renewable resources; extend product durability; and increase the service intensity of

products. Indeed, business developments play an integral part in undertaking roles that

would facilitate the realization of these goals. This could include functions S U C ~ as:

recovering/collecting materials from the waste Stream for recycling, reuse. and treatment:

conducting reuse, repair and remanufacture functions; undertaking recycling hinctions:

developing and selling products that are environmentally fnendly and providing

environmental management services to help educate businesses to conduct more efficient

practices (Lowe, 1997; Ehrenfield, 1997).

Industrial ecologists believe that an industrial system should not only apply the

principal guidelines of eco-eficiency, but also it should learn by example from the

efficiencies that are already in operation within natural ecosystems. The dynamics of

natural systems, especially mature ecosystems, have been recognized by industrial

ecologists to be particularly attractive. so much so that they are considered worth

emulating within industrial systems. Tibbs (1995) asserts that industrial systems

represent an integral part of the natural ecosystem and biosphere, and should mimic

certain aspect of the natural system if they are to become ecologically viable. According

to Erkrnan (1997), industrial ecology seeks to understand how the industrial system

works, how it is regulated, and how it interacts with the biosphere. Then, on the ba is of

what is known about ecosystems, to determine how it can be restructured to make it

compatible with the way natural ecosystems hnction.

Applying the Nafural System Metaphor

The analogy that is drawn between industrial systems and natural ecosystems has

become a key feature in the field of industrial ecology. According to many industrial

ecologists, the complex flows of material, energy and information that exist within

industrial systems, and their reliance on the resources and services provided by the

biosphere. make the appiication of the natural ecosystems analogy relevant. Industrial

ecologists view industrial systerns as having important similarities to natural ecosystems,

as both systems take in energy and materials and transform them into products. The

problem. however? is that industry performs a linear transformation while nature3 is

cyclical. This cyclical system makes natural systems more efficient in their use of

materials. Drawing from this analogy, the following section seeks to examine the extent

to which the natural system metaphor prescnbed by industrial ecologists c m be used to

describe the industrial system in its development away from the linear process to a more

cyclical industrial ecosystem.

Immature Ecosystems venus Mature Ecosystems

From the outset, industrial ecologists are predominantly concemed with

mimicking the mature naturd ecosystem, which is characterized by more cyclical and

efficient attributes than immature ecological systems. From an industrial ecologist's

point of view' the beauty o f the mature cyclical ecosystem is that everything within these

systems is put to constructive use, which makes the concept of waste imrnaterial.

Industrial ecologists maintain that the current linear industrial system is characteristic of

the immature ecological systems. Such systems exist in a development stage, typically

concentrating on growth and throughput with limited developments of the material

cycling efficiencies. The aim of the industrial ecologist, then, is to transform linear

industrial systems into circular industrial ecosystems that more closely resemble elements

of the mature ecosystem. In order to understand the attributes that are worth replicating,

it is critical to understand the differences between mature and immature ecological

systems and the subsequent analogy made to industrial systems.

The immature ecological stage is characterized by the development of

communities that spring up to take advantage of abundant resources. An exarnple of such

a community is the development of lichens that colonize bare rock and provide an ideal

environment for soil to develop. Over time the soil that has developed attracts other

pioneers such as b g i , worms, insects, bacteria, protozoa and finally small annual plants.

Most of the organisms found in immature systems usually depend on a rapid growth

strategy that maximizes material throughput. They then continue to the next area to be

colonized ~ 4 t h no time for recycling and efficiency. These types of organisms are

commonly referred to as R-Strategists or oppomuiists, and are typically representative of

an immature ecosystem (Enger, 199 1). Industrial ecologists assert that existing industnal

systems demonstrate similar patterns to those exhibited by the oppominists (Benyus,

1997 and Allenby and Cooper, 1994). Since the industrial revolution, industry has been

developing and growing at an unprecedented rate extracting resources and discarding

wastes at levels that are becoming detrimental to the s u ~ i v a l of the biosphere. While

opportunists fhction on the premise that they would go on colonizing other areas once

issues of over population set in, industrial systems are more limited. Industrial systems

have begun to exceed the carrying capacity of the land upon which they depend. Unlike

opportunists, existing industrial systems cannot easily move elsewhere as resources are

becoming increasingly limited, and space for discarding waste is becoming scarce. As a

resuit, industrial ecologists assert that the existing linear industrial system must become

more efficient if it is to survive by developing the material cycling attributes of a mature

ecosystem.

The mature ecosystem or climax community is made up of a relatively stable,

long-Iasting. complex and interrelated community of plants, animais, h g i and bacteria

which have mastered the pnnciples of efficiency. Most of the species in the mature

ecosystem are K-Strategists that possess Iower growth potentials but greater capabilities

for utilizing and competing for scarce resources. These organisms interact through a

network of highly complex and efficient symbiotic relationships and food webs. In these

systems. the organisms are more diversified and the use of resources is more eficient.

These types of interactions are highly facilitated by the cooperation that takes place

amongst organisms, which is conducted in such a way as to hilly use their habitat and to

eather and use energy efficiently. These organisms optimize rather than maximize C

production (Benyus, 1997). It is important to note that the role of opportunists is still a

criticaI fùnction in a mature ecosystem, especially the opportunists arnong decomposer

organisrns. The opportunists are especially important because they take advantage of the

excess resources within the system. For instance some decomposer opportunist

organisms (species of Penicillium. Mufor and Rhizopus), tend to undergo population

explosions on newly dead substrates, consuming fieely available resources and collapsing

to give way to new populations feeding on newly available decaying matter (Began et al..

1986: 388). The opportunistic detrivores and decornposers are therefore highly valuable

in facilitating the breakdown and recycling of dead rnatter which is usuatly in abundance.

Allenby and Cooper (1 994: 343-354) have developed a table to illustrate the main

differences between the immature comrnunity ecosystem and the climax community

found in a mature ecosystem (Table 1).

Table 1 Characteristics of immature and mature ecological systems

Ecosytem Attributes

Food Chain Species Divcrsity - Body Size Life Cycles Growth Strategy (how to multiply) Production (body m a s and offspring) Internai Symbiosis (cooperative relationships) Nutricnt Conservation (Closcd-loop cycling) Pattern diversity (vertical canopy layers and horizontal patchiness) Biochcmical diversity Niche Specialization Mineral Cycles Nutricnt exchange rate bctwcen organisms and cnvironmcnt Role of detntus (dead organic matter) in nutrient regcncntion Inorganic nutrients Total orranic rnattcr

Immature Stages (Type 1) Mature Stages (Type 111)

Linear Low Small Short, simple Rapid Growvth (U-sclection) Quantity Undcvcloped Poor Simple

Low Broad Open Fast

Unimportant

Extnbio tic Srnall

Web-like High Large Long. complex Feedback Control (K-selection) Quality Developed Good Complex

High Narrow Closed Slow

Important

lntrabiotic Larne

Table 1 surnmarizes the key differences that exist between the two ecological systems. In

light of the efficiencies found within mature ecological systems, industrial ecologists

assert that industriaf systems should attempt to adapt and interpret an understanding of

those characteristics of mature systems that promote eficiency.

In recognizing industrial ecology's preoccupation with mature system dynamics

and the need to develop industrial ecosystems, the question then is, c m the natural system

metaphor actually be used to describe the industrial system? The following section

provides an examination of mature system dynamics in the context of their application to

industrial systems.

Good Low High

Stability Entropy (energy lost) Information (feedback loops)

Defining Boundaries for Natural and lndustrial Park Ecosystems

Adnptcd from Bndcn R. Allenby and William E. Cooper. 'Understanding Industrial Ecology from a Biologicai Systcm Pctspcciivc." Toul Quality Environmenwl Management. Spring 1994. pp. 343-354.

Poor High Low

An ecosystem is essentially the complex organisation of biological interactions

and the nonliving surroundings (Enger and Smith, 199 1). The boundaries of ecosystems

are generally defined by the physical factors that predominate within the area. For

example, precipitation, temperature and soi1 type are al1 important factors that define

terrestrial ecosystems. These factors play a crucial role in determining the type of

communities of species that have populated a particular ecosystem. In describing a

natural ecosystem it is important to recognize that the boundaries can vary substantially.

Some ecosystems are quite large as is the case with marine ecosysterns such as the ocean,

freshwater ecosystems such as large lakes, and terrestrial ecosystems ofken called biomes.

Many ecosystems have reached a climax community, where there exists a relatively

stable, long lasting, complex and interrelated cornmunity (interacting groups of

organisms) of plants, animals, fungi and bactena. The Tundra, Boreal Forest, Desert,

Temperate Deciduous Forest, Tropical Rain forest, Savannah and Tropical Rain Forest

are some of the biomes that we find in the naturai systems of the biosphere (Enger and

Smith. 1991). At the same time, an ecosystem could be defined by a smaller boundary

such as a pond, river, wetland or estuary that is composed of its own interrelated

community of organisms that are embedded in a larger ecosystem. According to Begon

et ai. (1986), strict comrnunity boundaries do not exist, but instead some community

boundaries are more sharply defined than others. In general, then. the term ecosystem has

been defined arbitrarily. That is, it can consist of one community or several different

communities of organisms interacting together with the physical environment.

Regardless of how one chooses to define the boundaries of an ecosystem, it should be

recognized that ecosystems exist as subsystems within a much larger system, the

biosphere. The biosphere is the widely used term for al1 the earth's ecosystems

functioning together on a global scale (Odurn, 1993). Furthemore, an ecosystem is not a

closed system, but an open system that must constantly interact with the biosphere. As

such, energy, and some materials and organisms are constantly entering and leaving these

systems. even though the general appearance and basic functions may remain constant for

long periods of time.

Within the field of industrial ecology it is believed that not only can industrial

systems be viewed as part of and in relation to natural ecological systems, but also

industrial systems can be described in the context of an ecological ecosystem. The

boundary for an industrial ecosystem has been defined in terrns of scale (Cote et al..

1995). According to Cote et al. (1995), industrial ecosystems can be defined at a global

scale (biosphere), regional scale (biomes in ecological systems), and the industrial scale

(srnaller community level) such as an industrial park (Oldenburg and Geiser, 1997).

Industrial ecologists' attempts at developing industnal ecosystems have for the most part

been applied to industrial parks. For the purposes of this study the boundary for the

industnal ecosystem will be restricted to that of an industrial park, where a community of

industry and businesses exist interacting in a similar fashion to a smaller version of an

ecological ecosystem.

An industrial park has been defïned as "a large tract of land, subdivided and

developed for the use of several firms simultaneously, distinguished by its shareable

infnstructure and close proximity of firms" (Peddle, 1 993 : 1 08). In mimicking mature

natural ecosystem functions, the aim of the industrial ecologist is to transfomi these linear

and independent industrial systems into cyclical and interdependent industrial

ecosystems. According to Lowe, Moran, and Holmes (1994: 2) an industrial ecosystem

". . . a community of manufacturing and service businesses seeking enhanced environmental and economic performance through collaboration in managing environmental and resource issues including energy, water and materials. By working together, the community of businesses seeks a collective benefit which is greater than the sum of the individual benefits each Company would realize if it optirnized its individual performance only."

Industrial ecologists assert that the industrial park system c m be described in a simitar

fashion as a natural ecosystem. The individual businesses within the industrial park

system interact within a specific location to fonn a type of industrial community

analogous to the organisms interacting within the ecosystem community. The interaction

of industrial organisms (businesses) within this community and their physicai

surrounding is an important characterization of an industrial ecosystem. Lowe and

Warren (1996) assert that an essential feature of the industrial park ecosystem is the

interactions among businesses and between business and the natural environment. This

interaction also illustrates that the industrial park ecosystem would not in itself be a

closed system but an open system. As such, the industrial park ecosystem interacts with

other industrial and urban communities outside the boundaries of an industrial park,

interacts with the ecological ecosystem upon which it depends for its own survival, and

finally interacts with the biosphere as a whole. Frosch and Gallopoulos (1989) promote

the development of the industrial network into an industrial ecosystem. They descnbe

the industrial ecosystern as analogous in its f'nctioning to a community of biological

organisms and the environment, where each process and network of processes is a

dependent and interrelated part of a larger whole. In developing an industrial park

ecosystern. industrial ecologists believe that greater interaction, cooperation, efficiency.

resource optimization and comrnunity relationships should becorne established within the

community of businesses found within industrial parks.

Describing Industrial Parks In The Context of Natural Systems

Mature ecological systems are typically characterized by a diverse array of

organisms interacting with each other and their surroundings to create self-sustaining

comrnunities. The environment of an organism is made up of everything that affects it

durinç its lifetime and includes the biotic (living) and nonbiotic (non-living) factors

(Enger and Smith, 1990). In addition, each organism occupies a specific living space.

which is usually referred to as its habitat. The habitat of an organism is usually

deterrnined by its biological requirements both biotic and abiotic, which are necessary for

its survival. While organisms must respond to everything within their environment,

limiting factors are of particular importance because they determine the survival of an

organism in the system.

Each organism in the ecosystem has a fùnctional role within its surroundings.

This role is commonly refened to as an organism's niche, which constitutes everything

that the organism affects and is affected by during its lifetime. The roles of organisms

have been generally identified under the following categones: producers, consumers,

detrivores and decomposers. The producers mainly consist of plants that are able to

manufacture complex organic materials fiom energy and material flows. The other

organisms, the consumers in the ecosystem, must rely on producers as a source of food

either directly (primary consumers) or indirectly (secondary consumers) to provide

themselves with the energy and organic molecules necessary to build their own bodies

and perform their fùnctions. The detrivores are animal consurners of dead matter, and the

decomposers are normally bacteria and fungi, which use the nonliving organic matter as a

source of food, breaking it down and returning the organic matenal to inorganic material

(Enger and Smith, 1990).

Over time, natural ecosystems have evolved into relatively mature stable cyclical

systems endlessly circulating and transforming materials constructively within the

ecosystem. Matenals and energy work their way fiom producers through different levels

of consumers before finally being returned to the system by scavengers and decomposen.

Each step in the flow of energy through the system is known as a trophic level. The

producers constitute the first trophic level. herbivores constitute the second trophic level

and consumers constitute the third trophic level. Each time energy moves to a new

trophic level, approxirnately 90% of the usehil energy is lost. As a result the higher the

trophic level. the lower the energy and number of organisms found within the system.

Thus. a natural system is typically represented by a pyramid in which the base consists of

many plants (the primary producers), and decreases upwards from herbivores to

carnivores. The trophic level of detrivores and decomposers tends to depend on the type

of food that is being consumed at a given period of time. This passage of energy fiom

one trophic level to the next is commonly referred to as a food chain. When several food

chains overlap and intersect they make up a food web.

Cornparisons to a mature natural ecosystem can be made when describing an

industrial park in the context of an industrial ecosystem. The industries and businesses

within the park are analogous to the organisms within a natural ecosystem. and the

physical location and connections in which a business operates are analogous to an

organism's habitat. Each industry and business within the park occupies its own niche or

functional role within the system. Again these roles can be defined in a similar fashion to

those found in a mature ecological system; that is, they can be described in terms of

producers, consumers, detrivores and decomposers. The primary producers represent

those industries that extract materials through mining, drilling and harvesting fiom the

earth's surface to provide the raw materiais for other industries. Those industries that use

the raw matenals fiom producen to create secondary raw materials are known as

secondary producers. In most cases the secondary producers are the manufacturing

industries. refining the raw materials and processing them into finished materials and

products. The primary consumers are those businesses. such as wholesalen, who depend

on the products directly from secondary producers and indirectly fiom the primary

producers and sel1 these finished products in bulk to other businesses. The secondary

consumers use the wholesale products provided by the primary consumers and are

commonly identified as the retail businesses. The tertiary consumers could include those

companies and customers that depend on the retail sector for their products and the

service sector which feeds indirectly off the tertiary consumers. Within the industrial

system. the pyramid that has been referred to in natural systems becomes inverted. The

primary producers are few in number representing the extractors and refiners of coal, oil.

natural gas. and other materials. The nurnber of consumers who rely on these materials

and energy is much larger. The trophic levels within industrial systems illustrates the

problem of having a linear industrial process, when resources are lirnited and

consumption levels are high.

Meanwhile the detrivores (scavengers) in the system are those companies that

feed off the wasted resources of other companies in the system (Ayres, 1989). The

detrivores redistribute resources (that would otherwise be wasted) back into the system to

companies that can reuse the materials. The detrivores facilitate the role of those

companies that recycle materials. By consuming wasted rnatenals some detrivore

companies dismantle, sort, and transport the materials to decomposers in a form that is

readily accessible for them to consume. Finally, the decomposers are those companies

that use the wasted resources from both producers and consumers (including detrivores),

and transform or recycle them back into the system as new materials or as part of the

sarne matenals for which they were initially designed. Until recently, the role of

detrivores (scavengers) and decomposers was highly undervalued in industrial systems,

and is only now becoming recognized as an important function in the creation of cyclical

behaviour patterns amongst businesses. Proponents of industrial ecology believe not only

in the characterization of industrial parks as primary, secondary and tertiary consumers,

scavengers. and decomposers as seen in ecological systems. but dso in organizing these

companies appropriately so that such companies can work together to make better use of

their wasted energy and materials.

The above section has illustrated that industrial park systems can be descnbed in

the context of natural system dynamics. Having identified the key components of mature

ecological ecosystems and described industriai parks in a sirnilar fashion, it becomes

important to understand the types of eficiencies that exist within mature ecological

systems. The question becomes what type of interactions are taking place within mature

ecosystems to make them efficient, and what is it about these interactions that industial

ecologists find so remarkable as to want to duplicate within industrial systems to

develop? In other words, what type of functions of the mature natural ecosystern should

be replicated by industrial systems if they are to develop into industrial ecosystems?

Within the field of industrial ecology there has been no standard conceptualized format of

the exact elernents of natural systems that should be emulated. However, various authon

have in varying capacities begun to identifi some of the attractive attributes that may be

worth duplicating

Developing an Industrial Ecosystem

Within a mature ecological system a series of complex interactions work together

to create a dynarnic system in which materials and energy are constantly circulated and

transfomed to form a stable and self-regulating system. The following section provides a

detailed account of the charactenstics of mature ecosystems that are commonly cited

amongst industrial ecologists as worth replicating by industrial parks. These

characteristics include materid and energy cycling, which are supported by material

optimization functions and the clean system dynamic (Benyus, 1997). The following

section gives considerable attention to the cycling of materials and the evolution and role

of scavengers and decomposers that are considered integral in the development of

industrial ecosystems, and whose roles are of particuiar interest in this study.

MateriaI Cycling

The cycling of materials through natural ecological systems represents an

e'rtremely dynamic and intricate process that contributes significantly to the survival and

sustenance of naniral ecosystems within the biosphere. The eficiencies seen within the

mature natural system are clearly indicated throughout the nitrogen, phosphorous. carbon

and hydrological cycle. Essentially, the nutrients are retained within the mature

ecosystem by continually recycling them between living organisms and the physicai

environment (Rickleffs. 1986). An example of this process can be seen in Figure 1, a

typical Nitrogen Cycle (taken from Enger and Smith, 1990: 79). The nitrogen cycle

illustrates how materials and energy are continually circulated and trmsformed in an

efficient rnanner where the life giving nutrients of one species are derived fiom the death

and decay of another. This type of circulation is highly facilitated by the delicate and

intricate network of producers, consumers, detrivores and decomposers that al1 interact to

make the mcst efficient use of resources.

The cycling of nitrogen fiom the atmosphere into protein and back again into the

atmosphere is accomplished by an intricate chain of bacterial, plant and animal

metabolism. Over time, a diverse network of producers, consumers, detrivores and

decomposers have evolved within mature natural systems to close material cycles. While

al1 organisms decompose organic matter in some form or other through their basic

functions within an ecosystem, many ecologists attribute a distinctive role to those

organisms which consume dead plant and animal matter for their own living purposes.

