Scalinfg Islamic Work Ethics

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The Journal of Social Psychology, 128(5), 575-583

Scaling an Islam ic W ork EthicABBAS ALIDepartment of ManagementIndiana University at South Bend

ABSTRACT. The purpose of this research was to construct scales to measure the Is-lamic work ethic and individualism and to provide evidence of these scales' reliabilityand validity. Three steps were involved: a literature search to develop statements per-taining to the Islamic work ethic and individualism; screening of the initialstatements by Islamic experts; and actual administration of the refined statements toa sample of 150 Arab students. The results of a reliability test and correlationanalysis indicated that both scales were reliable and that the Islamic Work EthicScale was positively and significantly correlated with the Individualism Scale.

Whoever goes to bed exhausted because of hard work, he has thereby causedhis sins to be absolved.Prophet Mohammed (cited in Abdul-Rauf, 1984, p. 10)

SINCE MAX WEBER'S TREATISE on the Protestant ethic, the issues ofproductivity and economic development and their relation to religious be-liefs have attained ever-increasing popularity. Most discussions of thesetopics, however, have been concerned with Judeo-Christian ethics. Despitethe fact that many other religious and ethnic groups have achieved pros-perity and tremendous economic achievement during part of their history(e.g., the Jains in India; the Santri Muslims in Java), their contributionshave been almost totally ignored in management literature.

In their quest for economic and social progress, the underdevelopednations are confronted with a wide range of management and economicproblems. These problems need to be clarified and identified in order togenerate the strategies necessary to erode the roots of backwardness.Among the developing nations, the Arab states are endowed with both fi-I gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Robert Markley with the computer pro-grams and wish to thank him for his comments on an earlier version oj this paper.Requests for reprints or for the Arab versions oj the scales should be sent to Ab-bas Ali, Associate Professor oj Management, Division oj Business and Economics,Indiana University at South Bend, South Bend, IN 46634.

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Co ri ht 2001. All Ri hts Reserved.


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576 The Journal oj SocialPsychology

nancial and human resources but have been unable to make significantstrides forward. This has been attributed to the lack of sound managementand economic institutions (Abed, 1983; Barakat, 1983; EI-Fathaly &Chackerian, 1983). Of particular importance to the Arabs' economic andsocial progress are the issues of the Islamic work ethic and individualism.That ethic has been essentially overlooked in Western management circles.The few references to it have only negative connotations. For example, re-searchers attribute the current economic and social problems in the Araband Islamic countries to the Islamic work ethic (Ball & McCulloch, 1985;Terpstra, 1978) and fail to note that Islam, unlike Christianity, views manas free from primordial guilt and that engagement in economic activities isan obligation. Likewise, work in Islam is considered a virtue in light ofman's needs and the necessity to establish equilibrium in one's individualand social life. Islam stands, therefore, not for life-denial but for life-fulfill-ment, and indeed holds business motives in the highest regard (Ahmad,1976). The economic backwardness that prevails in the Arab states andother developing nations, therefore, should be put in historical and institu-tional perspective and should not be attributed to religious belief. At-tributing complete validity to the role of a work ethic, without regard forother motivational components and societal constructs could be misleading.For example, Ali (1986)found that Arab executivesscored higher than theirAmerican or Scandinavian counterparts on the same scaleof work ethic. Ifnot for the Arab managers' unique psychological aspects and the culturalrelativity of the instrument, one might conclude that Ali's Arab managerswere more productive than Western managers.

Another issue that relates to the work ethic is individualism. Almaney(1981) and Baali and Wardi (1981) claimed that the Arabs are highly in-dividualistic. They imputed the failure of Arab cooperation and economicprograms to the individualistic quality of the Arabs. Western researchersand scholars, on the other hand, claim that individualism is the foundationof the work ethic and high achievement inWestern society.

The purposes of the present study were (a) to develop Islamic workethic and individualism scales and (b) to clarify some of the misconceptionsabout Islamic attitudes toward work. These objectives respond to the cur-rent call by social scientists and management scholars to construct in-struments relative to a particular culture or society.

