Savings and Self Help Groups in Ethiopia - Tearfund Learn

SavingsandSelfHelpGroupsinEthiopia:

AreviewofprogrammingbyfiveNGOs

JulieLawson-McDowall,BekeleTeferaandElizabethPresler-MarshallwithKirosBerhanu,BethelihemGebre,PaolaPereznietoandNicolaJones

October,2016

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Acknowledgements

WewouldliketothankthefiveNGOsthatsupportedthisstudy:Tearfund,CARE,Oxfam,CAFODandCoSAP,fororganisingthefieldwork,sharingtheirinsightsandprovidingfeedbacktothefirstdraftofthisreport.Thankyoualsototheresearchparticipants:localNGOstaffandprojectbeneficiaries,whosharedwithustheirtimeandvaluableknowledge.ThanksalsotoIngridGercamaforherresearchassistance.

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ACRONYMS

ACSI AmharaCreditandSavingsInstitutionBCR BenefittoCostRatioASE Agri-ServiceCBA CostBenefitAnalysisCBO CommunityBasedOrganizationsCCMD ChurchandCommunityMobilizationforDevelopmentCLA ClusterLevelAssociationCOSAP ConsortiumofSelfHelpGroupApproachPromotersCST CAFOD/SCIAF/TrocaireECC-SADCO EthiopianCatholicChurchSocialandDevelopmentCommissionFEMA Farmer'sEconomicandMarketingAssociationFGC FemaleGenitalCuttingFGD FocusGroupDiscussionFLA FederalLevelAssociationGDP GrossDomesticProductGNI GrossNationalIncomeGRAD GraduationwithResiliencetoAchieveSustainableDevelopmentHDI HumanDevelopmentIndexIDI In-DepthInterviewIGA IncomeGeneratingActivityKNH Kindernothilfe(GermanNGO)M&E MonitoringandEvaluationMFI Micro-FinanceInitiativeNGO Non-GovernmentalOrganisationPSNP ProductiveSafetyNetProgrammePSNP ProductiveSafetyNetProgrammeRCT RandomisedControlTrialsSG SavingsGroupSHG SelfHelpGroupSNNPR SouthernNationsNationalitiesandPeoples’RegionSRH SexualandReproductiveHealthTHP TraditionalHarmfulPracticesTOT TrainingofTrainersVESA VillageEconomicandSocialAssociationVSLA VillageSavingsandLoansAssociation

TableofContents

ExecutiveSummary.........................................................................................................................i

Introduction......................................................................................................................................1

1.Savingsandself-helpgroups:overviewoftheinternationalandEthiopiancontexts..............................................................................................................................................3

2.Methodology..............................................................................................................................11

3.HowdothedifferentNGOSdeliverontheirobjectives?............................................16

4. Findings:SHG/SGOutcomesandstrengths.................................................................23

5.WeaknessesintheSHG/SGapproach...............................................................................52

6.Promisingpracticesandtheirunderlyingchangepathways....................................60

7.Conclusions................................................................................................................................64

8.Recommendations..................................................................................................................69

References......................................................................................................................................71

ExecutiveSummary

IntroductionSavingsGroupsandSelfHelpGroups(SG/SHG)areaninternationalphenomenon..Althoughtheirnames,shapesandpurposesvaryregionally,SG/SHGinoneformoranotherexistindigenouslyinalmosteverycountry.Inrecentyears,SG/SHGhavebeenhavebeentransformed,primarilybyINGOS(thoughalsobyfor-profitbanksandgovernments),intoacorecomponentofthemicro-financeworld.Bybringingtogethergroupsof15-30peopleandaccommodatingverysmallscalesavingsandloans,SG/SHGhavebeguntohelptheunbankedbankthemselves—demonstratingcost-benefitratiosashighas1:400.ThisreportfocusesonSG/SHGsinEthiopia,wherethemodelhasbeenrapidlytakentoscalebythecooperativeeffortsoffivekeyNGOs,aswellasgrowingorganicallyinsomeofthecommunitieswherethesehavebeensetup.

WhileSGsandSHGsinEthiopiatendtouseverysimilarmodalitiesandaccomplishthesamegoals,thefiveNGOsdrivingexpansionhaveslightlydifferentphilosophicalapproachestotheirwork.Thosepreferringthelabel“savingsgroup”(CAREandCST)viewtheirworkinmoreinstrumentaltermsandprovidememberswithservicesthatfacilitatemarketaccess.Thosepreferringthelabel“self-helpgroup”(Tearfund,CoSAPandOxfam)takeamorerights-basedapproachandfocusonempoweringtheirmemberstosolvetheirownproblems.Bothapproachestendtoofferthesamecorepackage,includingfinancialliteracyeducationandleadershiptraining,andbothhavebeenshowntobeeffectivewhenwellimplemented.

ThisreportaimstoexplorethedifferencesbetweenthetwomaintypesofSG/SHGinEthiopia,lookingatimpactsonbothindividualbeneficiariesaswellasonhouseholdsandcommunities.Inparticular,inordertocontributetomorecoordinated,efficientandeffectiveprogramming,thisresearchexaminesthepotentialforthedifferentapproachestocontributetobroaderpovertyreductionandwomen’sempowerment.

MethodologyThisresearchbeganwithadesk-basedreviewofexistingdocumentationandastakeholderworkshop—bothofwhichaimedtoexploretherangeofEthiopianSG/SHGprogrammingandestablishabaselineforthinkingaboutitsstrengthsandweaknesses.Fieldwork,whichtookplaceinAprilof2016infivepurposivelychosenlocations(fourruralandoneurban)inthreedifferentregionsofEthiopia(SNNPR,OromiaandAmhara),allowedforparticipatorydiscussionswithawiderangeofbeneficiariesandkeyinformants.Inall,thisresearchinvolvednearly70interviewsaboutprogrammingofferedbyCARE,Tearfund,CoSAP,OxfamandCST.

Itisworthnotingthestrengthsandweaknessofourmethodology.Ontheonehand,thequalitativeresearchbenefitedthefindingsbyallowingustoseehowprogrammingplaysoutontheground,ratherthanfocusingonhowmanualsandtop-levelprogrammersbelieveitoughttobeprovided.Itisalsostrongerforhavingincludednotonlywomenbeneficiaries,butalsotheirhusbands.Ontheotherhand,duetotimeandcostrestrictions,findingsarelargelyimpressionistic.SiteswerechosenbyNGOs,whichmeantthatwetendedtoseethebestratherthanmeetinggroupsthatwerenotfunctioningaswell.Furthermore,asbecameincreasinglyclearthroughoutthefieldwork,there

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weretoomanyconfoundingfactorsforustobeabletoattributeanysortofcausality.Indeed,evennotionsaboutwhatconstituteda“mature”or“recent”groupwashighlyvariable.

FindingsOurresearchfoundthatthefiveNGOsworkinginEthiopiabeginwithdifferentassumptionsandusedifferentmodesandmethodsofimplementation.CAREandOxfam,forexample,appeartoseeSG/SHGasanefficientdeliverymechanismforfosteringchangeatthehouseholdlevel,andaimtolinkthegroupmemberswithformaleconomicgroupings,suchasmicrofinanceinstitutionsandcooperatives,tosupporteconomicchange.TearfundandCoSAPareaimedateffectingbroadersocialandpoliticalchangeandseethattherelationshipswithintheSHG/Cluster/Federationstructureareable,inthemselves,tobringaboutsocialempowermentandevenpoliticalandinstitutionalchange.Nevertheless,allstrivetoeconomicallyempowerparticipants,andoftendosoviamoresocialempowerment.Additionally,onlyCSTprovidesgroupswithanysortofproductiveinputs,onlyCAREhasmixed-sexgroups,Tearfund’sfundingcycleistwiceaslongasthoseofitssisterorganizations(10years,becauseitworksthroughthedevelopmentwingofdifferentevangelicaldenominations/churches)andonlyTearfund,CoSAPandOxfamorganisegroupsintolargerregionalandnationalclusters.

Thatsaid,ourresearchfoundthatfromthegroundmostSG/SHGslookedbroadlysimilar.Forexample,

• GroupsrunbyallNGOstendtoberoughlythesamesizeandtoberelativelyhomogenousintermsofincomelevel.

• Groupsusesimilartargeting,workinginsimilargeographicalareasandaimingatthepoor—oftenthroughthesamelocalpartners.

• Mostgroupsfocusonwomen—thoughallmakeanattempttoengagehusbandsinonewayoranother.

• Allgroupshadexternalsupportfromfacilitatorsonaregularbasis,similarleadershipstructures,andcloserelationshipswiththegovernment—thelatterbeinglegallyobligatory.However,groupsestablishtheirownby-lawsandoperatingprocedures.

• Groupsmeetregularly,inordertofostersocialcapital,andhavestructuredprogramming.• Groupsoffertrainingthatcoversbothfinancialliteracyandbroaderdevelopmenttopics.• Mostgroupsoffersocialfundsandsomelinkageswithmicrofinanceinstitutionsand

cooperatives.

Ourresearchalsofoundthatregardlessofapproach,outcomestendedtobebroadlysimilar—althoughmoreestablishedgroupstendedtoreturnlargerbenefitsbecauseoftheirgreaterstoreoffinancialandsocialcapital.Alltypesofgroupsarereachingthepoor,developingsocialcapital,fosteringasavingscultureandhelpinggrowincomes.Theyalsoappeartobeimprovinggenderrelations,althoughitisdifficulttodisentangleimpactsfromthebroaderandmorestructuralshiftsthathaveresultedfromgovernmentpoliciesaroundgender.

ThesuccessesofEthiopianSG/SHGappeartohingeonarelativelysmallnumberoffactors.Groupcohesion,forexample,emergesasveryimportant.Itdoesnot,however,justhappen--itrequiresactiveworkonthepartofNGOstopullandkeepgroupstogether.Ourresearchfoundthatregularface-to-facemeetings,whichgetwomenoutofthehouseandhelpthemdevelopfriendshipsanda

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sharedsenseofidentity,promotedthiscohesion—andthatwhereNGOsprovideeconomicinputstheyneedtobecarefullymanagedinordertopreventthemfrombecomingawedgebetweenmembers.Ourresearchalsofoundthatsocialfunds,whichgivemembersaccesstoemergencyresources—especiallyforhealthcrises,supportgroupcohesionbecausetheypositionSG/SHGmemberstosupportoneanotherintimesofhappinessandintimesofsadness.Theyalsoprotectmembersfrompredatorylendersandpreventassetdepletion,crucialtothecoreobjectiveofpovertyreduction.

Socialempowermentalsoemergedaskeytosuccess.Groupsthathadrotatingleadership,forexample,ensuredthatthemostcapabledidnotdominate,leavingspaceforthemoremarginalisedtodevelopcapacitytolead.Directattentiontogenderequalityalsoappearstoreturnlargebenefits.Wenotonlyfoundhusbandsbeginningtoconsulttheirwivesandallowthemaccesstodecision-making,butalsocascadingimpactsonchildren,whohadbetteraccesstoschoolsupplieswhentheirmotherswereabletoplanandsavetopurchasethem.ThetrainingofferedbySG/SHGalsoemergedasanimportantcatalystforempowermentanddevelopment.Whethergroupsofferedhealth-relatedtrainingsonSRHorWASH,agriculturalclassesonclimatechangeadaptationorlivestockcare,orlivelihoodscoursesonbeekeepingorstove-making,memberswhofeltthattheyhadlearnedsomethingviaparticipationwerenotonlymorecommittedtotheirgroup,butinmanycaseshelpedspreadtheSG/SHGthroughoutthecommunity.

Ourresearchalsosupportsthenotionof“criticalmass”—especiallyasitrelatestogenderempowerment.WhenSG/SHGsareforwomenonly,theyopenthespacethatpromoteswomen’svoice.Furthermore,whentheyareorganisedintoclustersandfederationstheycanbecomeapowerfuladvocacytoolforwomen’sandchildren'srightsandprovideacounterweighttounequalgenderrelationsandentitlementsatastructurallevel.Byhelpingwomenfurthertheirleadershipandmanagementskills,demonstratingwomen’ssuccesstolocalcommunities,promotingsustainabilitybyexpandingoptionsforincomegeneration,andcreatingstronglinkageswithlocalgovernmentorganisationssuchastheWomenandChildren’sAffairsOfficeandthejudiciary,SG/SHGscancreatecoalitionsoforganisedwomenforchange.

Finally,wefoundthatSG/SHGlinkagestomicrofinanceorganisationsappearrelativelyriskierandthathouseholdsshouldnotbepushedtofasttowardslargeoroverlappingloanslesttheyriskdefault.

ConclusionsandRecommendationsOurresearchfoundthatSG/SHGarelargelyworkingwellintheEthiopiancontext.Whileorganizationsmayholddifferentphilosophicalapproaches,andhaveaimsthatarerelativelybroaderornarrower,thecorepackageofSG/SHGprogrammingappearstoberoughlysimilarandisreturningsimilarly,ifnotuniformly,positiveresults.Movingforward,wesuggestthatNGOpartnersfocusonthefollowing:

• Focusonreachingthepoorest,especiallythoseinremoteruralareas.Ourresearchindicatesthattheyremainthehardesttoreach.SpecialeffortsshouldbemadetoreachPSNPrecipientsgiventhatthedevelopmentofasavingsculturedovetailswithgraduationrequirements.

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• Investingroupsforthelonghaulgiventhatthisfosterseconomicandsocialempowermentforwomen.Thiswillrequirehelpinggroupsdevelop—andfollow—theproceduresandby-lawsthatencouragestability,suchasregularface-to-facemeetings,leadershipthatrotates,circulatingloans,etc..,butwillalsorequireongoingorganisationalsupport,especiallywherelocalcapacityislimited.

• Supportsocialfunds—giventhattheysimultaneouslyfostercohesionanddiscouragethedangerousfinancialdecisionsbornofdistress.

• Developbroadermicro-insurancefunctionsthatbuildoffthenotionofiddirsbutaretargetedatotherneedssuchashealthcarecosts.

• Preventeliteformationandcapturebyensuringthatleadershiprolesrotateandthatallmembershaveopportunitiestodeveloptheircapacitiesandskills.

• Expandopportunitiesfortrainingsandeducation,ensuringthattopicsarerelevantandwelltaught.Effortsshouldalsobeaimedatensuringthatlearningcanbesharedbetweengroups.

• BuildorganisationalstructuresthatlinkSG/SHGtogethertogrowcapacityandstrengthenreach.Whilethismaybecostly,ourresearchsuggeststhatthepayoffcouldbesignificant.

• MakeM&Emoremeaningful.OurresearchsuggeststhatafocusonsuccesshastendedtodrownoutopportunitiestolearnfromfailureandthatcurrentM&Epracticesareoftennumericamalgamationsofdeliveredproducts.

Introduction

ThefocusofthisreportisontheSelfHelpGroupandSavingsGroup(SG/SHG)ApproachinEthiopiabyleadingNGOsimplementedthroughasetoflocalpartnerNGOs.Thereportexploresthewaysinwhichthesegroupshaveimpactedontheirbeneficiariesandthepotentialofdifferentapproachestocontributetohouseholdandbroadercommunity-levelpovertyreductiongoalsandtowomen’sempowerment.TearfundandCoSAPsupportthebroadercategoryofSelfHelpGroups(SHGs)whichfocusonthepoorasresponsiblefortheirowndevelopmentandonthestrengthofcollectivestructurestodeliverdevelopment.CST,OxfamandCAREworkmorewithsavingsgroups(SGs)butOxfamdrawsheavilyontheSHGmethodologyforinspiration.Therearesignificantdifferencesbetweenthetwoapproaches,particularlyintermsofthephilosophiesandworldviewsthatunderliethem,howeverakeyquestionishowdifferentlytheseapproachesareexperiencedbythegroupmembersandimplementingNGOs'ontheground'(thetwoapproachestogetherarehereafterabbreviatedto'SG/SHG'unlesswearedistinguishingbetweenthetwo).Ininvestigatinghowthedifferentmethodologiesareimplemented,thisstudyseekstocontributetomorecoordinated,efficientandeffectiveprogramminginEthiopiathatbuildsonevidence-basedgoodpracticestostrengthentheimpactsSG/SHGcanhaveonbeneficiariesandthecommunitiesinwhichtheylive.

ResearchobjectivesTheoverallobjectiveofthisstudyistodocumentanddevelopacommonunderstandingacrosskeyGovernmentandNon-Governmentstakeholders,ofthedevelopmentalprocess,impactandpotentialofSG/SHGapproachesinEthiopia.Morespecificallyitaimedto:

1. ReviewtheSG/SHGapproachesofdifferentNGOstodeterminethesimilaritiesanddifferencesoftheapproachesovertime

2. AssesstheoutcomesofthesevariedSG/SHGapproachesintermsofcontributionstoindividualempowerment,intra-householdrelationships,grouprelationsandsupport,andcommunitydynamics

3. Determinepromisingpracticesandtheirunderlyingchangepathways.4. ReviewtheexperienceoftheMFIsthatareprovidingfinancialsupporttoSG/SHGand

determinechallengesandgoodpracticesandtheimpactthishasonthegroups.5. Createatoolfordialogueforthoseworkinginthisspacewhichcanserveasanentrypoint

tofindmorecommongroundandpossibleentrypointsforcoordinationandcollaboration.1

1Althoughnotadirectobjectiveofthisresearch,itisanticipatedthatthestudywillalsocontributetotheongoingprojectofworkingwiththeGovernmentofEthiopia(GoE)toclarifyorestablishthelegalframeworkfortheSHG/SGapproach.WorkpreviouslycommissionedbyTearfundandCoSAPtoassesstheexistinglegalframeworkwithrespecttotheSHG/SGapproachconcludesthattherearenoperfectlyfittinglegalframeworksinthecountrythatcanaccommodatethefeatures,rolesandfunctionsoftheinstitutionsbeinggeneratedthroughthisprogramming(SGs/CLA/Federations).TheNGOsarethereforekeentodeviseastrategyforlookingataneworanaccommodativelegalframeworkthatcanrecognizeSGsinEthiopia.

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StructureofreportThereportfirstlyprovidesabriefoverviewoftheliteratureonSG/SHGgloballyandthecriticalareasthatariseindiscussionsofsavingsandself-helpgroupsinordertosituateourEthiopianfindingsbeforeabriefoverviewofthehistoryofsavingsandself-helpgroupsinEthiopiaandanoverviewoftheINGOswhocommissionedthisstudyandtheirrespectiveSG/SHGactivities.Wethendescribetheresearchmethodology,includingcaveatsrelevanttosomeofthefindingsgiventhemethodologyemployed.Themainbodyofthereportpresentstheresearchfindingswithafocusontargeting,outcomes,strengths,weaknesses,similaritiesanddifferencesattheindividuallevel(economicandsocial),intra-household(focusingongenderrolesanddynamicsandoutcomesforchildren),atgroup,cluster,federationandcommunitylevelintermsofactivismandchange,andattheorganisationallevelintermsofNGOlinkageswithgovernmentandotheragencies,aswellasissuesofsustainability.Variousweaknessesorunansweredquestionsarisethroughoutthediscussionofthedifferentlevelsofimpactandthesearethenreviewedbeforeturningtotheconclusionandrecommendationsandimplicationsforpractice.