Figure 1 The nitrogen cycle

atrnosphere

I Nitrogcn fixing bacteria convcn nimgen to a form plants can use

animals mimals by animals

niinirs used by plan h a t h and wastes

Absorption of

and uric acid

Roteins in dead organisms . ayh ,p ,- NH by green plants and waste products like urea

Niuifying bactcria

Ammonia i 1 1 Kiui-ing bacteria

As c m be seen fiom Figure 1, these organisrns are of special importance in the natural

ecosystem. breaking down organic matter which would otherwise accumulate. and

releasing nutrients for use again by plants. According to Begon et al. (1986), it is in

nutrient recycling that the detritus eating organisms (decomposers and detrivores) play a

fundamental role. In the words of Lyle (1994: 338):

"[wlhat humans cal1 wastes are essential foods for vast populations of decomposing organisms that include numerous species of insects, woms, bacteria and fungi. These are the infinitely diverse, absolutely essential workhorses of reçeneration; their activity comprise most of the earth's biological processes."

In recognizing that material cycling is an important fwiction within natural ecosystems

that should be replicated by industrial systems, it becomes important to examine how

detrivores and decomposers fiinction within their material cycling role. In doing so, this

examination would provide insights into the type of functions that businesses within an

industrial park should possess to encourage the cycling of materials and energy within the

system.

The organisms in an ecosystem which feed off dead matter have been defined by

ecologists as detrivores (the animal consumers of dead matter) and decomposers (fungi

and bacteria) (Begon et al., 1986: 387). The matter that these organisms feed on include

dead bodies of animals and plants; cast off resources (such as skin, hair, feathers and

homs) that are shed during the growth and development of organisms; and, animal faeces

(composed of the dead organic material that is chemically related to what their producers

have been eating) (Begon et ai., 1986: 388).

Detrivore Dynamics

The detrivores in a natural ecosystem tend to occur in large numbers and are

found in al1 types of habitats. They are extremely nch in species diversity and often

consume dead matter within the ecosystem. The invertebrate detrivores comprise micro

fauna (protozoa, nematode worms. and rotifers), mesafauna (litter mites, pot worms and

springtails), macrofauna and megafauna (woodlice, millipedes, earth worms, slugs and

snails. beetles and the larvae of certain flies). The vertebrate detrivores (known as

scavengers) feed off the Iarger dead animal carcasses. Scavengers include such animals

as the arctic foxes, skuas, crows, gluttons, badgers, kites, jackals and hyenas (Begon et

al.. 1986:411). The detrivores are responsible for shredding minute plant and animal

remains, breaking down these materiais, and redistributing the detritus into the soi1

structure. The detrivore functions in the ecosystem have proved to be invaluable to the

decomposition process. By breaking down materials, detrivores facilitate the role of

decomposers by recycling such materials back into the system. This role is particularly

seen in the decomposition of a plant. According to Begon et al. (1986), the decomposers

in the ecosystem are not bio-chemically versatile and can only cope with Iimited

substrates. As such, it is the diversity and richness of the detrivores that allow the

structurally and chemically complex tissues of a plant or animai corpse to be

decornposed. For instance, the compartmentalized cellular structure of a plant severely

inhibits the decomposition of organic residues by decomposers. The detrivores act on

this plant matter by breaking open cells and exposing the contents and surfaces of ce11

walls to anack by decomposers. According to Rickleffs (1986), the detrivores are

important in this process because they macerate the leaves in their digestive tracts.

breaking the litter into fine particles and exposing new surfaces for microbial feeding.

Industrial ecology views the role of detrivores as a critical ingredient for a

functioning industrial ecosystem. Industrial ecologists assert that hurnan production and

consumption systems should encourage the development of a nch and diverse network of

businesses which can take on the role of detrivores (Ayres, 1989). Generally the types of

companies that would take on a detrivorous role are broadly described in industrial

ecology literature as "scavengers". Like detrivores in a natural ecosystem, scavenger

companies would make their living out of the wasted materials from other companies

within the industrial park, ultimately depending on these resources for their own survival.

Essentially. a scavenger company would collect wasted material, dismantle it and make it

accessible to decomposer type companies in a form that facilitates its decomposition and

recycling back into the system. In addition, the role of the scavenger company is further

estended to those companies that aid in the cycling of materials by adding value to

rnaterials or products that would otherwise be discarded. These types of scavengers

would include companies that re-manufacture, re-use, and re-furbish materials.

Re-manufacturers take in materials that would otherwise be disposed of and

modit'y them so that they are more durable and have a longer life. Such items as toner

cartridges, pnnter ribbons, printers, batteries and copiers are comrnonly re-manufactured.

Companies that reuse materials provide an added value to materials that would otherwise

be discarded into landfills. Companies that reuse typically buy, sel1 or trade in second-

hand goods, deal in products that can be rented and take back materials that they produce

such as plastic bottles and containers. Finally, the refiubishing companies are important

in maintaining the value of materials by repairing items to bring them back to their

original state and increasing the functional life of the product (BCPC, 1995). A wide

variety of materials are commonly refurbished including tires, fumiture, and auto parts.

By extending the role of a scavenger in this way, it becomes apparent that a diverse

network of businesses can be identified as scavengers within an industrial park. The

encouragement of scavenger businesses that deal in a wide variety of products will

facilitate and enhance the development of a low or no-waste economy within the

industrial park ecosystem.

Decomposer Dynamics

The process of decomposition in a natural ecosystem is defined as the gradua1

disintegration of dead organic matter involving the release of energy and the conversion

of elements fiom organic to inorganic form (Begon et al., 1986: 387). As a result, the

major contribution of decomposen to the ecosystem lies in their ability to cornplete the

recycling of atoms. In natural ecosystems, decomposers are usually made up of a large

and diverse array of bacteria and fungi acting on dead matter and decomposing it into

carbon dioxide, water and inorganic nutrients that are fed back into the system. Most of

these bacteria and fungi decomposers are bio-chemically specialized to consume certain

organic materials and waste products that are difficult for other organisms to digest. At

the sarne time, the existence of a diversity array of decomposer organisms allows the

structurally and chemically complex tissues of a plant or animal corpse to be fùlly

decomposed.

Industrial ecologists have highlighted the role of decomposer type companies in

an industrial ecosystern and the need for a more diverse network, similar to those seen in

natural ecosystems (Cote et al., 1994). The decomposer companies are those businesses

that recycle materials; that is, they reuse an item by converting it into another state or by

reclaiming valuable resources for another use (Bumside Cleaner Production Centre,

1995). According to Cote (1995), decomposers are businesses that enable recycling by

breaking down complex organic molecules into simpler nutrients, metallics and other

components. The decomposer Company represents the metaphorical equivalent of the

decomposer organisms in the ecosystem that turn dead animal and vegetable matenals

into a consumable fom. Therefore, the decomposer niche involves companies that

consume othemise unusable wastes, and process or convert them into useable feedstocks

(Lowe. 1997). Commonly recycled materials within industrial systems include different

types of paper. metals, plastics, oils, and glass. Throughout industnal ecology literature

there has been a tendency to define a range of reuse activities under the recycling

category. The over generalization of these roles can be misleading when functions such

as repair. reuse, waste collection/recovery and re-manufacturing do not involve the

conversion of matenals into another state. Instead these activities are primarily

concemed with adding value to materials without actually breaking down materials and

products and converting them into new products through matenal decomposition. The

cornpanies that repair, reuse, recover waste and remanufacture have consequently been

classified for this study as the scavengers within the system to clearly distinguish the

roles of decomposers and scavengers within an industrial ecosystem.

Table 2 Scavengers and decomposers in an industrial ecosystem

Niches/roles Scavengers

Waste collectors: Companies that collect a variety of materials that would othenvise be discarded, and dismantle and sort them of reuse or recycling by other companies

Reusers: Companies that use items again for their original purpose without treaûnent or modification

Refurbishers: Cornpanies that repair or maintain items to bring them back to their original state so that they can be reused.

Remanufacturers: Companies that modify materials so that they are more durable and have longer lives.

Decom posers Recyclers: Companies that take in a material and convert or rnodiQ it to another state so that it can be redistributed back into the system

ExampIes of Companies

Metal scrap dealers Paper and cardboard collectors

Companies that buy and sel1 used goods (auctions) and rental companies

Companies that repair materials (furniture, tire re-treading and cars)

Cornpanies that remanufacture photocopiers. Laser printers, ink cartridges and primer ribbons. Companies that rebuild auto parts and upgrade cornputers.

Recyclers of paper, cardboard, metals, plastics, oib and glass.

The detrivores and decomposers have been further categorized by ecologists as

specialists and generalists to illustrate the type of feeding habits that these organisms

undenake to ensure their survival within the system. In this context the specialists depend

on only one resource for their survival, while the generalist organisms depend on more

than one resource. Rickleffs (1986) asserts that specialization and generalization are

traits that reflect an organism's adaption to the environment and to the species with which

they CO-exist. The specialist and generalist organisms are therefore a reflection of

population processes since these organisms are influenced by the physical environment,

food, predators, and cornpetitors.

Similar comparisons can be made in industrial system. For instance companies

that deal in only one material from the waste Stream (performing either detrivore andor

decornposer roles) could be categorized as specialist scavengers a d o r decomposer

companies respectively, as they are dependent solely on a specific resource for their

survival. Meanwhile, those companies that deal in more than one material (perfoming

either detrivorous andor decomposer roles) could be categorized as the generalist

scavengers and/or decomposers as they rely on a diverse range of materials for their

survival. According to Cote et al. (1994), the number of materials that these companies

deal in is an important factor in maintaining the stability of the system. The industries

that rely on a single material for their survival are at greater risk of collapse than those

that rely on diverse materiais.

It is not only important to recognize the specialists and generalists within the

system, but also the overlap of fiinctions that may occur from one Company to another.

This type of overlap is also very common within natural systems. According to Anderson

(1 98 l), the food webs that exist within natural systems are extremely complex, such that

organisms rarely follow the simplified producer, consumer, detrivore and decomposer

roles that are often given in ecology literature. Anderson asserts that the trophic IeveI

concept has value in broadly describing ecosystem structure and functioning, but is not as

accurate in descnbing community structure especiall y arnong the detritus based

communities. For example, while some species are entirely saprophytic (organisms that

utilize dead materials) such as the stonefly Proteneumura which feeds on leaf fragments.

other species materiais (such as the May fly and the caddis Philopofamus) feed on both

living and dead. It is this overlap of niches and diversity of species that enhances the

cycling of nutrients within the system. In describing the cornmunity structure of

business roles within an industrial park ecosystem, many of the businesses may not

necessarily fa11 neatly into the simplified producer, consumer, detrivore and decomposer

functions. For instance a company that is classified as a scavenger (detrivore role) re-

manufacturing automotive company may ais0 be taking in raw materials to create

automotives (consumer role) even though its main function is re-manufacturing used

resources into value added automotive components.

Given the important role of detrivores and decomposers in the cycling of materials

within natural ecosystems, many industrial ecologists believe in that the business

community within industrial parks should mimic detrivore and decomposer roles to close

material and product cycles. In doing so, the companies undertaking scavenger and

decomposer roles can facilitate and actualize the cycling of materials through well

integrated (overlapping) food webs within the industrial park. In order to maintain the

detrivore and decomposer roles within the park it is integral that diverse range of

businesses are established, interacting within the system in a diverse range of materials.

Encouraging more scavenger and decomposer companies allows greater redundancy for

materials, which further enables the system to become resilient during times of stress.

According to Cote (1997), redundancy involving multiple possible inputs and outputs

within industrial systems enhances the sustainability of symbiotic relationships and

maintains the stability of the system. The more companies in the park that perform

scavenger roles such as reuse, repair, re-manufacturing and recovery of materials, and

decomposer roles such as recycling, the more likely the stability of these roles and

maintenance of the system is accomplished. Diversity of niches and redundancy of

rnaterials within niches creates a dynamic stability, because if one organism (company)

drops out of the network there's usually a backup company dealing in the same matenal

that can f i l 1 the respective niche and allow the web to stay intact Penyus, 1997).

The roles of decornposers and scavengers in the cycling of materials are already

being seen in Bumside Industrial Park. An example of a nutrient cycle similar to the

nitrogen. phosphorus, and carbon cycles has been developed for cardboard fibre in the

Park (Cote and Smolenaars, 1995) (Figure 2). The cardboard cycle illustrates the

importance of decomposer and scavenger companies in the recycling process and the

closed loop system that can be achieved. In this case, the decomposer is the Minas Basin

Pulp & Power company that breaks down paper and cardboard, and recycles it into new

paper for redistribution back into the system. The decomposition role of Minas Basin

Pulp & Power in the cardboard cycle is only part of the company's overall paper and

cardboard manufacturing niche. Essentially, Minas Basin Pulp & Paper plays

overlapping roles in the system.

Figure 2 The fibre cycle that includes Burnside Industrial Park

1 Other resources]

1 (Primiry Consumer) 1

of recycled cardboard

Scotia Recycling Ltd.

I (Scavenger)

1

1 Other Sources of 1 ' 1 (Secondiry

A ~(Producer/decom poser

l~ari t ime Paper ~ r o d u c d

Minas Basin Pulp & Power

Recycled paper and cardboard

I

1 consumer)

Scotia Recycling (a specialist scavenger collecting only paper and cardboard), and the

other sources of recycled paper and cardboard, illustrate the scavengers in the system

which collect, dismantle and sort the paper in a form that facilitates its final

decomposition by making it readily accessible to the decomposer company.

In addition, the concept of food webs has also been identified for those companies

within Burnside that deal with construction materials (Cote and Smolenaars, 1997)

(Figure 3). The complexities found in this food web can be compared to those in natural

ecosystems. M i l e general classifications can be made in terms of producers.

consumers, detrivores and decomposers, the complexity of food webs ofien results in

trophic Ieveis being overlapped. For instance, supplier companies dealing in construction

materials feed off manufacturers (producer companies) as well as materials that have been

collected and dismantled from the scavenger companies. It could be argued that the

supplier company also represents a decomposer by transforming wasted construction

material into new matenal for use in the system.

Figure 3 A mode1 food web at Burnside Industrial Park

1 I I I Construction and Rcnovators Happy Harry's

SCAVENGERti dernolition Resource Uscd Building

SECONDARY CONSUMER ,

PRIMARY CONSUMERS

' Company Company Company Company Company -

SECONDARY PRODUCERS

PRIMARY PRODUCERS

Moreover, the scavenger companies would not necessarily be identified at the top of the

food web but would be well distributed throughout the web at different levels to take

advantage of resources that would othenvise be directed to the waste Stream.

According to Cote (1995), industrial ecology is an approach to industrial

development which emphasizes material cycling and webs of producers, consumers,

scavengers and decomposers encouraging resource conservation and waste prevention

that leads to improved eficiency, competitiveness and sustainability. In designing

industrial ecosystems, it is important to encourage a large and diverse array of producers,

consumers, scavengers and decomposers within the industrial park, which take on roles

that promote the cycling of materials. The roles of scavengers and decomposers are of

particular importance within the material cycling function and should therefore play an

integral role in the îùnctioning of an industrial park ecosystem. This study intends to

examine the extent to which an existing industrial park can be described as having

detrivore and decomposer communities in terms of roles, diversity, interactions and

abundance similar to those seen in natural systems. If indeed the industrial park c m be

described in this manner. the study attempts to further investigate the factors that can

influence the detrivore and decomposer business comrnunities towards greater

efficiencies, stability and survival within the system.

Energy Cycling

Energy is an essentiai ingredient for the existence of life that is crucial for the

survival of both natural and industrial systems. Natural ecosystems require a constant

input of energy for the maintenance of the system. The only significant source of energy

for most natural ecosystems is attained through sunlight energy and chemical energy.

The sunlight energy is trapped by producers through photosynthesis, ultimately making it

available to the ecosystem in the form of chemical energy. Herbivores utilize the energy

fiom plants, which in tum provide a food source for the carnivores (Enger and Smith,

1990). The flow of energy through the system is govemed by two basic principles: the

first law of thermodynamics and the second law of thermodynamics. The first law of

thermodynarnics states that energy is neither destroyed or created, instead it c m only be

changed from one fomi to another. The second law of thermodynamics states that while

the quantity of energy does not change, the quality of energy is constantly changing.

When energy is changed from one form to another (from trophic level to trophic level)

some of the usefùl energy is lost through metabolism and movement of organisms. This

loss of energy is known as entropy. The importance of this pnnciple lies in the fact that

the amount of energy in the universe is Iimited and only a small amount of that energy is

of high quality. The use of high quality energy decreases the arnount of usehl energy

available. as low quality heat is generated. Studies conducted on the ecological

efficiencies of natural ecosystems has shown that biological systems are on their own

inefficient because a substantial portion of metabolized food energy is lost, unused. as

heat (Rickleffs, 1983). At the same time, however, living systems have found a way to

de@ the second law of thermodynamics by self-organizing to maintain an open, far fiom

equilibrium state by the interactions that occur between naturai systems and the biosphere

(Prigogine et al., 1972). Therefore, while a large proportion of energy is dissipated into

unavailable heat at each transfer through the dif3erent trophic levels, this dissipation is not

really wasted energy. For example, the dissipation of solar radiation as it passes into the

atmosphere, the oceans and the greenbelts warms the biosphere to life-sustaining levels,

drives the hydrological cycle and powers weather systems. In addition. wasted heat from

dead materials is ofien used in the recycling of nutrients by scavengers and decomposers

within the system. Over time, then, mature ecological systems have developed extremely

efficient processes for using energy.

The industrial system also depends heavily on the use of energy for its survival.

This dependence, however, is several magnitudes higher than that required by natural

ecological systems. In terms of an industrial ecosystem, the pyramid is inverted. The

ultimate source of industrial energy has traditionally been fossil remains fiom the distant

past such as coal, oil and natural gas. As a result of the second law of thermodynamics,

industrial systems have tended to operate extremely ineffkiently with high energy

dissipation levels, which have subsequently translated into problems of global warming,

depletion of renewable resources, pollution, and smog. Scientists maintain that if

populations increase at current rates and energy conservation does not improve, energy

demands will increase exponentially threatening the ultimate survival of our industrial

system and surrounding biosphere which are inextricably linked. In recognizing the

problerns associated with energy applications, industrial ecologists cal1 for industrial

ecosystems to develop in such a way that energy requirements are minimized (Boons and

Baas. 1997). Minimizing energy requirements within an industrial park could include:

finding renewable energy sources such as solar, wind and water power! conducting

energy audits to find areas where energy consumption and wastage can be reduced, and

introducing general good housekeeping (reducing the use of energy for lights, cornputers

and other energy consumption practices) practices within companies. Businesses within a

park are especiaily encouraged to use photo voltaics for power and solar heating instead

of energy that relies on coal, oil and natural gas sources. According to Grant (1 996), heat

eschangers and earth energy systems are important ways in which companies can reduce

energy use. Meanwhile wasted energy dissipated fiom one industry could be used by

other, less demanding industries through CO-generation.

Optimization of Materials

As ecosystems mature their growth slows down and the transformation of

materials into products also starts to decline. There is a gradua1 shift away fiom

maximization of materials to a process that encourages the optimization of materials. The

emphasis shifts from quantity to quality of materials, where the system ultimately learns

how to do more with less (Benyus, 1997). Therefore, instead of passing nutrients through

the system each year to decay, rnuch of the biomass remains within the ecosystem for

years before finally decomposing back into the system. This is particularly exemplified

in old growth forests, which are typically characterized by large Iive trees, large snags

and large fallen trees. The large snags and fallen trees become part of the forest floor and

are eventually (over many years) incorporated into the forest soil, where a myriad of

organisms and processes make the nutrients stored in the decomposing wood available to

the living trees. In essence, the fallen trees and snags are a reinvestment of forest capital

into the growing forest (Maser, 1990). This process brhgs an element of control to the

mature ecosystem and ultimately a degree of stability.