MethodThe development of Islamicwork ethic and individualismscaleswas achievedin three phases. The first phase included a search of the literature pertainingto the Islamicwork ethic and to individualism. Unlike individualism, the Is-



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lamic work ethic has a wide range of components and is viewed differentlyby scholars belonging to various Islamic schools of thought. Nevertheless,all Islamic schools of thought sanction the necessity of work. The work ofIslamic and Arab scholars (e.g., Abdul-Rauf, 1984; Alaki, 1979; Ali,1986/87; Almaney, 1981; AI-Sadr, 1983; Baali & Wardi, 1981; Boase, 1985;Elkholy, 1984; Faridi, 1985; Hawi, 1982; Nabi, 1982; Nagvi, 1981; Nasr,1984; Yahfoyfi, 1982) was used to develop the conceptual framework thatwould structure each scale. Sixty-two statements relating to the Islamicwork ethic and to individualism were assembled. These statements capturedtwo sets of unique assumptions and attitudes toward work and interper-sonal relationships. They are briefly described as follows:Islamic work ethic. Work is an obligatory activity and a virtue in light of theneeds of man and the necessity to establish equilibrium in one's individualand social life. Work enables man to be independent and is a source of self-respect, satisfaction, and fulfillment. Success and progress on the job de-pend on hard work and commitment to one's job. Commitment to workalso involves a desire to improve the community and societal welfare. Soci-ety would have fewer problems if each person were committed to his workand avoided unethical methods of wealth accumulation. Creative work andcooperation are not only a source of happiness but are considered nobledeeds too.Individualism. Self-reliance is a source of success and man is the best judgeof his own interests. One should be rewarded according to his achievementand should be proud of his activities. Orders issued on a personal basis atwork may hurt individual's feelings and dignity, One's loyalty revolvesaround self and family; however, in the workplace, loyalty to superiors isnecessary for an organization to survive.

The second phase was a refinement of the initial statements by selectedscholars in Islamic and Arab culture. Six scholars in the United States ofvarious backgrounds and national origins participated in the refinementstage. They were chosen because of their scholarly activities or religiousresponsibility (e.g., Imam of a major mosque). They were asked to examineif items were relevant to an Islamic work ethic and to omit or modifystatements as needed. Received comments and suggestions were incor-porated, and 53 statements (7 on individualism and 46 on the Islamic workethic) were used in the final form of the survey.In the third phase, about 250 questionnaires were sent to Arab studentsattending five major universities in the United States. A cover letter in-dicated that the purpose of the questionnaire was to identify personalbeliefs about work in Islamic/Arab states. Respondents rated the impor-



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tance of each statement on a 5-point scale ranging from strongly disagree tostrongly agree. A total of 150 questionnaires were returned, a response rateof 60%. Among the participants, 860/0had worked in their home countriesand 28% were working in the United States. Those who had worked in theirhome countries were on study leave from work.

Results and DiscussionPearson correlation analysis and reliability tests were performed to deter-mine the reliability and validity of the scales. Table 1 presents an Englishtranslation of the items and item-total correlations. The Cronbach'sreliability coefficients for Islamic work ethic and individualism were .89 and.79, respectively. An examination of item-toal correlations for Islamic workethic indicates that Items 3 and 41 have low correlations with the total scoreon the scale, whereas Item 26 has a fairly high but negative correlation.Item-total correlation for the Individualism Scale reveals that all items cor-relate positively with one another and have high mean concentrations, thusindicating that they are appropriate items (Nunnally, 1967).Table 2 shows the relationship between the Islamic work ethic and indi-vidualism index and each item of the Individualism Scale. The Islamic workethic index was slightly but significantly correlated with the IndividualismScale (r = .32, p < .0001, N = 150). Five out of seven individualism itemshad significant correlations with the Islamic work ethic. Those items relatedto loyalty (Items 49 and 53: r = .19, p < .01; r = .35, P < .(01), independ-ence (Items 50 and 52: r = .25, p < .01; r = .22, p < .01), and dignity(Item 51, r = .23, p < .01) were positively related to the Islamic work ethic.This pattern of relationships is consistent with the Islamic emphasis on hu-man dignity, loyalty, and hard work. Individualism items (47 and 48),which are peculiar to the Arab Bedouin ethos and are not sanctioned in Is-lamic teaching, were related, but not significantly, to the Islamic workethic.

Correlation analysis results demonstrate the effect of work experience onthe relationships between the two scales. Mean scores (and standard devia-tions) on the Islamic Work Ethic Scale for those who had worked before (M= 4.26, SD = .34) and for those who did not have work experience (M =4.28, SD = .40) were almost identical. The corresponding means and stan-dard deviations on the Individualism Scale, although displaying a similar pat-tern (M = 3.28, SD = .85 vs. M = 3.37, SD = .80; t = 2.25, p < .05) dif-fered more. Participants who were not working at the time of the studyscored higher on the Individualism Scale than those who did have some workexperience (M = 3.35 vs. M = 3.13; t = 7.33, P < .01). This was especiallytrue for those who had never worked (M = 3.39; t = 6.50, P < .01).