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1.Savingsandself-helpgroups:overviewoftheinternationalandEthiopiancontexts

1.1SavingsGroupsandSelfHelpGroups:AnInternationalPhenomenonSG/SHGsareaninternationalphenomenon.Althoughtheirnames,shapesandpurposesvaryregionally,SG/SHGinoneformoranotherexistindigenouslyinalmosteverycountry.Sometimestheyhelpmemberssaveforidiosyncraticshocks,suchasillness.Othertimestheyhelpfacilitatesavingformedium-termevents,suchasschoolfeesornewassets,orenablelonger-termsaving,suchasforfunerals.Overthelastseveraldecades,savingsgroupsandself-helpgroups(SG/SHG)havebeenformalisedandtakentoscalearoundtheworld,withINGOs—andevenformalfinancialinstitutions—nowofferingavarietyofproductsandservicesinwhatwaspreviouslyaself-servemarket.GroupsinIndiaalonehave50millionclients.

Whilethereareaseveralbasictypesofindigenoussavingsgroups2,theonemostdirectlyapplicabletothisresearchisknownas‘AccumulativeSavingsandCreditAssociations’(ASCRAs).ASCRAsoperatemoreorlesslikesmallbanksorcreditunions.Membersmakeregular‘deposits’,whichvaryinsizeaccordingtotheirfinancialcapacity.Depositsarethenlefttoaccumulate,withinterest,inorderhelpmemberspayforexpectedexpensessuchasschoolfees(Bouman,1994).Fundsarealsoavailableforshort-termloans,albeitwithsignificantlyhigherinterestratesthanareappliedtodeposits,withemergenciessuchasillnesstypicallygivenprioritywhenallocatingloanfunds(Anggraeni,2009;Bouman,1994;Thieme,2003).ASCRAstypicallyrequirebothsecurityandrecordkeeping,astheirmembershiprollscanreachintothehundredsandtheircashonhandcanbesignificant(FAO,2002).

RecognisingthatindigenoussavingsgroupssuchasASCRAsrarelyreachthepoorest,whotypicallycannotaffordtocontributeonaregularbasis,inrecentyearsINGOshavetransformedSGsandSHGsintoacorecomponentofthemicro-financeworldandaimedthemsquarelyatpovertyreduction.TheINGO-supportedSG/SHGapproachimprovesontheASCRAmethodology—andtheformalfinancialsector—inseveralways.Forexample,groupstendtobesmallandcomposedofmemberswhoknowoneanother,whichhelpsfostertrust.Theyalsotendtoberelativelyhomogenousintermsofwealth,soastobetteraccommodatethesmallersavingstargetsaccessibletothepoor.Tearfund’sgroups,forexample,startwithasavingstargetofapproximately£0.02/week(Tsegayetal.,2013).Theloan,interest,fineandfeesystemmeansthatinadditiontoprofitingfromlowinterestloans,thesharedinternalsavingsfundgrows.SomeINGO-supportedSG/SHGs(SILCsandVESAsforexample)returnthisinternalfundregularly(e.g.annually)tomembers,whomaykeepitorreinvestitastheychoose;othersdonot.Mostgroupsalsohavesomevariationonasocialfundthatcanbeusedforsmallloansduringemergencies.

ThebroaderliteraturelargelyfailstodistinguishbetweentheSavingsGroupapproachandtheSelf-HelpGroupapproach--inpartbecausethatliteraturetendstofocusonsavingascentraltogrouppurpose,ignoringmorethemorephilosophicalunderpinningsofprogramming,andinpartbecauseasINGOshavetakenvariousapproachesintonewmarketsaroundtheworldtheyhaveheavily2IncludingRotatingSavingsandCreditAssociationsandBurialSocieties.

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borrowedfromoneanother,meaningthatovertimetheyhavetendedtolookmoreandmoresimilarintermsofactualoperation.Thatsaid,theSelf-HelpapproachmoreheavilyemphasisesrelationshipswithinandbetweengroupsandseesempoweringmemberstochangetheirownlivesasmorecentraltocoreobjectivesthandoestheSavingGroupapproach.Tearfund,forexample,modelleditsEthiopianSHGsonMYRADA’sIndian“SelfHelpAffinityGroups”.Thosegroups,whichlaunchedinthemid-1980’sasSelfHelpGroups,wereindeeddeliberatelyrenamedintheearly2000s—whenMYRADAdiscoveredthatSHGswerebeingformedwithoutanysortofcapacitysupport—“inordertostressthe‘affinity’whichbindsthememberstogether”(Fernandez,2008,p.220).

1.2IncludingthepoorestAsINGOshavetakenvariousmodelstoscaleacrossthedevelopingworld,greatattentionhasbeenpaidtohowtomakegroupsmoreinclusive.AsSEEP’s(2015)guidelinessuggest(seebelow),fosteringthatinclusivityrequirescarefulplanning.Geographicaltargeting,forexample,isonewaytohelpmakesavingsgroupsavailabletotheverypoor.Participatoryresearch,aimedatidentifyingtheparticularconstraintsfacingthepoorestinagivencommunity,canalsohelpwithprogrammedesign(Jahns-HarmsandWilson,2015;DeiningerandLiu,2013).Forinstance,inIndia,theIndhiraKranthiPathamprogrammeprovidesriceoncredittothepooresthouseholds—andoffersa“communityinvestmentfund”tojumpstartlendinginthesavingsgroupswiththepoorestmembers(ibid.).Evidencealsosuggeststhatsettinglowsavingstargets,addressingpoverty-drivenpsycho-socialconstraints,andpracticingverticalintegration—tohelpovercomemembers’limitationsregardingliteracyandnumeracy—canhelpmakegroupsmoreinclusive(Jahns-HarmsandWilson,2015;LonborgandRasmussen,2014;DAG,2014;DeiningerandLiu,2013;PovertyOutreach,2011).Grouphomogeneityisusuallyconsideredcriticaltosuccess,meaningthattheverypoorshouldbeclusteredintotheirownsavingsgroupsandnotbedominatedbythewealthier;thisalsoembracesamuchbroaderpurposeofempoweringthepoorestratherthanjustchangingeconomicstatus.Otherresearch,probablyaminorityvoice,hassuggestedvalueinheterogeneity—namelythatthelesspoorcanserveasgoodrolemodelsandgroupleaders(Edwards,2010;Mayoux,2000).

1.3ValueformoneyandcommonmodalitiesWhateverthemotivationofthepromotingagencies,scale-uphasbeenparticularlyrapidoverthelastdecade,astherisksofmicro-creditand/orthetransformativepowerofrelationshipsthroughgroupformationtothepooresthavebecomeincreasinglyevidentandthecost-benefitratioofmicro-savingshasbeenmeasured—andfoundtobeashighasbetween56:1and400:1(Tearfund,2016;MicroCreditSummitCampaign,2014;Tsegayetal.,2013).WhilethesenewSG/SHG,liketheirindigenousforebears,haveawidevarietyofnames,largelyinthiscasedependingonwithwhichINGOtheyareassociatedandwhereintheworldtheyarelocated,programmemodalitieshavecertaincommonalitiesbeyondgroupformationandthepromotionofsavingsledmicrofinance.Many,forexample,areaimedatwomenandmostcombinetheirfinancialgoalswithothersortsofprogramming,suchastheeconomicempowerment,transformationofrelationshipswithinthegroupandwiththecommunity,improvedgenderrelationsorsexualandreproductivehealtheducation(DeiningerandLiu,2013;DatuResearch,2013;Jahns-HarmsandWilson,2015;Sinhaetal.,2012).

Thatsaid,however,SG/SHGimplementationinAsia(includingEastAsia)andAfricadoesvary—largelybecausethehistoryofNGOinvolvementismuchlongerisAsia.Thishasledtonotonly

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greaterpenetrationinAsia,with50millionclientsinIndiaalone(WilliamDavidsonInstitute,2016),butalsohigherlevelsofinstitutionalisation(Biscayneetal.,2014).SG/SHGare,forexample,explicitlylinkedtotheIndianNationalBankofAgricultureandRuralDevelopmentbecausethegovernmentseesthemasacentralpartof“effortstomitigatepovertyandpromoterurallivelihoods”(Biscayeetal.2014:13).InAfrica,ontheotherhand,therearefewerlegalframeworkslinkingSG/SHGtofinancialinstitutions—andeffortstodosohaveresultedinmixedresults(Biscayneetal.,2014;MasterCardFoundation,2014).Furthermore,whereasAsianimplementationhastendedtoemphasisepeereducationandgroupdevelopment,andoftendirectlyaddressgenderempowerment,itisgenerallyunderstoodthatAfricanimplementationhascentredmorearoundhelpingwomengenerateincome(ibid.).However,theworkofTearfund,CSTandCoSAPsuggeststhatintheEthiopiancontextatleast,thefocushasbeenasmuchontherelationalandtransformationalpotentialofgroupformation.

1.4“BestPractices”AsSavingsGroupshavebecomeacoreINGOmicro-financeintervention,theyhaveattractedattentionfromanincreasingnumberofresearchers.Researchhasaddressed,forexample,thecharacteristicsofthemostsuccessfulgroups,howtoreachtheverypoor,howtofostersynergiesbetweenfinancialandwomen’sempowermentprogrammingandwaysofensuringsustainability.Evidencesuggeststhatwhileinterventionmodelshavemuchincommon,contextualisationandplanningarekey.

Acentralobservationofsomeresearchersisthatnotallcommunitiesarelikelytobenefitfromsavingsgroupinterventions.Wheretherearealreadystrongindigenousgroups,orwherethereisonlylimitedaccesstocash,interventionsareunlikelytoenjoysuccess(Edwards,2010;FAO,2002).Otherresearchershavefocusedonhowgrouptrustcanbefosteredbybothmemberhomogeneityandaclearunderstandingofgroupbenefitsandrules(Edwards,2010;GaihaandNandhi,2007;FAO,2002),thenecessityoftakingintoaccountmembers’seasonalneedratherthanNGObudgetcycleswhenplanningfordisbursement(Jahns-HarmsandWilson,2015),andtheimportanceofkeepingadd-onprogrammingsimpleandrelevanttomembers’lives(USAID,2013;RippeyandFowler,2011;Rao,nd).

TherearearangeofapproacheswithintheSG/SHGpractice.SomeNGOs(suchasCatholicReliefServices)whichmightbestbecharacterisedasdeliveringSGsareconvincedthatamarketbasedapproachiskeytogroupsuccesssotheyhavedeliberatereplicationthroughpaidfacilitatorsratherthanorganicreplication,evenwhenthosefacilitatorsrequiresalaries(GashandOdell,2013;Greaneyetal,2013).Othersareconvincedthatorganicreplicationespeciallybyclusterandfederationstructuresresultsinmuchmoreresilientgroupingswithawiderinfluence.

Therealsoexistsawidebodyofresearchexamininghowgenderequalityinteractswithsavingsgroupinterventions—andhowinterventionscanleveragethoseinteractionstomaximisebothimpactsonpovertyandgenderequality.Evidencesuggests,forexample,thatgroupsthatfosterthestrongestsocialties,whichtendtohelpwomenrecognisetheirgenderedinterests,havethelargestoutcomes—regardlessofwhethergroupsarenewlyformedorwhetherempowermentprogrammingisretrofittedontoexistinggroups(DeiningerandLiu,2013).Italsosuggeststhatwomen’sgainsarelargerwheretheirgatekeepersaretargetedwithinformation(Edwards,2010)

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andwheregrouprulesrequirewomentousemoneyfortheirownends,ratherthanturnitovertotheirhusbands(Garikipati,2012).Althoughcareneedstobetakentoensurethatsavingsgroupsdonotbecomeyetanotherthingforwhichwomenbecomeprimarilyresponsible(Jahns-HarmsandWilson,2015;GaihaandNandhi,2007),fosteringtiesbetweenwomen’ssavingsgroupsandcommunityleadershipstructuresalsomaximisessynergies(Tesoriero,2005).InMali,forexample,somesavingsgroupsworkedwithvillageleaderstoensurethatchildrenwereissuedbirthcertificatesandwaterpumpswereinstalled(Edwards,2010).Drawingonthisinternationallearning,andwiththeinputofover70organizationsinvolvedwithsavingsgroupsindevelopingcountries,theSEEPNetwork(2015)establishedasetofguidelinesintendedtohelpagenciesdesignandimplementqualitysavingsgroupinterventions.Simplified,theseguidelines(seeFigure1)suggestthatorganisations:

1) Designtheprogrammewithclearobjectivesthatareresponsivetomemberinterests,balancingqualityandscale,andthatalignstakeholdersinordertoavoidgapsandoverlaps.

2) Knowthetargetpopulationsandplantoreachthem,planningaheadtoreachthemostvulnerable.

3) Select,train,manageandmonitorgrouptrainersinawaywhichsimultaneouslymaximisestheircontributiontogroupsuccess—andrecognisesit.

4) Promoteatestedsavingsgroupmodelandhelpgroupmembersunderstandandrespectitsprocedures.

5) Whenpairingsavingsgroupswithotherinterventionsplancarefullyandrespecttheautonomyofthegroup—clearlycommunicatinggoalsandmaximisingsynergies.

6) Whenfacilitatinglinksbetweenasavingsgroupandafinancialprovider,ensurethattheinterestsofthegroupcomefirstandthatmembershaveenoughinformationtomaketheirowngoodchoices.

7) Monitorandevaluateoutcomestoensureprogrammequality,takingcaretorespectmembers’data.

8) Plananexitstrategythatallowsforsustainabilityandexpansion.

Figure1:SEEP'sSavingsGroupGuidelines

1.5OverviewofNGOSHG/SGactivitiesinEthiopiaSGorSHG?Asnotedabove,thefiveNGOsandtheirpartnersinEthiopiabasetheirworkindifferentobjectiveswhilstusingsimilarmodalitiesformuchoftheirwork.Theboxbelow(Box1),forexample,highlightshowCAREandCoSAPdifferinphilosophicalapproach.Thecriticaldifferencesseemtolieintheinterpretationofthegroup'sdevelopmentalfunction:SGsviewthegroupsmoreinstrumentallywhilsttheSHGstakeamorerightsbasedapproach.However,bothapproachesbenefitfromtherelationshipsformedandsocialcapitalgeneratedwithingroupsandthe(slightly)moreinstrumentalapproachundertheSGalsofocusesongenderrelations,deeplyembeddedinrightsbasedthinking.AlthoughthefindingsofthisreportwillsuggestthattheNGOsworkhassimilarandpositiveimpactinkeyareas,theNGOsthemselveshavepreferencestowhethertheyareconsideredSavingsGroupsorSelfHelpGroups.WewillthereforerefertothegroupsformedbyCAREandCSTasSavingsGroups(SG)andthoseformedbyTearfundandCoSAPasSelfHelpGroups(SHG).Oxfamliessomewherebetweenbutsinceitaimstoformclustersandfederations,isconsideredanSHGinthisreport.

Box1TheDifferencebetweenSavingsGroupsandSelfHelpGroups

SavingsGroupsCARE/ASE:TheVESAmodelAVillageEconomicandSocialAssociation(VESA)isagroupwithmembersfrom15-25households,broughttogetherbyGRADasafoundationforalleconomicandsocialactivitiessupportedbytheproject.ThemembersofaVESAareself-selectedgroupsofneighboursandpeersandincludebothmenandwomen(oftenthehusbandandwifefromasinglehousehold).OrganizingPSNPhouseholdsintoVESAsisacost-effectivewayofdeliveringdiverseservicesandtechnicalsupporttolargenumbersofhouseholdsinamannerfarmoreefficientthanworkingwithindividualhouseholds.InGRAD,VESAserveasanentrypointfor:financialliteracyandbusinessskilltrainings,exposuretoagriculturaltechnologiesandinformation,linkagestomicrofinanceandinput/outputmarkets,andotherlivelihoodsinterventions.Developmentagents,modelfarmers,andprivatesectoractorscaninterfacedirectlywiththeVESAsandreachalargeandreceptiveaudience.Inaddition,VESAsbuildsocialcohesionandcapitalandareasafeandfertileenvironmentfortraining/discussiononsocialandculturalnormsthatmayimpededevelopmentandcontributetofoodinsecurity(e.g.genderinequality,infantfeedingpractices,etc.).(P2GradLearningBrief3,2014)

TheSelfHelpGroupapproach

CoSAP:TheSelfHelpGroupApproachhasgrownoutofthestudyandapplicationofdevelopmentconceptsatacommunitylevel,andseekstocombinethesocial,economicandpoliticalaspectsofcommunitydevelopment,leadingtoempowerment.Itisfoundedonrights-basedprinciplesthatfacilitateanatmospherewhereinindividualsandcommunitiescanrealisetheirpotentialandworktowardstheirowndevelopment.Afocusonattitudinalchangesremainscentraltotheapproachandmaterialwell-beingalongwithsocialandpoliticaldevelopmentaswellasempowermentisthefinaloutcome.PromotingtheSelfHelpgroupapproachisnotequivalenttoimplementingaprojectoraprogrammewithadefinedend.Contrarily,itwouldbethegroupsatvariouslevelswhowillultimatelyimplementspecifiedprojectsbasedontheirneedandpriorities.ThestructuralcausesofpovertyaretackledthroughtheSHGprocess,therebyleadingtosustainabledevelopmentandastructuralchange.KindernothilfeSHGApproachManualp4-14www.selfhelpgroup.org

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ResultsfromexistingevaluationevidenceFourofthefiveNGOshaveundertakenevaluationswhichhavelargelybeenpositive.Tearfund,forexample,whichhasnowbeenimplementingSHGsinEthiopiafornearlyadecadeandhalfandreacheswelloveramillionpeople,foundthatitsgroupsarereachingthepoorestandhaveimprovedhouseholdincome,assets,nutritionandhealth,increasedchildren’sschoolattendance—withsomeevenabletotransitiontosecondaryschool—anddecreasedtheirmortalityrate,andfreedmembersfrompredatorymoneylenders(Sahyoun,2016;Tsegayetal.,2013;Hornetal.,2011).Italsofound,evenintheregionwhereitchosetoimplementmixed-sexgroupsinorderfostercommunitybuy-in(Sidma),thatSHGshavehelpedwomengainself-confidence,knowledgeandskillsthataretranslatingintoimprovedaccesstodecision-making,althoughtheevaluationrecommendedthatinordertomaximisefuturebenefitsgroupsshouldfocusonwomen-onlyinlocationswherebuy-inhasalreadybeenachieved(Sahyoun,2016).Similarly,CAREfoundthattheGRADprogrammeincreasedeconomicopportunitiesforbeneficiaries,widenedtherangeoffinancialproductsonoffer,upgradedextensionservicesandempoweredwomen,improvedthenutritionalstatusofinfants,childrenandwomenofreproductiveage,fosteredclimatechangeadaptionandincreasedPSNPgraduation(GPS,2015).Likewise,Oxfamfoundthat90%ofitsSHGmembershavestartedsomesortofbusinessfromwhichtheyarereapingeconomicbenefits--withwomenshowingthelargestgrowthinIGAs(especiallybeekeeping)andthatSHGsareconsidereda'sourceofsolidarity'(OxfamGB,2014).CoSAP’sevaluationalsofoundpositiveimpacts,withSHGmembersmobilisingsavingsandopening,expandingandscalingupprofitableIGAswhichhaveincreasedeconomicandhumancapital.