In our own industrial systems there has been a constant emphasis on maximizing

throughput by extracting resources fiom the earth to create a diverse range of products.

which ultimately leads to more and more waste. In creating an industrial ecosystem it is

critical to stress the importance of optimization over maximization. and the need for less

quantity and more quality products. According to Frosch and Gallapoulos (1989), in an

industrial ecosystem the consumption of energy and materials is optimized, waste

cenerated is minimized and outputs fiom one industnal process become inputs for other C

processes. This optimization of materials generally refers to the ability of industrial

systems to rnaximize the economical use of waste materials and of products that are at the

end of their life-cycle to become inputs to other processes and industries. As noted by

Graedel and Allenby (104: 1997), optimization occurs for resources, energy and capital,

and should take place throughout the total material cycle from virgin material. to finished

material. to component to product, to obsolete product, and to ultimate disposal.

The life cycle approach to environmental problems encourages the optimization of

materials. The life cycle approach tends to draw attention to the significance of designing

products in such a way as to integrate ecological thinking into the full cycle of the

product's conception, specification, production, use, reuse and ultimate disposition.

Incorporating the life cycle approach could include making possible uses for obsolescent

products, designing parts to have multiple uses and to be utilized in different products,

increasing the functional life of products, designing products to facilitate repair and

recycling of component parts, and finally seeking ways to limit the energy required to

use, maintain and repair products (Callenbach et al., 1993). To encourage optirnization

rather than maximization in an industrial park ecosystem, more companies need to

develop and deal in goods and products that incorporate the life cycle approach.

Subsequently, companies that remmufacture, reuse, and refurbish products (companies

taking on a scavenger function), should be encouraged to maintain the value of products

for extended periods of time. There needs to be a greater emphasis towards

dematerialization. where companies are encouraged to use less materials to produce

lighter and smaller products that perform many functions (Benyus, 1997). From this

application, industrial ecology is seen not only as a systems approach to industrial

develo pment but also one that seeks to optirnize the total materials cycle throughout the

industrial system within the production process, fiom extraction to disposal, through a

web of producers, consurners, scavengers and decomposers (Cote. 1997).

In addition to product design, the industrial ecosystem itself should be designed in

a manner that is more compatible with the natural environment. According to Tibbs

(1992). the central goal of industrial ecology is to mode1 industry on the systematic

design of naturai systems, not only to improve the efficiency of industry but also to find

more acceptable ways of interfacing it with nature. In order to apply ecosystem

principles to the planning aspect of the park, Grant (1996) stresses the importance of

planning and designing industrial parks in a manner that protects the environment, creates

new economic opportunities and presents attractive meaningful landscapes for the

residents. This includes: designing buildings to take advantage of solar radiation or

opportunities for sharing resources with neighbouring businesses; maintaining indigenous

vegetation and natural drainage systems; protecting key habitat areas such as wetlands

which not only support habitat for species but also could be used to treat effluent or retard

run-off fiom sites; selecting buildings carehilly to minimize requirements for rerouting

waterways, removing vegetation or building impewious surfaces; and encouraging

owners within the park to plant indigenous species that support endemic wildlife and

restore local diversity.

Developing a Clean System

Despite al1 the interactions that take place within mature ecosystems, the

organisms thernselves have rnaintained themselves in a way that does not produce

significant toxic elements that can h m the environment in which they live.

Concentnted toxins are not stored or transported in bulk at the system level, but are

synthesized and used as needed by individuals (Lowe, 1994). Benyus (1 997) asserts that

because organisms must eat. breathe and reside in their manufacturing facility (their

habitat), they cannot afford to threaten their own existence by poisoning themselves with

toxins.

Industrial systems, on the other hand, have persisted for the most part unimpeded

in emitting pollutants and wastes into the environment and seriously degrading the

quality of the environment. The companies operating within industrial ecosystems

should in their operations adopt a preventative approach to pollution if they are to

maintain a cleaner system. As defined by Environment Canada pollution prevention is

the 'use of processes, practices, materials, products or energy that avoid or minimize the

creation of polIutants and waste' (Environment Canada, 1995: 4). Companies should be

concerned with eliminating the use of toxic raw matenals, and reducing the quantity and

toxicity of al1 emissions and wastes before being emitted into the environment.

Companies that produce environrnentally fiiendly products are encouraged because they

produce products that are less harmful to the environment.

Several theorists argue (Geiser and Oldenburg, 1997) that the waste reutilization

emphasis taken by industrial ecologists is inconsistent with the concept of pollution

prevention. In this respect, it is believed that the waste reutilization emphasis of

industrial ecology does not encourage companies to prevent pollution, but to develop

niches for those companies (scavengers and decornposers) that prornote the creation of

waste (Siddiqui, 1994). Despite this argument, one must realize that companies differ

from one another quite substantially, and the prescriptions for prevention may not always

be practical for many companies, especially small companies that lack the capital and

time to invest in better technologies. Industrial ecology supports pollution prevention

practices. but also realizes the need to reduce wastes that already exist within industrial

systems. Already, industrial systems are generating a diverse range of wastes that need to

be diverted away from the waste Stream by scavengers and decomposers in the system.

In fact, many pollution prevention theorists consider the industrial ecology activities of

off-site reuse and recycling to be valuable methods of environrnental protection that can

O ffèr environrnental and economic benefits (Environment Canada, 1995). In essence,

then, industrial ecology and pollution prevention can be viewed as complementary

approaches to reducing the impact of industry on the environment.

Supporfing 1001s for lndustrial Ecosystem Development

To develop the materials and energy efficiencies of a mature natural ecosystem,

an industrial park needs to establish a management structure that c m facilitate and

encourage appropriate decisions. A key component of the park's reorganization is a

strongly integrated environmental management plan in which regulatory agencies, park

management authorities and individual companies cooperate to promote the development

of an industrial ecosystem through a well integrated informational network (UNEP,

1997).

Cooperation amongst Businesses

The effective cycling of materials and energy within the mature ecological

ecosystem is accompanied by complex interactions between organisms. These type of

interactions are based on a series of symbiotic relationships amongst organisms, which

give rise to a complex array of food chains and food webs that define the structure of the

ecosystem comrnunity. The symbiotic relationships that exist within natural systems are

threefold: mutualism involves the interaction of two species where botb benefit fiorn each

other; commensalism invoIves the interaction of two species where one species benefits

while the other is unaffected; and, parasitism involves the interaction of two species

where one benefits while the other is harmed (Allen. 1994). It is the first two types of

relationships of mutualism and commensalism that are of particular importance within the

ecosystem. Both mutuaiism and commensalism are relationships based on cooperation,

which allows the species to spread out into non-competing niches and interact with each

other to make efficient use of materials and energy going through the system (Benyus,

1997).

In an industrial park ecosystem symbiotic relationships similar to those seen in

natural systems are highly encouraged amongst businesses. Industrial symbiosis is

presented as a means to increase the systemic eficiency of materials and energy use by

creating linkages between formerly separate industrial activities. The symbiotic

relationships enable the development of industrial complexes, which have integrated

exchanges of by-products and/or energy. Before creating these types of relationships it is

necessary to understand the industrial metabolism or flows of materials within the

business system to create the linkages necessary for developing such industrial symbiotic

relationships between businesses (Ayres, 1989). By looking at an industrial park as a

system. within which energy and materials move, the consumptive and waste generating

activities within the park can be reorganized and integrated with each other and natural

processes to increase the eficiency of resources used and the recycling and recovery of

wasted materials and energy (Smolenaars, 1996). Infonnational inventories inctuding the

type of materials going through the system, the types of wastes generated by companies,

and energy audit information, become critical if businesses are to cooperate with one

another. Information such as regulations applicable to different types of industries, sewer

disposal limitations, options for recycling different matenais, and methods to reduce

office waste are some examples of the information necessary to facilitate cooperation

arnongst businesses (Cote and Smolenaars, 1996). Information facilitates exchanges and

efficiencies within the park, and allows the businesses comrnunhy to achieve symbiotic

relationships similar to those seen in natural systems. In developing these relationships

for businesses within a park ecosystem it is the mutualistic and cornmensalistic symbiotic

relationships that are encouraged between businesses so that no business benefits at the

expense of another. Instead, businesses benefit mutually or without harming other

businesses when cycling wasted matenal and energy fiom one process into raw materials

for another process.

Other symbiotic relationships could also be developed by encouraging a green

consumer market in the park to support eco-eficiency practices. Encouraging companies

that sel1 environmentally fiiendly products and technologies, andor provide

environmental management services such as environmental consulting companies would

be critical in developing a supportive structure that facilitates eco-efficiency among other

companies.

By encouraging interco~ectedness and relationships between businesses in an

industrial park, greater effîciencies and stability c m become realized within the system.

According to Lowe (1996), an industrial ecosystem is more than a single by-product

exchange pattern or network of exchanges, a recycling business cluster (resource

recovery. recycling companies etc.), a collection of environmental technology companies,

a collection of companies making green products, industrial park designed around a

single theme. a park with environmentally friendly infrastructure or construction, and a

mixed use development (industrial, commercial and residential). These features, on their

own, do not fùlly define the existence of an industrial ecosystem. Instead, it is the

interactions arnong the member businesses and their natural environment that will

dtimately define the existence of an eco-industrial park (PCSD, 1994).

Park Management Support and Governrnent Support

Mature ecosystems are self-regulating. The self-regulation found in mature

ecosystems is the product of millions of years of evolutionary history, maintaining

favoura bl e conditions for life on Earth for many millions of years (Callenbach, 1 998). In

a sirnilar way. park management and government can play an integral role in the

transformation of an industriai park into an industrial park ecosystem by not only

supporting the informational aspects of the system but also by providing a regulatory

function. The key to creating an industrial ecosystem is a supportive park management

and govemment network that allows flexible and voluntary guidelines. Both park

management and government need to cooperate with companies within the park.

operating flexibly with them to meet targets onented to encouraging bans of products.

restricting the disposa1 of products, and fostering reuse, recycling and refonnulation

(Cote and Smolenaars, 1996).

While the field of industrial ecology is still in its infancy, and is still being

perceived as an idealistic and philosophical approach to dealing with the problematic

nature of industry on the environment, it does present a usehl tool for motivating change

within industrial systems. The natural system andogy that is presented by industrial

ecologists is essentially designed to guide industrial systems in their achievement of

sustainable development. Therefore, unless matenal and product cycles are closed in the

sarne way that natural systems cycle materials, the industrial system as a whole will

continue to be unsustainable (Ayres 199 1 :2 1 ; Lowe, 1993: 75; and, Rourke et al., 1996).

Stemrning from the analogy of mature ecosystem, Ehrenfeld (1994) presents what

he believes to be the seven basic components necessary to transform industrial activities

to the activities that are characteristic of an industrial ecosystem. These inciude:

improving metabofic pathways for materials use and industrial processes; creating loop-

closing industrial practices; dematerializing industrial output; systematizing patterns of

energy use; balancing industnal input and output to natural ecosystem capacity; aligning

policy to conform with long-term industrial system evolution; and, creating new action-

coordinating structures, communicative linkages and information. It is with these goals

in mind that we start our journey towards creating industrial ecosystems, ultimately

attempting to achieve the overall goal of sustainable development.

This chapter has demonstrated that the community structure that makes up an

industrial park system c m be described in a similar way to a naturd system.

Furthemore. the chapter has examined some of the elements of mature ecosystems that

should be replicated by industrial parks if industrial park ecosystems are to be created.

The practical application of developing industrial ecosystems is aiready underway with

the advent of a nurnber of eco-industria1 park projects that are directed towards achieving

industrial ecosystem characteristics. This study examines whether elements of the natural

system metaphor can be practically applied to an existing eco-industrial park project. The

study is directed to specifically examining the roles of scavengers, decomposers and other

companies (environmentally friendly producers/sellers and environmental management

service providers) that aid and support material cycling eficiencies in the developrnent of

an industriai ecosystem.

CHAPTER THREE: EXPERIENCES DEVELOPING ECO-PARK PROJECTS

The practical application of industrial ecology principles to industrial parks has

been limited since the field has only recently gained any serious attention. A number of

projects worldwide are now undenvay to expenment with industrial ecology principles as

a strategic approach to the sustainable development of industrial commercial

developments. This chapter discusses how industrial ecology principles have been, and

are continuing to be developed worldwide within industrial parks. Experiences in

Europe. the United States, and Canada are presented to highlight the type of activities that

are currently undenvay and the informational gap that exists in developing eco-industrial

parks.

The European Experience

The central emphasis of dealing with environmental problems in Europe has

mainly focused on cleaner production and cleaner products. During the early 1980s, a

number of academics began to show interest in the potential of applying industrial

ecology concepts to industrial production problems of waste and pollution (Peck &

Associates and Cote, 1997). tt was not until 1994, however, that industrial ecology

becarne forrnally recognized at the European Roundtable on Cleaner Production when it

appeared as one of the topics of discussion at the meetings. Developments related to

industrial ecology have been seen in a number of countries throughout Europe, inciuding

Denrnark, Austria, Sweden, Holland, Ireland and France.

The focal case of reference for industrial ecology principles at work in Europe is

the Kalundborg experience in Denmark, which is touted as the best known example of

industrial symbiosis (by-product exchanges). Dunng the past fifieen years, a network of

synergistic waste links had been created between a power station, oil refinery. chernicals

Company. a plaster-board manufacturer, a fish f m and local homes and f m s formine

industrial symbiotic relationships (Allen, 1994). Over a period of time, the cornpanies

have become linked in a web of trades of materials, water and energy (Lowe. 1997). Al1

the firms derive some of their inputs fiom each other's outputs, increasing profitability

and reducing environmental impacts. The EIP at Kalundborg developed as a conscious

effort to create symbiosis among the industries and around the town in order conserve

fresh water and to reduce costs associated with pollution control. The benefits of the

sy mbiotic relationships developed at Kalundborg have been substantial. It bas been

estimated that the annual consurnption of resources has decreased by 19,000 tons of oil.

30.000 tons of coal, and 600.000 cubic meters of water. and emissions of carbon dioxide

have decreased by l30,OOO tons.

Since the Kalundborg experience other eco-park initiatives have been evolving in

Linkoping, Sweden. the Styrian region of Austria, Ireland, France and the Port of

Rotterdam in Holland. For the most part, the projects in Europe are still at a planning

stage and the fiill potential of industrial ecosystem dynamics have not yet been realized.

However. the economic and environmental benefits seen at Kalundborg and in the Styrian

Region of Plustria continue to motivate the development of these and other projects.

The American Experience

The development of eco-industrial Parks in the United States gained considerable

popularity during the early 1990s. During that time industrial ecology was being

recognized as an important strategy for realizing the ideals of sustainable development in

the United States business and industry (PCSD, 1996). Eco-industrial park

developments therefore became estabiished at a time when the main mandate of the

President's Council on Sustainable Deveiopment (PCSD) was to investigate the practical

application of ecological principles to industrial activities and community design. The

assurnption was that economic growth, job opportunities and global competitiveness

could be enhanced through the adoption of business practices that protect the

environment (PCSD, 1996). In the early 1990s. the PCSD (1996) established a program

to promote EIP development, and in doing so, selected four demonstration sites:

Chatanooga. Tennessee; City of Cape Charles in North Hampton County, Virginia;

Brownsville, Texas; and Baltimore, Maryland (PCSD, 1996). Support for these projects

came frorn the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the PCSD on the

basis that the EIP developments would provide part of the solution to the problems

created from industry's impact on the environment (Peck & Associates and Cote, 1998).

In essence. EIP developments were to serve as models for sustainable cornmunity

development. In addition to these eco-industrial park developments there have been other

similar initiatives throughout the country that are presently underway.

The Green Institute's eco-industrial park in Minneapolis, Minnesota, provides a

comprehensive approach to an industrial ecosystem, and the first one that may be

implemented. At the Green Institute's eco-industrial park, ecosystem principles have

been applied to a mal1 unit known as the Phillips Eco-Enterprise Center. It includes such

features as ecological design. energy conservation, material exchanges, and the

introduction of businesses with a strong envirorunental slant (Cote, 1998; Peck &

Associates. 1998). The Green Institute eco-industrial park is currently in the process of

designing criteria for prospective tenants. In order to understand the role of tenant

businesses in the park, the Green Institute eco-industrial park management have stressed

the need for more information on models of tenant mixes that would constitute an eco-

industrial park of various sizes, from a few acres to thousmds of acres ( PCSD, 1997:

28).

The United States experience with industrial ecology has in some cases k e n

based on actual industrial parks, while in other cases the trend is towards eco-industrial

networks. Within the context of industrial parks a primary concern for developing eco-

industrial parks in the United States has been the need to gather a more in depth

understanding on the type of tenants that would allow the ecosystem framework to

mature. Many of the parks in the United States are currently investigating these types of

businesses with an emphasis on those businesses that recycle, reuse, re-manufacture,

produce/sell environmentally Wendly products, and those that provide environmental

management services.

The Canadian Experience

Since the early 1990s, the field of industnal ecology has been slowly emerging in

Canada. mostly within the academic comrnunity, as a usehl guide on how industrial

systems could be restructured in a manner compatible with the notion of sustainability.

Despite its appeal, the Canadian government has been relatively slow to fully embrace the

value of industrial ecology concepts. As a result, the development of eco-industrial parks

has remained. for the most part, at an experimental stage, supported by government

fmded pilot study projects. The Bruce Energy Centre near Tiverton, Portland Industrial

District in Toronto, and Burnside Industrial Park in Nova Scotia are examples of

industrial areas. which are being transformed into eco-industrial parks in Canada.

In general, the development of eco-industrial parks has been limited and most of

the projects remain at a planning stage. Most ecosystem characteristics prescnbed by

industrial ecologists within industrial parks are not operationally functional, and many of

the benefits of creating such ecosystems have not yet been realized. Since these projects

are stilI in a development stage, the benefits that accrue fiom these initiatives and other

applications of industrial ecotogy are still to be demonstrated. In developing eco-

industrial parks a primary concem is being directed towards understanding the types of

tenants that could be beneficial to industrial ecosystem developments. The following

investigation of an existing industrial park will provide a valuable source of information

for other eco-park developers, as it attempts to examine the roles and functions of

scavengers, decomposers, environmentally fnendly producerslsellers and environmental

management service companies.

Barriers to the Progression of Eco-Industrial Park developments

Since the development of eco-industrial parks worldwide has been relatively new.

expenence with regard to how they have been progressing is limited. At the same time,

however. there are a number of eco-park projects that have already begun to expenence

difficulties in applying industrial ecology principles. First, many park developers have

begun to experience problems with regulatory rigidities. For instance, in most

jurisdictions there are a number of regulations in place to deal with the disposa1 of

hazardous wastes. These regulations make it dificult to reuse and recycle these wastes

between companies. Such exchanges are particularly harnpered by transportation

regulations that apply to hazardous wastes between industrial facilities and sites. Second,

many EIP projects have experienced considerable dificulties in gaining the necessary

support tools from govemment and other stakeholders. For instance, many project

developers have noted the lack of financial support for such projects, and a lack of the

informational base on inputs, outputs, skills and opportunities. Third, the need to drive

more cooperation between businesses is difficult when businesses traditionally see

themselves as predominantly competitive in nature. In addition, many businesses tend to

operate with a short term view. Changing this mentality can become a timely and costly

endeavour. Fourth, many see bureaucratie inertia as a serious problem in crossing

boundaries between and within agencies. In Canada the different jurisdictions make the

decision-making processes on implementing eco-industrial park projects especially

onerous. Finally, a lack of overall education and awareness among stakeholders can

seriously impede the ability to embrace industrial ecology strategies.

Despite a myriad of barriers involved in implementing industrial ecoiogy

principles within parks and other commercial development networks, many of the

practical examples have also illustrated a variety of benefits associated with the

transformation towards industrial ecosystems. Based on the experiences and

contributions from authors in the field, the benefits of developing industriai ecosystems

can be divided into three main categories: environmentai, economic and community

benefits.

