Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) and lithography

1. Scanning tunneling microscopy.

2. Piezoelectric positioning.

3. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) overview.

4. AFM tip and its fabrication.

5. Tapping mode AFM.

6. Other forms of AFM (LFM, EFM, MFM, SCM…)

“Scanning probe microscopy and spectroscopy” by Roland Wiesendanger is a good comprehensive reference book. It can be found at (read only, no download):http://books.google.ca/books?id=EXae0pjS2vwC&pg=PA561&lpg=PA561&dq=liquid-metal-covered+tungsten+needle&source=bl&ots=Yy9A2saE3M&sig=KIDbgh_HQLg4LQPA4XIVh7TD3kQ&hl=en&ei=4cdkSsjqMYLWtgOX_ehm&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1

ECE 730: Fabrication in the nanoscale: principles, technology and applications Instructor: Bo Cui, ECE, University of Waterloo; http://ece.uwaterloo.ca/~bcui/Textbook: Nanofabrication: principles, capabilities and limits, by Zheng Cui

Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) overview

Normally used for characterization of topographic, physical and chemical properties, though they can also be used as a lithography tool with high resolution yet low throughput.

For imaging purpose, compared to SEM:• Extremely accurate in the z-dimension (<<1Å); whereas for SEM to see the vertical

cross-section profile one has to cut the sample and tilt it, and the resolution is much worse than 1nm.

• For lateral (xy-) dimension, SPM is accurate only when the surface is relatively flat, then the resolution is better than SEM (atomic resolution for SPM vs. few nm resolution for SEM).

• For non-flat surface, there are often artifacts for SPM imaging because the tip is not infinitely thin and long. As a result, a vertical profile always appears slopped when imaged using SPM.

• AFM generally don’t need vacuum and can image any surface (insulation or not) and even inside liquid (extremely important for bio-imaging).

• AFM is much cheaper than high resolution field emission SEM and is thus more available (>10 AFMs on campus).

• Scanning Tunneling Microscopy(STM): topography, local DOS (density of state)• Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM): topography, force measurement• Lateral Force Microscopy (LFM): friction• Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM): magnetism• Electrostatic Force Microscopy (EFM): charge distribution• Nearfield Scanning Optical Microscopy (NSOM): optical properties• Scanning Capacitance Microscopy (SCM): dielectric constant, doping• Scanning Thermal Microscopy (SThM): temperature, conductivity• Spin-polarized STM (SP-STM): spin structure• Scanning Electro-chemical Microscopy (SECM): electro-chemistry• Scanning Tunneling Potentiometry: potential surface• Photon Emission STM (PESTM): chemical identification

Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) family

The first STM Instrumentation

STM inventors Rohrer and Binnig, IBM, Zurich, Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.

Exact copy of first Scanning TunnelingMicroscope of Binnig and Rohrer

Operation of an STM

Two basic scanning modes

• Feedback off/constant height: Scan over surface with constant z0 (piezo voltage), control signal changes with tip-surface separation. For relative smooth surface, faster.

• Feedback on/constant current: circuit regulates z piezo voltage to constant value of control signal (constantly changes tip-surface separation). Irregular surfaces with high precision, slower. Constant current STM image corresponds to a surface of constant state density.

• A voltage applied between two conducting bodies leads to an electrical current even if the two bodies not quite touch: the tunneling current

• Interaction: (tunneling-) current (down to pA)o Atomic scale surface topography of electrical conductorso Electronic properties of the surface (“conductivity”)

• The tunneling current is strongly dependent on the distance of the two bodies: 1Å changes the current by a factor of 10!

Quantum mechanical tunneling

Atom Surface STM

Quantum mechanical tunneling

Tunneling through a rectangular barrier

Elastic tunneling vs. inelastic tunnelingElastic: energy of tunneling electrons conserved.Inelastic: electron loses a quantum of energy within the tunneling barrier.

Unknown:1. Chemical nature of STM tip 2. Relaxation of tip/surface atoms3. Effect of tip potential on electronic

surface structure4. Influence of magnetic properties on

tunnelling current/surface corrugation

Needed: extensive simulations

Theoretical issues:1. Open system, carrying non-zero current.2. Macroscopic device depends on very

small active region.3. No simple “inversion theorem” to deduce

surface structure from STM signal.

Modelling an STM

Why atomic resolution?

Bias polarity : probing filled and empty states

The resolution is determined by:• Dimension of probe probes are small⇒• Distance of probe to sample probe is a point⇒

Tip is the key

Oxide or insulating contamination layers of thickness several nanometers can prevent vacuum tunneling.

This may lead to mechanical contact between tip and sample. (the servo will force the tip to collide in an effort to achieve the set-point current)

Tunneling through the oxide or contamination layer may damage tip.