ThefiveNGOswhoseworkisthefocusofthisstudyarelistedinthetablebelowalongwiththenameoftheprojectorsub-projectthattheresearchersvisitedandtheimplementingpartner.ThedifferentNGOswillbereferredtobythenameoftheimplementingpartner(so,for,CARE'sGRADprogrammethepartnerwasAgriservice,sowerefertoCARE/ASE).SomeconfusioncouldarisewithFacilitatorforChange(FC)whichwastheimplementerforbothOxfamandCoSAP'sKindernothilfesotheyaredistinguishedasOxfamFCandCoSAPFC.

Table1TheNGOS,theirprojectsandimplementingpartners

NGO CARE Tearfund Oxfam CAFOD/SCIAF/TrocaireworkingtogetherasCST

CoSAP

Projectorsubprojectname

GraduationwithResiliencetoAchieveSustainableDevelopment(GRAD)

NazarethCommunityDevelopmentProgramme

WomenintheHoneyValueChain

Livelihoodenhancementofresource-poorwomen,smallholderfarmersandlandlessyouth/adolescentgirlsInWuchaleWoreda

SHGprogramme

Implementingpartners

ASEEthiopia;withNetherlands'DevelopmentOrganization(SNV)

EthiopianKaleHeywetChurch(EKHC)

FacilitatorforChange(FC)

HUNDEE;

FacilitatorforChange(FC)

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Duration

Dec2011-Dec2016

June2002-ongoing

July2012-August2017

October2013-2018 2002ongoing

Goal Economicempowerment:tograduatechronicallyfoodinsecureHHsfromProductiveSafetyNet(PSNP)supportandincreaseeachHH'sincomeby$365peryear.

Tacklingeconomicempowerment+socialnormchange:bothsocialandeconomicempowermentofpoorandvulnerablecommunitiestomovethemoutofpoverty.

Socialchangeforeconomicempowerment:toempowerfemaleheadedhouseholdstojoinformalgroupsascooperativesandgainfromincreasedeconomicbenefits.

Economicempowerment:toincreasetheresilienceofoincreasetheresilienceofpoorMenandWomenheadedHouseholdsbydiversifyingandincreasingincomespoorcommunitiesandtoenablethemtomoveoutofpoverty(sustainably).

EconomicempowermentofwomenorganizedinSHGs,theirSocialempowermentandInstitutional/politicalempowerment

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2.Methodology

2.1Desk-basedcomponentAdesk-basedreviewwasundertakentoanalysetheexistingprogrammedocumentation,includingevaluationsandassessmentsfromalltheparticipatingorganisations(Tearfund,CARE,Oxfam,CAFOD/SCIAF/Trócaire(CST)andCoSAP).TheaimwastomapNGOprogrammedesign,andsecondaryevidencerelatingtooutcomesandimpactstoinformtheoverallreport.ThedeskreviewincludeddocumentationprovidedbyparticipatingNGOsandrelevantgreyandpublishedliteraturerelatingtootherorganisationsinEthiopia,sub-SaharanAfrican,SouthAsiaandSouthEastAsiaworkingonSHG/SHG/SG,includinggovernment-supportedinitiatives.Alsoimportantly,thedeskreviewanalysessomebackgroundliteratureonMicroFinanceOrganisations(MFIs)inEthiopiatounderstandtheirmechanismsofengagementwithSHG/SG.

2.2StakeholderworkshopPriortothestartoffieldwork,theODIteamorganizedaworkshopwithkeystakeholdersinAddisAbabatodiscusstheinformationonthematrixandtoidentifywhatdifferentorganizationsconsidertobethestrengthsandweaknessesoftheirapproaches.Theaimofthisworkshopwastofosterdiscussionsaboutthedifferentinterventionmethodologiestoinformtheanalysisandprovidemorebackgroundinformationforthefieldwork.Itwasalsoimportanttoelicitcommentsfromparticipantsregardingtheresearchapproach.Representativesfromallparticipatingagenciesattendedtheworkshop.

2.3FieldworkAsthefieldworkcouldnotcoverallinterventionsandalllocalities,thesamplingoflocalitiesaimedtobepurposive,tocapturespecificfeatureswhicharerepresentativeofthedifferentprogrammecharacteristicsortocapturedatafromuniqueandsuccessfulmodels.Thefieldworkineachlocalitydrewonqualitativeandparticipatorymethods,withinteractionswithfocusgroupswithdiscussionsfacilitatedthroughculturallyappropriateparticipatoryassessmenttools.Fieldworktookplace11-26April2016(includingtraveltimebetweenlocalities)theteamvisited5localities,allowingapproximately2.5dayspersitetoconductmeaningful,participatorydiscussionswithbeneficiaries.Thesitesselectedincluded4rurallocalitiesand1urbanlocalityin3differentregionsofEthiopia(SNNPR,Oromia,Amhara),togetasenseofdifferentcontextualfactorsthatmightbecontributingtotheintervention’sperformance.TheNGOsconcernedselectedthepartnerstobevisited,whointurnselectedgroups,andtheODIteamdiscussedthevariouslocationsandthesequencingofthefieldworkduringtheplanningphase.TheNGOstookresponsibilityfororganisingthefieldwork(includingtheselectionofthepartnerNGO,theworedas/kebeles,SG/SHGs,thebeneficiariestoparticipateandtheidentificationof,andappointmentswith,otherkeyinformants)fortheresearchprocess.

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Table2Summaryofsitesvisited

NGO/Partner Agriservice(ASE)/CARE

NAZARETH/Tearfund

FacilitatorsforChange/KNH(CoSAP)

FacilitatorsforChange/Oxfam

Hundee/CST

Site/Region MeskaneWoreda/SNNPR

AdamaTown/Oromia

BureWombermaWoreda/Amhara

DangilaWoreda/Amhara

WuchaleWoreda/Oromia

Geographicalcharacteristics

Highproductivity/droughtaffectedareas

Urban Highproductivity Highproductivity Mediumproductivity

Entrypoint PSNPgraduatesandPSNPrecipients

Poorhouseholdsoriginallyreceivingchurchaid;NazarethCoalitionoutreach

Establishedcooperativesformenwithmatchedfunding

Kabeleleadership,PRAselection,doortodoor

CommunitymeetingswithKabeleandreligiousleaders

NGOeconomicactivity

Livestockcooperatives;livestockfattening,linkswithMFIs,supportforprivateagro-dealers,irrigatedvegetableproduction

None,groupsareselfsufficient

MakingfuelefficientstovesPre-schoolsfatteningsheepandgoatrearing,nurserysites,breadmaking,pettytradeinlocalmarket,cropproduction,localbeverageandfoodmaking.

Beekeepingtrainingandsubsidisedequipment

SHG/SGLoansfromNGOtogroupstobuycattleinturn;femalecalvespassedontoothermembers

Cluster/Federation

No Yes Yes No No

MFIpartner OMOMeklitMFI

Metamamen,Tesfa

Harbu,

Whilethemajorityofgroupdiscussionswereheldwithbeneficiarywomen,whereprogrammesreachbothmenandwomen,suchaswithCST/HundeeandCARE/ASEtherewasatleastonegroupdiscussionwithmentoexploretheperceiveddifferencesandbenefitsofgroupmembershipandactivities.WheretheSHG/SGswerewomenonly,groupdiscussionswereheldwithhusbandsofthebeneficiaries(whowerealsoorganisedintoproductivecooperativesinthecaseofCoSAP).Wherepossible(althoughopportunitieswerelimited),theresearchteamexploredtheimpactthatgendercompositionofgroupshasonprocessandoutcomes,focusingparticularlyonpowerdynamicsandrolesinthegroups.Inadditiontothegroup,clusterandfederationleveldiscussions,theteamconductedanumberofinterviewswithkeyinformants(implementingNGOstaff,communitylevelfacilitators,Kebeleleaders,governmentauthorities,MFIandSACCOstaff)tocomplementinformationfrombeneficiaries.Withmoretime,theresearcherswouldalsohaveundertakenmoreindividualinterviewsastheseprovedrichandoftenprovidedmorenuancedinformationthanthegroupinterviews.Theinterviewsarelistedinthematrixbelow(Table53).Table3Interviewsconducted

Interviewcategories/NGOs CARE/ASE NAZRETH FC/ FC/ CST/ Tot

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NGO CoSAP OXFAM HUNDEE al

FocusGroupDiscussions

WomenSHG/SG 4 2 3 3 4 16

SHG/SGMen 2 0 1 1 4Cluster/Federation 0 2 1 0 2 5Indepthinterviews SHG/SGMembersWomen 2 2 1 1 2 8Husbands 2 1 1 1 1 6NGOStaff 1 1 2 1 1 6NGOFacilitators 0 1 2 4 7MFI/SACCOStaff 2 1 1 1 5GovernmentOfficers 2 1 2 2 3 10total 14 9 13 12 18 67

InterviewswererecordedanddetailednotestakenbytheteamduringinterviewsandFGD.Forthemostpart,theteammembersworkedinpairstoallowforjointinputintoandverificationofnotes.Therewereregulardailydebriefingsbetweentheteammemberstosystematisefindingstoensurearobustanalysisaswellasafinaldebrief.

2.4ScopeofresearchandlimitationsOverall,thereareconsiderablechallengestothetypeofinvestigationthattheNGOswishedgiventhedifficultyincontrollingforthevariationsinsite,individuals,wealthstatusandotherkeyfactors.Thestrengthofaqualitativestudysuchastheoneconductedhereisthatitprovidesinformationindepthaboutcomplexphenomenaandallowsforadegreeofcross-casecomparisonsandanalysisenrichedbythepersonalexperiencesofthosewhoaresupposedtoexperiencechangeorfacilitatechangeasaresultoftheproject3.Qualitativeresearchcanbringoutperspectivesfromthevariouslocalcontextsfoundhereandinvestigatehowtheseperspectivesorexperienceshavechangedovertime.Thisallowsinsightsintohowaprojectworksonthegroundratherinferfromthetheoryofchangeandimplementationmodelsofprogrammes.

AnobstacletoformingaroundedpictureoftheworkofeachNGOwasthefactthat,forthemostpart,theresearchersweretakentoseesuccessfulexamplesoftheNGO'swork.Thismadesensefromtheperspectiveofcomparinglikewithlikebutalsomeansthatnearlyeverygroupencounteredhaddonewellovertheindicatorsinvestigated.Therewereafewexceptions,forexample,withtwoCARE/ASEgroupswhere,keentoseehowgroupsmightcopebetterwithcovariateshocksandstresses,theteamaskedtomeetadroughtaffectedgroupandinthisprocessencounteredstoriesoffailureandchallengeswiththeeconomiclinkagesmodeloftheprogramme.OneoftheCoSAPgroupsandoneOxfamgroupalsoseemedmore'average'.Whatcomparingsuccessfulgroups

3Thisdiscussiondrawsonthesummaryinfoundathttps://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/oh_master/Ch14/Tab14-02.pdf

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meansforqualitativeresearchthoughisthattheresearchcanneverunderstandthewholerangeofgroupexperiences:weak,medium,strongandfailedgroups.Thislimitsthefindingsofthisreport.

TheTORshadspecifiedthatthiswouldbealongitudinalstudybutnotconventionally(inthattheresearchwouldrevisitsimilargroupsoveraseveralyearsspan)butoneaimingtoassesschangethroughcomparinglongerestablishedandmorerecentlyestablishedgroups.TheintentionwastocomparematureandrecentlyestablishedSGs/SHGswithinthesameagencytotrytoseewhatworkedwellovertimeamongsttheirdifferentmethodologies,whattheyhadincommonandtolearnfromeachother.

2.5LaxLongitudinalityAlthoughNGOpartnerswererequestedbytheirfundingagenciestoensurethatlongerestablishedandmorerecentlyestablishedgroupswerevisitedforeachNGO,thiswashardtorealise.Maturitywasnotdefinedintheearlystages,rather,eachNGOdecidedforitselfwhatcountedas'mature'or'recent'andsomeprogrammeshadbeenrunninglongerthanothers.Thisleftsomeuncertaintyregarding'mature',wasthisa3or4or5yearoldgroup?If5yearsistakenasacutoff,wehave7groupsthatarematureand9recent.If4years,then9aremature,7recent;with3yearsasthecutoff,then11groupsarematureandonly5arerecent.Tofurthercomplicatematters,thematuregroupsandrecentgroupsarenotevenlydistributedbetweentheNGOsasthetablebelowillustrates.Table4Durationofgroupformation

NameofNGO Nameofgroup Ageofgroup(years)

Care/ASE Tatek,Lemlem&Bilew 3

Care/ASE Tatek,Lemlem&DedubFire 3

Care/ASE SHGmixedgroup 4.5

Care/ASE Piazza,EnelmaandLemlem 2

FC(COSAP) Lemlem 7

FC(COSAP) Birhan 5

FC(COSAP) Addisalem(NewWorld) 7

NAZARETH YahiweNise 14

NAZARETH Yeras'Fikir 1.5

OXFAM/FC SertenEnedeg 4

OXFAM/FC AddisalemII 2

OXFAM/FC Enamrit 1

Hundee Bontu 5

Hundee Bati 2

Hundee Gebisa 6

HUNDEE Geregitu 5

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ThedifficultyinseparatingmatureandrecentSG/SHGsmeansthatnotmuchemergedfromthecomparisonofgroupsinthe'longitudinal'wayenvisagedbytheNGOsbeyondseeingmorematuregroupsasbetterestablishedintermsofsocialrelationsandoftenalsointermsofthescaleandprofitabilityofloans.

IfwecannottraceevolutionovertimewithinthegroupsestablishedbythesameNGO,thisleavescomparisonbetweenNGOs.TheNGOscertainlyhaveagreatdealincommoninthewaythattheydelivertheseprogrammesasthetablebelow(Table5)makesclear.Table5ComparisonofactivitiesofNGOsworkingwithSG/SHGs

Activities CARE/ASE

Tearfund/Nazareth

CoSAP/FC

Oxfam/FC

CST/Hundee

Savings • • • • • Loans • • • • • Training(savings,gender,health,nutrition,IGAs,CCA,etc)

• • • • •

Rotationalleadership • • • • • Socialfund/donation • • • • • Annualfundshare-out • • • • ClusterandCoalitionorganisations • • ? • Womenonlygroups • • • • MFIlinkages • • • • • Cooperativelinkage • • • Nomaterialsupport • • • • FacilitatorspaidbyNGO • • • • • Activeengagementwithhusbandsormen'sgroups

• • ? • ?

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3.HowdothedifferentNGOSdeliverontheirobjectives?

3.1ModesandmethodsofimplementationThebasiccoreofgroupformationforsavingsandloans,trainingandfacilitationliesattheheartoftheapproachesofthefiveNGOsandtheirlocalpartnersbutbeyondthisbasiccoreliearangeoftheimplementationmodels,underlyingassumptionsandthemethodsofimplementation.Thesearesummarised,muchintheNGOs'ownwords,inthetablebelow.

Table6NGOImplementation:modes,assumptionsandmethods

NGO Modesofimplementation Assumption Methodsofimplementation

CARE

Economicempowerment:increasingaccesstofinancialservicesandextensionservices(throughfinancialtraining,businessskilltraining,infoaboutagriculturetechnologies,linkagestomicrofinanceandinput/outputmarkets)Behaviouralchange:Improvecommunityresiliencebya)increasinginformation(e.g.onsocialnorms),inputsandservicesavailableb)byimprovingthenutritionalstatusofchildren,infantsandreproductiveagewomenc)climatechangeadaptationd)promotingaspirationsforgraduationamongtargetedPSNPHHs.

1)Improvedaccesstofinancialservicesordiversificationofincomegainingactivities(economicempowerment)willempowerpoorHHs(fordevelopment).2)Togaineconomicempowermentbothformalandinformalfinancialservicesarerequired3)Toensuresustainablegrowthdevelopmentinitiativesneedtosimultaneouslyincreasenutritionintakeofvulnerablewomenandchildrenandadapttoclimatechange.

SGs:A)VESAgroups(VillageEconomicandSavingAssociations):poolsavingsandprovidesmallloans.VESAsareinvolvedineitherorboth:1)incomegeneratingactivities(IGA)(withnoaccesstoloansofformalfinancialservices)2)valuechainactivities(VCs)(provisionoffinancialsupportthroughMFIs-HHswithdebthistoriesareexcluded)B)FEMAs(FarmersEconomicandMarketingAssociations)(cooperatives-sharingprofitoutofproduce).

Tear-fundBehaviouralchangebydevelopingrelationaldevelopmentanddevelopmentofcriticalthinking,ensurepersonalandsocialdevelopmentEconomicempowerment:Usingownsaving,andthroughbusinesstrainingandlinkagewithfinancialsources,ensureviablelivelihoodmeansPoliticalempowerment:Developingcriticalthinking,learningandconversationstoincreaseSHGmembers’involvementindecisionmakingathousehold&communitylevels,andinfluencingofpolicyandpractices.

Economicdiversificationofwomen'sincomegainingactivitiesandaccesstoformalmarkets(economicempowerment)willincreaseresilience.

MixofSHGs/SG:A)SGs:financialcapacitybuildingtraining,pooledfundsforamixofpurposesasdefinedbymembers,overtimepredominantlybusinessloansB)SHGs:platformsfordiscussionsaboutsocialissues.C)CLAClusterlevelorganisationsfrom8-12groupsD)FLAFederationfrom6-8clustersforadvocacy,representationandlinkageSelection:twomodels:1)communitybased-communitydevelopmentmodel(SHGsdevelopedthroughaprojectoffice)2)Churchmodel.

