Scaffolding learning activities in real life contexts with collaborative scripts and mobile...
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Scaffolding learning activities in real life contexts with collaborative scripts and mobile
computers
Jari Laru,University of Oulu
25.4.2012
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Focus of the study
The general focus of this doctoral thesis is to apply theoretical ideas of distributed cognition and scaffolding for mobile computer supported collaborative learning in authentic contexts
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Ill-structured problems in this thesis
Ill-structured problem solving was a core task in all experiments in this doctoral thesis. According to Jonassen (2002) problems can be either well-structured, when there is one clear solution and solution path, or ill-structured, when there are unclear problem elements and multiple possible solutions and solution paths.
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Theoretical framework
Sirexkat @ Flickr, CC-SA
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© Distributed-cognition-maggie-nichols.jpg @ http://cyborganthropology.com/
Distributed cognition
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Distributed cognition (Hutchins, 1995; Salomon, 1993) is is a view that cognition does not reside only in person’s head, but distributed among people, artifacts and symbols during thinking, reflection and learning (Salomon, 1993)
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Physical distribution
Social distribution
Symbolic distribution
openclipart
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The concept of cognitive tools is used to refer to any tool that can support aspects of learner’s cognitive processes (Lajoie, 1993). Jonassen and Reeves (1996) broadens Lajoie’s view of the term, using it to refer to any tools “than enhance the cognitive powers of human beings during thinking, problem solving, and learning” (p.693).
Cognitive tool
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Tools for living vs. tools for learning
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In order to fit world of distributed cognition where we live and role of mobile devices and applications within it appropriate framework is needed. One fitting approach for this purpose is a distributed view of thinking and learning suggested originally by D. Perkins (1996).
Person-soloPerson+Framework
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Person+Surround
F(x)F(x)
F(x)
F(x)
F(x)
Person-solo
Person+Artefact
Higher-order knowledge
Distributed cognitive system
Knowledge
Representations
Retrieval
Construction
Access craharacteristics
F(x)
Exexutive function F(x)
F(x)
Tools for living
Tools for learning
Scaffolds Mindtools
F(x)
F(x)
F(x) F(x)
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Executive function F(X)
Person+Surround
F(x)F(x)
F(x)
F(x)
F(x)
Person-solo
Person+Artefact
F(x) A system can further be characterized as dependent on which of its components has the executive function with respect to the task being accomplished.
In the distributed cognition model executive function is distributed by the nature – distributions happen in our surround all the time (Perkins, 1993)
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Access characteristicsKnowledge
Representations
Retrieval
Construction
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Collaborative learning
Creative Commons
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Nature of the learning task is one crucial determinant of successful collaboration (Arvaja, Häkkinen, Eteläpelto, & Rasku-Puttonen, 2000). One of the everlasting challenges for instructional designers is to provide real group tasks and contexts that stimulate questioning, explaining and other forms of knowledge articulation (Järvelä, Häkkinen, Arvaja, & Leinonen, 2003). Such challenge is grounded to an idea that the authenticity of the learning situations and tasks is assumed to be an important factor that can facilitate higher order learning (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989).
Ill-structured problem solving was a core task in all experiments in this thesis.
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Collaboratively usable vs. collaborative…suggestion was made to divide tools into the collaboratively usable technology (in which software alone does not scaffold collaboration) and collaborative technology (in which software is designed specifically to support collaborative knowledge construction), based on the instructional and pedagogical aspects of tools (Lipponen & Lallimo, 2004)
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Emergent technologiesSupporting learning with
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The world is entering into the Age of Mobilism (Norris & Soloway, 2011). New technology tools fit more readily and naturally our lives; increasingly broad, inexpensive, and easy access to Internet wireless devices, and a variety of Web-based personal publishing and social software tools are making computing truly a ubiquitous and “continuous” part of our lives (Roush, 2005, p.49).