Environmental Benefits

The environmental benefits associated with eco-industrial park developments are

considerable, especially when the emphasis is on best practice environmental

performance arnongst businesses. First, developing eco-industrial parks can result in

improved efficiencies of land and water usage through the planning and design changes

that are conducted in an industrial park. For green field sites, effective planning and

design can result in the preservation and regeneration of naturai habitat, the development

of energy efficient buildings, improvement of air and water quality through wetlands, and

improvement of overall aesthetics (UNEP, 1997). It is anticipated that many of these

benefits will be realized at the Fujisawa Factory in Japan, which is currently being built

into a prototype eco-industrial park. Land and water usage benefits for brown field sites

on the other hand has proved to be much more dificult, and continues to present a

challenge for re-developers.

Second, eco-industrial park developments are beneficial in that they reduce risks

to human health and safety. In this respect, reduced air emissions, pollution and wastes

are al1 becoming widely associated with eco-park developments. As such, the increased

efficiencies available through CO-generation and other shared energy systems contribute

significantly to reductions in toxic air emissions. In addition, the promotion of pollution

prevention and the 3 R's (recycling, reuse and reduction) in industrial parks are simifarly

important for reductions in pollution, wastes, and air emissions.

Third, eco-industrial park developments are also important in conserving natural

resources. especially at a time when the depletion of non-renewable resources is

becoming an issue of growing concem. Eco-park promotions of energy conservation, and

promotion of alternative energy fuels, adoption of cleaner production technologies. and

encouraging businesses to view wastes as resources which cm be recycled, reused or

used as the feedstock for other industries can significantly conserve resources.

Economic Benefits

Eco-industriai park developments are also important in contributing substantial

economic benefits to the community of businesses which are located within the park, by

irnproving opportunities for these businesses to take advantage of local resources through

lower costs and increased revenues. First, businesses can benefit fiom potential cost

savings that are attained through material, water and energy byproduct exchanges and

other shared resources. In addition, companies can benefit significantly from reduction in

waste disposa1 costs. which in today's climate of limited landfill space has been

increasing significantly. In this regard, cost savings can result fiom reductions in

government expenditures for infrastructure such as water and waste treatment facilities,

and landfil1 capacity. Other cost savings include: raw materials, operating costs,

transportation, capital costs, waste costs, maintenance costs. energy costs, and costs

associated with environmental regulatory cornpliance (PCSD, 1994).

Second, companies can benefit in an eco-industriai park fiom revenue generation,

especially from byproducts that may have an extended market value and which have

traditionally been disposed. By their very nature, eco-industrial parks tend to promote

pollution prevention and eco-efficiency which in turn can lead to significant cost savings

and revenue generation.

Third, the exchange linkages that define eco-industrial park developments can

result in improved opportunities for new investments and increased market access. As

such, market niches for different types of businesses that specialize in recycling,

collection of materials. and other companies that provide environmental services and

products, as well as those companies that are already practicing elements of

environmental management systems, environmental audits and other evaluation tools c m

becorne established. New investments of technological innovation and difision are also

likely to be attracted to eco-industrial parks, including information technologies,

recovery. reuse and substitution technologies, environmental monitoring technologies.

çnergy and energy efficient technologies. arnong others. EIP developments can thus

stimulate diversification and encourage the development of new industries through

greater cooperation, interdependence and demonstrated profitability. b

Community Benefits

Eco-industrial park development is especially important for community

sustenance in terms of job opportunities, improved environment and higher quality of

life. Increased local employment and tax revenue is an important benefit that many

cornmunities involved in the eco-park can attain. Job creation will be particularly

facilitated through attraction of investment into the park. Improvements in the image of

an industrial park region, especially brown field sites through EIP development is

important in keeping and attracting tenants into the park, thereby maintaining the

economic viability of the area.

Industrial ecology ideas have become recognized worldwide and are increasingly

çaining popularity. The practical experiences associated with industrial ecology remain

limited given the recent development of the field. Europe and the United States have

taken a Ieading role in trying to develop industrial ecology principles at the practical

Ievel. Meanwhile, experiences in Canada illustrate that greater potential exists to explore

and utilize symbiotic relationships between cornpanies.

CHAPTER FOUR: BURNSIDE INDUSTRIAL PARK: A CASE STUDY

Esperience with the application of industrial ecology to industrial parks is

becoming an important source of information in taking a concept that has been

theoretically based to a practical and more usehl level. Many experiences with eco-

industrial developments have stressed the need for more information on the type of

tenants and operations that would facilitate the development of eco-industrial parks. In

an attempt to broaden the knowledge base on tenant roles within an existing industrial

park. the Burnside Industrial Park in Nova Scotia, Canada, has been chosen as a case

study. Bumside Industrial Park provides an ideal setting for investigating the types of

businesses that fa11 into the scavenger/decomposer niche, and other businesses that

promote the concept of a sustainable comrnunity. This chapter presents a general

ovewiew of the history of Burnside Industrial Park. It highlights the industrial ecology

activities and initiatives that have been underway at the Park since 1991. The chapter

concludes with a section describing the reasons for undertaking the above mentioned

study at Burnside Industriai Park.

History of the Park

In response to regional economic disparities that existed in various parts of the

country during the mid-1960s, the Canadian governrnent put in place a policy to

encourage economic growth through industrial development projects. Burnside Industrial

Park was a direct reflection of this policy, when in 1965 the federal govenunent provided

funds for the construction of roads, water and sanitary systems to service the park based

on a recommendation fiom the Atlantic Development Board. The actual planning and

development of the Park was initiated in 1965. Over the course of the next 25 years, the

Park was built in a series of development stages. Some of these development phases are

currently in progress.

Located in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Burnside Industrial Park today constitutes an

area of lCOO hectares, and houses almost 1300 businesses (Map 1). The Park employs

15.000 people and represents businesses fiom a broad range of sectors, 90% of which are

small and medium sized industries. Afier arnalgamation, the responsibilities for

Burnside Industrial Park were transferred from the City of Dartmouth to the Halifax

Regional Municipality. Today, the Park represents one of the most successful indusuial

parks in Canada. Featurïng more than 100 manufacturïng companies and the largest

concentration of sales and service facilities in Atlantic Canada, the Park has contributed

significantly to the economy of Atlantic Canada (Bumside Business Directory, 1997198).

Despite its reputation as the largest and most successfûl business park in Atlantic

Canada, Burnside Industrial Park, like most industrial parks, was not designed with the

environment in mind. During the time of the Park's development, land use policies for

industrial development were predominantly driven by econornics, and the environmenta1

impacts of development were not a key consideration. The land-use by-laws of 1978.

provide instructions on the type of building constructions permitted, and operation of

facilities within the Park, but make Iittle reference to environmentai considerations (Bill

C86, 1978). As a result, the development of Burnside was conducted in a manner that

had little regard for the natural landscape of the area. Once the Regional Development

Plan had confrrmed the location for the Park's development, this original forested and

swampy site area was cleared and graded; water, sanitary and storm water mains were

installed; streets were built; and, standardized buildings were erected, destroying the

land's natural characteristics (Grant, 1996). The prime concern in designing the park was

to provide the basic infrastructure necessary to support and encourage the growth of

businesses while at the same time attract new investments (Rath, 1989).

Most of Burnside has been defined as 1-2 Zoning (general industrial zone) which

pemits light industrial enterprises, warehousing and distribution, and general business

enterprises (Cote et al., 1994). The majority of buildings are one or two storey metal or

pre-fab concrete with a maximum height permitted of three storeys. The Park is also

characterïzed by large warehouse spaces, large parking spaces, with few sidewalks for

pedestrian use. Today, the Park has been described as having ". . .hectares of asphalt for

cars, and grave1 for storage areas run as far as the eye c m see. Buildings punctuate a

barren, inhospitable landscape, and habitat stands are as rare as sidewalks" (Grant, 1996).

Most of the wetland areas were aiso fitled although those that remain play an important

role in site drainage and support for habitat. This type of development approach was in

direct conflict with an industrial ecosystem philosophy which encourages industrial parks

to be designed in a manner which maintains the ecological functions of the landscape.

The only phase of Burnside Industrial park that has been developed to include

environmental considerations is the City of Lakes Business Park, created in 1984. The

inclusion of environrnental considerations in the City of Lakes Business Park was based

on an economic mandate to encourage the development of the Park as a high profile.

prestigious office and business location, using the unique natural amenities of the areas as

a marketing tool (Rath, 1989). The Park management believed that investing financial

resources into protecting the natural amenities of the area would provide good returns in

attracting service sector businesses.

In addition to a lack of consideration for the natural ecological landscape during

development, the Park also contributes significantly to pollution and wastes in the

environment. While many of the businesses that operate in Bumside are benign in their

nature. studies have found that various sectors produce hazardous materials which on a

cumulative basis can have significant effects on the environrnent (Cote et al., 1996).

Industries of this nature include prînting, computer assembly and distribution, chernical

industry, paint and coatings industry and the metal processing industry. As a result it is

not surprising that the Park's potential as a major generator of solid waste and waste

water discharges within the city is high especially given the large number of businesses

operating within the Park and producing or selling thousands of products and services.

Driven by the growing demands of an increasing urban population, the Park has over the

last twenty years evolved in a manner which contributes significantly to the cumulative

Ioading of pollution and wastes to the Iocal environment.

The small and medium-sized businesses that make up most of the Park presents a

particularly challenging task in attaining sustainable corporate activities. Many of these

businesses are reluctant to change given their limited knowledge on environmental issues

and their lack of technical, financial and managerial capacities (Smolenaars, 1 996).

Despite the fact that the cumulative loading of pollution and wastes to the urban

environment from the SMEs is significant, the SMEs in Canada have been virtualiy

escluded from most environmental management prograrns (Reid et al., 1996). Not only

have SMEs been ignored by govemments but also because of the relatively small

amounts of wastes and pollution that SMEs generate individually, they are often not

subject to regulatory measures, or they simply escape detection due to a lack of municipal

resources to enforce pollution regulations (ICLEI, 1994). Increasingly, the Halifax

Regional Municipality has begun to recognize the importance of including the SMEs into

its pollution prevention planning. At the sarne time, however, little research has been

conducted on SMEs and the promotion of pollution prevention strategies. In 1992, Cote

et al. (1992) conducted a study to define and understand the barriers that prevent the

diversion or proper management of waste materials in Burnside Industrial Park. The

study found that while managers of small businesses in Burnside were interested in

improving the management of their wastes, they had encountered a number of interna1

and external constraints. In general, the study highlighted the Iack of recycling and reuse

i nfiastructure, technical ability and financial incentives available to the smaller

companies. In light of the large SMEs located in Bumside Industrial Park, the

determination to develop sustainable practices among these businesses couid prove to be

a particularly challenging task.

lndustrial Ecology at Burnside IndusMa/ Park

During the early 1990s, the potential for applying industrial ecology as a tool for

developing sustainable industrial parks was beginning to be investigated at Burnside

Industrial Park. Since 1991, when Burnside was initially chosen as a test site for

industrial ecology principles. a wide variety of studies were undertaken to acquire more

information on the metabolism of various companies, and to educate companies on ways

to develop more symbiotic relationships to reduce their overall impact on the

environment. The studies of applying industrial ecology principles at Burnside indicated

the high potential that exists within the Park for developing some of the characteristics of

an industrial ecosystem. Despite a myriad of studies, however, it remains unclear as to

the type. nature. diversity and interactions of businesses within Burnside Industrial Park

which perform scavenger roles (reuse, remanufacture, refùrbish, repair and recover),

decomposer roles (recycling companies), produce/sell environmentally fnendly products.

and provide environmental management services. By undertaking this research study.

valuable data can be attained on the Park's current business practices within defined

nichesholes. This knowledge base will also present invaluable data to others in the field

that are interested in developing eco-industrial parks. As already mentioned many eco-

industrial park experiences have emphasized a lack of information on real Iife exarnples

of tenant mixes within industrial parks that could potentially facilitate the development of

industrial ecosystem characteristics. A case study of tenants within Burnside Industrial

Park provides an ideal setting for such a study, especially considering the past research

work that kas already been conducted at the Park, and the subsequent recognition that it

has received within the field of industrial ecology.

CHAPTER FIVE: METHOD

Chapter two demonstrated that the natural system metaphor could be theoretically

applicable in providing a guide for developing more sustainable industrial park systems.

In light of this assessment, the following study examines whether the material cycling

efficiencies found in naturd systerns c m be practically applied to an existing industnal

park. This study attempts to answer the question: what are the roles and interactions

of scavengers, deromposers and other companies that promote and support

materials cycling functions in an existing industrial park system? This question will

be explored by using Burnside Industrial Park in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia as a case study.

This chapter discusses the method used in the study, hcluding the ethical issues that were

necessary to consider, and the limitations that were experienced during the process.

Research Technique

Research Design: A Case Study of Burnside Industrial Park

A case study approach was considered to be the most appropriate for this study as

it would allow one to document roleshiches of businesses operating within an existing

industrial park. By studying real life business developrnents, it would also be possible to

understand more clearly the type of business opportunities that are developing and

operatinç within a maturing industrial park. According to Stake (1978:32) "...case

studies can provide different and better knowledge.. .by providing more valid poruayals.

better basis for persona1 understanding of what is going on, and solid grounds for

considering action." Further. Yin (1984: 13) asserts that ". ..case studies are the preferred

strategy when.. . the focus is on a contemporary phenomenon with some real-Iife context."

As Patton (1986: 205) puts it "...a great deal can be learned fiom exemplars of the

phenomenon in question." A case study approach is especially usehl if one is to

understand the potential of developing real life business roles that would promote the

cycling of materiais within an industrial park.

Burnside Industrial Park was selected as the case of study for several reasons.

First. the Park had been targeted since 1991as a test site for the application of industrial

ecology principles (Cote et al., 1994). Since that time, a wide variety of studies have

been undertaken to acquire idormation on the production and consumption fünctions of

various businesses in the Park, and to educate companies on ways to develop practices

and processes that could reduce their overall impact on the environment. Therefore,

there is already ample background information on various features of industrial ecology

principles at the Park. Second, the 1300 businesses from diverse sectors provide an

attractive setting for studying business roleshic hes within Burnside. Third, the location

of Burnside in Dartmouth was conveniently close and accessible by public transport. and

thus facilitated field work in the area. In light of these factors, Burnside Indusirial Park

was selected as an ideal case study for examining and docurnenting industrial ecosystem

strategies and characteristics at a practical level.

Research Tool

The technique selected for this study was a survey made up of quantitative

questions t hat were supported by a few qualitative questions. The qualitative

components of the study posed opinion questions that allowed the interviewer to obtain a

more comprehensive understanding of the company's position on a specific topic.

According to Patton (1986) " ... a qualitative approach seeks to capture what people's

Iives, experiences, and interactions mean to them in their own tems and in their natural

setting. Qualitative data provides depth and detail." By incorporating some qualitative

questions into the survey, a better understanding of Company interactions and behaviour

coufd be ascertained.

The questions that were selected for the survey were designed to investigate and

document business roles that could facilitate the development of an industrial park

ecosystem and the factors that have influenced these business developments. The

questionnaire was divided into a list of themes (Table 3) and questions to elicit

information that was pertinent to the study. A total of 27 questions were developed for

the survey (Appendix A).

Table 3. Themes identified in the Burnside niche survey

THEMES IDENTIFIED FOR THE SURVEY A. Demographics B. Scavcnger Roles:

Wastc Collection/rccovcry Matcrial Reusc Matcrial Remanufacture Maicrial Rcfurbishing

C. Dccomposer Roles: In I-fousc Recycling

D. Environrnentally Friendly Products E. Environmental Management Services F. Itiateriats Segrcgated for Recycling mdlor Reuse purposes

Barriers to scgregating materials for Recyclin@Reuse Moiivators to segrcgating materials for Recycling/Reuse

G . Encrgy Efficicncy EI. Environmental Knowledge 1. Inspections

The category foï inspections was left out of the analysis, as it was not considered directly

relevant to the objective of this study. The following section gives a detailed account and

rationale for the selection of these categories and the respective questions.

First, six questions were developed to document the demographic information on

companies interviewed in the study. This included information pertaining to the name.

address and type of business, the year the company was established, and the number of

employees working at these businesses. This type of information was intended to make

cornparisons between the type of businesses and their respective advertising in the

Burnside News, classi@ the companies into their respective industrial sectors, and

document company size. Further, efforts were directed towards identifiing company

addresses to arbitrary building numbers that had been developed by the Halifax Regional

Municipality geographic coding scheme of the Park. By identieing the companies

interviewed according to their corresponding geographically coded building numbers, it

would be possible to document the distribution of these companies within the Park

setting.

Second, several questions were developed to investigate matenal cycling

attributes by identifying the number of businesses conducting loop-closing industrial

practices within the Park (Figure 4). To this end. the s w e y includes several questions

to detemine the number of companies that perform scavenger and decomposer roles and

the types of materials and interactions involved in these roles. Questions pertaining to the

collection or recovery of materials fiom the waste Stream, reuse of materials.

rernanufacture of products, refurbishment of products or matenals, and, recycling of

materials were developed for this section (Appendix A). In addition to the material

cycling functions, the survey also documented those companies that produce

environrnentally friendly products and those companies that provide environmental

management services within the park. It was important to include thcse companies in the

questionnaire since they indirectly promote material cycling fùnctions. Figure 4 is an

illustration of the type of functions investigated in this study that promote and support

material cycling activities.

For each of the material cycling and supportive functions, the respondents were

asked to provide an estimate for the percentage of business that their companies were

generating from within the Park. These percentages were only relevant for those

companies defined as scavengers, decomposers, environrnentally fiiendly producers and

environmental management service companies, performing these activities as the primary

functions of the respective companies. A complementary open-ended qualitative

question is included in the questionnaire to measure the reasons for the low or high

percentage of business that these companies were generating in the Park. The companies

that perforrn these functions as secondary to their overail role were not asked for their

business percentages since it would be difficult to associate the percentage of business

generated in the Park to the particular functions practiced by the Company.

Figure 4 Functions that promote and support matenal cycling in Burnside Industrial Park

BURNSIDE INDUSTRIAL PARK

Third, several questions were asked to examine other practices and forces that

support the Park's material cycling fünctions. These questions measured the extent to

which companies were segregating materials to be collected for recycling or reuse. The

companies were therefore asked whether they were segregating materials for recycling or

reuse purposes, and were M e r asked to specifi the types of materials that were being

segregated. In addition, the questionnaire provides a couple of questions asking the

companies to rate the importance of factors that have acted as divers and barriers for

segregating materials from their operations.

Fourth, the survey is comprised of three questions that measure whether

companies are operating efficiently in their use of energy. These three questions included

information on energy audits, the type of energy conservation measures being practiced.

and a cornplementary open-ended qualitative question on the barriers to energy

efficiency. Finally, the companies were asked to rate the importance of a range of

informational sources in providing knowledge on environrnental issues. This question

was intended to measure the sources of knowledge that have been the most effective in

educating businesses about environmental issues.

Throughout the questionnaire most of the questions were based on a "yes" or "no"

response. The three questions on barriers, motivators and knowledge, however, used a

measurement Likert scale from one to five where one was not important, and five was

very important. The Likert scale was used to ailow the respondent to give his or her

opinion on the questions without limiting them to a "yes" or "no" answer. Once the

questionnaire had been devised it was pilot tested with five companies in the Park. The

questionnaire was then refined to accommodate general comments and avoid potential

problems in the fùture. As a result, some questions were added while others were

removed. A copy of the questionnaire can be found in Appendix A.

Sampling Selection

The sample selected for the study was based on a cluster sampling technique.