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NGO Modesofimplementation Assumption Methodsofimplementation

Oxfam

Behaviouralchange:throughSGHswomenareprovidedsupporttohelpovercomegenderedbarriersthatstopthemfromparticipatinginformalgroups.Theapproachisalsousedtoacceleratethesocialandeconomicempowermentofwomenbytriggeringasenseofabilityandcapabilitytoincreaseparticipationanddecisionmakingpower.

Economicdiversificationofwomen'sincomegainingactivitiesandaccesstoformalmarkets(economicempowerment)willincreaseresilience.

SHGsCommunitylevelfunctionaladultliteracytraining,financialandmanagementtraining,savingschemesforlivelihoodsandmarketdiversification.Regionalleveladvocatingforinclusionofwomeninformalmembershipandbycreatingrulesandregulationsthatsupportfemalemembership.CST

Economicempowerment:todiversifyandincreaseincomes,tocreatesustainableaccesstowaterandnaturalresources,increasetheproductionandproductivityofbeneficiaries.

Economicdiversificationofwomen'sincomegainingactivitiesandaccesstoformalmarkets(economicempowerment)willincreasegenderequality.

SGisinformal.Numbers:SGissmall(15to20members),generallyhomogeneousandmembersareboundbyaffinity.

CoSAP SHGs1)Economicempowerment:

developsavingculture,creategreateraccesstofinancialresources,reducevulnerabilitytocrises,improvelivelihoodskills,createaccesstoandcontrolofincomeearned,ensurefinancialself-reliance,createaccesstobusinessopportunities2)Socialempowerment:developassertiveness,buildconfidencetothinkindependentlyandanalyzeproblems,promoteequalstatusandactiveparticipation,improvepowerofdecisionmakingathouseholdlevel,enhancerecognitionandsocialrespectwithinandoutsidethefamily,improvecommunicationandleadershipskills,createbelongingnessandidentity.3)Institutional/politicalempowerment:developSHGmembers'assertivenesstospeakinfrontoflocalauthoritiesobtainservicesandresourcesfromgovernment,strengthenthebasicprinciplesofgoodgovernancebyenhancingpeople’sparticipation,involveFederationstotakeonacriticalroleinthesocioeconomicandinstitutionaldevelopmentoftheirregionsandlobbyforpolicydevelopment.

Whendisadvantagedwomenarebroughttogetherashomogeneousgroupsandfacilitatedtounleashtheirpotentialandstrategizefortheirfuture,theybecomeastrongengineofdevelopment.

SHGsaregrassrootgroups.ClusterLevelAssociation(CLA)-arepresentativebodymadeof8ormoreactiveandstrongCLAs.FederationLevelAssociation:8ormorestrongCLAscometogethertoformtheapexstructure;theFederation.

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3.2Targeting-targetgroupsandhowtheyareidentifiedTheagenciesallaimtoreachthepoorestandhavearangeofdifferenttargetingmechanismsinordertodosowhenformingofSG/SHGwhicharelistedbelow.ItisworthnotingthatmostoftheKebeleleadersvaluedtheirroleinsuggestingandselectinganinitialgroupofpotentialmembersfortheNGOstomeet.

FCformedthegroup.Theyfirstcalledusforameetingandthentoldustoidentifyoureconomicstatusanddrawacommunitymap.Theygaveusseedswhichtheyusedtoidentifyoureconomicstatus.Thefirstgroup(oneseed)isofrichwomen;onewhohavetwooxen,acartandsteelroofedhouse.Thesecondgroup(twoseed)consistedofwomenwithoneoxandsteelroofedhouse.Thethirdgroup(threeseed)wasforfemaleheadedhouseholdswhohavesomelandandhavesomethingtolivein.Oxfam/FC

● ASEisworkingwithPSNPrecipientswhoareextremelypoorandgraduatesofthePSNP(still

poor).Thisisthereforeacombinationofpovertyandgeographicaltargetingandbuildsongovernmentsystems.

● Nazarethusesarigorousparticipatorywealthrankingprocess,thepoorestareselectedbyacommunityselectedjuryandsanctionedbythewholecommunity4andwillworkswithotherwealthgroups,oncethepooraresufficientlycovered;andtheclusterformationswillalsobenefitfromexpandedmembershipthroughsuccessfulgroups.

● CoSAP/FCtargetedgeographicallybecauseBureWombermaWoreda,thoughahighproductivityarea,sufferedhighlevelsofchildlabourbeingexported.TheNGOdidasurveytoinvestigateandfoundpoorfarmersfacingbarrierstomarketing;womenveryunequalinthehousehold;andthatchildexploitationwasalsomanifestedinhighearlymarriagerates.CoSAP/FCbeganformingcooperativeswithpoormenandthenreachedouttowomen,alsousingPRAforhomogeneity.Cooperativemembershipwaspromotedwhereappropriateforbothmenandwomenfarmers.

● Oxfam/FCinMechaWoredaformshomogenousgroupsthroughPRA,theagencytargetsthepoorestalthoughwillformgroupsofhigherwealthcategories.OxfamfacilitatorsdescribedgoingdoortodoorpostPRAtomeethusbandsandwivestoexplaintheprogrammeandlookforvolunteers.Oxfam/FC'smainrationaleistocreateefficientvaluechainsforhoneyproduction;thisgoalbenefitsfromanexpansioninproducers.

● CST/Hundeetargetspoorfemaleheadedhouseholdsandwomenfrompoormaleheadedhouseholdsandgroupsthembyage;todoso,theagencywentthroughtraditionalandreligiousleaderstocallacommunitymeetingofthoseconsideredsuitablecandidatesandtheninvitethemtojoin.CSTalsoworkswithmalesavingsgroups.

MostNGOsarewillingtofacilitatenon-poorgroupsoncethepoorhavebeenreachedasthegroupsavingsmechanismworksforall.

Fourofthefiveagenciesfocusonformingwomenonlygroups(andworkwithmenviaothermodalitiesthoughwilloftensupportmaleSG/SHGs)butASEworkswithmixedsexgroups.

4NAZARETHbeganwithafocusonextremelypoorwomenthroughthosereceivingaidfromchurches

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Table7Targetgroups

NGO CARE Tearfund Oxfam CST CoSAPCharacteristicsofthegroups

1)VESAs:households.Selection:selfselectedgroupsofneighboursandpeersandincludebothmenandwomen(oftenthehusbandandwifefromasinglehousehold).Voluntarilyformed,selfmanaged.2)FEMA-formalstructures.

Allwomen,allmenormixed.

SHGs:allwomen.Participationisfullyvoluntary.

Associationofpoorwomeninacommunitywithacommonobjectiveofworkingtogetherfortheireconomicandsocial,politicaldevelopment,empowerment.

SHGSsaregrassrootlevelgroupsofwomenfromsimilarsocio-economicbackgrounds.

3.3HowtheSG/SHGswork:thebasicmodelInthissection,aquickoverviewisgivenofhowthegroupsworkintermsoforganisation,membership,by-laws,savings,loansandtraining.

InternalgrouporganisationGroupmembershipisusuallyaround10-30membersandorganisedbylocality(usuallynomorethanahalfhourwalkawayfromacentralpoint)andhomogeneity,takenassamesex(infouroutofthefivecaseshere)andsimilareconomicstatus.Homogeneitycan,ofcourse,belostovertimeasindividualsuccessmaymeandifferentiationbutthismaynotaffectstronglycoherentgroups).

Table8Groupnumbers

NGO CARE Tearfund Oxfam CST CoSAPCharacteristicsofthegroups

1)VESAs:numbers:15-252)FEMA-formalstructures.

15-20pergroup 15-20pergroup 15-20pergroup 15-20pergroup

Groupsareorganisedaccordingtostrictruleswhichmembersagree,togetherwithsupportandadvicefromfacilitators;thisprocesscreatesasenseofownershipregardingthegroup.Theby-lawsoftenspecifyfrequencyofmeeting(usuallyweeklyorfortnightly);asetofpenaltiesfornoncompliance(laterepaymentofloans,nonattendancetomeetings,lateness,noretentionofinterestorprofitifamemberleavesthegroup,thepurposeofthesocialfundorsocialcontributions,non-compliancewithharmfultraditionalpracticesandsoon).Theby-lawsdifferfromgrouptogroupsowhatholdsforonegroupmaynotforanotherbutensuretransparencyregardingkeyactivities.

Whenamembermovestoanotherplacebecauseofdivorceoranotherproblemwepayonlythemoneyshesavedbutnointerest.Whenamemberfailstosavecontinuouslyor

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wantstowithdrawfromthegroupwecancelhermembershipandwedon’tpayevenhersavings.Oxfam/FCSHG5

TherewerenodiscernibleoperationaldifferencesbetweenthetypesofpenaltiesforthevariousNGOsalthoughcloseadherencetotheby-lawsislikelytobeasignofgroupstrengthandcoherence.Itshouldbeclearthatinagreeingthatmemberscontributetoasocialfundoropposetraditionalharmfulpracticesinbylaws,socialawarenessisbuiltintothegroupfromthebeginningaswellassomeassistanceforcrises.

Leadershippositionsaredemocraticallyelectedandrotateregularlyaroundthemembershipwiththeaimofensuringalltakeaturnanddeveloptheskillsrequired.Thisisacriticalsourceofempowermentformanymembersasitwillbethefirsttimetheywillhavehadaleadershiproleinanyentityoutsidethehome.

Onthefirstmeeting,weformulatedaby-law,setpositionshalafi/dagna(chairperson/representative),tsehafi(secretary),andgenzebyaz(finance),andcontributedsomemoneyforoursaving.Thechairpersonisresponsibleforcollectingmoney,chairingdiscussions,passingonmessagesfromHundee,enforcingthebylaw.Shefollowsuponmembersandisresponsibleforstrengtheningandholdingthegrouptogether.Thesecretarywritesreportsandisresponsibleforthesavingaccount.Financeisthewomanwhoholdsonthemoneyandgivesoutloan.HundeeSHG

FacilitatorsFacilitators6mobilisegroups,trainmembers,helpwithgroups'record-keeping,monitorsavingsandloans,andcreatelinkageswithotherproductiveororganisationallinkages,assuch,they,areanintegralpartofthemodel.Thebasicqualificationistobefemale(ormaleforASE),havegraduatedfrom10thgradeoraboveandlocaltotheKebele(toknowthecommunity).Mostfacilitatorsmetwereyoung,between20-30,andhadresponsibilityforanaverageof5groups.Trainingforfacilitatorscentresonthegroupmethodology,participatoryruralappraisaltechniques(forwealth/wellbeingranking,etc.),savingsandloansrulesandregulations,andarangeofothertechnicalsubjectsdependingontheNGO,suchasagronomy,animalhusbandry,genderrelations,nutrition,basicliteracy,health,pre-natalcare,sanitationandsoon.FacilitatorsarestaffmembersoftheimplementingNGO.Trainingapproachesdiffered:muchtrainingwasgivenbytheNGOs;sometimesfacilitatorsreceivedtechnicalsupportandtrainingfromgovernmentexperts;otherstrainednewfacilitatorsalongsidetheSGsandgovernmentofficerstoincreasemutualunderstandingandempathy.

Thefacilitatorsvisitthegroupsweekly(forthemostpart)andleaddiscussionsonthesavingsandloansandondevelopmentaltopicsaccordingtoascheduleandtogroupinterest.Particulartasksweretosupervisethebookkeepingbythegroupsecretary,resolveconflictsandtolinkthegroupwithotheractivitiesortrainingswhereavailable.FacilitatorsforSHGsworkcloselywiththecluster5Notethatthisisanexamplefromthebylawsofonlyonegroup,asanillustration.6OranimatorsasASEcallsthem

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sub-committeememberswhoareresponsibleforeitherconflictresolution,resourcemobilizationorlinkageswhereclustersarefunctioning.FacilitatorsworkcloselywithWoredaandKebeleWomenAffairsandtheHealthExtensionWorkers(HEWs)whotaketheopportunityofwomenbeingatregulargroupmeetingsforeducationonreproductivehealthandotherareasincludingliteracy,gendersanitation,etc.FacilitatorsforagenciesthatworkwithcooperativesorMFIsmayalsofocusondevelopingorstrengtheningtheselinkages.Althoughtheagenciescontractingthisresearchhadhopedtolearnwhichmobilisationapproachworkedbest,itwasnotpossibletoreachaconclusiongiventhescopeofthefieldwork.Itisalsothat,ifwelltrainedandmanaged,thedifferentapproacheshavethecapacitytoworkequallywell.

SavingsandloansGroupsusuallyreportedbeginningwithsmallbutregularsavings,withmemberssavingaslittleasETB2-5(approximatelyUS$0.09-22)orless.Trainingisgivenbythefacilitatorsintheprinciplesofsaving:howtofindalittlemoneytosave,when,howandforwhatloanscanbetakenandhowinterestrateswork.

Groupsaimtosavetocreateapoolforloans(mainly)forincomegeneratingactivities.Oncethepooledsavingsreachacertainlevel,whichoftentookseveralmonths,loanstogroupmemberscouldbegin.Thisisoneofthecriticaladvantagesofgroupsavings,pooledfundscreateopportunitiesforgreaterprofitabilityandproductivitymorequicklythanindividualssavingalone.Initialloansareusuallysmall(300-500ETB,approximatelyUSD13-21)sincemembersmaynotborrowmorethanthecombinedamountoftheirownsavingsandthoseofamemberwhostandsastheir'collateral'or'surety'.Allloansrequireacollateralholderandthisincreasesscrutinyoftheloanaswellasgroupcoherence.Interestratesaresetbythegroupandwereusuallyrelativelylow(varyingintheexamplesencounteredfrom3%to10%amonth);oftentheinterestispaidbackmonthlywiththeloanrepaidattheend.Loansaremostlyrestrictedtoa3-4monthperiodtoensureallmembershaveaccesstoaloanbutalsotopreventborrowersdevelopingasenseofownershipwithregardtothefunds.

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Figure2ThelogicoftheSavingsGroup

GroupdiscussionandapprovalofbusinessplansGroupmembersandNGOstaffstatedthatbypreference,loanswereforproductiveactivitiesnotconsumptionbutsometimesloansaretakenforhouseholdconsumption.

Wehavesetasystemtomakesurethatnooneusesitfortheirownpurpose;nottobeusedforclothorsomethingtoconsumeathome.Wedonotwantmemberstouseitforthispurposeforitisdifficulttopaybacktheloanonceusedforsuchcause.HUNDEE

Anormalpracticeasapre-conditionfortheloanwasgroupdiscussionandapprovalofindividualbusinessplans;thisconstitutedafurtherlevelofsecurity.Italsoincreasedtransparencyasgroupmembers,whowereallrelativelylocal,wouldoftenbeabletocheckupinformallyonforwhattheloanhadbeenused.

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4. Findings:SHG/SGOutcomesandstrengths

4.1IndividuallevelBenefitsofgroupmembershipforindividualsNearlyalloftherespondentsinterviewedhadapositivereviewoftheirSG/SHGexperience;thisbrokedownintoadistinctsetofbenefits.Ofkeyimportancewasthedevelopmentofanewsavingscultureformemberswhichallowedagreaterabilitytoplanforthefuture.Theotherfrequentlymentionedimprovementswere:theaccesstolowinterestloans:newincomegeneratingactivities;greaterdietarydiversity;increasedandsmootherhealthandeducationexpenditure,enhancedmobility,greaterselfconfidenceandstrongersocialrelations.Manyalsomentionednewskillslearntfromtrainingforbusinessplanningortoincomegeneratingactivitiesbutalsochangesinintra-householdrelations.FocusGroupDiscussionparticipantsreportedthatgroupshadlostfewmembers,mostlyduringtheearlydaysbecauseofmarriageormovingawayandthatoftenthosethatleftthegrouplateraskedtorejoinorfoundothergroupswhentheysawthesuccessofthegroups.

SavingsandplanningTheimpactofplanningandsavingstoolsappearsprofoundandtohavebroughtinamoreconsultativedecisionmakingprocessparticularlyinplanninghowtoinvestthenextloanfromtheSHG/SGgroup.Manywomeninthegroupssaidthattheyhadlearnttomanagetheirmoneybetterandtoplanforthefuture.MeninMeskanjokedthattheynowhadtolieabouthowmuchtheygotwhentheysoldanimalsatthemarketbecausetheycouldnolongeradmittotheirwivesthattheyhadtreatedtheirfriendstofoodanddrinkwhilstthere;theysaidthatpreviouslytheywouldnothavehadtobotherlying,sothatthis,bizarrely,wasasignofwomen'sempowerment.

Beingabletoinvestinbusinessesandtomanagetheirhousehold'sneedsmoreeffectively,manywomenfoundthemselvescredit-worthyforthefirsttime.

SavingsCultureManyofthoseintervieweddescribedhowtheyhadlearnedtosaveasmallamountofmoneyregularlyandtoreflectmorecarefullyontheirexpenditures.Everygroupreportedthattheyhadcometounderstandandappreciatethevalueofhavinga'savingsculture'.

Thesavingsandbusinesstrainingwasverygood.Wearenotcarelessorextravagantwithmoneyanymore.Nowwethinkmorecarefullyabouthowwespendmoney.6-10birrusednottobemuchatallbutnowamemberwillthinkthatthisistheirsavingscontribution.SGCARE/ASEThefacilitatorbroughtustogethertoestablishthegroup.Thenweestablishedthegroupandbeganbysaving1birrperweek.Butnowwearesaving3birr.HundeeSHGThefieldworkerstoldustocutbackoncoffee,onions,oil,byreducing–weshouldtrysaving50cents,thoseofuswhodrinkcoffeetogether.Wetriedthatwithjusttenofustogether,oursavingsgothigher.Weaddedmoremembers,invitedthemtojoin.Bydiscussing,madethat1birrsavingseveryweek.

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CoSAP/FCAmountsavedvariesbasedoncapacity(e.g)somesave2birr,some5birr,some10birr,youcanevensave1birrTherearelimitationsintherains,maysave2birrandthenharvestcansaveupto15birr.Oxfam/FC

Theearlydaysofthegrouparethemostchallengingasmembersareaskedtofacesomehardshipbutreceivelittlereward.Thisiswhengroupsaremostlikelytofail.