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Furthermore many researchers have argued that educational use of emergent mobile devices have technological attributes, which provide unique technological, social and pedagogical affordances
Affordances
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Evolution of the research on ”mobile learning”
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webb-zahn @ Flickr, CC-SA
Scafffolding
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XThe fact that students nowadays make use of different electronic devices, which are available ubiquitously and they are called digital natives doesn’t make them good users of the media they have their disposal.
In other words, Perkins (1993) and Salomon (1993) argue that learners do not automatically know how to take appropriate and measured advantage of computer tools when involved in cognitive activities with them.
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Scaffolding 1/2 • The concept of scaffolding was first introduced by Wood,
Bruner & Ross (1976) in order to define what kind of instructional processes enables novices to carry out tasks that are beyond their unassisted efforts, thus helping them achieve independent task competence.
• The theoretical foundation of scaffolding comes from ideas concerning the zone of proximal development (ZPD) and sociocultural perspective (Vygotsky, 1986; Wertch, 1998).
• Scaffolding techniques have been used successfully in a number of desktop tools (Quintana, Reiser, Davis, Krajcik, Fretz, Duncan, Kyza, Edelson, Soloway, 2004)
Interlearn (2005)
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(distributed) Scaffolding 2/2• Puntembekar & Kolodner (1998) have argud that models of
individual scaffolding are not necessarily applicaple to educational settings in which a group of learners is pursuing a common goal.
• Other up-to-date notions on scaffolding emphasize that it can take a variety of forms - it can be extended to cover physical artifacts and representations, which can serve as cognitive tools that mediate action (Palincsar, 1998; Wertch, 1998), but also to consider peers and social roles as scaffolding agents (Tabak, 2004; Puntembakar & Kolodner, 1998).
=>Puntembekar & Kolodnner (1998) have coined the term distributed scaffolding to refer to such instructional designs that sequence and integrate a variety of social and material supports.
Interlearn (2005)
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Collaborative scripts
• With respect to challenges in collaborative learning, Kollar, Fischer & Hesse (2006) have distinguished two classes of scaffolds:
A) scaffolds that provide support on a conceptual level (microscript) B) scaffolds that provide support concerning interactive processes between the collaborators (macroscript)
• Especially in CSCL such scaffolds have been called collaboration scripts (Fischer et. al, 2007; MOSIL, 2004)
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FadingChallenging concept of
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Concept of fading reveals to be problematic!
• Pea (2004) suggested that scaffolds that do not incorporate fading are actually a part of distributed cognition, or the division of an overall cognitive task into subtasks that can be completed by different people or tools (Hutchins, 1995).
• Fading is not possible at all with it’s original meaning in computer mediated contexts (Belland, 2011)
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Scaffolds as a part of distributed cognition
Scripts can be examined through the metaphor of distributed cognition which have been argued to appropriately to apply computer-based scaffolding: ”because the latter do no not simply, but fundamentally change the nature of cognition (Kollar, Fischer & Hesse, 2006; Belland, 2011)
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Distributed cognition
Scaffolding
Distributed scaffolding
Scaffolding in the context ofDistributed cognitive system
Microscripts Macroscripts
Integrated learning scripts
Collaborative learning activities
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FadingChallenging concept of
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Person+Surround
F(x)F(x)
F(x)
F(x)
F(x)
Person-solo
Person+Artefact
Higher-order knowledge
Distributed cognitive system
Knowledge
Representations
Retrieval
Construction
Access craharacteristics
F(x)
Exexutive function F(x)
F(x)
Tools for living
Tools for learning
Scaffolds F(X) Mindtools
F(x)
F(x)
F(x) F(x)ag
Controlling agent(in this case it’sexternal CL script)
Internal CL scriptRemoval
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Microscript
Person-soloPerson-solo
Internal script
Person+ Person+ Person+
Task(s)External script
A B
Team+
Microscript
Integrated learning script (macroscript)
Microscript
Internal script
Person-soloC
Internal script
External script
Group members
Deg
ree
of c
ongr
uenc
y
A
B
C
Emergent interaction pattern(s)
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• In this thesis script is considered as method to be used during activities in different case studies, not as a pedagogical objective, with goal to be internalized for the future
• However, when script is a method, the internal script is instrumental to play well the external script (each students construct some internal script that will – to some – extent be different from the external script) (Dillenbourg & Jermann, 2006
Script as method
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Didactic envelope(macroscripting)
In MOSIL project dillenbourg et. Al (2004) expanded the scope of collaboration scripts presented by Dillebourg (2002) to encompass more than just small group interaction by introducing concept of didactic envelope: “we discriminate the core script from its didactic envelope, i.e. a set of pre- and post-structuring activities” (p.13). Such structuring activities (e.g. introducing the topic, reflecting on what what was discussed, etc.) allow triggering the core mechanisms and enable scripts to be optimally integrated into the lesson plan and are an essential part of macroscripting (Dillenbourg & Jermann, 2006; Dillenbourg & Tchounikine, 2005).