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TABLE 1Item-Total Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations ofIslamic Work Etbic and Individualism Scales

Item M SD Item-totalcorrelationIslamic Work Ethic

1. Cooperation is a virtue in work. 4.83 .43 .362. Laziness is a vice. 4.60 .89 .353. Dedication to work is a virtue. 4.93 .32 .054. Money earned through gambling, selling in- 4.29 1.43 .20toxicants, a manipulative monopoly,bribery, and the like are harmful to society.5. One should take community affairs into 4.65 .59 .37consideration in his work.6. The state should provide work for every- 4.37 .88 .28one willing and able to work.7. One should not be denied his full wages. 4.44 .86 .208. One should strive to achieve better results. 4.57 .66 .509 . Good work benefits both one's self and 4.44 .76 . 5 0others.

10. Justice and generosity in the workplace are 4.63 . 6 4 .44necessary conditions for society's welfare.11. Cooperation provides satisfaction and bene- 4.60 .60 .45fits society.12. Competition to improve quality should be 4.52 . 6 4 .41encouraged and rewarded.1 3 . Constant struggle for the actualization of 4.48 .61 .63ideals and adherence to work values guaran-tees success.14. Our society would have fewer problems if 3.97 .88 .45each person was committed to his work andavoided its hazards.15. One must participate in economic activities. 4.05 .83 .4416. Work should be done with sufficient effort. 4.54 .59 .5717. Producing more than enough to meet one's 4.31 .85 .44personal needs contributes to the prosperityof society as a whole.18. Work is an obligatory activity for every 4.66 .65 .42capable individual.19. Gambling is harmful to society. 4.28 1.04 .4720. He who does not work is not a useful mem- 3.94 1.25 . 4 0ber of society.21. One should carry work out to the best of 4.71 .50 .48his ability.22. A person can overcome difficulties in life 4.45 .67 .65and better himself by doing his job well.23. Work is not an end in itself, but a means to 4.26 .81 .41foster personal growth and social relations.

Copyright 2001. All Rights Reserved.


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TABLE 1 (continued)

Item-totalItem M SD correlation

24. Hard work is a virtue in light of the needs 4.35 . 7 2 .45of man and the necessityto establish equi-librium in one's individual and social life.25. Work is not a source of satisfaction or 4.25 .68 .46self-fulfillment.a26. One should spend most of his time working.a 2.61 1.12 - .3327. Life has no meaning without work. 4.24 . 9 0 .4828. More leisure time is good for society.' 3.65 1.15 .4529. Work for its own sake stifles an individual's 3.69 1.12 .34life.30. Human relations in organizations should be 4.12 .87 .29emphasized and encouraged.31. Work does not enable man to control 4.03 . 9 9 .46nature."32. Exploitation in work is not praiseworthy. 4.44 . 9 9 .4233. Creative work is a source of happiness and 4.51 .56 .45accomplishment.34. Any man who works is more likely to get 4.21 .91 .44ahead in life.35. Those who do not work hard often fail 3.68 1.10 .49in life.36. Work gives one the chance to be inde- 4.46 .70 .47pendent.37. Work is a source of self-respect. 4.46 .73 .4538. Carelessness is unhealthy to one's welfare. 4.12 .86 .4739. More leisure time is bad for individuals 3.86 1.17 .56and society.4 0 . A successful man is the one who meets 4.38 .82 .54deadlines at work.41. Hard work does not guarantee success.' 3.04 1.35 - .0142. One should constantly work hard to meet 4.52 . 6 4 . 4 0

responsibilities.43. Progress on the job can be obtained through 4.24 .84 .37self-reliance.44. Devotion to quality work is a virtue. 4.58 .67 .4645. Consultation allows one to overcome ob- 4.66 .51 .31stades and avoid mistakes.46. The value of work is derived from the ac- 3.36 1.18 .20companying intention, rather than its results.

Individualism47. One should be proud of his own achieve- 3.41 1.23 .59ments and accomplishments.

Copyright 2001. All Rights Reserved.


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TABLE 1 (continued)

Item Item-totalM SD correlation

3.18 1.35 .43

3.04 1.42 . 6 03.35 1.31 .673.80 1.07 .223.16 1.25 .513.10 1.24 .62

48. Individual incentives and rewards should begiven priority over group incentives -andrewards.49. One's loyalty should be first and foremostto himself and his family.50. A man is the best judge of his own bestinterests.51. Giving personal orders may hurt an indi-vidual's feelings and dignity.52. To be successful one has to rely on himself.53. Loyalty to one's superior is necessary for anorganization to survive.Scoring reversed. -

TABLE 2Pearson Correlation Between Islamic Work Ethic Index and Individualism Scale

Scale M SD rIslamic work ethic index 4.26 .35 1.00IndividualismItem 47 3.41 1.23 .12Item 48 3.18 1.35 .13Item 49 3.04 1.42 .19*Item 50 3.35 1.31 .23*Item 51 3.80 1.07 .23*Item 52 3.16 1.25 .22*Item 53 3.10 1.24 .35**Individualism index (total items) 3.30 .85 .32***p < .01, two-tailed. up < .0001, two-tailed.