Actually,itisnotdoabletosaveonaregularbasisformanymembers.Mostofthemarestrugglingtopaytheirweeklysavingsbydiversifyingtheirincome.Theysavesomeamountthattheycanafford.Atthebeginning,forinstance,itwasverydifficultformetosave50centsregularlybecausemyincomewas”handtomouth”.MyhusbanddiedwhenIwaspregnanttomylastchild.Sowithdependentchildrenathome,itwasnoteasyformetosaveonaregularbasis.Butthankstothegroup,nowadaysIamabletoearnmoreandsavemorewithoutdifficulty.Nazreth(Indepthinterview)Webuyeducationmaterialsanduniformforourchildren.Ourlivingstandardhaschanged.Wenowbuyrice,pasta,oil.Wehavefurnituresuchastable,shelves,eatingutensils.HundeeSHGhusband

Thebenefitofsavinginagroupisthatafterafewmonths,thesavingshaveincreasedbutalsothatthepooledsavingscanbeusedforgroupincomegeneratingorsavingactivitiesevenearlierthanthroughsavingasanindividual.Also,TearfundmembersinNazarethdescribedarangeofactivitiessuchasbulkbuycookingoiltobedistributedtomembersatcostpricethussavingthemmoney.Similarly,groupsdescribedlacemakingorcottonweavingasagroupenterprisetoraisefundsforthegroup.

Economicimpact-savingsandinvestmenttrajectoriesThepotentialforinvestmentinIGAsbyindividualgroupmembersaccordingtotherespondentsiscloselytiedtosavingslevelswhicharethemselvesdeterminedbytheeconomicsituationofgroupmembers,howlongthegrouphasbeenestablishedandwhatopportunitieslocalmarketsandinfrastructurepermit.Therewasanapproximatestepbysteptrajectoryforgroupmemberswhichshowedthatwhattheycouldinvestinvariedwiththeloantheycouldaccess.Acommonpatternforwomeninthese5sites,especiallytheruralones,isthattheywouldoftenbeginwithloanstobuyandsellgrains,keeppoultryorbuybarleyandwheattobrewalocalalcoholicspirit,Arakeandusetheby-product(themosteasilyaffordablemalt)forfatteninganimals.Oncegroupmembershadaccumulatedsufficientfunds,thosewhowantedtocouldriskmovingintolargerprojectssuchasgrowingvegetables,breedingsheeporgoatsorfatteningthemformarket;insomeareas,fuelefficientstovesandbeekeepingwerepopularIGAsandwerepromotedbytheNGOs.Dairycattleandfatteningoxenforsaletendedtobedominatedbymenthoughthereweresomeexceptions.Thediagrambelowillustratesthenatureofthetrajectory.

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Figure2:Commontrajectoryofloansizeincreaseandusage

Someexamplesofhowwomenusedtheirloansaregivenintheboxbelow.Thesewereverytypicalstories.

Itook500Birrandboughtagoatforbreeding.Aftersometimesthegoatgavebirthtotwobabygoats.After5monthsIsoldonegoatandsettledmyloan.Ialsosoldtheothergoatfor700Birrafterfatteningit.Thegoatalsogavebirthtoanothertwobabygoats/kids.CARE/ASEfemalememberIsaveregularly.Whatisimportantisthatweborrowfromoursavings.Forexample,Iborrowed500Birrplus100bonus.Iusedthe600Birrtobuyseeds.IplantedtheseedsandatharvesttimesoldtheseedsfordoubletheamountofmoneyIborrowed.IthenreturnedthemoneyIborrowedin4months.CARE/ASEmalememberAtthebeginningItook50birrandboughthybridchickens,5chicksandroosters.Ihavesoldtheroostersfor400birrandrepaidtheloanwiththeinterest.Theinterestratewas2.50birr.ButIkeptthechicksandthechicken.Forthesecondtime,Itook2000birrandbought4sheepforfattening.Isoldthem6800birr.Iusedarekeresiduetofeedthesheep.Buttherewasexpenseforvaccination(32Birr).WithinayearIrepaidtheloanandtheinteresti.e.3200birr.CST/HUNDEEItook200birrandboughtfemalesheep/ewe.ThesheepgavebirthtotwolambsandIsold700eachandtheewe/mothersheep1200Birr.FCCoSAPThefirsttimeIborrowedmoneyfromthegroupwastobuyoilandsoapfromKalehiwot.ThatwassixmonthsafterIjoinedthegroup.Thesecondtime,Iborrowed2000Birr.Wehadunpaidbillforwater.Theauthoritiescutthewatersupplytoourhouse.IusedthemoneyIborrowedtopayourbillandgetthepiperepaired.Myhusbandhelpedmepaythemoneybackinayearstime.Forthethirdtime,Iborrowed300Birr.Iwentbacktoschoolandpaidthecoursefee.withtherestofthemoneyboughtsomegoodfromAdamaandselltheminAddis.Thatwasprofitable.ThatwayIwasabletopaybackmydebtwhileatthesametimeIpaidformycourse.Nazareth

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Iborrowed1200for2beehives,havepaidallback,Isoldhoneyandaddedmoneybysellinggrainsandamnowborrowing1800for3beehivesOxfam/FC

Economicimpact-diversificationoflivelihoodactivitiesAlmostthemostimportanteconomicoutcomeforgroupmembersisthattheyareable,withloans,todiversifyandimprovethequalityoftheirincomegeneratingactivitiesandtherebyreducethevulnerabilityandpovertyoftheirhouseholds.Thereweremultipleexamplesofthis.

Previouslyweweredependentonourhusbands’incomeforeverything.Butnowwehavemanagedtogenerateourownincome.Oxfam/FCBeforewehadtorentourlandbutnowwehavetakenitbackandaregrowinghotchillis,potatoesandkalewithwhichwefeedourselvesandhaveasurplus.CARE/ASEItookaloanof1200,boughtsheep–malesheep–IamgoingtosellitforEaster.PeoplehaveaskedlocallyifIsellfor2000birrbutIwillprobablytake[it]tomarket.ButIwillmakeprofitandIwillusethistotradepotatoesandonionsandmakeanotherprofit.CoSAP/FCPreviouslyIusedtoworkina[village]beautysalon,buttheincomewasoccasional,IusedtogetmoremoneyduringholidaysbutonotherdaysImaynotgetanything.Butaftertheestablishmentofthesavinggroup,inadditiontothebeautysalon,IamabletodiversifymyincomeinthatIhaveengagedinmultiincomegeneratingactivitieslikepoultry,fatteningandsellingofarekeandsoftdrinksSHG/SGIDIHumdeeWehaveseenchangesinourlives.Wehavenowcattle.Beforeweusedtolongformilk.Nowwearesellingmilkforaliving.Wearefatteningsheepandsellingtheminthemarket.Wearenowbecomingownersofproperty.Wearenowbuyingwhatweneedinthehouseandmakingourhousecomplete.Ihaveacownow.BeforeIusedtobepoor.Ihavebuiltabigsteelthatchedroofhouse.ItisbyusingtheloanandsellingdrinksthatIhavechangedmylife.Weusedtosharecowswiththerichpeople.Wearenowfreefromthat.IdidnothaveathingbeforeandnowIhaveboughtanox.HumdeeSHGSomostofourwivestook500Birrtoengageinpoultryandsellingofeggs,vendingdifferentcropsinsmallamount;sotakingloanfromoursavinghelpsalotinmakingalivingalthoughwecan’ttotallydependonthat.CARE/ASE

TheNazarethExampleIneverysite,theteamwereshownsuccessstoriesbutthewomeninNazarethprovidedthemostdramaticexamples.ThesuccessoftheNazarethprojectisremarkableandappearstobetheresultofitslongtermestablishment,thededicatedinvolvementofTearfund,thewholehearted

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applicationoftheselfhelpmethodologyandalsothepotentialofferedbyadynamicurbancontext.ThefederationforthegroupsinNazarethhasnowestablisheditselfasanindependentNGO(withasimilarstatustoanIddir)basedonthefederation,theclusterandgroupmemberships.Theaccountsbelowthoughillustratetheroleofanurbanenvironmentwhichoffersadensityofpopulationandawiderrangeofentrepreneurial,educationalandemploymentpossibilitiesaswellascloseproximitytothemarketsofAddisAbaba.InNazareth,thewealthstatusofSGmembersisdiverse:somewomenhavehusbandsearningsalariesorotherincomes,othersaresingleparents,sometradeandsomeareinemployment.Narrativesoftenfocusedonthestruggletoachievelivelihoodsecurityintheurbancontextintermsofhousing,accesstolowcostmortgagesandtherestrictionsofrentedaccommodationsforthosetryingtorunabusinessratherthantheagriculturalmarketbasedstrugglesoftheruralareas.

SuccessstoriesfromNazrethmaturegroupmembersIamtheSHGmemberwhoorganizedtheSHGatthebeginning.Iboughtahouseandthereusedtobetworoomsmadefromonlywoodandearth.Thiswas10yearsagoandatthattimeonepackofcementwasbeyond20birr.Iusedallthe1000birrtobuycementforthehouse.constructhouse.AndagainItook2000birr.AtthattimeIused3000birrforthehousebutnowthat3000birrworthmorethan30000birr.RecentlyItookaloanandpaidforaxion(share)inabuilding.Itookaloanandusedittoaddittomoneytobuyhouse.Iwaspaying500birrforhouserentandbuttheownerevictedmewithoutwarning.Manyhouseownerswererefusingtorenttheirhousetopeoplewhohavechildren.Otherswererefusingtoletmeusethekitchen.SothenIandmychildrenwenttolivewithmymother’shouseandstartedtolivethere.Thenherfriendtoldhertobuyahousewhichwasnotalegalregisteredhouse(Yecherkabet).Theystartedtosearchforahousewithalowerprice.Thepriceofthehousewas85000bir.themoneyItookfromtheSHGwas21,000birrintotal,whichwasmyown11,000birrand10,000birrfrommymother.Ialsotookotherloanfromothersisters.Thishappenedthreeyearsago.NowIhavecompletedpayingmyownandmymother’sdebtandIamfreenow.Ipaidtheloanwithoutsuffering.Iwaslivinginrentedhousewithmychildrenandmymosturgentneedwashousing.AtthesametimeanopportunitywasbroughtbyKaleHeywetChurchfor7peoplewhoarehomelessthatbysaving20%wecanbuyahomefromthemwith25,000depositfor20yearsmortgage.Ihadnothingathand.IwasworriedsomuchbecauseIamgoingtolosethechanceduetolackofmoney.ButamemberofourSHGencouragedmetotakealoanfromoursavings.Theothergroupmembersalsodecidedtolendmethe7000birr.HenceItooktheloanandpaidtheadvancepaymentandgotthehouse.Now,thankstoGod,Iamownerofahouse.Ithasbecome5yearssincethenandIrepaidthe7000birr.Itook20,000birrandbought500chickensforpoultryfarming.Irepaidthisloansellingeggsandyoungroosters.......Iwasleadingamiserablelife.ButthankstotheSHG,Iamnowlivingadecentlife.Ihavetwocowsformilking,oneofmysonsismanagingthepoultryfarmingandtheotheroneisworkingonhisownhorsecart.IamalsoplanningtobuyaBajajformyyoungestsonandsoIamgoingtotakeloan.

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Whatismoneyspenton?MeetingbasicneedsincludingeducationRespondentsreportedspenttheirmoneyfirstlyonmorediversediets.(Increaseddietarydiversitywasencouragedbytrainingacrossallsitesonnutrition,particularlyforpregnantwomen,babiesandchildren)butextendedtothehouseholdingeneral.Educationwasclosebehindasanexpenditurewithmostwomenreportingthattheywerenowabletomeettheeducationalneedsoftheirchildren(books,pensanduniforms)withoutaskingtheirhusbandsformoney.Husbandsandmalegroupmemberscommentedthattheirwivescouldnowdotheirjobs(aswivesandmothers)betterthanbefore:houseswerecleaner,childrenbettercaredforandgoingtoschoolandwiveshadbeenabletoundertakeenterprisesthatbroughtmoneyintothehouseholds.(Althoughwhythehusbandswerenotawareofandplanningforeducationneedsthemselvesisaquestionthatcouldnotbeaddressedwithinthescopeofthisresearch).

Respondentsalsomentionedbuyinghouseholdnecessities(e.g.pots,dishes,bedding),clothing,houserepairsorbuilding,healthexpendituresandpaymenttorotationalsavingsgroups(Equbs)andtofuneralinsurancesocieties,Iddir.

NGOsandeconomicinputsTheNGOsmostlydidnotgiveSHG/SGmembersexternaleconomicsupportthroughsubsidisedinputs.HundeeistheonlyNGOthatmakesthetransferofanasset(pregnantheiferswhosefirst

NowIcancovertheexpensesforschool.Ifeedthechildrenbetter.CARE/ASEAllofmychildrenattendschoolnow.TheyonlydohouseholdchoresduringSaturdaysandSundays.Ontheotherdaystheyarefreetogotoschool,studyanddotheirhomework.Oxfam/FCAsItoldyouIamawidow.ButusingtheloanIamabletosendmychildrentoschoolandthankstoGod,theyarenowself-reliantinthattheyaredoingtheirownbusinessandhelpingmeinusingtheloanproductivelylike,forexample,myyoungestsonishelpingmeinpoultryfarming.NazarethWebuyeducationmaterialsanduniformforourchildren.ourlivingstandardhaschanged.Wenowbuyrice,pasta,oil.Wehavefurnituresuchastable,shelves,eatingutensils.CoSAPOurchildrenusedtobeherderforrichhouseholdsduetolackofmoneyforschoolmaterials.Butnowtheyareattendingschoolaswearefulfillingtheirschoolmaterialsbytakingloanfromoursavings.HundeeSHG

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femaleoffspringareredistributedwithinthegroupbyitsDabareeCouncil7,prizes(10000ETB)forwellperforminggroupsandrotatingloanstoitsgroupscentraltoitsmethodology.TheotherNGOsseektogiveorfacilitatecapacitybuildingforimprovedproductivitytotheirSHG/SG/SHGmembers.CARE/ASEhasplacedfundswiththelocalMFItolinkuptheSGsandhastakenSNGasatechnicalpartnertoprovideinputsandtrainingonlivestockmarketing.InthecaseofOxfam,inMechaWoreda,thefocusisverymuchondevelopinganimprovedvaluechainforhoneyproductionandexportwithsubsidisedinputs.TearfundandCoSAP,focusingontheSHGmethodology,believethatgroupcohesionarises,inpart,fromtheefforttosaveandbecomeviableasalendingentity(althoughtheNGOsalsorecognisethatstrugglecanturntodespairifendeavoursfail).TearfundandCoSAPalsobelievethatintrinsicmotivationiserodedthroughtheuseofextrinsicmotivatorsandthatthisundermines,ifnoterodes,thedevelopmentalpotentialoftheapproach.Inprovidingfuelefficientstovemakingequipment,forexample,CoSAP/FC,CLAfacilitatecapacitybuildingtoSHGmembers;theCLAselectscandidatesthroughtheregularweeklymeetingsoftheSHGsinviewoftheavailablemarketinthatareawhothentakealoanfromtheirownSHGtobuythematerialsforthestovesfromthemarket.TearfundandCoSAPoffertechnicalsupportforincomegeneratingactivitiesbutprefertoexploresupportthroughmicro-insuranceinitiativesratherthangrants.Tearfundmanagementwerealsokeentostressthattheyconstantlyreviewtheirpractices.

AvoidingtraditionalmoneylendersAnotherimportantareainwhichincomefrombusinesseswasimportantwasinescapingfromexploitativerelationships.Inallsites,respondentsmentionedthatthecriticalbenefitofbeingabletoborrowfromtheSHG/SGatrelativelylowinterestrateswasthatthisallowedmemberstoavoidtraditionalmoneylenders;thesearemostlyrichlocalhouseholdswhichchargehighinterestratesandwhorequiredasuretyeitherfromanotherpersonorcollateralintheformofland.Tearfund,withtheirlongexperience,viewthisavoidanceofmoneylendersasatypicalearlyoutcomeoftheSHGprocess,usuallyachievedinthefirst12-18monthsbuttheoutcomeappliesacrossthemethodologies.

Weusethemoneylenderslessthanbeforeandthemoneylendersareverymuchagainstthesavingsgroups.CARE/ASEPreviouslyweusedtotakeloanfromillegalmoneylenders.Wecouldn’tgetthemoneywhenwewantorthemoneylendersmaynotbeavailablewhenwegototheirhousesforloan.Butaftertheestablishmentofourselfhelpgroup,wearetakingloanfromourownsavingfordifferentpurposelikepurchasingseedandfertilizerduringJune/sowingseason.HumdeeSHG

TrainingAllgroupsinthisstudyreceivedarangeoftrainingonthecoresubjectsofbusinessplanning,savings,loansandalsoonawidesetoflocallyadaptedanddevelopmentallyusefultopicssuchas

7TheDabareecouncilisalocalentitythathasbeenadaptedbyHundeeandSGmemberstofunctionsimilarlytoaclusterbutwithaparticularfocusonmanagingtheassettransfersintheshapeoffemalecalvesand/orsheepfromonemembertoanother.

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genderrelations,horticulture,animalhusbandry,nutrition(particularlyforpregnantwomen,infantsandunder-5s),climateadaptiveagriculture,harmfultraditionalpractices(childlabour,childmarriage),genderbasedviolence,sanitation,health,pre-natalcare,theimportanceofeducation,beekeeping.ThepackagedifferedtosomeextentfromsitetositeandaccordingtowhethertheNGOwastryingtointroducenewtechnologiesorknowledgearoundvaluechains(e.g.livestockandhoney)orwasfocusedonthegroup'sself-relianceasacriticalpartoftheprocess.Tearfund,forexample,providedtrainingonfuelefficientstovesthroughSHGsInNazarethanddistributedover400stovestomembers.Oxfam,throughFC,placedmuchvalueonimplementingadditionalandintensivefunctionalliteracytrainingforwomenfromthegroups8.Howeverabasichealthpackagefocusedonpre-natalcare,nutritionforbabiesandchildrenandvaccinationsseemstohavebeendeliveredateverysite.Supportandactionforwomenabouttodeliverseemstohavebeenintegratedwiththesocialinsuranceelementforallthegroups.

Table8MainareasoftrainingtoSGs/SHGsdeliveredbytheNGOs

Training Agri-Service

Nazareth FC/Cosap9

Oxfam/FC

Hundee

Savings • • • • • Businessplanning • • • • • Recordkeeping • • • • • Genderrelations • • • • • Leadership(inposts) • • • • • EnvironmentalandHouseholdSanitation • • • • • Health,reproductivehealth,vaccinations,nutrition

• • • • •

CLAleadershiptraining • • • FLAleadershiptraining • • • Integratedfunctionalliteracy • Basicliteracy • • • Growingvegetables • • • • • Makingcompost • • • • • ClimateAdaptioninagriculture(e.g.vegetables,compost,irrigation,shortdurationcereals

• • • • •

Animalhusbandry • • • • • Raisingpoultry • • • • • Beekeeping • Fuelefficientstoves • •

8TearfundalsocommentedthatbudgetaryconstraintslimititsengagementwithliteracyprogrammingandthattheFLAinNazarethhascreatedalinkwiththegovernmenttotheirstaffasTOTinfunctionaladultliteracy;aninitiativenowbeingcascadedthroughtheCLAs.9(FC/CoSAP)delivers16healthpackages:usingandmakingshowersandtoilets,sewerage,fuelefficientstove,arrangingaspaceforwashingclothes,makinglayer/shelfforhouseholdsutilities,burningsolidwaste,mosquitonets,breastfeeding,child-deliveryinhealthcentres.