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Disturbing collaboration: ”swish”Dillenbourg & Hong (2008) have termed their approach for disturbing collaboration as “Split Where Interaction Should Happen” (SWISH). They summarize it by using three axioms: 1. Learning is result from interactions in which learners have
to engage in order to compensate split introduced by macroscript, i.e constructing shared solution based on materials gained during individual reflections (case study III in this thesis).
2. The nature of “split” thus determines the nature of interactions. Interactions are mechanisms for overcoming task splits
3. The splits can therefore – in reverse engineering- be designed to trigger the very interactions that the designer wants to foster
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Person-solo Person-solo
Person-solo Person-solo
Internal script Internal script
Internal scriptInternal script
Macroscript
Microscript n
Microscript n+1
Person+ / team+
Pedagogical designLearning context
Person-solo
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Poitinjimmie @ Flickr, CC-SA
Learning design
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Aims of the study I/II
The general focus of this doctoral thesis is to apply theoretical ideas of distributed cognition and scaffolding for mobile computer supported collaborative learning in authentic contexts
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Aims of the study II/II
• The first aim was to analyze the nature of collaboration in the mobile technology supported settings of collaborative learning (papers I and III-IV) and work (paper II)
• The second aim was to experiment the kind of scaffolding of mobile computer supported collaboration that can enrich collaborative learning (papers I,III-IV) and work (paper II)
• The third aim was to discuss the methodological issues for studying social interactions and collaborative learning in mobile computer supported activities (I-IV)
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Research design
The research design combines chracteristics from the design based research (DBR), Case-study approach (Yin, 2003) and situated approach (Greeno, 2006)
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FLE3mobile
SmartLibrary
Tiernajack
Flyers
Flyers
Script
Micro: sentence openers
Core activity
Knowledge building
Macro: Free collaboration
Instructional design
Theory
Foundations
Virtual master’s programme
FLE3
ContextMobile tool
Qualitative content analysis
Main methods
Social network analysis 1st analysis
2nd analysis
Mobile toolFieldtrip (K12)
Context
Script
Core activity
Argumentative inquiry learning
Integrated learning script
Instructional design
Theory
Progressive inquiry learningKnowledge building
Theory
Inquiry learningArgumentative learning
1st analysis
2nd analysis
Data
Logs, interviews, questionnaires
Macro: Storyboard + tutors
Micro: Sentence openers
Results & findings
Data
Flyers, audio recordings, mindmaps
Qualitative content analysis
Main methods
Mann Whitney U-test
Core activity
Blended learning EI
Script
Integrated learning script
Results & findings
Higher Education
Context
Instructional design
Mobile tool
Media uploader Google Reader
Social software (students)
Media sharing WeblogWikiRSS Reader
Tools
Social software (class)
Course blogCourse wikiRSS aggregats
1st analysis
Data
Log data, recordings, knowledge test, wiki history, content
Bayesian modeling
Main methods
Qualitative content analysis (mixed)
2nd analysis
Paper IV
Preliminary analysisPaper I
Paper II
Paper III
Theory (analytical lens)
Community of Practise
Case II
Case I
Case III
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Laru, J. & Järvelä, S. (2008). Social patterns in mobile technology mediated collaboration among members of the professional distance education community. Educational Media International Journal, 45(1),17-3.