STM tip preparation

Very sharp tips can be obtained, ideally terminated by a single atom.

How to make sharp STM tips?• Wire of W or Pt-Ir, with 200m

diameter.• Cut or etch to 40nm diameter tip.• Hand-made, no micro-fabrication

process.• Can be sharpened by focused ion

beam milling.

• Surface geometry• Molecular structure• Local electronic structure• Local spin structure• Single molecular vibration• Electronic transport• Nano-fabrication• Atom manipulation• Nano-chemical reaction

Applications of STM

Surface Structure with atomic resolution

Various reconstructions of Ge(100)-2x1

Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) and lithography

1. Scanning tunneling microscopy.

2. Piezoelectric positioning.

3. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) overview.

4. AFM tip and its fabrication.

5. Tapping mode AFM.

6. Other forms of AFM (LFM, EFM, MFM, SCM…)

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Piezoelectric tube scanner

Displacement electric field

Inverse piezoelectric effectDiscovered in 1880 by Pierre and Jacques CurieMost common material: PZT

• Piezoelectric materials have an asymmetric unit cell like a dipole.• If these crystals are grown in the presence of a strong electric field

then the crystal grains will align and the piezoelectric effect is created.• Typical achievable strain ratio: 1/1000, e.g. 1μm stroke for 1mm PZT.

Piezo driving technology: the basics

Piezoelectric effect:changing the size of an object results in a voltage generated by the object.

PZT: Lead zirconium titanate

CubicT > Tc

TetragonalT < Tc

The central atom is displaced resulting in a unit cell with a dipole moment.

Unit cell with dipole

Tc is Curie temperature, above which the material becomes para-electric (no longer ferroelectric, no dipole moment at the absence of external electric field).

Ferro-electricity (analog to ferromagnetism)

Domain structure, hysteresis, coercivity, Curie temperature…

Piezo-ceramics drawbacks

Creep

Non-linear

Hysteresis

1. Nonlinearity 2. Creep3. Hysteresis4. Aging

Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) and lithography

1. Scanning tunneling microscopy.

2. Piezoelectric positioning.

3. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) overview.

4. AFM tip and its fabrication.

5. Tapping mode AFM.

6. Other forms of AFM (LFM, EFM, MFM, SCM…)

Digital Instruments (DI, now Veeco)

multi-mode head, scanner and base

For DI multi-mode head, sample is put on piezo stage.For DI dimension 3000 head, tip is put on piezo stage.

Probe-sample interaction and detection system

Forces and their range of influence

Probe-sample interaction detection systemDetect deflection in z-direction(to maintain constant force for normal AFM operation)

Detect defection in the x-y direction, for lateral force/friction microscopy.

Photo-diode(divided into four parts)

Measure (A+B-C-D)/(A+B+C+D)

Measure (A+C-B-D)/(A+B+C+D)

Feedback loop for constant force AFMZ is equivalent to the topography of the sample

Tiny deflection of cantilever leads to large shift of the beam spot position on the photo-diode, so extremely sensitive for z-dimension detection (sensitivity Z << 1Å)

Photo-diode(divided into four parts)

Interactions between sample and tip in force microscopy

Close (<10nm)Far (50-100nm)

ContactContact

AFM tip-sample interaction

Force vs. distance

AFM can also be used for nano-indentation study to investigate mechanical properties (stress-strain curve, Young’s modulus) of the sample, though force is not as accurate as dedicated nano-indentation tools.

Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)

Sample: conductor, nonconductor, etcForce sensor: cantileverDeflection detection: photodiode

Two basic AFM Modes:Contact mode (no vibrating tip)Tapping mode (vibrating tip)

Many variations on Scanning Force Microscopy:Liquid AFMMagnetic Force Microscopy (MFM)Latteral Force Microscopy (LFM)Intermitant and non-contact AFMForce Modulation Microscopy (FMM)Electrostatic Force Microscopy (EFM)

Here tip on piezo-stage, also possible sample on piezo-stage.

AFM mode of operation

Intermittent contact and thermal scanning are less popular.

Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) and lithography

1. Scanning tunneling microscopy.

2. Piezoelectric positioning.

3. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) overview.

4. AFM tip and its fabrication.

5. Tapping mode AFM.

6. Other forms of AFM (LFM, EFM, MFM, SCM…)

Force sensor: cantilever

T. Wakayama, T. Kobayashi, N. Iwata, N. Tanifuji, Y. Matsuda, and S. Yamada, Sensors and Actuators a-Physical, vol. 126, pp. 159-164, 2006.