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Trainingappearstohavebeenwellreceivedandtohavebeenrelevanttothecommunities.Insiteaftersiterespondentstoldtheresearchteamabouttheirnew'savingsculture',businessplanning,genderequalityandaboutthetechnicalskillstheywerenowputtingtouseinanimalhusbandry,poultry,householdmanagement,sanitationandchildcare.Asonewouldexpect,tosomeextent,howwellthetrainingworkeddependedonthebeneficiary:Humdee,forexample,saidthatyoungerwomenwerebettereducatedandmorereceptivesolearntfasterthanolderwomen.

Theytrainedusaboutvaccination,constructionandusageoftoilet,childlaborprotection(especiallyaboutthosechildrenwhoareherdersinrichhouseholds)theytoldustoreturnsuchchildrenbacktohomeandsendthemtoschool.Theyalsotrainedushowtokeepthecattletheyboughtusandtransferthefirstbornfemalecalvestoothermembers.Theytrainedusaboutthetypeofdiseaseswhichaffectsheepandcattleandhowtotreatsuchdiseases.Thosetrainingsareveryusefulasweareabletokeepourcattlesafelybyprotectingthemfromdifferentkindsofdiseasesandbuildingshedforthem.HundeeAtthebeginningthecashierandsecretarywenttoBureandtrainedonbookkeepingandsaving.Afterthatwetaketurntotrainonfamilyplanning,sanitation,adultliteracy,socialnetworking,andincomegeneratingactivitieslikeproducingfuelefficientstove.Duetothosetrainingwehavechangedalot.Forinstance,previouslywehadnoshower.Butnowwehavemadeshowerusinglocalmaterials.Duetotheadultliteracyweareabletowriteourname.SomeofusalsowenttoDebreMarkosforexperiencesharingwithmembersofSHGinotherareas.Tobehonest,wearebenefitedalotfromthetrainings.Wehavegainedknowledgeonmanythings.Governmentmostlyprovideduswithlip-servicebutFCshoweduseverythingpractically.CoSAP/FCWeweretrainedhowtoprepareabusinessplan.Wethoughtthatweshouldnotborrowmoneywithouthavingaplan.NazarethSomeofushavehadtrainingaboutbeekeeping,health,adulteducation,savings,vegetables.TheFCteachabouthealth,savings.Thesecretary,vicesecretary,treasurer,chairpersonandvicechairpersonallhavespecialtraining.Leadershiprotatesevery6monthsWetookthetrainingonsavingsasagroup–tosave,supporteachother,usesavingsforgroup..Oxfam/FCGenerallywehavebeentaughtaboutsaving,genderequality,poultry,fattening,howtoplantvegetables,climatechangeandadaptationstrategies;i.e.whatwecandoduringdrought/likeadaptingshortdurationseeds.Theknowledgewehavegainedismorethananything.(yagegnenewewiketbewagayemitemenayidelem).Itisnothingtoberichwithoutknowledge.Knowledgeiseverything.Thisknowledgeisworthmorethanmoney.CARE/ASEThebenefitwegotfromAgri-serviceisthetraining.Weweretaughthowtosave;equalitybetweenmenandwomen;childhealth;breastfeeding,climatechange.CARE/ASE

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Therewasnotunmitigatedenthusiasm,thePSNPgraduatesinMeskancomplainedthatthey'onlygotknowledge'fromtheNGOandhadclearlyhopedformoreinputsorgrantsfromASE(infact,Agri-servicehasinjectedcashfortheSHGsthroughtheMFI-Meklit-toprovidecollateralsothatSGmembersmighttakeloansfromMeklit;thiswasnottobemadeknowntothebeneficiarieslestthisunderminetheobjectiveofcreatingmarketbasedlinkageswithMFIs).

GroupDiscussionsTrainingwasnottheonlywayinwhichgroupslearned.Muchofthebenefitofthetrainingwasrealisedinthegroupmeetingswhere,aftersavingsandloansweremade,discussionswereheldaccordingtoanagreedagendaandrevisitingthetopicsprovidedastraining.

Wehaveanagenda fordiscussionprovidedbyHUNDEE.Weselecta topic fromthisanddiscussupon it. The panellist rotates every week among members. We talk about many things likesending our children to school and health issues (for example, howpregnantwoman should gohealthcentersforchilddelivery,thebenefitofvaccinationforchildren).Inaddition,wediscussontheuseoffertilizers.HundeePreviouslywerenotmeeting,nowmeetingweeklyandthisisimportant,wecandiscussandgetadvicefromeachother.Oxfam/FCWemakeoursavingeveryweek.Wediscussissuesarisinginourgroup/NAZRETHWemeeteverySaturdayandsave5-15birr.Wehavediscussedissuesonthetopicswementioned:genderequality,childhealthandnutrition,climatechangeandadaptationstrategieslikeplantingtree,usingshortdurationcropsCare/AgriserviceWemeeteveryweek.Wealsodiscussissueslikeengaginginincomegeneratingactivities,feedingourchildrenbalanceddiet, saving,women’s right,conflict resolution,sendingchildrentoschool,andHTPs.Wedeviseabylawforearlymarriageinthatwepenalizememberswhomarryofftheirdaughtersearly.FC/CoSAPWhenwemeeteverySundaymorningforanhourorso,wewillbeaskedofwhatwedid intheweek.Wesaveand take loans.There isanagenda foreverySunday.Weselecta topicandonewomanleadsthediscussion.Thefirsttopiconouragendaistodiscussonrecentphenomenon.Forinstance,wediscussaboutwork,[forexample],harvestingorcuttinggrass.Thesecondonthelistof itemsisaboutsaving, interestandloans.ThereisalsoaconvenorwhoisresponsibletomakemembersdiscussondifferentissuesOxfam/FC

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Smallscalesafetynet-thesocialfundfacilityasmicroinsuranceAnotherhighlyimportantfunctionofthegroupsisthatallhadsomeformofemergencylendingbuiltintotheirbyelaws.Thiscouldeitherbeintheformofaregularcontributiontoasocialfundfromwhichothermemberscouldborrowintimesofcrisis,usuallyhealthrelatedandpaybackwithoutinterest,orarulethatallhadtocontributeacertainamountatsuchmoments.Beingabletomeethealthneedsattimesofcrisisthroughaccesstothesocialfundoritsequivalentwasconsideredcriticalandappearstoconstituteaformofmicro-insuranceviathegroup.;Thissocialcapitalwasalsotrueformen.CoSAP/FCmembersalsodescribedsomeflexibilitywithcrisisloans,thesemaynotattractinterest.Closerstudyisrequiredtounderstandthelimitstothescaleofthecrisisthatthesocialfundcanaddress.

BeforetheestablishmentoftheSHG,wedidn’tknoweachother.ThankstotheSHG,wearebroughttogether.Weareputtingmoneyasideintoasocialfundincaseoneofusgetssickorhasanaccidentorgivebirth.NazrethWhenwegetsick,wecantakemoneyfromthesocialfundandreturnafter15daysandnotpayinterest.Whenyoucomparewiththeprevioussituationwhenwehadtoborrowfromarichhousehold,thisismuchbetter.Youcouldloseyourlandbeforebecauseyouhadtouseitascollateral.CARE/ASEWetakeandgiveloaninaccordancewiththemagnitudeofourproblem.Therearespecialcaseswhenthereissicknessinthehouse.HundeeInadditiontoourregularsaving,wehavesavingsforemergency,whichincludesdeathorsickness.InadditionVESAmemberscanborrowmoneywithoutinterestfortreatment.CARE/ASEmalegroupmembersSavingsarelikeinsurance–thesocialfundishelpfulfordeliveryofbabies,clothes,soap,sugar;visitsofcloserelatives,preparecoffee;farewellparties.NazarethForthosewhofacedextremeproblemwegiveloanwithoutinterest.Otherstakeloanwithinterest.Forinstance,oneofourmemberstook3000Birrandpaiditbackafterthreemonthswithoutinterest.Fortheothermember,whomwhosechildwassick,weprovided1000birrandsherepaiditafterthreemonthswithoutinterest.Foronememberalsowegaveloanwithoutinterestforhouserent.Butothermembers,whoareinabetterposition,tookloanwithinterest.FCCoSAPSHG

Socialbenefits-enhancedsocialcapitalovertimeThesocialrelationsthatdevelopedwithinwellfunctioninggroupsovertimewerereportedbyalltobefunctionallyandintrinsicallyimportant.Socialcapital,intermsoftrust,familiarity,reciprocity,networkswithinacommunityandevenaffection,isclearlybeingcreatedwhateverthephilosophy

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oftheNGOconcerned.ThisrelationalimpactwasreportedfromsitesunderallNGOsalthoughnotfromallSHGsandIDIs.Nearlyallgroupsreportedstrongerrelationshipsbetweenmembersandmutualvisitingandvitalsupportat'timesofhappinessandsadness'(births,deathsandillness)aswellasotherformsofmutualassistancesuchas,forexample,mutualagriculturalassistance(debo)insomeoftheruralareas.Nazarethmembersinonegroupdescribedhowtheycamefromdifferentethnicbackgroundsbutthatthisdidnotmatterbecausenowtheykneweachotheraspeople.Thesocialcapitalwithingroupsmeansthatonsomeoccasions,thesupportgiventomembersoftenwentbeyondthatrequiredinthebylawsandwasextendedtotraditionallifecycleeventsupport,economicsupportandgivingphysicallabourtoothers.

Thereisacultureofsupportingeachother[inthegroup]duringdifferentoccasions.Ourwomencannowgo"onhandsandfeet".Thismeanstheydonotjustgoemptyhandedtoaskasickpersonorawomanwhenshegivesbirth.Theycarrysomething.HUNDEESHGhusbandsOurrelationshipsaregood,wearedevelopingabrotherhood.Weallgreetandaskaftereachother,thisisaresultofthegroup.Thedifferentmembershavedifferentlifeexperiencesandknowledgeandtheysharethiswiththegroup.CARE/ASEMaleSHGBeyondthemoneyIamabletomeetsuchacaringandlovinggroup.Forinstance,whenIfaceaproblem,Idiscussitwiththegroupmembersandtheybringdifferentideasinresolvingtheproblem.Wearelikeafamily.NazarethIfawomanisinlabourtheyrentacarandtakehertothehealthcentreorhospital.CSTHusbandsSHGOurrelationsarelikefamily,verystrong.Webuyfromeachotherifoneisselling.WeareallfromdifferentpartsofEthiopiabutliveinthesamelocality.NazarethWecontribute5Birrintimesofhappinessandsadness;forinstance,wedding,maternity,deathandillness.Wehavestrongandcloserelationwitheachother.Weshareideas,wediscussourproblems.Wecan’twaituntilwemeetonSaturdays.Previously,wehadnorelationexceptgreetingswitheachother.Forexample,oneofthemembersbrokeherarmandweallwerebyhersideatalltimes.Wehavehelpedherinfetchingwater,bakingInjera,cleaningthehouse.FCCoSAPWepayavisitwhenamembergivesbirthtoachild,weconsoleeachotherattimesofdeathoffamilymembers,andwecongratulatememberswhentheyconstructanewhouse.Nazareth

Thereweremultipleexamplesofthis,forinstance,awomanfromNazarethwhohadthechancetobuyaflatbutdidnothavethe20%depositwasablenotonlytoborrowformallyfromthesavingsgroupbutalsofromothermemberswhoknewandtrustedherandhadseenhertrackrecordforrepayment.AnASEVESAgroupreportedthatitstillincludedformerelderlymembers('toooldto

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save')inthesharingoutofcerealsitboughtinbulkpostharvest.Similarly,inNazareth,womenvisiteachothermonthlyturnbyturn,bearinggiftstoinspectthehost'shometomakesurethatthingswereimprovingandthatthiswasvisiblewithinthehousehold(alsoacheckonmale'luxuryorvice'expenditureifthehusbandknowsthat19womenaretodescendonthefamilyhomeandaskwherethemoneyhasgone).

Socialbenefits-preventingchildlabourIntervieweesofCoSAP/FCintheBureWombermaWoreda,talkedabouthowtheycouldavoidandalsopreventbondedchildlabour.

Oursocialactionhasfocusedonpreventingchildlabour.Ifachildistobesentaway,weinterveneandcontributefundstobuybooksandpensforschool.Childlabourisnormallyforboyswhoareabletoworkandtheyoftengetsentfarawayfor1-3yrs.[Now]therehasonlybeenonecasethattheycanthinkofinthelast2-3years[intheircommunity].CoSAP/FCWewantedtostopsellingthelabourofourchildrenasbondedlabour.HundeeHusbandsFGDTheotherthingisthat,itisparentswholookaftercattlearesendingtheirchildrentoschool[donotmakeboysherdcattle].Butchildrenhelptheirparentsafterschool.Thisisbecausewehavebeentaughtthatchildrenhavetherighttogotoschool.CARE/ASE

GroupsthatwerenotworkingwellForthemostpart,FGDparticipantswereenthusiasticaboutthesavingsandselfhelpmethodology.Butsomegroupswereclearlystrugglingtoestablishcoherence.

Evenifwewanttomeetregularlytodiscussondifferentissues,manyofusarenotwillingtocomebecauseofourhousework.Buteachmembersendshersavingtothecashierthroughherdaughter.Untilnowwedon’thaveruletotakeactiononabsentees,Butnowweplantomakediscussionshowtopenalizeabsentees.Oxfam/FC

Intwogroups,thissupportandadherencetothebylawshadnottakenroot.

Forthetimebeingwearenothelpingeachotherandourrelationshipisnotstrong.Hundee(Indepthinterviewwithindividualfrom4yeargroup)Thesocialcooperationareincludedinourinitialagreement.Butsofarwehaven’tpracticedsuchsocialcooperation.Forexample,oneofourmemberswasseriouslysick.Whenweplannedtovisit

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herbycontributingsomethingforher,shetoldusnottocontributeanythingforher.Asaresultwedidn’tdoanythingforotherswhenthereisbirthorsickness.Theamountthatyoudecidedtocontributewhensomegoodorbadthinghappenstoamemberisinthebylaws,wehaveagreedtocontribute5BirreachOxfam/FC(1yearoldgroup)

Bothexamplescomefromagencieswherethereisastressoneconomicproductivity,onecommentisfromanindividualandanotherisfromagroupthatisrelativelynewanditisnotappropriatetogeneralisefromtheseinstancesbecausethesamplesetissimplytoosmall.Bothagencieshadexamplesfromothergroupsthattheyhadorganisedwheresocialrelationswerestrongandmuchvalued.Thevalueoftheexamplesisthattheyillustratethatgroupsdonotcoalescewithouteffortandtimeonthepartoftheparticipantsandalsothefacilitatingagencies.

4.2Intra-householdlevelGenderrelations-positiveoutcomesGenderrelationsareafocusofthisreportsincealltheNGOsregardthegroupsasawayinwhichwomenmaybecomesociallyaswellaseconomicallyempowered.Respondentsreporteddistinctandpositiveshiftsingenderrelationsintermofsharingofwork,greaterinfluenceandconsultationwithinthehousehold,thedevelopmentofwomen'sskillsandknowledgeandgreaterconfidenceandmobility.Thesignificanceandscaleofthisshiftingenderrelationsishardtoassess(andtheseweremostlygroupsthatweresuccessstories).AroughcountoftheoutreachoftheNGOssuggeststhattogethertheyreachoverhalfamillionhouseholds,whichisperhaps0.5millionoutof22millionhouseholds(assumingapopulationof99.4milliondividedby5)whichisjustover2.%ofhouseholds.Secondly,itishardwithinthisresearchframeworktoseparatetheimpactofNGOtrainingfrombroaderandmorestructuralshiftsasaresultofgovernmentpolicies(e.gthepromotionofcontraception,afocusonwomen'sreproductivehealth)andthegovernment'sowntrainingprogrammes.ThequotefromaHundeeSGbelowillustratesthenumberofdirectionsfromwhichthemessageongenderrelationsiscoming.

Husbandschangedalotthankstoourgovernment.EspeciallyafterthecomingofHUNDEEtheyhavechangedalotastheyhavebeentrainedonequalityofmenandwomen.Hundee

Mostofthegovernmentstaffinterviewedindicatedthattherewerestillendemicandseriousinequalitiesbetweenmenandwomen;they,whilenotingchange,attributedthistogovernmentinterventions.Thesepositivechangesappeartoaccumulatefromseveraldirections:

• Theextensionofgendertrainingandeconomicopportunitiestomen.

• Moresharingoftasksbetweenmenandwomeninthehouseholds;

• Theincreasedrecognitionofwomen'seconomicroleandcontributiontothehousehold

• Increasedproductivityandprofitabilityforwomen

• Senseofenhancedworthwithinthehousehold

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• Greaterconfidence,mobilityandskills

• Groupsolidarity

InvolvingmeningendertrainingandeconomicopportunitiesInrecognitionthatgenderrelationsare,indeed,relational,theNGOstriedtoconsultandinvolvemeneitherashusbands,groupmembersorintrainingprogrammesoreconomicprogrammes(e.g.cooperatives)inrecognitionoftheirtraditionalinfluenceandauthorityasgatekeepers.Inallsites,priortoinitiatingactivities,theNGOsmetwiththeKebeleleaderandthehusbandsofwomeninSHGsormeninSHGs.Oxfam/FCtalkedtohusbandsbeforeforminggroupsSHGgroupsforwomenandthehusbandsareorganizedinto'womensupportivehusbandgroups'.Nazarethaskshusbandstoco-signforloansbecause,asheadsofthehousehold,theyareconsideredjointlyresponsible.ForCoSAP/FC,agriculturalcooperativesformenandtheestablishmentofSHGsforwomenwerecarriedoutinparallelbuttheNGOnotedthatsocialtaboosatthebeginningmadeithardtomobilisewomenoutsidetheirhouseholds.Womenweregivenindependenttraininginactivitiesthatwouldenhancetheircapacitiesandempoweraswellasgendertraining.Menincooperativeswereofferedtrainingingenderrelations.ThistrainingandpossiblyalsotheauthorityoftheNGOdoappeartohavehadanpositiveimpactinunderminingtraditionalbeliefsaboutwomen'slackofcompetenceandtheimmutabilityofthegenderdivisionoflabour.