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stimulus
Interviews
Log-files Social network analysis (SNA)
Content analysis
Database
Matrices
Results
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Overall, the analyses revealed nonparticipative behaviour within the online community.
The social network analysis revealed structural holes and sparse collaboration among participants in the offline community. It was found that due to their separated practices in the offline community, they didn’t have a need for mobile collaboration tools in their practices.
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Laru, J. & Järvelä, S. (2008). Social patterns in mobile technology mediated collaboration among members of the professional distance education community. Educational Media International Journal, 45(1),17-3.
STUDY 2: FLYERS
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Audio recordings of argumentative discussions
Knowledge claim messages
Content analysis
Top-performers
Results
Mindmap Post-test
Mindmap Pre-test
Mindmap analysis
Low performers
Mann-Whitney U-test
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Although the results revealed several shortcomings in the types of argumentation...
….In general, the use of the mobile tool likely promoted important interaction during inquiry learning, but led to superficial epistemological quality in the knowledge claim messages.
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Course feed
WikiworkPhototaking
A.Ground C.ConceptualizeB.ReflectD. Reflect & elaborate
E. Review & evaluate F. Co-construct knowledge
G.Monitor Tools used to merge multiple RSS feeds
Merged feedsMultiple feeds
Course blog and wiki Mobile applications
Course level tools
Group level tools
Monitoring tools
Lecture Discussion Blogging Discussion
Collaborative Solo Collaborative
Phase:
Software:
Activity:
Figure 4. Socio-technological design of the course. The idea of making use of each others’knowledge was operationalized in socio-technical design. It consisted of recurrent individual and collective phases in which students used multiple Web 2.0 tools and mobile phones in concert to perform designed tasks. Retrieved from: Jari Laru, Piia Näykki, Sanna Järvelä, Supporting small-group learning using multiple Web 2.0 tools: A case study in the higher education context, The Internet and Higher Education, Available online 28 August 2011, ISSN 1096-7516, 10.1016/j.iheduc.2011.08.004.
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Figure 5. Pedagogical design of the course. Groups were required to complete a wiki project by the end of the semester. In order to complete the wiki project, students needed to participate in recurrent solo and collective phases mediated by the use of social software tools and face-to-face discussions in their respective phases. Jari Laru, Piia Näykki, Sanna Järvelä, Supporting small-group learning using multiple Web 2.0 tools: A case study in the higher education context, The Internet and Higher Education, Available online 28 August 2011, ISSN 1096-7516, 10.1016/j.iheduc.2011.08.004.
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Wordpress
Results
Wikispaces
Conceptual knowledge post-
test
Flickr Google ReaderShozuDiscussions
Conceptual knowledge post-
test
Knowledge test analysis
Analysis of the engagement
Paired samples t-test
Normalized learning gain
On task analysis
Analysis of Wiki history
Bayesian dependency & classification modeling
Descriptive analysis
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In our case, we found that using social software tools together to perform multiple tasks likely increased individual knowledge acquisition during the course.
Bayesian classification analysis revealed that the best predictors of good learning outcomes were wiki-related activities.
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Results
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Overall, the analyses revealed nonparticipative behaviour within the online community.
The social network analysis revealed structural holes and sparse collaboration among participants in the offline community. It was found that due to their separated practices in the offline community, they didn’t have a need for mobile collaboration tools in their practices.
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Single task, free collaboration
Collective task
Existing master’s programs
New master’s program
Knowledge building activity
Microscript
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External script
Co-operative learning Microscript: Knowledge building Self-study
Activity: Collaborative knowledge building (progressive inquiry learning)
Internal script Internal script(s)
Activity: Argumentative knowledge construction
prestructuring
Core activity
Post structuring
- Integrated learning script -
CSCL Integrated learning script CSCL
SWISH
Activities: Conceptualizations, reflections, elaborations, knowledge construction
prestructuring
Core activity
Post structuring
Emergent interaction pattern(s)
Emergent interaction pattern(s)
Nonparticipativebehavior
ag
ag
agag
ag
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Although the results revealed several shortcomings in the types of argumentation...