AFM tip fabrication

1. SiO2 mask

2. RIE Si dry-etch

3. KOH Si wet-etch

4. SiO2 mask

5. RIE Si dry-etch

6. SiO2 mask on backside

7. KOH Si wet-etch, passivation on front-side

8. BHF (buffered HF) SiO2 wet-etch

9. RIE Si dry-etch

10. Release of cantilever in BHF

AFM tip fabrication

Use EDP instead of KOH.Add oxidation sharpening.

EDP: ethylene-diamine pyrocatechol, is an anisotropic etchant solution for silicon, consisting of ethylene-diamine, pyrocatechol, pyrazine and water.

Pyrocatechol

Pyrazine

Ethylene-diamine

Cantilever fabrication – silicon micro-machined probe

Silicon nitride

This type of tip is for contact mode AFM.

KOH etchedSi-mould

Polymer SU-8 tip fabrication

Released tip

Spikes

Probe (tip, cantilever) summary

Tip array for fast lithography tip for tapping mode AFM tip for contact mode AFM

Standard silicon nitirde pyramidal tips which are available commercially are not always sharp enough for some experiments.

By focusing the electron beam in a scanning electron microscope onto the apex of the unmodified pyramid tip, a sharp spike of any desired length can be grown.

(i.e. growth of carbon from contamination by focused electron beam induced deposition, not necessarily very sharp, but with very high aspect ratio to reach deep holes/trenches.)

Electron beam deposited super tip

Using carbon nanotube to improve resolution

Vibration problem: need short tube 0.2m

Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) and lithography

1. Scanning tunneling microscopy.

2. Piezoelectric positioning.

3. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) overview.

4. AFM tip and its fabrication.

5. Tapping mode AFM.

6. Other forms of AFM (LFM, EFM, MFM, SCM…)

Scanning modes of AFM

Not popular

Raspberry polymer

Non-contact mode imaging

• Vibration of cantilever around its resonance frequency (often hundreds of kHz)• Change of frequency due to interaction between sample and cantilever

Vibrating cantilever (tapping) mode: most popular

Cantilever oscillate and is positioned above the surface so that it only taps the surface for a very small fraction of its oscillation period.

When imaging poorly immobilized or soft samples, tapping mode may be a far better choice than contact mode.

But for the AFM we have, we operate at

Resonance frequency:

keff = k0 - dF/dz (F is force)

feff = 2π(keff /m)1/2

0300kHz

Free oscillationLarge amplitude

Hitting surfaceLower amplitude

Vibrating cantilever (tapping) mode

Amplitude imaging (for AFM)Phase imaging (also for MFM and EFM)

• Cantilever oscillates at resonant frequency and “taps” sample surface, where feedback loop maintains constant oscillation amplitude.

• Reduces normal (vertical) forces and shear (lateral) forces, thereby reducing damage to softer samples.

• Can image surface with weak adhesion.• But much slower than contact mode.

Drive signal

Cantilever signal

Topography Phase

Polymer blend(Polypropylene & EDPM)

Measure relative elastic properties of complex samples

Phase imaging

• Measure the phase lag of the cantilever driving frequency vs. actual oscillation.

• Contrast depends on the physical properties (Young’s modulus…) of the material.

AFM (contact mode):Au(111) polycrystalline filmon a glass substrate

AFM (non-contact mode):Atomic resolution on Si(111)7x7

Atomic resolution AFM

Many types: DNA and RNA analysis, protein-nucleic acid complexes, chromosomes, cellular membranes, proteins and peptides, molecular crystals, polymers and biomaterials, ligand-receptor binding.

Bio-samples have been investigated on lysine-coated glass and mica substrate, and in buffer solution (SEM… all in vacuum).

By using phase imaging technique one can distinguish the different components of the cell membranes.

Applications to biological system

Applications to biological system

Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) and lithography

1. Scanning tunneling microscopy.

2. Piezoelectric positioning.

3. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) overview.

4. AFM tip and its fabrication.

5. Tapping mode AFM.

6. Other forms of AFM (LFM, EFM, MFM, SCM…)

Conductive AFM is used for collecting simultaneous topography imaging and current imaging.

Standard conductive AFM operates in contact AFM mode.

Variations in surface conductivity can be distinguished using this mode.

Conductive AFM

One can also operate AFM in STM mode: maintain constant current or height. Some AFM tool can be used as STM (no vacuum), though with different type of tip (may use a regular STM W-tip, rather than a Si or Si3N4 cantilever).

Lateral (friction) force microscopy

Possibility to discriminate different materials at the atom level.Nano-tribology investigations can be carried out.

High resolution topography (top) and lateral force mode (bottom) images of a commercially available PET film. The silicate fillers show increased friction in the lateral force image.

Lateral force microscopy

LFM image of patterned SAM (50μm x 50μm, self-assembled monolayer), formed by micro-contact printing of alkatheniols onto Au surface using an elastomeric stamp

• FMM is used to characterize a sample's mechanical properties. It allows simultaneous acquisition of both topographic and material-properties data.