Previouslythereusedtobearguments,nowthereischange.Becausehusbandsusedtogotomeetingsbutwivesdidnot.Yes,menalsogotthetraining,FCgavetrainingattheKabele.Themenweremeetingandtheirideasimproved[but]nowtheyareallthinkingonthesamelines.CoSAP/FCHusbandAsItoldyoubothofus(husbandandwife)aremembersofselfhelpgroups.Sowehavebeentrainedaboutgenderequalityandgenderdivisionoflabor.Formerly,afterstayingtogetheronthefarmthewholeday,we(husbands)usedtotakerestorsleepandbutshe/thewifecontinuedoinghouseholdchores.Thisisnotthecasenow.Wearelivingsupportingeachother.Husband/MemberSHGOxfam/FC

SharingtasksTherewereconsistentreportsfromrespondentsthatwomenfromtheSHG/SGsandtheirhusbandsaresharingtasksandthattherewaslessdifferentiationbetween"men's"and"women's"tasks.Thesereportsincludedhusbandshelpingwomenwithdomestictaskssuchaswaterandwoodcollectionorfoodpreparationandsonsbeingrequiredtododomesticchoresalongsidetheirsisters(CoSAP/FC).Similarly,womensaidthattheyhadbeguntoassisttheirhusbandswithfarmrelatedtasksthattheyhadnotpreviouslyundertaken.Significantly,menandwomenbothappearedtohaveabetterunderstandingofthenutritionneedsofpregnantandlactatingwomenandofsmallchildrenwhichcontributedtothiswillingnesstohelp.Itwasnotclearifthereisanyoverallreductionintimeallocatedtoworkforwomenasaresultofthisbuttheremaybe.

Wealsohaveabetterrelationshipwithourhusbandsbecauseweworktogethermore.Ifraisingcattleathome,whoeverisathome,willlookaftertheanimalmoreandiftheanimalsneed

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grasscut,themanwillbring.Or,ifbreastfeedinganewborn,wecanaskhusbandtostirthestewandaddingredientsforshiros.Previously,ifwewereworkinginagroupoutsidetogether,thehusbandwouldjustnapuntilthewifegotbackandpreparedthefood.Nowtheywillworktogether;shewillmakeinjeraandhewillmakestew.CoSAP/FC

Wehavebeentrainedaboutgenderequality.Womenandmenareequal.Weknowthatverywell.Wearelivinghelpingeachother.Previouslyhusbandsusedtotakecattleorgraintomarketforsellwithouttheknowledgeoftheirwives.ButnowamancannottakeawayanimalsorgrainwithouttheknowledgeofhiswifeCARE/ASE

Wesharemorework.Howdidhusbandsagreetotakeonmorework?Whenhusbandsgoout,thewifefeedshiscattle,sowhenhecomesback,hefetcheswater.Thisisnew.Oxfam/FC

Whatdomendo?Ingeneral,hecanmakeafireifsheisout,keepaneyeonthefire.Thisgenerationbelow30havelearnttomakeinjera.Previouslywasataboo.ThankstoFCtraining.Nowwhenthereisaweddingorchurchceremony,wecookthestew,thisisabigstew.Theychoponions,mixthestew.Brewingandinjera,isthewomenandthemendo.HusbandofCoSAP/FC

Theincreasedrecognitionofwomen'seconomicroleandcontributiontothehouseholdAstrongsensecamethroughtheconversationswiththegroupmembersthatthebenefitsofgroupmembershiphadrelievedsignificantburdensofsurvivalandselfrespectforextremelypoorfamilies.Althoughwomenwerenotformallyidentifiedasbreadwinnersinthesecommunities,anythingthattheywereabletodotogenerateincomewaswelcomeandappearstohaverelievedthepressureonmentobethesoleprovidersofcashincome.

Wehavebeentrainedaboutgenderequality.Womenandmenareequal.Weknowthatverywell.Wearelivinghelpingeachother.Previouslyhusbandsusedtotakecattleorgrainawaytomarkettosellwithouttheknowledgeofthewivesbutnowamancannottakeawayanimalsorgrainwithouttheknowledgeofhiswife.CARE/ASE

Ourhusbandsandotherfamilymembersaresupportiveaswehavebenefitedalotfromthememberships.Wearecontributingalotinthemakingalivingwithinourhouseholdsandinsendingourchildrentoschool.CoSAP/FC

Ourhusbandsarehappybecausewearesavingandbuyingmore.Nazareth

Moneywegetisforallthehousehold.Themenaretheoneswhocutuptheheavyhoneycombsandsellhoneybutthewifemaygowithhim.Womenarecontributingmoneybutwhatishersisalsohisandtheexpenditureismadetogether.Duringtimeofcollectinghoney,weshopusing

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SenseofenhancedworthwithinthehouseholdManyreportedincreasedselfconfidenceandimprovedparticipationinhouseholddecisionsaroundinvestmentandexpenditureandbenefitstochildren.Thebenefitsappeartomultiplyovertimesodurationisakeyfactorinassessingimpact.

Iwasemployedbyamilitaryorganization.Duetoheavyworkload,Ibecameparalyzedandstayedathome.Ididn’tevenhavemoneyformedicaltreatment.ItwasthosewomenwhoaremembersofSHGswhomademetojointhegroup.Istartedtosave50centsperweek.Myhusbandusedtosay“whatchangesareyougoingtobringbysaving50cents.”FirstItook80birrandstartedtomakeembroidery.Ibecomesuccessfulandstartedtosavemoreandmore.DuetomyactiveparticipationandcommitmentintheSHGs,IamelectedtorepresentthegroupintheCLAandfromtheCLAtothecoalition.Regardlessoftheinitialresistanceofmyhusband,hebeginstoassistmenow.NazarethfederationmembersYes,thoseofuswhoareparticipantsoftheselfhelpgroupshavebeenchangedalot.Wearesharinghouseholdburdenofourwives;weconsulteachothers’opinioninhouseholddecisionmakingOxfam/FChusbandOurhusbandsaresupportiveastheyknowthebenefit.Ourchildrenarehappybecausetheyareattendingschoolproperly.Wearefulfillingschoolmaterialslikepen,exercisebook,uniform,andotherthings.Earliertheyusedtohatetheirschoolbecausetheywereverydifferentfromtheotherstudentsfromrichfamilies.HundeeAtthebeginningourhusbandswereagainstuswhenweattendmeetingsandmeetweekly.Butafterbearinginmindtheadvantage,theyevenurgeustosaveandattendmeetings,andalsosupportusinincomegeneratingactivities.Previouslyourdaughtersweretheonlyonewhoengagedinhouseholdchoresanddidn’thavetimetostudyanddohomework.Boyswerefreetoplay,tostudyanddohomeworkafterschool.ButafterwejoinedtheSHG,wehavestartedtotreatboysandgirlsequallyandwedividehouseholdchoresequallyamongallthefamilymembersinspiteofgender.CoSAP/FCWehaveagoodrelationwithourhusbandsandchildren.Thisisbecausemembers'husbandstake

thatmoneyonlyandatharvesttime,wesellgrainandthendoourshopping.Oxfam/FCWithregardtochildren,formerlyweusedtosendourchildrentootherhouseholdsforherding.Butnowtheyareattendingschool.Wearealsobuyingclothesforthem.HundeeWeusedtobuywhatweconsume.Nowwearegrowingvegetables.Ourchildrenarehappybecausewebuyforthemwhattheywant.Ourhusbandsarealsohappy,ifnotwewouldnothavebeenhereforthis.Hundee

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thetrainingaboutgenderequality.Evenourrelationshiphasimprovedalotfromtheprevious.Previouslytherewerenotlettingustoattendmeetings.Butnowthatisnotthecase.Wealsogivethemanualtoourchildrensothattheyreaditforthefamily.CARE/ASE

Thefirstattitudeofpeopletowardsourwivesanduswasnotsogood.Wereconsideredweakbecauseweletwomengowhereevertheywant.Thatourwomenwereoutofcontrol.Thatischangingnowforbothofus.(Dereje)mywifehaschangedourlife.Sheishardworking.NowmychildrenandIhavejoinedher.Wehelpherwithhermarketactivities.Hundeehusband

Ourhusbandsusedtohavebadbehaviourandwerenothappyaboutthesavings.Butwhentheysawtheimpact,thehusbandsbecamekeen.Ourrelationshipwithourchildrenisbetterbecausetheynowknowhowtokeepthemcleanandtosendthemtoschool.Wealsohaveabetterrelationshipwithourhusbandsbecauseweworktogethermore.CoSAP/FC

Wehavegoodrelationswithourhusbands,theyaresupportive.Theydonothingwithouttheknowledgeoftheirwives.Wearelivingsupportingeachother.CARE/ASE

Previouslyhusbandsusedtotreattheirwivesinbadwayssaying“youknownothingsokeepsilent”.ButthatischangingnowASE/CARE

Achangedself,includingimprovedmobility,confidenceMembersreturnedagainandagainto'soft'benefitsfromgroupmembership,leadershipandtrainingsuchastheirgreatersocialconfidence(beingabletospeakinpublic10);becomingleaders;improvedfunctionalnumeracyandliteracy;togreatermobility;friendshipsandcloserelationshipsandsupportatkeylifeevents

Muchoftheempowermentbenefittowomenarisesfromgoingoutandmeetingregularlyandinastructuredmannerwithalargegroupofotherwomenfromtheirlocalitywhoareinasimilareconomicposition;withinthegroup,thewomenareablepooltheirfinancial,intellectualandrelationalresources.Attendinggroupmeetingsgavewomenalegitimatereasontoleavetheirhomesandawaytomeetothersinasimilarpositionintheneighbourhood.Itisnotclearwhetherthishasimpactedmorebroadlyonwomen'smobilityornot.

10CSTcommentatorsalsoreportedthatthesocialstatusofwomenwaschangingtotheextentthatsomewomenhadbeenelectedtolocalcommunitycouncils.

Thisisanewtrendforawomantogotomeetingsandformagroupinpublic.But,ourhusbandswereawareofthisprogramsowedidnotfaceanyprobleminlettingusgotomeetings.AndtherearediscussionsatIddirandothergatheringsontherightofawoman.So,itwasnotaproblem.Weinfactdiscusseditwithourhusbandsaboutthis.Wetoldthemthattheyusedtogobeforebutitisourtimeandturntogotosuchmeetings.Wetoldthemweneedthistobetterourlivesandthatitisuseful.

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Groupmembershipalsobroughtactivesolidarityasthecommentbelowillustrates.

Thepracticeofgroupmeetingsandthetrainingsreceivedwasfrequentlyreportedtobuildconfidenceandleadershipskillswhilegroupscrutinyofloansandeconomicactivitiesgeneratedadvice,asenseofownership,improvedmonitoringandenforcement.Allgroupsreporteddiscussinghowtoundertakeactivitiesandvariousformsofproblemsolving.AneutralcommentatorinBure,anMFImanager,toldtheresearchteam(withoutprompting)thathisagencyworkedwithwomen'sgroupsfromgovernmentandCoSAP/FCandthatheandhisstaffcouldseethattherewasanoticeabledifferencebetweenthetwo:CoSAP/FCtrainedwomenweremuchmoreconfidentandoutgoing.

WivesborrowingonbehalfofhusbandsBeyondsharingtasks,therewerefrequentexamplesgivenofhusbandsandwivesborrowingtosupporteachother'senterpriseswhichsuggeststhatmanyenterprisesarejointhouseholdendeavours.Studieselsewhereofwomenandmicrocredithavesuggestedthatwherewomen

Humdee

Previouslywewerejustinthehouse,itwashardtomeetotherpeopleorfindwaysofsolvingourproblems.Oxfam/FC

Thereischangefromthepast.Womenneverwenttomeetingsbefore.Nowwomengofirsttothemeeting.Evenifaguestwasjustoneperson,womenwerejumpinginthekitchen[hidingaway].CoSAP/FCHusband

Wehaveseenchanges.SittingoutsideandbeingabletodiscussisonechangeHundee

Womenhavetoattendtraining.Thetrainingisusuallyaboutlivelihoods,aboutbusinessandpettytrade.Wedonotpreventourwivesfromattendingthesetrainings.Weencouragethem.Thetimehaschangedalot.Itwasnotlikethatinthepast.LeavealonesendingourwivestoameetingwewerenotallowingthemtovisitaneighbourHundeehusbandsSHG

Before,wewereunabletospeakwithourhusbandsletaloneinpublic.Butnowweareabletospeakinpublic.Forinstance,inthepast,whenItriedtospeakinfrontofsomeonewhoisastrangerlikeyou,myheartstartsbeatingfast.FCCosap

WhenwestartestablishingtheSHGmenusedtoshowtheirauthorityandsuperiority.Therewasacaseofawomanwhosehusbandcreatedaproblemforher,butwewenttoherhouseandconvincedthehusbandtonottreathersobadly.Nazareth

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borrowonbehalfoftheirhusbands,thewomenthemselvesarenotbecomingempoweredeithereconomicallyorwithintherelationship.Thisconclusionseemshastyasinmanyhouseholds,greaterincomeearnedbyeitherspousemayresultsinsomeimprovementinoutcomesforthehousehold(relationaloreconomic)andisrejectedhere.However,shouldasystematicpatternofwomentakingloansonbehalfoftheirhusbandsratherthanthemselvesdevelop,anyagencywouldbewelladvisedtoinvestigateinmoredepthincasethismeansthatobjectivesaroundwomen'sempowermentarenotbeingreached.

Mywifetook500birrandgavemeasIneededmoneyforweaving.Irepaidtheloanwithin3monthswith5%interestrate.NowIearn200birrpermonthsellingtheclothesImade.Oxfam/FC

Mywifetookloanof2000lastyear,Iboughther2pregnantsheepwithmoney.Oneofthemdelivered2andtheother1lamb.Withoutrepayingthisloansheaskedfor1000birrmore,sheboughtonemoresheeppregnantsheep.After5months,allthreesheepdeliveredtwinssotherewere9altogether.Whoseideawasthis?Wehadaplantobreedsheep.Shebroughttheideaandwediscussed.CoSAP/FC

Husbandsalsosignfortheloan.Wediscusstogether,husbandandwife,whattotakeloansfor.Eitheroneofuscanhavetheideaaboutacredit,whattodowithit.Mightbeherideaorhis.Husbandisheadofhouseholdsomustberesponsibleforherloan.CARE/ASE

Ourwivesinvolvementintheselfhelpgroupisbenefitingusalot.Whenweneedmoneyforsomething,theyborrowfromthegroupsavingandwerepaytheloantogether.FC/Oxfam

Similarly,therewasatleastoneexampleinamixedgroupofthehusbandjoiningratherthanthewifebecausetheyfeltthattheycouldnotaffordbothtosave.Thisdoesnotseemtobeapositiveoutcomeiftheobjectiveoftheprogrammeiswomen'sempowerment.

IhavebeenintheVESA[SG]forthelast3years.MywifeisnotamemberoftheVESA,wethoughtoneofusbeinginthegroupisenough.Wethoughtwemightnotbeabletomanagetwosavings.CARE/ASE

MenforminggroupsThesuccessoftheSHG/SGmethodologyhasmeantthathusbandsweinterviewedhadalsotakentheinitiativetoformtheirowngroups.

Ithasbeen3yearssinceourwivesjoinedthegroups.WehavealsojoinedthegroupbeforeayearFacilitatorscametovillagetovillageandinitiatedthewomentoformselfhelpgroups.Seeingthewomen,we/husbandsalsoestablishedselfhelpgroups.Oxfam/FC

IwassopleasedwiththeeffectthatIstartedtoorganiseagroupformenwithmywife’sfriend’s

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husband;decidedtosavetogethertohaveourownorganisation.Olderman’sgrouphas8000inayear.Nazareth

PracticalbutalsostrategicchangeforwomenWhatdoesthisevidencessuggest?Howeverqualifiedthisevidenceisbythenatureoftheresearch,therearestrongsuggestionsofchange.Atthisstage,changesingenderrelationsmaybemorepracticalthanstrategicinthattheyhelpwomentocarryouttheirdutiesandresponsibilitiesbetter.However,wherewellexecuted,thegroupsalsobegintoinstigatestrategicchangewheremenandwomenstarttoignoretraditionallinesbetweenhouseholdwork,wherewomenundertakenon-traditionalactivitiesandwherewomentakeupleadershippositions,developgreatersolidarityandunderstandingofwomen'srightswithinotherwomenintheirneighbourhoodandaresupportedinthisbytheirhusbands,withwhomtheyhavebetterrelationships.

4.3CommunityorhigherlevelClusterLevelAssociations:activismandadvocacyforwomenandchildrenThefocusonClusterLevelAssociations(CLAs)andfederationsoftheSHGsisasignificantdifferencebetweenthefiveNGOssurveyedhere.ForTearfund/Nazareth,CoSAP/FCandCoSAPOxfam,andperhapstoalesserextent,CST,theclustersandcoalitionsareintegraltotheirapproach.Theseagenciesviewthestructuresasprovidinganinvaluable'higher'setoffunctionsandable,overtimeandwithsupport,tobecomeindependentoftheoriginalorganisingagency(sobecominganexitstrategy).Clustersareformedfrom6-8SHGswith2membersfromeach(membersagaintakingturnatleadership)representingtheirgroupatthe(usuallymonthly)clustermeetings;coalitionsaresimilarlyformedwith2ormoremembersfrom6-8clusterscomingtogethertorepresenttheirclusters(andthustheirgroupstoo).Thediagrambelow(Figure),courtesyofCoSAP,illustratestheirviewofthestructuresandfunctionofgroup,clusterandfederation.

Figure3:SelfHelpGroup,ClusterandFederationstructure

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FunctionsoftheclustersandfederationNazretdescribeditsclustershavingeightdefinedareasofresponsibilityinwhichrotationalleadership,forwhichtrainingisprovided,istakenbydifferentmembersorsub-committees:

1. FormationofnewSHGs2. StrengtheningtheexistingSHGs(groupproblemsolving,advocacyandtraining)3. Meetingthematerialneedsandinfrastructureofthecommunity4. Meetingtheserviceneedsofthecommunity5. Bringingaboutsocialtransformation6. Advocacyandlobbyingwithgovernment7. Takingonadministrativerolesfromthepromotingorganization8. Fundraisingforadministrativeexpenses

Thefederationsmirrorthiswithacommitteesystemwithawiderangeoftechnicalresponsibilitiessuchasconflictresolution,functionalliteracy,groupformation,governmentormicroenterpriseandMFIlinkages.Trainingisgiventotheofficersfortheportfoliotheyholdfromeitherthepromotingorganisationorherpredecessor.