Several cluster company groups were developed based on the categories of scavengers

(reuse, remanufacture, repair and waste recovery/coliection), decomposers (recyclers),

producers of environmentally friendly products and providers of environmental

management services. The scavenger or decomposer company was identified on the basis

that the company was conducting the respective scavenger or decomposer functions as

the primary function of the company. The companies selected for the study were chosen

on the following criteria:

companies that collect or recover materials from the waste stream - This

included any company that advertised waste collection services, or accepted

materials from companies and transported them elsewhere for recycling or reuse.

companies tbat reuse - This included any company that took in materials that

were to be used again for the original purpose without any treatment or

modification. Companies in this category were those advertised as dealing in

second hand goods, and those cornpanies that provide rental services.

companies that remanufacture - This included any company that took in an

item and modified it so that it is more durable and has a longer life. Companies in

this category were usually advertised as rebuilders of items or remanufacturers of

rnaterials. Commonly remanufactured materials include printers, photocopiers,

cars, ink-jet cartridges, cornputers and furniture.

companies that refurbish - This included any company that advertised as

repairing or servicing items to bring them back to their original state so that they

could be reused again.

companies that recycle - companies that take in material and convert them to

another state so that they can be used for another use. In most cases companies

advertised as recyclers were not actually conducting recycling practices in terms

of the above definition.

companies that produce environmentally friendly products - The companies

in this category were usually advertised as producing or selling environmentally

friendly products, or as producing or selling environmentally friendly

technologies.

companies that provide an environmental service - The companies in this

category were advertised as providing environmental consuking services or other

environmental management services.

In addition, an attempt was made to distinguish the scavengers and decomposea m e r

into specialists and generalists so as to document the behaviour and suwival patterns in

the system. The generalist scavenger was identified as any company that deals with more

than one type of material (such as a waste collector that recovers oils, anti-freeze. inks

and waste paints fiom the waste stream). Meanwhile, the specialist scavenger was

identifed as any company that deals with only one type of material (such as the paper and

cardboard waste collector).

Based on these definitions, a review of the Burnside News (a gazette published

rnonthly by the Park), and The Btrrnside Directory 1998 (a publication of companies and

their services in the Park), was conducted to gather a List of company narnes for the

respective categories. For the most part, most businesses were selected from The

Bwnside Dimetory 1998, based on the manner in which they were advertised. Additional

companies were identified based on advertising or stories in the Burnside News.

A non-random sampling technique was the preferred approach since the study

aimed to document business operations that fell into specific pre-determined categories.

These categories were selected from the publication entitled Burnside: Putthg The 5R 's

Iwo Acrion produced by the Burnside Cleaner Production Centre, which was part of the

Burnside as an Ecosystem Projects (1992-1995). This publication documented some of

the companies within Burnside Industrial Park that were conducting the practices of

reuse, recovery, recycle, refûrbish and remanufacture. The categories for

environmentally friendly producers/sellers and businesses providing environmental

management services were selected fiom the publication entitled 'Designing and

Operating Industrial Parks as Ecosystems' (Cote et al. 1994), which presented guidelines

for industrial park ecosystem developments.

Data Collection Techniques

Data was collected conducting personal interviews with the respective companies.

The companies were then visited by the interviewer, and managers or designated

employees were interviewed for an average of ten minutes. For the most part- the

managers of the respective companies were the target respondents for the questionnaire as

they would have first hand and reliable knowledge as to the type of practices being

conducted at the company. There were instances where company managers were

unavailable and employees in charge at the time becarne the respondents. The inability to

always interview managers may have limited the accuracy of information obtained from

the interviews. As a result, it was important to make sure that responses were evaluated

with this factor in mind and interpreted as opinions rather than facts.

The use of a personal interview was selected to ensure a higher response rate over

a shorter period of time. According to Ott (1997:23) "...personal interviews are

beneficial because people will usually respond when confionted in person." Given the

Large number of small to medium sized businesses operating at the Park, it was

anticipated that a lower response rate would have been achieved if the surveys were

mailed or conducted over a telephone. The persona1 interview method also helped to

eliminate misunderstandings that may occur dunng the interview process. A commonly

voiced limitation of this type of technique is the ability of the interviewer to bias the

process by hisher actions or in the phrasing of the questions. To avoid such bias, special

attention was paid to ensuring that clear, straightforward questions were asked without

influencing the interviewee. A total of 87 surveys were completed over a one and a half

month per;~ ' Setween June and August, 1998. The surveys were numbered and added to

a database for anatysis.

In addition, the data was also analyzed under Arc View, a geographic information

data base that was used to map the companies in the park. The arbitrary geographically

coded building numbers were linked to the corresponding business addresses. This

information was then used to map the results obtained fiom the study.

Ethical Considerations

The ethical issues considered in the research study were ensuring participant

confidentiality and the accurate representation of the participants and their ideas. Before

conducting the interview, the respondents were briefed on the purpose of the study. and

the criteria that were used to select the respective company for the study. The

respondents were informed that their participation in the research was voluntary, and that

al 1 information obtained fiom the interview would be conftdential. Informed consent

from the participants was formalized by their signature on a consent form. The

participants were also informed that they had the right to withdraw fiom the study at any

time and to refuse to answer any questions. Finally the questionnaires were assigned a

code to ensure confidentiality so that the use of company names could be avoided.

Limitations

This research project encountered a number of problems which acted as

limitations to the study. First, the response rate was lower than expected. Given the

small and medium sized nature of most businesses interviewed it was not always

convenient to get business managers to spend 10 minutes answering the questionnaire.

Most business managers appeared to have ver). busy schedules and had relatively few

employees available. However, the 87 questionnaires that were answered, adequately

represented the categories identified for the study.

Second, given the door to door approach of the personal interview method it was

not always possible to conduct interviews with the manager of the respective company.

The persona1 interviews that involved employees may not aIways have elicited the most

accurate responses. Many of these employees, depending on their employment history

with the Company, rnay lack accurate information on the company's background and

activities. Subsequently, the results from this study, especidi y those results periaining to

percentage of business being generated in the Park, shodd not be interpreted as factual

information. Instead, the information gathered in the snidy provides a general indication

of company practices and functioning with Burnside Industrial Park.

Third, the manner in which companies were advertised in the Burnside Directoty

rnay have not have fully represented those functions that were being studied in this

research project. As a result. the total number of businesses falling into the respective

categories rnay not represent the actual number of companies in Burnside that conduct

those activities. Out of a total of approximately 1200 businesses, only 163 companies

were identified for this research study based on the way in which they had been

advertised in the Burmide Direcroty. It is likely that more companies falling into the

categories identified for this study actually exist in the Park. but were not advertised by

these iùnctions in the Burnside Direcrory.

Fourth, it is important to acknowledge the inherent bias that rnay be associated

with this type of study. For instance, the respondents asked whether they segregate

materials for recycling or reuse, rnay be more inclined to provide a positive response to

this question. Many company employees and managers are motivated to answer in a

manner that makes the company appear supportive of recycling practices. As the

environment takes on a higher profile in the minds of customers, it is becoming more

important for companies to be perceived as "green". This motivation rnay have biased

some responses. At the same time, however, it is anticipated that new waste management

by-laws and regulations have forced companies to recycle some materials. With this

issue, every effort was made to assure the respondent that the interviewer was only

interested in documenting material segregated for recycling and reuse throughout the

whole Park, and not the company's specifically.

Fifth. the question relating to the percentage arnount of business k i n g generated

in the Park was limited. For instance, it may be difficult to fully interpret whether a

company response of 3% was a high or low value relative to operations in the Park. As a

result. broad generalizations were made when interpreting this question. In addition,

many of the percentages provided for this question were usually rough estimates and thus

only provided a very general picture of actual business percentages.

Finally, the study found a number of limitations in mapping the companies in the

Park. As the maps indicate, the mal1 units that are characteristic of the park make it

difficult to isolate specific companies on the map. The Arc View database used to

analyze and plot the data did not have a fùnction for directly dividing the building ünits to

show each company individually. The age of the différent layers of data used in the study

varied from 1982 until 1992. Therefore, some buildings had to be added into the

database since no arbitrary nmbers had been assigned for them.

This chapter has presented the methodology that was used for this research and

the ethical consideration and limitations that were experienced. The following chapter

presents the results and discussion of the study.

Chapter Six - Results

ln tro duction

This chapter presents a detailed analysis of the data that was obtained from the

survey of companies at Burnside Industrial Park. As mentioned in Chapter 5 , the

information was gathered from a compilation of quantitative and qualitative questions

that were arranged in a structured format. The data were analyzed using basic descriptive

statistics. This chapter presents these results in the forrn of tables and graphs, and is

organized according to the categories that have been identified for the study.

Population Sample

A total of 163 companies were advertised in the Burnside News and the Burnside

Dirccloiy under the categones selected for this study. Over the data collection penod, a

total of 87 of the 163 companies (53.37%) were interviewed by a door to door persona1

interview rnethod. Map 2 illustrates the location of the sampled population within

Burnside Industrial Park. Since many of the buildings in Bumside are mal1 units, it was

difficult to rnap the individual company locations. This was especially the case when

trying to map several companies in one mal1 unit. As a result, the map highlights the

buildings in which companies were located, and not the individual office locations of

each company. The overlap of the companies falling into a mal1 unit is subsequently not

documented on the map.

The composition of the sampled population varies disproportionately within the

categories selected for this study. Table 4 displays the distribution of samples for each

category .

Table 4 Distribution of companies sampled in Burnside Industrial Park

Categories Studied 1 Total 1 No. 1 Functions 1 Functions 1 No. o f

I / Intervicwed 1 Advcnired 1 Nat I Companies Advertised Per Function

DECOMPOSERS Recycling Function

SCAVENGERS Reuse Function Repair Function Remanufacture

12

Function Waste CoIlection Function

ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY PRODUCTS ENVIRONMENTA L MGMT.

The waste collection, remanufacture, recycling, environmentally fiiendly products and

environmental management service categories were more represented than the reuse and

repair categories. At the sarne time, the reuse and repair categories were also the most

commonly practiced fùnctions in the Park, and thus had a larger sarnpIe size than the

other categories. Given the limited time allotted for the data collection in this study, it

was not possible to obtain more interviews with these companies. In light of this

limitation, the companies interviewed in the reuse and repair categories are considered an

adequate representation of the larger number of companies performing the reuse and

repair functions.

49 63 6

SERVICES TOTALS

it was also noted that many companies were performing functions that they had

not advertised in the Burnside News or Burnside Directory (Table 4). This was especially

common within the reuse function category. Further, while most companies had

advertised their fùnctions accurately in the Burnside News and Burnside Directory.

1

1 12 1

10

15

8

24 21 5

163

10

7

12

6

1 1

24 2 1 5

87

7

12

6

3 1 20 19

76

55 4 1 24

22

5

O

29

17

6

1 07 183

several companies inaccurately advertised within the recycling category when they were

actually collecting waste for recycling purposes. The inaccurate advertising or in some

cases lack of advertising observed in this study may have limited the potential sample

size for the study.

Demographics

The companies interviewed for this study were mostly made up of small and

medium sized businesses. According to a study on Environmental Management

information and Training for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (Griffith Muecke

Associates et al., 1996), small businesses have less than 25 employees and medium sized

businesses have between 25-49 employees. Based on this classification, the respondents

in this study comprised 73 small businesses, 9 medium sized businesses and 5 large

business enterprises. In addition, the following business sectors were represented:

distributors, manufacturers, waste collectors, vehicle maintenance, waste

managementlremediation, retail, construction, consulting, printing and others. These

business categories were selected corn Statistics Canada's North Arnerican Industry

Classification Scheme.

The study found a total of 80 companies conducting scavenger and decomposer

functions. Of these companies, fifty-one companies (63.75%) were performing more

than one type of function. As a result of the multi-functional roles perfonned by the

cornpanies in this study, there was a discrepancy between the 87 total companies

interviewed and 183 total companies that fell into the respective categories (Table 4).

Table 5 summarizes the level of overlap observed within the scavenger and decomposer

functions defined in the study. The overlap of fûnctions is manifested by the fact that

twenty-seven companies are conducting two functions, twenty companies are conducting

three functions, three companies are conducting four functions, and one Company is

conducting five functions.

Table 5 Level of overlap for the scavengers and decomposers

The multi-functional nature of the companies interviewed in the study exemplified the

complexities associated with company functions, and the inherent dificulty of classifying

the companies into the roles of scavenger and decomposer. The overlap of functions is

ais0 cornmonly seen amongst the organisms interacting within natural systems.

According to Anderson (1 98 1 ), the feeding relationships that exist within natural systems

are extremely complex, which makes it difficult to classiQ organisms neatly into the

simplified producer. consumer, detrivore and decomposer roles that are ofien referred to

in ecology literature. This observation illustrates the complex nature associated with

natural systems and the inherent difficulties in directly applying the natural system

metaphor to an industrial Park system. In order to simplifi the classification for this

study, it was necessary to define scavenger and decomposer companies on the basis that

their respective functions formed the primary (main) activity of the company. The

primary function of the company was identified as the fwiction that is most used to

describe a company's operations.

Scavenger Companies

A scavenger is identified as any company that performs waste recovery, reuse,

repair and remanufacture activities as the primary function of the business. Rental

companies were also included in this category since they take back materials, clean or

refurbish them, and redistribute them back into the industrial system for reuse. In

attempting to categorize companies into their fùnctions, it was sometimes necessary to

Refurbish

5 14 18 3 1

41

Reuse

12 19 20 3 1

55

Remanufacture

2 1 6 13 2 1

24 1

Number o f Functions Performed 1 2 3 4 5 TOTALS

Waste Recovery

9 8 8 3 1

29

Total

29 27 20 3 1

80

In-house Recycling

1 7 1 1 1

1 1

compare the manner in which the company was advertised to the type of fùnction that the

business was actually undertaking. For instance, a company advertised as a paper and

cardboard recycler was usually found to be collecting the paper and cardboard.

segregating these paper types and sending them elsewhere for recycling. Such a company

would therefore be defined as a waste collecting scavenger since its waste collecting

activity was the primary function of the company.

A total of 30 scavengers were identified in this study. These 30 scavengers were

fùrther broken down into 20 speciaiist (dealing in one type of material) and 10 generalist

(dealing in more than one type of material) (Table 6). The companies that conduct

scavenger activities as secondary fùnctions of their business were not identified as

scavengers. Instead, these companies were classified separately in the study since

functions made up a secondary component of the operations and did not define the type

of business. An automotive distributor that also collects used oil and batteries is an

exarnple of a company conducting waste collection as a secondary function of the

business.

Table 6 Specialist and Generalist Scavengers

Despite the secondary nature of their scavenger functions, these companies were included

in this study because they were performing valuable material cycling fùnctions, and made

up a majority of the companies interviewed.

Categories Studied

Functions

SCAVENGERS Reuse Function Repair Function Renianufacture Function Waste Collection Function

TOTALS

Totals

Total per Category

55 4 1 24

29

149 1

Secondas. Functions Secondary Function

48 37 18

16

113

Prirnary Functions

Special ists

3 4 6

7

20 i

General ists

4 O O

6

10

The following section describes the results of those companies undertaking

scavenger fùnctions in the following order: waste recovery, re-manufacturing, repair. and

reuse. The results focus on the activities of specialists, generalists and the other

companies conducting scavenger hinctions as a secondary role.

Waste Collection/Recovery

In identifying waste collectors, a thorough review of the Burnside News and

Bztrnside Directory was conducted to select companies that advertised themselves under

the following types of practices: waste collection, waste recovery, waste or toxic materiai

removal, waste management and disposais. A total of 10 waste recovery/coliection

companies were initially identified, of which 7 companies (70%) were actually

interviewed (Table 4). In conducting M e r analysis of the total 87 companies

interviewed in the study, a fùrther 22 companies were actuaily collecting materials for

recycling. reuse, or treatment, but had not advertised these services accurately in the

Btri-mide News or Burnside Directory. In total, 29 companies were collecting or

recovering materials from the waste stream. Sixteen of these companies were conducting

waste collection as a secondary component of their business (secondary waste collectors),

and 13 companies were conducting waste collection activities as the primary fùnction of

the business (Table 5). The latter group of companies was identified as the primary

scavenger waste collectors since their waste collecting activities formed the primary

function of their business. These scavengers were M e r broken down into 6 generalists

and 7 specialists- Table 7 presents a table of the number of waste recovenng scavenger

generalists and specialists, and the secondary waste coiiecting companies. The table also

presents a list of the variety of materials that these companies collect.

The seven specialist waste collectors were recovering cardboard and paper (4

companies), metals and aluminum (1 company), construction materials (1 company), and

PCBs and asbestos (1 company) fiom the waste stream. The presence of specialist waste

collectors within the system suggests that there is an ample supply and demand of

materials for collection.

Table 7 Waste Collection: Specialists and generalists scavengers, and secondary waste colIector companies

Companies Zay: Tires - - [ Automotive Anti- Freeze 1 1 1 1

Number of Secondary Waste Col lectors

O 1 O

Number of Specialists

O O O

Number of Generalists

1 O 2

- - -

Plastics Toner Cartridges

0 - -

Containers Lead Acid Barteries Water Construction

1 1 1 1

Used Oil 1 f l 1 O 1 4 1 7

- 3

2 3 3

Equipment Parts Waste Paint Solvents Inks Paper Cardboard Chemicals Asbestos, PCBs Aluminum Metals

The specialists are therefore in a position to rely exclusively on these materials for

their survival. The generalist companies, on the other hand, were collecting more than

four materials each, with one Company collecting a total of 12 different materials from

the waste stream. The other companies in the Park that collect materials as a secondary

component of their business are also included in Table 7.

2 1

1

O O

3 3

The waste coIlector scavengers identified in this study collect the materials from

the waste system, sort or dismantle some of these materials and transport them to the

O 1

1 O

3 4 4 4 5 6 6 6 7 8

O 1

2 3

O O O O 3 4 O 1 1 I

O O

1 O

2 2

O 4 3 3 2 2 3 O 4 4

3 O 1 1 O O 3 5 2 3

decomposer companies that dismantle, recycle or treat them back into the production

system. As Table 6 indicates, there are diverse materials being collected from the waste

strearn. This diversity can be compared to the variety of materials that certain detrivores

act upon in a natural ecosystem, especially those that are responsible for the initial

shredding of plant and animal remains and their redistribution within habitats.

The long-term viability of the waste collection function will depend on the

availability of a diverse and abundant supply of materials to be collected for recycling

and reuse. The variety of materials collected by the waste collectors located in Bumside

demonstrates the range of materials that can be collected and diverted from the waste

strearn. The advantage associated with diversity is seen amongst the generalist

scavengers that tend to have a higher level of resilience in the system than the specialists.

In the event that one material is in short supply, the generalist can usuaIIy rely on the

other materials that it collects to retain its waste collection fùnction and sustain itself.

The specialist companies. on the other hand, are in a more vulnerable position as they

depend on only one type of material for their survival. For some specialists, external

factors such as regulations goveming the collection and transportation of materials such

as PCB's c m play a crucial role in ensuring their survival. In other cases, the material

being collected may have enough value to ensure a specialist company's viability.

According to Slowinski (1998), plastics, metals and glass, have more sophisticated

markets than other materials. Yet in other situations, some specialist companies

collecting cardboard and paper for example, may be involved in a tightly controlled chain

of companies that ensures a market for these materials.

The waste collection function at Bumside was not only characterized by material

diversity, but displayed levels of material redundancy. In the waste collection function,

redundancy is measured by calculating the number of companies collecting similar types

of materials. As table 6 indicates, the highest levels of redundancy in the waste collection

function was obsenred in used oïl (1 1 companies), metals (8 companies), aluminum (7

companies), chemicals, PCBs and cardboard (6 companies) and paper (5 companies).

This redundancy suggests that the waste collection fùnction could remain relatively stable

at Burnside given that the market forces of demand and supply are constant. For

instance, if a company that collects used oil leaves the Park, other businesses are

available to take over that function allowing the system to remain intact.