• In FMM mode, the AFM tip is scanned in contact with the sample, and the z feedback loop maintains a constant cantilever deflection (as for constant-force mode AFM).

• In addition, a periodic signal is applied to either the tip or the sample. The amplitude of cantilever modulation that results from this applied signal varies according to the elastic properties of the sample.

Force modulation microscopy (FMM)

More “damping”

Chemical force microscopy

A. Noy et al, Ann. Rev. Mater. Sci. 27, 381 (1997)

Polar molecules (e.g. COOH) tend to have the strongest binding to each other, followed by non-polar (e.g. CH3-CH3) bonding, and a combination being the weakest.

Two routes to assembly organic group R to the tip and substrate

-SH to form R-S-Au binding

-SiCl3 react and bind to SiO2

CH3 COOHA. TopographyB. Friction force using a tip modified

with a COOH-terminated SAM,C. Friction force using a tip modified

with a methyl-terminated SAM.Light regions in (B) and (C) indicate high friction; dark regions low friction.

Chemical force microscopy Lateral/friction force detection

Utilizing CFM for the unfolding of complex proteins.(Right) Carbon nanotube terminated tip functionalized at the nanotube end.

Lift mode AFM

For MFM/EFM, lift 30-100nm. Too far will reduce resolution; too close will be affected by van der Waals force.

Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)

• Ferromagnetic tip: Co, Ni…• van de Waals force: short range force• Magnetic force: long range force, small force gradient• Close imaging (tapping mode): topography• Distant imaging (lift mode): magnetic properties

(left) AFM image of hard disk drive(right) MFM image of the same area

Magnetic force microscopy (MFM)

• MFM detects changes in the resonant frequency of the cantilever induced by the magnetic field's dependence on tip-to-sample separation.

• It detects the magnetic field gradient (dB/dz, no frequency change for constant magnetic field with zero gradient).

• Besides frequency change, phase change (correlated to frequency change) is actually often detected to generate MFM image.

Electrostatic force microscopy (EFM)

• Contrary to MFM, EFM doesn’t use ferroelectric material.

• Instead, charge is generated by applied bias voltage on metal tip.

• Difficult to extract the useful information due to mirror charges…

Variants:• Scanning Kelvin Probe

Microscopy (SKPM)• Scanning Tunneling

Potentiometry (STP)• Scanning Maxwell

Microscopy (SMM)

• EFM maps locally surface charge distribution on the sample surface, similar to how MFM plots the magnetic domains of the sample surface.

• EFM can also map the electrostatic fields of an electronic circuit as the device is turned on and off.

• This technique is known as "voltage probing" and is a valuable tool for testing live microprocessor chips at the sub-micron scale.

The sub-surface structure of electrical contacts and doping trenches in this SRAM sample can be revealed using EFM

Transistor oxide thickness

Topography SCM

Metallic tipcontact

SCM can map doping concentration and local dielectric constant.

Scanning capacitance microscopy (SCM)

Can gain topographic image by adjusting the tip or sample height while maintaining a constant capacitance (good for uniform r and doping).

Or by fixing the tip-sample separation, gain doping and dielectric properties of the sample (good for flat surface).

For parallel plate capacitor: C=0rS/d (S: surface area; d: separation)

• SThM can be used in two different operating modes, allowing thermal imaging of sample temperature and thermal conductivity.

• There are different types of cantilever available. For example, cantilever composed of two different metals. The materials of the cantilever respond differently to changes in thermal conductivity, and cause the cantilever to deflect. The system generates a SThM image, which is a map of the thermal conductivity, from the changes in the deflection of the cantilever.

• A topographic non-contact image can be generated from changes in the cantilever's amplitude of vibration (like tapping mode AFM). Thus, topographic information can be separated from local variations in the sample's thermal properties, and the two types of images can be collected simultaneously.

Scanning thermal microscopy

Scanning thermal microscopy

Topographic (upper left) and thermal (upper right) images of a “hot spot” in a powered IC. The images were added together to get a composite image (bottom) which indicates the location of the failed region.

Here one uses thermocouple junction to measure sample temperature distribution.

STM• Real space imaging• High lateral and vertical resolution• Probe electronic properties• Sensitive to noise• Image quality depends on tip conditions• Not true topographic imaging• Only for conductive materials

AFM and others• Apply to non-conducting materials: bio-molecules, ceramic.• Real topographic imaging.• Probe various physical properties: magnetic, electrostatic,

hydrophobicity, friction, elastic modulus, etc.• Can manipulate molecules and fabricate nanostructures.• Lower lateral resolution.• Contact mode can damage the sample.• Image distortion due to the presence of water.

Summary