Furthermore, the results suggest that there is no conclusive evidence ofthe effect of work experience on the relationships between the Islamic workethic and individualism. For example, significant relationships between thetwo variables were found among groups who had worked before (r ::: .32, p< .(02) and those who were not presently working (r ::: .35, p < .(02). Anattempt to isolate the effect of work was made. The results, however, failed



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to provide a consistent trend; for those participants who had worked previ-ously but were not working currently, there was a significant relation (r =.34, P < .(02), but not for those who had worked previously and who werealso working at the time of the study (r = .14, p < .43).In conclusion, as is the case with other newly developed instruments,additional refinements and tests of the scales are necessary. Studies of abroader population are needed to establish more meaningfully the instru-ments' validity and this study's generalizability. This is especially true be-cause the respondents came from various Arab countries and had been liv-ing in the United States for a number of years. Data on these factors werenot collected, although they may influence attitudes toward the work ethic.Such data should be collected in a future study. Furthermore, it is reason-able to suggest that the overall significant correlation between the in-dividualism index and the Islamic Work Ethic Scale indicates the need to in-vestigate the relationships between these variables and other organizationalvariables (i.e., job commitment, work satisfaction, performance, etc.) andto achieve a better perspective on the impediments to economic develop-ment in the Middle East. The positive attitudes toward work shown by thisstudy and by previous empirical research on the work ethic dispute theassumption that Islam is a counter-developmental force. Cultural attitudestoward discipline, lack of organizational efforts, and lack of persistence inpursuing goals, as well as other motivational factors should be taken intoconsideration before attributing complete validity to the role of the workethic in economic development.

REFERENCESAbdul-Rauf', M. (1984). A Muslim's reflections on democratic capitalism. Washing-ton, DC: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research.Abed, G. (1983). Arab financial resources: An analysis and critique of present de-ployment policies. In 1. Ibrahim (Ed.), Arab resources (pp. 43-70). Kent,England: Croom Helm.Ahmad, K. (1976). Islam: Its meaning and message. London: Islamic Council ofEurope.Alaki, M. (1979). Idart al-amal fi be'a alsaudia [Business administration in Saudi en-vironment]. Jedda, Saudi Arabia: Dar Al Shoroug.Ali, A. (1986). A comparative study of managerial beliefs about work in the Arabstates. Working Paper No.1, Fort Hays State University School of Business,Hays, KS.Ali, A. (1986/87). The Arab executives: A study of values and work orientations.American-Arab Affairs, 19, 94-100.Almaney, A. (1981). Cultural traits of the Arabs. Management International Re-view, 21(3), 10-18.Al-Sadr, B. (1983). Bahouth Islama [Islamic subjects}. Beirut: Dar al-Zahra.



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Baali, F., & Wardi, A. (1981). Ibn khaldun and Islamic thought style. Boston:Haland.Ball, D., & McCulloch, W. (1985). International business. Plano, TX: Business Pub-lications.Barakat, H. (1983). Ideological determinants of Arab development. In 1. Ibrahim(Ed.), Arab resources (pp. 169-184). Kent, England: Croom Helm.Boase, A. W. (1985). The economic system in Islam: A model for all men. IslamicQuarterly, 29(3), 129-147.El-Fathaly, 0., & Chackerian, R. (1983). Administration: The forgotten issue inArab development. In 1. Ibrahim (Ed.), Arab resources (pp. 193-212). Kent,England: Croom Helm.Elkholy, A. (1984). Socioeconomic institutions and the Quran: Cultural sequentialapproach to human society. Hamdard Islamicus, 7(3), 3-19.Faridi, F. R. (1985). Islamic concept of ideal society. The Muslim World LeagueJournal, 12(4), 5-9.Hawi, S. (1982). Fisoul fi alamrh wa alamer (Lectures on leadership and leader].Amman, Jordan: Al-Sharq.Nabi, M. (1982). Islam and Arab traditional concepts. The Muslim World LeagueJournal, 9(3), 6-12.Nagvi, S. N. (1981). Ethics and economics. London: Islamic Foundation.Nasr, S. H. (1984). Islamic work ethics. Hamdard Is/amicus, 7(4), 25-35.Nunnally, J. (1967). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.Terpstra, V. (1978). The cultural environment oj international business. Cincinnati,OH: South-Western Publication.Yahfoyfi, S. (1982). Elzhman alijtimai fi al-Islam [Social welfare in Islam]. Beirut:International.

Received October 6, 1987

Scalinfg Islamic Work Ethics

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