In addition to the 13 scavengers, there were sixteen other companies performing

waste collection/recovery as a secondary function of their business. These companies

increased the diversity of materials in the waste collection fûnction further by collecting

materials such as cloth. rags, and general equipment components that were not being

collected by the primary scavenger waste collectors. These companies also increased the

redundancy for materials such as used oils, metals, equipment parts and PCBs (Table 6).

The companies that recover waste as a secondary function generally collect those

materials that are specific to their production or consumption functions. For instance, a

printing company collects toner cartridges for re-manufacturing, and a rental company

that specifically concentrates in the rental of rags collects these materials for reuse.

Meanwhile, most of the companies that take in used oil. toxic chemicals, metals and

PCBs as secondary functions, are environmenta1 management service cornpanies that

recover these materials from job sites and take them elsewhere for reuse, recycling or

treatment. Most of the companies that perform waste collection as a secondary function

were found to be involved in more than one type of scavenger and/or decomposer

function. Given their multi-fùnctional roles, these companies highlight the complexities

that exist in the food webs that define the system. In some cases, these companies may

decrease the efficiency of the material recovery process by increasing cornpetition for the

specialists and generalists.

The location of several waste collection businesses at Burnside demonstrates that

a great deal of potential exists to divert materials fiom the waste Stream and in doing so

support the matenal cycling process. In order to understand whether any waste collection

or recovery was taking place within the Park, the scavengers (specialists and generalists)

were asked to estimate the percentage of their business that was being generated fiom the

Park. These percentages reflected rough estimates as few businesses kept accurate

figures (Table 8).

Table 8 Percentage of business generated in Burnside Industrial Park by waste collecting scavengers

J - Yes Response

These figures suggest that most of the waste collectors situated within the Park

have established some relationships with other tenants, and are contributing to the

diversion of materials from the Burnside waste Stream. Nine waste collector scavengers

were conducting more than 20% of their business within Bumside, three companies (4,6,

and 8) stated that 10% and less of their business was derived fiom the Park, and one

Company (1) stated that none of its business was derived fiom the Park. It was further

noted that the companies deriving 25% and less of their business in the Park were

Type of Company

1. tosic waste (G) 2. General Waste (G) 3. Toxic waste (G) 4. Toxic waste (G) 5. bottles, cans, etc .

, (G) 6. paperkard board

! (SI 7. paperkard board (SI 8. PCB's (S) 9. Metais/Aluminum (S) 1 0. paperkardboard (SI 1 1 . paperkardboard (SI 12. Metals and bottles

, (G) 1 3. construction materials (S) G - Generalist S-

O h

Business 0% 70% 70% 10% 40%

5%

25%

8% 20%

20%

20%

80%

20%

specialist

Reasons for low or high percentage of business generated in

Location

4

J

Age

d

d

the Park Larger market

' Com- petition

4

J

J

J

4

J

Nature of business

4 J

Low demand

J

J

d

d

J

specialists, while those that were deriving 40% or more of their business in the Park were

al1 generalists.

There were three main reasons provided by the specialist for the lower levels

(25% and less) of business being generated within the Park. One Company stated that it

had a larger target market outside the Park, six companies stated that cornpetition fiom

other businesses limited business generation in the Park, and three companies stated that

there was a low demand for their services (Table 8). Competition was the most

cornrnonly expressed factor amongst the specialist waste collectors for the lower

percentage of business being generated within the Park. This result suggests that many

specialists may be driven by competitive forces to look outside Burnside to fil1 their

markets. In order for companies to focus their efforts entirely within the Park and sustain

themselves within the market, the level of competition would probably have to be

reduced. In some cases this may mean that M e r differentiation or specialization of the

waste collecting functions could make these companies more competitive within the

Park. In addition to cornpetition. a fwther three companies emphasized that low demands

for their services restricted further business in the Park. Increasing the demand for the

waste collection service may mean better marketing, which includes advertising specific

waste collecting services in the Burnside News and Burnside Directory publications. In

fact, a number of respondents in the survey indicated that the general Iack of information

and lack of collectors for materials was an important impediment for recycling and reuse

activities in the Park.

The generalist waste collectors who were for the most part generating 40% and

more of their Susinesses within the Park, indicated that the higher percentage numbers

were directly related to the nature of their business. Given the more diverse range of

materials that they collect, the generalists are in a better position to develop a wider

spectrum of relationships within the Park than the more specialized waste collecting

scavengers. These findings suggest that the generalists rnay have access to a much larger

market in the Park than the specialist waste collectors. An example of this type of

cornpetitive advantage was observed in the case of a generalist collecting bottles and

metals that derived 80% of its business within the Park, and a specialist collecting metals

that derived only 20% of its business within the Park.

Most industrial ecologists maintain that companies should establish greater

mutualistic and cornmensalistic relationships within the Park to make maximum use of

inputs. products and waste materials. At the sarne time, it is important to recognize that

Burnside Industrial Park is not a closed system. Many of the companies in Burnside have

broader markets outside the Park performing a regional fùnction in the system.

Remanufacture

Re-rnanufacturing is the process of modiQing an item to make it more durable

and to prolong the life of the product. This study found a total of 24 companies in the re-

manufacturing function. Six of these companies were identified as scavenger specialists

(re-manufactuing one product), and the rernaining 18 were businesses that undertook re-

manufacturing activities as a secondary component of the overall business (secondary re-

manufacturers). In light of the fact that re-manufacturing is a more speciaiized function it

was not surprising that no generalists were identified in the study. It would be difficult

for a Company to remanufacture a variety of different materials given the high technology

and overhead costs associated with this function (Slowinski, 1997). Table 9 displays the

number of specialist and secondary re-manufacturing companies located at Bumside, and

the corresponding materials that they remanufacture.

A range of materials are being remanufactured by companies located at Bumside.

TabIe 9 shows that the specialists in the system remanufacture printers, i n . jet cartridges,

automobiles and auto parts, cornputers and batteries. The other 19 companies were

conducting re-manufacturing fwictions for materials such as signs, tires, furnihue and

electrical circuit boards, which were not k i n g remanufactured by the prirnary scavenger

re-manu facturers.

Table 9 Rernanufacture: Specialists and secondary companies that remanufacture materials

[ Type o f Material 1 Totals 1 Specialists 1 Secondary companies ]

I Siens I m

I 1 I O I 1 I

Electrical circuit boards Tires

1 1

- -

Fumiture Photocopiers

I 1

Ink jet cartridges 1 4 Batteries 4

In addition to diversity, the re-manufacturing function was also characterized by

levels of redundancy since more than one Company is involved in the re-manufacture of

some of these products or materials. Redundancy in the re-manufacturing niche was

observed for automotive parts, general equipment, cornputer parts, printer parts, and

batteries (Table 9). These materials correspond directly to the transportation, printing,

automotive. and service sectors represented in the Park. Meanwhile, the highest levels of

redundancy were noted for those materials fdling in the categories of cars and their parts,

and general equipment. The category for general equipment includes solar panels,

wiring, shafts, bearing houses and light fixtures, and the category for automobiles and

their parts includes exhausts, brakes, cars and trucks. Many of these materials are in

common use both in the Park and in the metropoIitan area. This redundancy and

diversity should enhance the stability and survival of the re-manufacturing function

within the Park.

O O

O 1 3

r

1 2

1

General equipment 1 6 Car parts 8

Table 10 shows that the re-manufactwing specialists have established some

relationships with the other tenants at Burnside.

1 1

1 I 1 Laser ~rinters. cornouters 1 4

3 2

1 2

O 2

6 6

Table 1 O Percentage of business generated in the Park by re-manufacturing specialists

Five of the six companies indicated that 10% and more of their business was generated

from the Park. Meanwhile, one Company that distributes re-manufactured automotive

parts indicated that it was generating only 3% of its business fiom the other tenants. The

companies that had relatively lower percentages (automotive, battery and cornputer re-

manufacturers) (2,4,and 6) al1 stated that the lack of demand for their products was a

contributing factor. Given the large transportation and service sectors in the Park. it was

surprising to find that these companies were experiencing low demands for their

products. This observation suggests that the re-manufacturing companies may need to

advertise and market their products more extensively in order to take advantage of the

opportunities at the Park. By disseminating information about the activities and services

of these companies, more relationships could develop with the other tenants in the Park.

Re-rnanufacturers

1 . batterylautomotive 2 . automotive 3 . printer ribbons 4. battery 5. printers, ribbons 6. cornputers

Meanwhile, the companies re-manufacturing printer ribbons stated that the nature

of their business was the main reason for the higher percentage of business being

generated frorn the Bumside community. The re-manufacturers of printer ribbons could

be described as opportunistic species, taking advantage of market opportunities in the

printing sector. In fact, two companies specifically stated that their location was an

important reason for securing business at Bumside. The location of these businesses is an

integral ingredient for the development of an industrial Park ecosystem. Many industrial

ecologists assert that one of the advantages of introducing scavenger and decomposer

functions in an industrial Park lies in their ability to develop relationships with other

Reasons for low or high % of business generated in the Park Low

demand Business

nature

,

% Business

20% 3% 20% 10% 70% 10%

Location Larger market

Com- petition

4

r

d

businesses that are closely located to them. These types of relationships would enhance

the cyclinç of materials within the system. According to Martin et al. (1998), collocation

and in some cases proximity, may be key to the economic feasibility of symbiotic

relationships of businesses within an industrial Park.

Finally. three of the companies indicated that they were concentrating their efforts

in the larger market outside the Park. This finding suggests that for these companies.

locating in Burnside had little to do with access to materials for re-manufactunng. As a

result, it rnay be difficult to convince these companies to develop further relationships

within the Park. The fact that most materials remanufactured by these companies

corresponded directly to the transportation, printing, automotive and service sectors

indicates that there is a potential market for the re-manufacturing companies in the Park.

Therefore, greater efforts need to be directed towards motivating companies to take

advantage of these market opportunities.

Reuse

The businesses conducting the reuse fùnction were mainly advertised as

cornpanies dealing in second-hand goods and companies that provide rental services for

their products. A total of 54 companies were conducting the reuse function. Forty-seven

of these companies were involved in reuse activities as a secondary fûnction of their

business. and 7 companies were scavengers reusing matenals as their primary function.

The seven scavengers were M e r divided into 4 generalists and 3 specialists. A diverse

number of materials are being reused by companies in the Park (Table i 1). The

specialists were found to be reusing cloth, automotive parts, electronic components and

cornputer parts. Meanwhile, the generalists were reusing construction matenals,

miscellaneous goods, general appliances, and electronic components.

Table 1 1 Reuse: Specialists, generalists and secondary reuse companies

Type of Materials 1 Totals 1 Specialist 1 Generalist 1 Secondary companies General appliances Mechanic comuonents

1 1 I

Used eoods 1 3 1 O 1 2 1 1

a

Metal steel parts Batteries

1 2 2 3

-

Containers Computer parts Cloth Construction Electric components Packaging

The businesses (47 companies) that reuse materials as a secondary part of their business

made up the majority of this category. These businesses add diversity and redundancy to

the reuse function. The highest levels of redundancy were observed for rental materials,

automotive parts, scrap materials, and printers and their parts.

O O

Printer cartridges Scrap material Auto parts Rental equipment

Table 12 indicates that the reuse scavengers within Burnside have established

some relationships within the Park. At the sarne tirne, however, the percentages that were

provided under this category were relatively lower than in other fùnctions. In general,

between 1% and 20% of the reuse business was being generated in the Park. This

observation suggests that second-hand materials have a srna11 market within the Park. In

fact the second hand dealers that reuse a range of miscellaneous products and the

Company that reuses rags and cIoths showed percentages that were 5% and less. These

companies felt that the second hand nature of their business lirnited m e r business

generated in the Park. Meanwhile, the companies that deal in reused automotive and

computer parts had relatively higher percentages.

O O

4 4 4 5 5 5

1 O

9 10 12 12

O 2

O O

O 1 O O 1 O

2 3

O O 2 O

1 1 1 1 1 O

3 2 3 4 3 5

O 1 O 1

9 9 10 1 1

Table 12. Percentage of Business for Reuse Scavengers

Given the large nurnber of automotive and service companies found within the Park.

Type of Business

1. Second-hand dealer (G) 2. Second-hand dealer ( G ) 3. Used construction material ( G ) 4. Reuse of ragskloth (S) 5. Reuse of car parts

, (SI 6. Reuse of car parts (SI 7. Reuse of computers (S)

these higher percentages were not surprising. Three of the companies that were specialist

reuse scavengers identified competition as a factor that had restricted M e r dealings

Reasons for high or low % of business generated in the Park

within the Park. This was similar to the specialist waste collectors that also expressed

competition as a limiting factor.

O h

Business

1

3

12

5

10

20

20

Refurbishing

Low demand

Companies that advertised repair, service and maintenance activities fell into the

refurbishing category. A total of 41 companies were identified under the refùrbishing

Age

J

Nature of

business

Larger market

J

category. Four of these companies were identified as scavenger specialist companies and

Location Com- petition

4

the remaining 37 companies were conducting repair services as a secondary component

J

of their overall business. There were no generalist scavenger repair companies identified

in the study. Table 13 display the number of businesses within the Park that were

repairing materials and the corresponding type of materials repaired.

The most commonly repaired matenais are auto parts and general electrical

components. Other materials include sound and lighting equipment mechanical

components and general elecvical equipment. The companies that perfom repair

functions as a secondary component of the businesses provide diversity and redundancy

to the repair function. Given the large number of businesses in the Park and different

sectors represented, the repair funftion should remain relatively stable.

Table 13 Repair: Specialist and secondary repair companies

Type of Materials Tires CIoth Batteries Furniture General appliances Soundingllighting equipment Buildina Parts

Table 14 indicates that the scavenger specialists have established some

relationships with other companies in the Park. Three of the four specialist repair

scavengers were generating more than 45% of their business from within the Park. These

companies indicated that the nature of their business (repair of automobiles and their

parts) facilitated the development of relationships within the Park. The one Company that

generates 15% of its business fiom the Park expressed competition as the main reason for

a lower percentage. Further cooperation between the repair companies and the re-

manufacturing companies could help to reduce competition. Meanwhile, two (2 and 4) of

the companies display opportunistic characteristics by taking advantage of their co-

location within the Park.

Specialists O O O O O O

Totais 1 1 1 2 2 3

Secondary Repair 1 1 1 2 2 3

4 5 5 10 12

O O O 4

Y I 1

Cornputers. printers 1 5 Electric equipment 5

O

Mechanic coniponents Auto arts

4

10 16

Table 14 Percentage of business for repair specialists

Type of Businesses

1. Automotive Repair 2 , Automotive

Reasons for high or low % of business

Repair 3 . Automotive

Repair 1 1 1 1

15

85 Repair 4. Automotive

generated in the Park

demand %

business

45

4

50

These companies indicated that the location of their business in the Park was an

Com- petition

Larger markets

important factor in the higher percentage of business.

Nature of

business

Decomposers

1

The decomposer companies in the Park were defined as those companies

conducting in-house recycling as the primary function of the company. Recycling, as

defined in this study, descnbes a company that converts a materiallmateriais into another

state to create a new materiallmaterials. According to Cote et al. (1994), more

decomposers should be established in an industrial Park ecosystem to increase the cycling

of materials and ensure maximum use of inputs, products and waste materials within the

Park.

During the period of this study, only one decomposer specialist company was

identified in the Park. The decomposer was an oil re-refinery, which recycles waste oil as

the primary Function of the business. This company was generating only 3% of its

business from within Bumside. The decomposer attributed the low percentage of

business to the limited demand for its services in the Park. This finding suggests that

there is a greater potential for relationships to develop between the oil re-refinery and

others in the Park. The ubiquitous nature of waste oil and the location of waste oil

collectors in the Park, presents an ideal opportunity for relationships to develop between

companies. As such, the oil re-refinery may be in a position to out-source the collection

of used oil to the local waste collectors so that more oil recycling takes place within the

Park. By participating in the industrial Park ecosystem and taking advantage of their

collocation. these companies (both waste collecton and the decomposer) could increase

the efficiency of their local waste oil recycling system. It is important to note that an

organic compost facility was recently established in Bumside Industrial Park because this

Company contributes an additional decomposer that is located in the Park. The organic

decomposer was not included in this study as the facility had not yet been in operation

during the data collection period. It is expected that most if not all, organic materials will

be composted at that facility fiom Burnside restaurants, hotels and other establishments in

the broader rnetropolitan region.

The study identified an additional ten companies performing in-house recycling as

a secondary function within their practices. The companies conducted in-house recycling

for a diverse range of materials including: plastics (I), scrap materials (l), paints (2).

solvents (3),inks (3), water (3). chemicals (4), and waste oil (5). Most of these types of

recycling fûnctions are pollution prevention practices, which may have been motivated by

the economic and environmental benefits that accrue to these companies independent of

the other Park tenants.

Segregating Materials for Reuse, Recycling andlor Treatrnent

In order for decomposers and scavengers to develop relationships with other

tenants in the Park, it is necessary that the business community segregate materials so that

they can be collected and made readily accessible for reuse and recycling purposes. From

the 87 respondents interviewed in this study, a total of 76 (87.3%) companies indicated

that they were segregating materials fiom their operations to be collected for reuse,

recychg or treatment.

Table 15. Most common materials segregated for reuse, recycling and/or treatrnent

* selected materials only, not a comprehensive 1 ist

Materials collected for recycling andor reuse

Beverage and glass containers Card board Paper Aluminum Metals Plastic Used oil Steel tin cans Lead acid batteries

Automotive anti-freeze

The most comrnonly segregated materials are plastic and glass containers, cardboard.

paper. aluminum, metals. plastic. used oil and tin cans (Table 15). These types of

materials correspond to the materials commonly collected by the scavengers. The

respondents interviewed in the study indicated that the most important factors that have

facilitated the segregation of materials for recycling and reuse were disposa1 bans.

savings, and the benefits fiom marketing these practices. Meanwhile the most important

factors that have inhibited these activities were the limited volumes of materials being

~enerated. lack of government support programs, lack of information on the types of Y

materials collected, and the lack of waste collectors.

Number of companies that segregate materials for collection 57 55 47 30 28 24 17 17 I l 1 O

Environmentally Friendly ProductslEnvironmental Management Services

The following section identifies and describes the activities and relationships of

companies that produce and/or sell environmentally fnendly products and companies that

provide environmental management services. Although not in the scavenger and

decomposer categories, these companies play an important role in aiding and supporting

material cycling fûnctions in the Park. According to Cote et al. (1994), businesses within

an industrial Park ecosystem should be encouraged to stock and sell bbenvironmentally

fnendl y" products. These types of products have the potential to lessen the overall impact

of the Park by being more degradeable and less toxic. In addition, Lowe (1997) asserts

that companies providing environmental management service can support the industrial

ecosystem concept by providing information, training and monitoring for other tenants

within the Park.

Environmentally Friendly Products

A total of 15 companies were identified from the Burnside News and Burnside

Direcrory as companies that produce and/or sel1 environmentally fi-iendly products.

Environmentally friendly products are defined as those products that have lirnited

environmental impacts. are safe in their intended use, are eficient in their consumption of

energy and natural resources, and that can be recycled, reused or disposed of safely.

Some products have been certified as environrnentally Cnendly by Canada's

Environmental Choice Program. An example of a company that provides an

environmentally friendly product that can also be recycled and reused is Bebbington

Industries. which sells environmentally fkiendly cleaning products. These products are

not only bio-degradeable and thus have Iess impact on the environment, but are also sold

in reuseable plastic containers. The company therefore performs a secondary scavenger

reuse h c t i o n . From the total of 15 companies advertised, 12 companies were actually

interviewed. On conducting M e r analysis, 5 more companies indicated that they were

producing or selling environmentally friendly products. In total, there were 17 companies

identified in the study as producing/selling environrnentally friendly products.

There are a diverse range of environmentally friendly products being produced

andor sold by companies located in Burnside. The most cornmon products were bio-

degradeable and non-toxic cleaning products; pollution reducing products such as water

treatment pumps, use of new refrigerants in product manufacture, disposa1 equipment for

fluorescent lamps, PCB, recycling and composting containers; and, energy efficient

products. Other materials include water-based inks, solar heating panels and plastic

materials.