….In general, the use of the mobile tool likely promoted important interaction during inquiry learning, but led to superficial epistemological quality in the knowledge claim messages.
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Task 1 Task 2 Task 3
Macroscript
Microscript
Storyboard Argumentative discussions
Review and comparisonConclusive discussion
Collective activities Small-group activities
Three independent tasks + didactic envelope
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External script
Co-operative learning Microscript: Knowledge building Self-study
Activity: Collaborative knowledge building (progressive inquiry learning)
Internal script Internal script(s)
Activity: Argumentative knowledge construction
prestructuring
Core activity
Post structuring
- Integrated learning script -
CSCL Integrated learning script CSCL
SWISH
Activities: Conceptualizations, reflections, elaborations, knowledge construction
prestructuring
Core activity
Post structuring
Emergent interaction pattern(s)
Emergent interaction pattern(s)
Nonparticipativebehavior
ag
ag
agag
ag
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In our case, we found that using social software tools together to perform multiple tasks likely increased individual knowledge acquisition during the course.
Bayesian classification analysis revealed that the best predictors of good learning outcomes were wiki-related activities.
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Separated tasks w integrated subtasks+ Swish
Macro
1st topic
Grounding (Lecture) Reflect (Discussion)
Review and evaluate (Discussion)
Collective activities Small-group activities
2nd topic 3rd topic
Individual activities
Conceptualize (Photo [mobile])
Reflect and elaborate (Blog)
Co-construct of knowledge(Wiki)
Core activity
Micro S1
Micro S2
Micro S3
Micro S4
Micro S5
Monitor (RSS [mobile])
Collaboration script
Micro Sn = Microscript nMacro = Macroscript
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External script
Co-operative learning Microscript: Knowledge building Self-study
Activity: Collaborative knowledge building (progressive inquiry learning)
Internal script Internal script(s)
Activity: Argumentative knowledge construction
prestructuring
Core activity
Post structuring
- Integrated learning script -
CSCL Integrated learning script CSCL
SWISH
Activities: Conceptualizations, reflections, elaborations, knowledge construction
prestructuring
Core activity
Post structuring
Emergent interaction pattern(s)
Emergent interaction pattern(s)
Nonparticipativebehavior
ag
ag
agag
ag
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Person+Surround
F(x)F(x)
F(x)
F(x)
F(x)
Person-solo
Person+Artefact
Higher-order knowledge
Distributed cognitive system
Knowledge
Representations
Retrieval
Construction
Access craharacteristics
F(x)
Exexutive function F(x)
F(x)
Tools for living
Tools for learning
Scaffolds F(X) Mindtools
F(x)
F(x)
F(x) F(x)ag
Controlling agent(in this case it’sexternal CL script)
Internal CL scriptRemoval
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Comparison between experiments
Topic
Topic 1
Topic 2
Topic 3
Topic 1
Topic 2
Topic 3
Subtask n Subtask n+1
Subtask n Subtask n+1
Subtask n Subtask n+1
Topic 1
Topic 2
Topic 3
Subtask n Subtask n+1
Subtask n Subtask n+1
Subtask n Subtask n+1
Didactic envelopes (Dillenbourg, 2002) Swish splits (Dillenbourg & Jermann, 2006)
X
X
Free
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Conclusion
Simple tools, rich pedagogical practises (Roschelle, 2002)
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• Kussakin osatutkimuksessa käytettiin ”parhaita menetelmiä” –
• Design tutkimus vs. Case study.. => • Menetelmät kehittyivät monipuolisemmiksi ja
tarkemmiksi.. Voisikos niitä selittää ilmiön kehittymisellä, menetelmien kehittymisellä..
• Kontekstien muuttuessa kollaboraatio voi muuttua.. Oletko ottanut huomioon..