In order to understand the relationships established in the Park, the cornpanies

were asked to estimate the percentage of their business related to environmentally

fi-iendly products that was being generated from the Burnside comrnunity. Although

some relationships have been established within the P& most of the companies

producing/selling environmentally fkiendly products are generating 5% and less of their

business from the Bumside community (Table 16). The most common reason for these

lower percentages was the low demand for these products within the Park. These results

aiso suggest that many of these companies are dealing wïth a much larger market outside

the Park, and the very nature of some of the products do not attract customers in

Bumside.

Table 16 Percentage of business generated by companies produingkelling environmentaily fiiendly products

1 dealings 1 market 1 petition 1 business Business type

Reasons for iow or high percentage of business generated in the Park 24 1 Larger 1 Corn- 1 Nature of

J

J

1. PCB ballast recycling containers 2. Chemical supplier 3. Lighting 4. Water treatment pump 5. Chemical supplier 6. Solar panels 7. Chemical supplier 8. Chemical supplier 9. Insulation 10. Water based inks 1 1 . Recycle

Location r O

O

O 1

containers 12. Printers

2

2 4

5

5 20

30

70

J

4

4

J

J

4

Three companies were generating 20% and more of their businesses within the Park.

Two of these companies are based in the printing industry and indicated that their

location within the Park was an important factor in motivating higher dealings in the

Park. Since there are more than 20 companies in the printing sector in Bumside it was

not surprising that these companies were generating a higher percentage of business in

the Park.

Environmental Management Services

Eight companies were identified as providing environrnental management

services. These companies were advertised in the Bumide News as environmental

consulting and/or environmental management companies. Of these eight companies, six

companies were interviewed for this study. The environmental management service

companies provide a range of services including environmental consulting, environmental

auditing, environment risk assessments, and energy auditing. Some of the advice

provided by companies conducting environrnental audits results in the recovery, reuse. or

recyciing of materials. In this sense many environrnental management service companies

c m be involved in the Park as facilitators. These type of companies c m play a supportive

role within an industrial Park ecosystem by educating smaller businesses within the Park

on ways to eliminate toxic materials, reduce the environmental impacts of their

operations and improve overall efficiency.

These companies were asked to provide estimates on the percentage of their

business that was being generated fiom within the Park. Table 17 presents this

information and the corresponding reasons for these percentage numbers. While most of

the companies have established some relationships within the Park, the percentages were

relatively low compared to other categones. Half of the companies attributed the lower

percentages to the nature of business provided by environmentai consulting companies.

Table 17 Percentage of business generated by companies that provide environmental management services

Type of Business 1. Consulting 2. Consulting 3. Consulting

1 4. Consulting 5. Consulting 6. Consulting

Reasons for high or low % of business k i n g generated in the Psrk % Larger Corn- Nature of Company Location

dealings Market petition Business age O

The other three companies emphasized that cornpetition in the Park and their larger

markets outside the Park played a role. In general. these findings suggest ihat

environmental consulting firms are providing limited services to the tenants at Burnside.

This may be a result of the largely small and medium sized companies that exist in the

Park. Many of these companies do not normally recognize environmental issues as a

significant aspect of their affairs.

Energy Efficiency

Energy efficiency has been identified by industrial ecologists as an important

measure that should be incorporated into an industrial Park ecosystem. According to

Boons and Baas (1997) industrial systems should minimize energy requirements. From

this viewpoint, it was important to examine the extent to which energy eficiency,

specifically the recovery and reuse of "waste" heat or cold, was taking place among

businesses in the Park. The study found that 52 companies (59.8%) of the total 87

companies interviewed for this snidy had energy conservation measures in place.

Meanwhile, only 11 (12.6%) companies had performed an energy audit on their

operations. The most common energy conservation measure practiced by companies in

the Park was general good housekeeping. This category mainly includes tuming lights

and computers off, and does not require as much effort as other measures. Other energy

conservation practices include the use of energy efficient lighting, the use of building

designs that reduce energy consumption and the reuse of oil for heating purposes.

These results indicate that companies are not conscious of the need to conserve

energy throughout their operations. There is a great deal more that companies can do on

their premises to reduce energy eficiency beside the general good housekeeping

practices. There may be further opportunities for the companies producing energy

efficient lighting and solar panels to market their products more extensively in the Park.

In order to examine the factors that have limited the application of energy

efficient practices, the companies were asked to indicate the reasons for not having

practiced more energy efficient measures within their operations. The most common

reasons for limited energy efficient practices amongst businesses were lack of

information, failure of companies to consider energy efficiency as an important issue, and

the costs associated with energy conservation. Other companies indicated that the short

t e m leases and the fact that landlords controlled energy applications were also limiting

their abi lity ta implement energy conservation measures.

Knowledge on Environmental Issues

The dissemination of information is a critical aspect of deveIoping a functional

industrial ecosystem within an industrial Park. There are a variety of sources of

information that can influence the knowledge of environmental issues in the Burnside

cornrnunity. In order to identifi the most effective sources of information on

environmental issues, companies were asked to rate the importance of a number of

informational sources in providing them with knowledge on environmental issues. The

study found that industry associations, municipal govemment and the Bicrnside News

were among the most important informationai sources on environmental issues for

companies in the Park. Meanwhile provincial programs, educational institutions and Park

management were rated lower in importance than other factors.

Since 1994, the Clean Nova Scotia Foundation and the Burnside Cleaner

production Centre have been disseminating information on the concept of industrial

ecology. and making tools and resources available to facilitate an ecosystemic or eco-

efficient operation in the Park (Cote and Smolenaars, 1997). Despite these efforts, the

results of this study imply that more information from these and other groups need to be

encouraged and targeted to the Burnside comrnunity in a more effective manner.

Summary

The results presented in this chapter demonstrate that scavengers and

decomposers play key roles in cycling materiah within Burnside Industrial Park. These

companies deai in a diverse range of materials and have, for the most part. established

some relationships within the Park. Not only is it possible to describe these companies in

terms of scavengers and decomposers, but also in terms of specialists and generaiists. In

addition, the study documented the diversity of materials within fùnctions and the

relationships that companies had established in the Park. The ecological principles of

stability, resilience and redundancy that are considered important for industrial ecosystem

developments were ail documented within the scavenger roles. The other companies that

produce and/or sel1 environmentally fiiendly products and those that provide

environmental management services are also playing a role in facilitating the

development of the Park as an ecosystem. Throughout the analysis of the categories

identified in the study. the potential for the tenants in Burnside to develop relationships

between themselves and others in the Park was evident. The following chapter will

conclude this study with a discussion that synthesizes the findings of this study and, in

doing so, answer the questions initially set out for this research project. in addition, a

series of recornmendations are proposed to emphasize the opportunities that exist to

facilitate the tenant roles studied in this research study.

Chapter Seven - Discussion, Recommendations and Conclusion

The objective of this research was to test the theoretical and practical application

of aspects of the natural system metaphor to an industrial park system. As chapter 2

indicates, the natural system metaphor prescribed by industrial ecologists can be

theoretically applied to an industrial park system. As such, the community of businesses

that operate in an industrial park can not only be described in the context of a natural

system community, but also the businesses can replicate a range of natural system

material cycling fùnctions to develop cyclicd and efficient processes. Drawing fiom the

theoretical analysis of the natural system metaphor, the study aimed to investigate the

roles and interactions that scavengers, decomposers and other companies

(environrnentally fiiendly producerdsellers and environmental management service

providers) actually play in supporting matenal cycling huictions at Bumside Industrial

Park.

This chapter presents the conclusions that have been derived from the study.

First. a discussion of the study is presented that synthesizes the results found in the

research. In light of these results, this chapter also provides a series of recommendations

that are intended to highlight the opportunities that exist to promote and facilitate

scavengers, decomposers and other companies that support material cycling in the Park.

Discussion

Describing an industrial park in terms of a natural system is not an easy task,

especially wlien one considers the complexities associated with natural cornmunity

structure and fimctioning. Therefore, fiom the outset of this study, it was necessary to

develop clear definitions for the scavenger and decomposer companies since none were

avai lable in the literature pertaining to industrial ecology . Accordingly , a scavenger

company has been defined as one that repais, re-manufactures, reuses and collects waste

materials as the primary function of the Company. Al1 these functions add value to

materials and products, which ultimately divert materials away from the waste stream. A

decomposer company, on the other hand, has been defined as one that converts a material

into another state to create a new material, breaking down the material before it is

recycled back into the system. These functions of reuse, repair, remanufacture, waste

collection and recycling respectively de fine the roles of scavengers and decornposers in

the industrial park system.

Based on these definitions, this study has shown that it is possible to broadly

describe a nurnber of companies in the Park as scavengers and decomposers and to

describe their interactions within the cornmunity in a similar way to those organisms

interacting in biological systems. From the 87 companies interviewed for this study, a

total of thirty scavengers were identified. These thirty scavengers comprised seven reuse

scavengers. four repair scavengers, six remanufachue scavengers and thirteen waste

collecting scavengers. The waste collecting scavengers were collecting a diverse range of

materials from the waste stream, sorting or dismantling these materials and transporting

them to the decomposer communities that dismantle, recycle or treat them back into the

system. The other scavenger companies (remanufacture, reuse and repair) were also

diverting a variety of materials from the waste stream by adding value to materials and

redistributing them back into the system. The diversity of materials used by the

scavengers identified in this study can be compared to the range of materials that certain

detrivores (especially those that are responsible for the initial shredding of plant and

animal remains and their redistribution within habitats) act upon in natural ecosystems.

The decomposers are not yet playing significant roles in Burnside Industrial Park.

Only one decomposer company, an oil re-refinery was identified in the Park. This

company re-refines waste oil into a form that can be reused and put back into the system,

which is similar to the organisms that decompose detritus rnaterial into a useable form. It

was not surprising to have located an oil re-refinery company in the Park since oil is one

of the most ubiquitous products generated in Bumside. In addition to the oil re-refinery.

a composting facility was recently established at the Park, converting organic wastes into

useabie material. The organic decomposer was not included in this study since the

facility had not yet been in operation during the data collection period. It is expected,

however. that most if not all, organic material fiom Burnside restaurants, hotels and other

establishments will be composted at that facility. This decomposer will be playing an

important role in the Bumside recycling system.

In addition to identifiing the scavengers and decomposers at Bumside, this study

fùrther classified these companies into specialists (dealing in one material) and

generalists (dealing in more than one material), in order to understand their behaviour and

survival patterns in the system. The study discovered twice as many specialists (20)

within the system than generalists (10). The fact that no generalist companies were

identified in the repair, remanufacture and recycling activities suggests that these

fùnctions were highly specialized. As such, it may be dificult for companies to repair,

remanufacture andor recycle a variety of different materials given the technology and

high overhead costs that may be associated with dealing in a range of different materials.

On the whole, the study showed that the scavengers and decomposers had

established relationships with other companies since they were al1 generating some of

their business from within the Park. For the most part, the generalists were conducting

more of their business (47.5%) in the Park than the specialists (16.9%). An exception to

this. however, was the reuse generalists that were generating a relatively small percentage

of their business fiom within the Park. These results suggest that even though the

generalist role is more likely to ensure survival of companies in the system, it appears

most profitable in the waste collection function. The other functions of remanufacture,

repair, recycling and reuse do not attract the generalist type of Company. According to

Odum (1 993), the generalists' non-specialized and broader niche allows these species to

be more adaptable to changing or fluctuating environments, even though they are never as

locally abundant as the specialists.

The specialist companies, on the other hand, were generating less business within

the Park. and appeared to be more wlnerable to competitive forces. The difficulties

encountered by the speciaiist companies were confirmed by the waste collection

specialists in this study, most of whom identified cornpetition to be an important factor in

limiting their ability to generate a larger part of their business fkom within the Park. The

vulnerability of specialists is often seen within natural systems where changes or

peturbâtions in the ecosystem can easily affect a specialist's narrow niche adversely

(Odum. 1993). Given the Iarger number of specialists and their subsequent vulnerability.

many may be forced to look outside the Park to ensure their swiva l in the system.

Ecologists assert that a larger number of specialists are found in the mature more cyclical

systems since their fùnctions within the systern are more efficient (Table 1). According

to Odurn ( 1993 : 5 1 ) ". . .specialists are enicient in their use of resources since al1 their

adaptions and behaviours are concentrated on a speciaiized way of life ..." Thus. the

existence of a larger number of specialists in the scavenger and decomposer roles could

reflect a maturing community at Burnside.

In addition to identifjing scavengers and decomposers, and specialists and

generalists, it was fürther possible to describe their Company interactions in an ecologicai

context. First, each of the rnaterial cycling fiinctions identified in the study exhibited

considerable levels of diversity and redundancy, both of which are highly encouraged in

an industrial park ecosystem. Diversity of companies in the system ensures stability, and

redundancy enhances the sustainability of the relationships that exist amongst the

businesses (Cote. 1997).

The redundancy of matenals (Table 18) that are diverted from the waste Stream

seem to correspond with the redundancy that exists in the different sectas that define the

Park. These include the transportation sector, printing sector, automotive repair sector,

electronic components sales and service sector, and the chernical sector.

Table 18 Redundancy of materials dealt with by scavengers

Redundancy of Materials t

Type of Function Waste Collection Used oil, metals/aluminum, chemicals, paper and

Remanufacture

ï h e companies in the Park have essentially developed over a period of time a range of

cyclical attnbutes that are supportive of the industrial functions and services provided

within the Park. According to Martin et ai. (I998), this evolution is a desirable feature

for an industrial park. As such, an eco-industrial park should build on the existing

industrial base when trying to close material and product cycles.

cardboard. General equipment, printers and parts, cars and

1 parts. Reuse 1 Rental equipment, car parts and printers and parts.

Diversity in the system was illustrated by the variety of materials being diverted

from the waste stream by the scavengers and decomposers located in the Park.

Subsequently, a nurnber of material and product cycles are developing in the Park.

Product cycles c m be identified for printers, pinter cartridges, cornputers, and

autornotives. Meanwhile, key elements of material cycles can be identified for paper and

cardboard, waste oil, metals and aluminum, construction rnaterials, and plastics. The fact

that Burnside is not a closed system but an open system tiom which materiais are

constantly leaving and entering, means that the geographic scope of the system uitirnately

depends on the nature of materials being collected (Figure 5). For example aluminurn is

collected, dismantled and transported to an aluminum smelter in Quebec for recycling;

most of the cardboard and paper is collected. sorted and transported for recycling within

Nova Scotia; and, organic materials are now being collected and recycled within

Bumside Industrial Park (Figure 5). Essentially Burnside Industrial Park does not exist

as an isolated system within which companies interact and h c t i o n . Instead the Park,

~ i i h its diverse comrnunity of businesses functions in a much broader regional system.

Repair Car parts and mechanical components

Figure 5. The scope of material and product cycles

Cardboard and papa Province of Quebec (Eastern

Province of Nova Scotia

Burnside Industrial Park (Halifax

Depending on the type of materials or products k i n g collected and recycled, the

geographic scope could vary quite broadly.

In general, the diversity of businesses and subsequent redundancy found in the

scavenger and decomposer roles indicates that the Park has developed some of the

attributes of an industrial ecosystem. In essence, the Park seems to fit the prescription of

a diverse assembly of businesses with built-in resiliency, which enhance its ability to

develop into a stable and efficient system (Cote et al., 1994). The larger, more complex

and diverse system that characterizes Burnside Industrial Park provides a range of

opportunities to enhance greater cycling of materials within the system.

In addition to the scavenger and decomposer companies identified in the study, the

companies producing/selling environmentally friendly products and companies providing

environmental management services were further documented. It was important to

document these companies in the study since they can play an integral role in supporting

material cycling fiinctions. Despite a range of products and services offered by these

companies in the Park, most of them expressed that a Iimited arnount of their business

was being generated from within the Park due to the overall lack of demand for their

products and services. The potential for these companies to market their products and

services more extensively is evident.

This study has not only identified scavengers, decomposers and other companies

that support material cycling functions within Burnside Industrial Park, but also the

existence of complex food webs and roles. More than half of the companies (63.8%)

interviewed in this study were conducting multiple scavenger and decomposer functions.

The multiple functions observed in the study illustrated the complex food webs and

overlap of roles that exist amongst these companies (Figure 6).

Figure 6 Bunside Industrial Park: A complex matenal cycling system

Re-manufacture

Producer and

Environmental Managerncnt Sysierns

On another level, a large number of companies were documented as conducting

scavenger and decomposer fhctions as secondary aspects of their company. These

cornpanies represented the bulk of the sampled population, and appear to be contributing

invaluably to the diversion of resources from the waste Stream. The overlap of functions

coupled with those companies undertaking secondary scavenger and decomposer

functions, exemplify the complex nature of company roles and functions that were

operating within the Park (Figure 6). According to Marstrander (1996: 202), the concept

of industrial ecology is "...extremely complicated because we must deal with a very

complex system that we cannot yet fiilly describe".

These finding cm be compared to the complex cornmunity structure that

characterizes natural ecosystems. In fact, the food webs that exist within natural systems

are so complex that organisms rarely follow the simplified producer, consumer, detrivore

and decomposer roles that are ofien given in ecology literature. Anderson ( 1 98 1) asserts

that the trophic Level concept has value in broadfy descnbing ecosystem structure and

fùnctioning, but is not as accurate in describing community structure specifics especially

for the detritus based communities. Thus, in describing the cornmunity structure of

businesses within an industrial park ecosystem, rnany businesses may not necessarily fa11

neatly into the simplified producer, consumer, detrivore and decomposer functions.

While this study found some scavenger and decomposer companies located within the

Park, categorizing companies at the Park was not an easy process. The overlap of

fùnctions and roles that companies play within the cornmunity do not always make it

possible to neatly define them as decomposers and scavengers.

Furthermore, the importance of those companies that perform scavenger and

decornposer functions as secondary functions were even more apparent. Therefore, while

the classification of companies as scavengers and decomposers provides a useful guide

for documenting material cycling activities in an industrial park, it is also essential to

document and understand the fûnctions of those companies that support matenal cycling

activities as secondary to the business. Understanding Company h c t i o n s and

interactions in cycling materials is critical. In the words of Rickleffs (1986: 143):

"Plants and anirnals have been fùnctioning perfectly well without having names applied to their activities. We should take this cue and concentrate on understanding the feeding relationships within a community, rather than trying to categorize them."

Applying the natural system metaphor to an industrial park systern certainly has

its limitations. Both natural and industrial systems are inherently cornplex, which creates

dificulties when trying to mode1 one system on the design of the other. In understanding

the field of industrial ecology, it becomes critical not to lose sight of the fact that

industrial ecology is essentiaily an approach to guide industrial development towards a

more sustainable industrial system. The prescription of industrial ecologists for industrial

systems to mimic natural system efficiencies should therefore be viewed as a guide to

attaining sustainable development, and not as a goal in itself. As a result. it is the

material cycling function attributes of industry that are important for the development of

an efficient industrial park system. The naturd system metaphor provides a framework

for describing and understanding the types of fûnctions and interactions that business

communities can emulate in their developrnent towards more sustainable systems.

Recommendations

The following section presents recornrnendations that have emerged through an

extensive exarnination of the results revealed in this research. The recommendations are

intended to provide suggestions on measures that would promote and enhance the roles of

companies that support the cycling of materiais at Burnside Industrial Park.

1. Improvc environmental awareness of material cycling pathways and energy

conservation measures within the park by educating the Burnside community.

This study has reinforced the fact that there is a lack of information on various

waste minimization opportunities within the Burnside cornrnunity. Since 1994, the

Clean Nova Scotia Foundation and, in 1995, the Burnside Cleaner Production Centre

have been distributing information packages on waste minimization practices.

Despite these efforts, the companies interviewed in this study indicated a lack of

information on waste recovery services, opporhmities relating to waste reduction and

energy conservation measures. The lack of information is consistent with the findings

fiom the 1992 survey in Burnside, which reveaied that many managers felt that better

information on waste minimization opportunities was necessary (Cote et al., 1994.

Other studies conducted in Bumside have aiso demonstrated that companies are not

fulIy aware of the type and location of information that is available to them (Cote and

Smolenaars, 1997). In order to increase the dissemination of information within the

Burnside cornmunity, a number of measures could be taken:

The Halifax Regionai Mwiicipality Business Parks Office could market waste

recovery services in the Park more extensively. This type of marketing could

be encouraged in the Burnside Directory publication. During the process of

identiming waste collectors for this study, a thorough search of the Burnside

Direcfory was conducted. Most of the waste recovery companies were

advertised under "recycling" category. This type of advertising may be

misleading to the Park's tenants, especially when the advertised companies are

in actuality generaiist and specialist waste collectors. Therefore, waste

collection practices could be emphasized in the Burnside Directory as a

separate category indicating the type of materials that they collect, the voiume

requirements and fees associated with the respective services.

Companies that produce and/or sel1 energy efficient products and companies

that provide environmental management services could play a more active role

in the Park by marketing their products and services more effectively. An

untapped potential exists to educate companies on energy conservation

measures and products. Those companies that provide energy efficient

lighting, solar panels and other energy conserving products have an important

role to play in this area. The consulting companies are also in a position to

educate business on energy conservation by conducting competitively priced

energy audits that could motivate tenants to incorporate energy efficient

practices within their operations. Most companies in this study had indicated

that the lack of information on energy conservation measures and the lack of

understanding about energy costs and savings were important impediments to

change.

The Burnside New,~, industry associations and municipal governrnent

programs were identified as being important sources of knowledge on

environmental issues for the companies in this study. These sources could

therefore be used more extensively to provide information to companies. The

Burnside News could use its influence in the Park to provide even more

information on industrial ecosystem fùnctions and the types of relationships

that c m be developed arnongst various companies. Greater potential also

exists for the Business Parks Office to market the Park within the context of

an industrial ecosystem. To this end, pamphlets illustrating the importance of

scavengers and decomposer functions within the Park could be distributed to

highlight the value of cycling materials. Many of the companies that are

conducting scavenger and decomposer fùnctions are not aware that some of

their operations contribute to the cycling of materials within the system.

Finally, the recent establishment of the Bumside Eco-Efficiency Centre in

September 1998, will be invaluable in educating businesses and developing

the tools necessary to enhance the development of an industrial park

ecosystem.

2. Promote more relationships between the scavengers, decomposers,

environmentally friendly producers/sellers, environmental consulting service

providers and others in the Park through greater collaborative efforts.

Many opportunities exist for the companies interviewed in this study to form

relationships arnongst themselves and other tenants in the Park. By developing more

relationships with other tenants in the Park, companies could increase the level of

business generated from the Park, reduce transaction and overhead costs, and in some

cases increase the efficiency of the local recovery, recycling, reuse, remanufacture

and repair facilities. This study has highlighted some of the potential opportunities to

increase relationships amongst companies. The study does not however, identiQ the

feasi bility of any of these opportunities. Therefore, the following suggestions require

further studies to determine the economic feasibility of such collaborative initiatives

in the Park. It was recognized that symbiotic cooperation between many of these

companies is only viable if it makes economic sense to both parties.

There are a number of opportunities to increase relationships through greater

collaboration arnongst specialist and generalist scavengers and decomposers

dealing in similar material types. For many of the specialist companies,

cornpetition was viewed as the single rnost comrnon impediment that limited

further business within the Park. By collaborating with each other these types

of competitive forces could be eliminated. This type of cooperation will

require external forces (such as the eco-efficiency centre) to educate

companies on the economic and environmental benefits of establishing

mutualistic relationships. In this study, the metal scrap specialist and the

metal scrap generalist companies were identified as examples of the types of

companies that could collaborate in their activities. As such. the generalist

could outsource more of its metal scrap collection fùnction to the specialist

and invest other efforts in diversiQing the business. The diversification

aspect of the company could involve investing in de-manufacniring

technologies to enable more eficient separation of metals from other

maienals, and expand the business as a retail outlet to sel1 some of the used

salvaged electrical components fiom the de-rnanufacturing efforts. For some

specialist businesses, M e r efforts specializing and differentiating their

fiinction will be necessary to maintain competitiveness in the Park. The paper

and cardboard waste collecting scavengers who aiso expressed competition as

a limiting factor are examples of such companies. The competition that many

of these companies are experiencing may result in the disappearance of some

of the "species" in the tùture unless they can differentiate M e r . At the sarne

time, differentiation and specialization can present additional risks to the

company.

Other opportunities exist for relationships to develop between the re-

manufacture scavengers and the repair scavengers that are involved in

automotive parts. Through collaborative strategic alliances developing

between the two companies, the re-rnanufacturïng companies could be

providing parts for the repair operations in the Park, and the auto parts that are

deemed irrepanble by refiubishing companies could be taken by re-

manufacturing businesses for rebuilding new cars and their parts. Further, the

study found that one automotive re-manufacturing distributor company was

generating only 3% of its businesses in the Park. This company could

increase its business in the Park by taking on the role of an anchor tenant,

providing rich opportunities for converting by-products into usefùl

intermediate goods. In doing so, this company could develop a rich network

of potential suppliers of automotive parts for remmufacture into new

products. These types of networks are commonly referred to as Value-Adding

Networks (Lowe, 1997). This network can offer the small to medium sized

companies in an industrial ecosystem advantages through collaboration and

resource exchange. In this case the Value Adding Network would comprise of

suppliers of automotive parts for re-manufacturing. These products could

then be sold back to the automotive distributors in the Park at lower costs.

Given the large transportation sector that exists within the Park, there rnay be

a potentiai to develop such relationships. It is worthwhile to note that

companies dealing in reused auto parts and printer parts could also collaborate

with the respective re-manufacturing companies for material trading purposes.

Potential oppoctunities exist to increase the role of the local oil re-refinery

located in the Park. Given the large automotive and transportation sector that

exists in the Park, waste oil is a ubiquitous by-product for many of the

companies operating within Burnside. In fact, in refemng to the results of the

1992 survey conducted at the Park waste oil was arnongst the most commonly

wasted materials in the Park. The existence of an oil refinery within the Park

and a range of companies that are involved in the collection of waste oil.

presents an ideal opportunity for developing relationships that would increase

the efficiencies of these companies while diverting waste oil from the waste

Stream. As such, the oil refinery is in a position to out-source the collection of

wasted oil to local waste collectors so that more oil recycling takes place

within the Park. This type of outsourcing could provide a larger supply of

waste oil to the refinery enabling the Company to generate a larger percentage

of its overall business from within the Park. Meanwhile, the waste oil

collection companies could decrease the costs of transporting waste oil to

locations that are outside the Park. By participating in the industrial park

ecosystem and taking advantage of their collocation, these companies are in a

position to increase the competitiveness and efficiency of their local waste oil

recycling system. In a sense then, the oil re-refinery would serve as an ideal

anchor tenant for the Park.

Finally, the companies that produce/sell environmentally friendly products

and those that provide environmental management services, could spend

greater efforts marketing their products to Park tenants. Many of these

companies indicated that the lower business being generated in the Park was a

function of the overall lower demand for these products. The companies that

produce/sell environmentally fnendly products couid encourage other tenants

to buy energy efficient Iighting, solar panels, cIeaning products and other

environmentally benign products by offering competitively marked prices and

through better marketing. Further, given that eight environmental

management f ims are located in the Park, there is added potential for

relationships to develop between them and others in the Park. According to

Lowe (1997), many of the small and medium-sized firms located in an

industrial park may benefit fiom outsourcing aspects of their environmental

management tasks to consulting companies. Permitting, training and

reporting are some of the duties that open business opportunities for these

local firms.

3. Park Management should identiw potential niches that may be deficient in the

scavenger and decomposer functions at Burnside and encourage and actively

seek those companies that would promote the cycling of materials in the Park.

This study has been able to successfully document a nurnber of companies in

Bumside Industrial Park that fit the categones of scavenger, decomposer,

environmentally fnendly producer/seller and environmentai management service

providers. Despite the fact that the companies interviewed for this study represented

only a snapshot of the much larger business community within the Park, this study

identifies examples of the types of niches that could still be occupied by incoming

companies.

Park Management should build on the existing industrial base of the Park in order

to determine matenal cycling niche deficiencies. By documenting al1 the

cornpanies located in the Park in terms of the types of functions and materials

dealt with, park management would be in a position to determine the types of

companies that should be attracted to the Park. By looking at the Park in this

way. this study observed that more scavenger reuse and re-manufacturing

companies specializing in automotives and their parts, printers and their parts.

cornputes and their parts and other electronic components and general equipment

could be attracted to the Park. Given the redundancy of these materials in the

system, which correspond to the redundancy within the industrial sectors

(transportation, printing and electronic components and sales), the supply and

demand for these materials is likely. The scavenging waste coIlection niche was

sufficiently occupied in terms of Company numbers and types of materials being

collected. Meanwhile, since only 21 of the 63 repair companies were interviewed

for this study other niches may already be filled.

O The decomposer niche was not well occupied at the Burnside Industrial Park.

This study f o n d only one established oil-re-refinery decomposer and one yet to

be established organic compost decomposer in the Park. For the most part,

materials collected for recycling tend to be taken outside the Park for their final

decomposition and redistribution back into the system. Most decomposers

represent manufacturing industries such as pulp mills, aluminum smelters, and

plastic rnanufacturers. Given the industrial base of the Park, it is unlikely that

many of these manufacturing cornpanies would be attracted to a servicehetail

based industrial Park. In recognition of this fact, the option would be to attract

smaller recyclers to the Park including a solvent recycler, waste ink recycler and

chemical recycler.

1. Develop better lines of communication between companies located in Burnside

Industrial Park and the community surrounding the Park.

In order for Burnside to enhance the development of material cycling

functions within the Park, it is necessary for industrial symbiosis to <ake place

between companies. Such symbiotic relationships could evolve amongst these

companies by developing better lines of communication between the Park's tenants.

One advantage of developing more relationships in the Park is the potential for

reducing transaction costs amongst companies. According to Martin et al. (1998), the

transaction costs which include costs to both buyers and sellers of gaining

information about the market may cause inefficiencies in the markets, which deter

materials fiom being diverted away fiom the waste Stream. Thus, greater information

about the types and functions of these companies could increase efficiencies by

enlightening businesses to trade in their products rather than sending them directiy to

landfills. According to Martin et al. (1998), the first and most essential ingredient for

the development of a successful industrial park ecosystem is information about

members' operations.

To this end, new information technologies such as the World Wide Web will be

invaluable to Burnside Industrial Park. At present, Burnside Industrial Park has a

web site (http:\\www.businessparks.com/dl~map.htm.) that provides users with

eeneral information on the Park, including information of Developed Lots and C

Lots Available. Based on the mapping component of this study, the Business

Parks Office could develop the data base for the Park more extensively to include

al1 the companies in the Park and identifjing al1 building numbers to Company

addresses. Once this information has been obtained, the database could be

incorporated into the above web site to market the Park's Company operations

from an economic, environmental and social perspective. Access to this type of

information can assist Park participants in developing possible supplier/customer

relationships for by-products and can funher assist in the overall marketing efforts

that are extemal to the actual Park.

Concluding Remarks

The natural system metaphor prescribed by industrial ecologists provides a usefül

guide on how businesses within an industrial park can evolve towards more sustainable C

business practices. Essentially, the nanval system metaphor is mostly usehl for

understanding the fûnctional attributes that industrial systems should replicate. In terms

of practical application, however, the metaphor has proved difficult to apply in

classieing the business community. Given the highly complex nature of both natural and

industrial community structures and tùnctioning, it is especially difficult to classi@

companies into scavengers and decomposers. The over emphasis on classifiing

companies into scavengers and decomposers and solely promoting their presence in

industrial parks, could exclude other companies that perforrn key material cycling

activities as a secondary component of their business. In applying the naîural systern

metaphor to an industrial park, it is cntical not to concentrate on applying the metaphor

and in doing so lose sight of the overall goal of attaining sustainable business practices.

Therefore. it is not only the scavengers and decornposers that directly divert matenals

away from the waste Stream that are recognized in the park ecosystem, but also those

other companies that indirectly support matenal cycling but do not clearly fa11 into the

scavenger and decornposer classification. As such, the existence and interactions of al1

those companies that pefiorm the h c t i o n s of waste collection, repair, reuse,

remanufacture, and recycling will be key in determining the ability of industrial parks to

close rnaterial cycles and fùnction in a more sustainable manner.

The overall cooperation and coordination of scavengers, decomposen and other

companies that support material cycling within an industrial park is integral for creating a

more cyclical system. The business community at Burnside Industrial Park has a great

deal of potential to increase matenal cycling activities within the Park and should

therefore strive to improve the overall interdependence and interconnectedness between

companies. This type of intercomectedness can be increased through educational

awareness. greater collaborative efforts between companies, filling potential material

cycling niches that rnay be deficient in the Park, and developing better lines of

communication between companies.

The development of eco-industrial parks modeled on the material cycling

attributes of natural systems has become more widespread in the last five years. As

industrial park ecosysterns take on a higher profile, information regarding the roles of

scavengers, decomposers and other companies that support material cycling will be

critical. Indeed, the success of the industrial ecosystem theory as a usehl guide for

sustainable business practices will depend, in part, on the ability to demonstrate how the

theoretical ba i s of the ecosystem concept can and is being applied to industrial parks.

This study serves as a vaiuable knowledge base on the types of business h c t i o n s and

community interactions that could support material cycling activities in an industrial

park. By highlighting the scavenger and decomposer roles that companies c m and are

undertaking. this study helps to clari@ the application of theory modeled on natural

systems into the practical setting.

Future Research

In light of this study, it is suggested that other eco-park development projects

should undertake similar studies to document the types and interactions of scavengers and

decomposers to make cornparisons in terms of differences and similarities. Funding

agencies and university institutions should be pivotai in supporting such studies. This

study has found that a range of oppomuiities exist to develop greater collaborative and

coordinated relationships between companies iocated in the Park. Additional studies are

needed to address ways that enhance these types of strategic alliances. Such a study

should identify those factors that would encourage companies to direct greater efforts

towards conducting business and deveioping relationships within the Park. In addition, a

more in depth study should be undertaken to fully document al1 the companies in the Park

falling into the categories identified for this study to understand the matenal cycling

niche deficiencies and to target key companies that may be well suited for collaboration.

Appendix 1

INTERVIEW CONSENT FORM

Researcher: Janice Noronha

Supervisor: Professor Ray Cote, Dalhousie University

1 am a researcher at the School for Resource and Environmental Studies, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia. This study is conducted by a student fiom Dalhousie University, in Halifax to be submitted in partial fùlfillment of the Master of Environrnental Studies Degree. The Dalhouse University Human Ethics Review Comminee requires that participants be fully informed about the nature of the research being conducted. This form is designed to inform potential participants about the research and their subsequent role in the study.

The purpose of this research is to assess the changes that have occurred in Burnside Industrial Park since 1990, towards a more sustainable Park. The survey will investigate and document the activities of businesses within the park that recycle, refurbish. remanufacture. reuse and collect wasted materials. In addition the study will investigate and document those companies that produce environrnentally fiiendly products and those companies that provide environmental management services.

1 would like to invite your company to participate in this study. Your participation in this study is totally voluntary. The interview will take approximately 20 minutes to complete. You will be asked a number of questions about the practices of your company, and a few bnef demographic questions. You have the nght to refuse to participate in this study, as well as the nght to refuse to answer particular questions. In addition, you are free to withdraw frorn this study at any time.

Al1 propriety data will be kept strictly confidential. Your identity will remain anonymous throughout this study with the use of respondent code numbers. The real names associated with the codes will never by made public without the written permission of the individuals involved. During the research period the questionnaires will be kept locked in a secure location, accessible only to the researcher.

You wiI1 receive a sumrnary of the findings of this research upon the completion of the project.

Thank sou for your participation in this research.

Your signature below indicates that you consent to participate in this study and that you have read. understood and agree to the condition outlined above.

Signature of Interviewee:

Signature Interviewer:

Date:

Appendix 2

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR BUSINESSES IN BURNSIDE INDUSTRIAL PARK

Demographics

1. Name of Business:

2 . Address of Business:

3. Building Number:

4. Type of Business:

S . Year Company was established in the Park:

6. Number of Employees:

Materials Put out for Recv-

Does your company put materials out to be collected for recycling, reuse or treatment?

1 = Yes O = No

If yes. please indicate from the following list those materials that your company puts out for collection? beverage containers h) automotive anti-fieeze comigated cardboard i ) glass food containers newsprinilpaper j) steeVtin cans scrap tires k) plastics used oil 1) aluminum lead acid batteries m) metals waste paint n) other matenals

SCAVENGERS

Waste C o l l e c ~ c o v e r y

9. Does your company collect or recover materials from the waste strearn? 1 = Yes O=No

10. If yes, please indicate the types of materials that you collect fiom the waste stream?

Reuse

12. Does your company Reuse Materials? I = Yes O=No

13. I f yes, please indicate type of materials that your company reuses. using the following list as a guide?

a) refillable beverage containers e) auto parts b) rechargeable batteries f) equipment rentals C ) reuseable laser printer cartridges g) signs d) recovery of reuseable doors. window m e s h) other materials

from construction and demolition

14. Does your company refurbish items by repairing them to bring them to a functional state? 1 = Yes O=No

15. If Yes. please indicate the type of materials that you retùrbish using the following list as a guide?

a) furniture d) sound and lighting equiprnent b) tires e) other materials c) auto parts

16. Does your company remanufacture products, that is modifi an item so that it is more durable and has a longer life?

17. I f Yes, please indicate the type of materials that you remanufacture using the following list as a guide?

a) photocopiers C) ink-jet cartridges b) laser printers d) other materials

DECOMPOSERS

Recycle

18. Does yow company conduct in-house recycling practices, that is reusing an item by converting it to another state? 1 = Yes O=No

19. If yes, please indicate the type of materials that your company is recycling using the following list as a guide?

a) plastic e) inks

b) waste oit c) solvents d) chernicals

f) water g) paints h) other

PRODUCERS/SELLERS OF ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY PRODUCTS

20. Does your company produce an environmentally friendly product? 1 = yes O = No

2 1. I f yes, please indicate the type of products that you produce andor sel1 using the following list as a guide?

a) cleaning products d) energy efficient cartridges b) water based paints e) other materials C) soiar heating panels

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SERVICES

22. Does your company provide an environmental management service? 1 = Yes O = No

BUSINESS RELATIONSHIPS WITHIN THE PARK

23. The park has a total of 1200 businesses. What percentage number of businesses within the park does your Company do business with on an annual basis?

BARRIERS

24. The following list of factors are some of the barriers that many companies express as lirniting their ability to put materials out to be recycled or in the collection of materials for recycling, reuse or treatment. Using the following scale please rate these factors in terms of degree of importance in acting as barriers for your company?

1 = not important 2 = slightly important 3 = somewhat important 4 = quite important 5 = very important

Costly Lack of information lack of collectors limited volumes of materials lack of technology lack of government support limited marketddemand for these products Other

MOTIVATORS

The following factors are those that could encourage companies to put materials out for recycling or collect materials for recycling, reuse or treatment. Please rate the degree of importance of these factors (using the above scale) in encouraging your Company to put materials out for recycling or to collect materials for recycling.

Profitable disposal bans good markets/demands for products large votumes of materials important marketing tool other

KNOWLEDGE

26. Please rate the importance of the following factors in increasing your level of knowledge on environmental issues using the above scale?

Burnside News Provincial programs Park management HRM Bylaws Academic Institutions lndustry Associations Charnber of Commerce Environmental Organizations Other

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