Table9Thestructuresandfunctionsofgroup,clusterandfederation

SelfHelpGroups

Primarymembership-Generalbody− Savings/Creditandalleconomicactivities/Incomegeneratingactivities− Socialbondandaffinityamongmembers− Basicsocialissuesinfamilyandcommunity

ClusterLevelAssociations

Representativelevel− StrengtheningSHGsandformingnewones− Mobilisingresourcesandservicesthroughlinkageswithotherservice

providers− Initiateandoverviewneed-basedprojectforthecommunity− Toestablishvaluesysteminthecommunity− Makingpresencefeltinlocalgovernance

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Federation Apexbodyoftheinstitution− Maintainthecharacteristicsoftheinstitution− Actasalinkbetweenthepeopleandthegovernancesystemtomaintain

peaceandsecurity− LobbyingandAdvocacyforpro-people'spolicies− Legalbodytointeractwithexternalbodies

CST-KindernothilfeSHGApproach-AManual,Germany,2008

Clustermembersassesstheprogressandcapacityofthegroupsfromwhichtheclusterisformedaccordingtothecriterialistedinthediagrambelow(TearfundandCoSAP).Theactivitiesofthegroupwhichareconsideredessentialforgroupcoherenceandgrowtharecarefullymonitoredandwheregroupsareassessedasweak,clustermembersandfacilitatorsworkwiththegroupstostrengthenthem.

Table10CoreCriteriaforSHGassessmentbyCluster

Problemsthatcannotbesolvedbygroupsortheirfacilitatorsarereferredupwardstothecluster.Theclusterwillsupportthegroupsinproblemsolvingandwillreachouttothefederationlevelifnecessary(andpossible-notallclustersareyetformedintofederations)butultimately,ifasolutionsatisfactorytoallmemberscannotbereached,thefederationhasaccesstoarangeofsanctions.Atallstages,thebylawsoftheparticulargroupguidenegotiations.

Thereissocialactionattheclusterlevelespeciallyformisbehaviouraroundloanse.g.ifawomantakesaloanbutthenwantstoleavethegroup.Ifshewon’tnegotiatewiththegroupthenwetakehertotheCLA.,CoSAP/FC

CoreCriteriaforSHGself-assessment

1. RegularMeeting2. Weeklysaving3. PercentageofAttendanceintheweeklymeeting4. HasaWorkPlan(morechallengingpurposesornewideas)5. Closeaccountsmonthly6. Reporttomembersonthefinancialstatus7. Essentialfinancialrecords(cashbook,payment&receiptvoucher)maintained8. Documentedandsharedvision9. Articulatedby-laws10. Decisionsrecordedonminutebook11. Rotationalleadership12. Loandisbursementamongmembers13. Defaultrateonloanrepayment14. SHGmembers’satisfactionwiththeSHGs15. Aregroupsabletosolvetheirownproblems?

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Theclustersprovideleadershiptothegroupsand,crucially,trainwomeninleadershipskillsinanenvironmentinwhichfew,ifany,otheropportunitiesforbecomingleadersisofferedtowomeningeneral,letalonepoorwomen.Therotationofpostsandthetrainingofferedensuresthatsuchskillsaresharedwidelywithinthegroup.Inthelongrun,iftheprincipleofrotationisfollowed,allmemberscouldendupholdingleadershippositionsnotonlywithintheirgroupbutalsoatahigherlevelintheclustersandfederations.

LeadershiprotationmustbeenforcedTheleadershipsystemneedstobeinsisteduponasaguidingprincipleorbenefitswillbecapturedbyminority.

Wearefollowingrotationalleadershipinthateverymembertakesaturntoleadinevery3years.Nazarethcluster

AdvocacyforwomenandchildrenTheclusterandthefederation,iftheclusterneedssupportorcannotmanagetheproblemorissue,canalsofollowuponanyinitiativethatisconsideredrelevantbroughttothembythegroup;inparticular,theyareofteninformedaboutinstancesofharmfultraditionalpracticessincetheclustersandfederationhavetheinfluenceandabilitytoaccesslocalgovernmentlawenforcementauthorities.

OnceSHGmembersbroughtusawomanwhowasthrownoutofherhousewithoutanypropertybyherhusband.Thenwetookhertowomenandchildrenaffairsoffice.Thewomenandchildrenaffairsofficelinkedherwiththejusticeoffice.Afterwardthepolicewassenttoherhusbandandthenthehusbandbecomewillingtoreconcilewithher.Nowtheyarelivingtogetherpeacefully.CoSAP/FCCluster

Theclusterlevelorganisationsarealsoabletodevelopcloserelationshipswithgovernmentagenciesthatgivethemgreaterleverageintheiradvocacy.

Weareworkingcloselywithwomenandchildrenaffairsofficeandjusticeoffice.WearealsorequestingaroomforthefederationinthenewworedaadministrationbuildingandtheypromisedtogiveusaroomnexttoWomenandChildrenAffairsoffice.Generallywehaveagoodrelationwiththelocalauthorities.CoSAP/FCCluster

TheNazarethCoalitionstatedthatthemaintasksofthefederationbeyondsupporttotheclustersandareadvocacyandlobbyingaroundsocialproblems,especiallyviolenceagainstwomen.

AsItoldyou,weareworkingcloselywithwomenandchildrenaffairsofficeandwelinkvictimsofviolencewithconcernedbodiesandevenwehirealawyerforsuchvictimsandfollowupthecases.NazarethFederation

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TheSG/SHGsalsopolicetheirmembersandconductsomeactivismwithintheircommunities;forexample,theyimposepenaltiesonmemberswhoparticipateinharmfultraditionalpracticesegCoSAP/FCfineswomenwhoattendanunderagemarriageETB100andthosewhogivetheirchildreninsuchmarriageETB303-500.Similarly,therewereseveralexamplessharedinWombermaofactionattheclusterleveltoretrieveboysbetween12-16whoseparentshadsentthemaschildlabourers(inreturnforpaymentincashorevengrain)forayear.Thereisalsoariskinthesecommunitiesforgirlstobesentawayasdomesticlabourers.

Thisisahighproductionarea,notPSNP,buttheyaresendingchildrenforchildlabour.Andpovertyisthemaincauseofchildmigration.ThereisaphysicalmarketforchildlabouronSaturdays–thepoorcomewithchildrenandnegotiatewithrichfarmersonperannumbasisforquintilesofgrain.Allareboysnotgirls.Startingageisquiteyoung–justwhentheyarecapable,from8onwards.Theylivewiththerichfarmer,donotgotoschool,areexploited,notfedwell,notcaredfor.Justconsideredaservant.Theincomethatthechildgeneratesforhisfamilyiswhyheisthere.CoSAP/FCNGOWorker

Theseclusterscanthereforebecomeinfluentiallocaladvocates,providingtrainingandforminggroups;defendingwomen'srights(violenceandland)andpreventingHTP.Theclustersandfederationshavestronglinkageswithgovernmentagencies,particularlytheWomenandChildren'sAffairsOffice.

Socialactionhasfocusedonpreventingchildlabour.Ifachildistobesentaway,weinterveneandcontributefundstobuybooksandpensforschool.Childlabourisboyswhoareabletoworkandtheyoftengetsentfarawayfor1-3yrs.CoSAP/FC

SHG/SGFederationlevelworkTheFederationsofCoSAPandSHGFederationinNazarethdescribedtheirworkwithgovernmentinadvocacyandlobbyingagainstinjusticeagainstwomenaswellassomedirectinterventionswithparticularcases.

TheFederationkeepsraisingtheissuesofruralpoorwomentogovernment.Forexample,theyarebringingtheagendaofdisabilitytotheEducation,Women'sAffairsandthe[General?]Administrationtoaskforaspecialneedsschool.CoSAPTherewasacaseofawomanwhosehusbandcreatedaproblemforher,butwewenttoherhouseandconvincedthehusbandtonottreathersobadly.NazarethWealsotakeupcasesofwomenwhohavebeendeniedtheirrights.TherewasawomanwhoselandwasgrabbedbyherhusbandinBuredistrict.Herhusbandreceivedlandinthe

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lastlandredistributionandheowneditallwhentheydivorced.Shegotnothing.TheFederationtookthiscasetotheWomen'sAffairsOffice(theytookphotosofhowmuchlandheowned)andthegovernmentcalledhiminandgotdetailsandthehusbandnegotiatedandthewomangotland.CoSAPWehadamemberwhomadeherchildworkinaruralareaatlessthan7yearsold,hisemployertookhimasaherderinreturnfor1quintileofteff.Wethreatenedtosueher.Webroughthimtothe[Nazareth]school.Hegrewupworkedpushingacart.Fromthiscart,hasgraduatedtoridingcarttotransport.Hismotherisalsoworking.NazarethTherewasanothercase,awomanfromDebreMarkos(Easternregion),whocameheretobegwithbabytwins.TheFederationwastoldaboutherandwenttoaskwhy.Sheexplainedallthedetailsofhowthiscameabout,herhusbandtookland,threwherout.Sotheytookhercasetocourt.Nowsheownsherland.Thecourtherediscussedwithcourtthere.CoSAP

Theseexamplesshowthatfederationsareabletoactasawellresourcedadvocateforwomen'srightstowhichthegroupsandtheclustersturnwithcasesofinjustice.TherelationshipsthattheNGOsandtheFederationsthemselveshavedevelopedwithgovernmentofficesmeanthattheyaretrustedandhavereadyaccesstotheofficers;throughtheclustersandthefederations,poorwomenaregainingvoice,advocacyandgreateraccesstojustice.

Resilience-copingwithclimatechangeandothercrisesTheNGOsexpressedthehopethattheSHG/SGsystemcancontributetohousehold,groupandcommunityresilienceandtherewas,indeed,evidencethatthestructureshavethepotentialtodothisandtoalsobeavehicletoabsorbexternalassistanceintimesofcrisis,whethergrantbasedorloan.Thesocialinsurancefunctionofthesocialfundhasbeendescribedindetailabove,butthereweresomefurtherindicationsofhowthegroupstructuresmightlinkwithresilienceinitiativesandthesearediscussedbelow.EthiopiawasfacingaseriousdroughtatthetimeoftheresearchandinMeskan,severalgroupscomplainedofseverecurrentproblemsduetodroughtinthepreviousrainyseason.InNazareth,thesuccessfulbusinesswomeninterviewedsaidthattheywerelikelytobeabletopassonpriceincreases.IntheCoSAP/FCarea,cropdamagehadbeencausedbyheavyhailstorms(perhapspartofthesameclimatephenomenonthatcausedthedrought?)UsinganFAOandWFPdefinitionofresilienceas'thecapacitythatensuresadversestressorsandshocksdonothavelong-lastingadversedevelopmentconsequences'11,theexistence,linkagesandfunctioningofgroupssuggeststrongpotentialtosupportincreasedprogrammingtoenhanceresilience.

Potentialforsupportingresilienceandmitigatingtheimpactofclimatechangearosefromthreemainsources.Firstly,mostgroupshadreceivedtraininginclimatechangeadaptionfocusedonfastmaturingvarieties,theuseofgroundwaterandnewvegetablesforhomeconsumptionandforthemarket;womenmentionedbeingabletofeedtheirchildrenonpotatoes.Secondly,membersinthe

11http://www.fsincop.net/fileadmin/user_upload/fsin/docs/resources/FSIN_29jan_WEB_medium%20res.pdf

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droughtaffectedandhailaffectedareasallsaidthattheywouldbeabletoborrowfromthegroupsforproductiveinputs.

Herethereisnodrought.Buttherewasheavyunseasonalrainfallthatisaccompaniedwithhailstones.Thataffectedourpepperandcropproduction.Forthenextsowingseason,wearegoingtofaceashortageofseedandmoneytobuyfertilizer.SoeverymemberisplanningtotakeloanfromtheSHG.CoSAP/FCWesoldcropsbeforeharvesttimebecausetherainswerelate,wecan'tsellgrainsasusual.Wewillworktogetcash,themoneyfromoursavingswillhelpwithanIGAorbusiness-wewillhavetofindIGA'stomakeupthedifference.Oxfam/FCIsewedbeansbutfrozenraindestroyedit.Sothereisnoproducethisyear.Thereisnocropforseedletalonetofeedafamily.SoIamplanningtotakeloanfromoursavings.Hundee

Finally,thegroupscanbeavehicleeitherforinfusionsofloans(Tearfundisconsideringthis)orforgrantsincashorkindtohelpmanagethecurrentstresswithoutrunningdownassetsorturningtootherharmfulcopingstrategies.Lesspromisingly,inseveralsitestherewerehintsofmemberstakingloansforconsumptionratherthanproductiontocopewiththedroughtbutatleastthismeantthatmemberswereabletostayawayfromlocalmoneylenderswithhigherinterestratessothisaccesstocheapercreditmaywellcontributetotheirlongrunresilience.

Thedroughthasaffectedusseverely.Mostofustookloanfromoursavingsandboughtcerealsandfulfilledothernecessitiesforourhouseholds.ASE

4.4IntermsoflinkagesThecontextofEthiopiameansthatlinkageswithgovernmentservicesandofficesareobligatoryandawiderangeofjointactivitiesandcoordinationstructureswerereportedineachsitewiththeofficesforAgriculture,Livestock,WomenandChildren'sAffairs,Police(inrelationtoGBVandwomen'srights),Cooperativesandotheragenciesasappropriate.MostSG/SHGswerealsointheprocessofbeinglinkedeitherwithcooperativesand/orwithformalfinancialservicesproviderssuchasmicrofinanceorganisations,withassistancefromtheNGOs12.OthersweretransforminggraduallyintotwodifferentformsofapexlevelinstitutionsincludingclusterlevelassociationsandfederationwhichallowedthemtoaccessserviceandothersupportbeyondthecapacityofindividualSHGstodeliver.TheNGOsthemselvesmaynotactasfinanceorganisations,theyarenotpermittedtogiveloansbythegovernment.Hundee,whichworksthroughalocalindigenouscouncil,theDeberewhichconcernsitselfwithsharingouttheassetsofpregnantheifers,calvesandsheepbetweengroupmembersisconsideredtheequivalentoftheCLAbytheNGO.

12OxfamreportedthatatorganizationallevelwithsomeoftheirpartnerssomeSGshaveevolvedintolegallyregisteredcooperatives(whichcountsastransformativechangeattheorganizationallevel).

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LinkagestoMicroFinanceInstitutionsInmostcases,oncegroupshavesignificantcapital,theymaybegintotakeexternalloansfrommicrofinanceagenciesandtodeposittheircapitaleitherwithbanksorcooperatives.LinkingSHG/SGgroupstoMFIswasanambitionofthefiveNGOsandseemstobemoreacharacteristicoftheSGsthantheSHGs.Forexample,Care/ASEislinkedwithMeklitMFItogiveloans;theSGswereexpectedtosavewiththeMFIforsixmonthsorsotodevelopcollateralbeforeborrowingborrowmoney.InthiscaseCare/ASEhasdepositedcashwiththeMFIs(firstwithOmoandlaterwithMeklittoencouragetherelationshiptodevelopbetweentheSGsandtheMFI.InthecaseofOXFAM,theMFIisinfactthegovernmentsupportedCooperativeinMechaworeda.CoSAPwasworkingwiththeMFIHabru.However,tobuckthetrend,NazarethdecidedrecentlytoapproachanMFI(Metemamen)inordertogivelargerloanstoitsmembersviatheFederationandClustersystem.

Theexperiencesreportedsuggestthatthisworkedwellforindividualsandhouseholdswhohaddevelopedanassetbaseandcouldaffordtotaketheriskinvolved.

SomeofustookmoneyfromACSI[MFI].I,forinstance,took21,000birrtogetherwith2otherpeoplewhohaveanassetlikeland.Thatis,ACSIusedgroupcollateralinordertoprovideuswiththeloananditalsoregisteredourassetasaguarantee.Sowetook7000Birreachandpaidbackourloanintime.Oxfam/FCLasttime,forinstance,they[theclustermembers]informedusthat,ifweneedbigmoney,theCLAcanlinkuswithaBankandwecanapplyfor200,000Birrinthenameofallmembersofoursavinggroup;i.e.eachofuscanborrow10,000birrandtheCLAwillbecollateralforus.Nazareth

LinkagestogovernmentAlltheNGOsdescribedstronglinkageswithgovernmentandclearlyworkedhardtostrengthenmutualunderstandingandcapacitybuilding.TherewasstrongoversightfromgovernmentwithregularreportingrequiredbytheNGOsonamonthlybasis.(MostNGOsinEthiopiaarenotallowedtoengageinhumanrightsorpoliticalactivities;afewmayworkinthisareaiftheymeetcertainconditions).HundeeandOxfam/FCbothanticipatethatthegovernmentwillultimatelytakeovertheworkoftheirprojects.WhentheNGOstaffwereaskedtheviewsofregionalorlocalgovernmentofficialsabouttheformationofthesegroupsformation,theseweretheirresponses:

Ourfocusisalsothefocusofgovernmentsowehavetoalignwithgovernment.Sofirst,wehavetoexplaintogovernmentwhattheoutcomeswillbe.Wefindthemainactorsingovernmentandlaunchtheprogrammewiththem.Wehaveastrongrelationship:wecommunicatedaily,wereportregularly,weexplainchallenges,wediscusstogetherandsolveproblems-fromRegionalleveltoKabelelevel.[Ourwork]ispartofgovernmentnowbecausewehavesignedawrittenMOUatregionalanddistrictlevelforspecificactivitieswithAdministration,Cooperatives,WCA,AgricultureandLivestock.EducationdidnotsignagreementbutweworktogetherintheIFALpilot.GovernmentofficialsandconsultantsfromBahirDaruniversityandexternalconsultantscametoevaluateitandgovernmentnowpromotesandisexpandingtheIFALprogramme.Oxfam/FC

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[Relationsare]verygood.Theylikeusalot.WhenweteachonGenderEquality,weinvitegovernmentofficerse.g.justiceoffice.CoSAP[Therelationship]ispositivebecausemostofourworkislinkedwithgovernmentpartners.Itisveryimportanttohavetheselinkages,weengagegovernmentstakeholderswithprojectactivities.Weinviteallsectorsofgovernmentforinformationsharing,theyarepartofmonitoringandfollowupfromofficetositelevel.WehaveWOREDAtechnicalmeetingseveryweek.CARE/ASEGovernmentofficesatthekebelelevelareawareoftheproject.Welaunchedtheproject,forsocialaccountability,toallgovernmentofficesinvolvedintheprojectatworedalevel.Wehaveanexcellentrelationshipwithgovernmentoffices.HumdeeAtthebeginning,therewasachallengefromWomenandChildren'sAffairsbecauseithasitsowngroupingsystem.Theydidnotwanttoseeanotherstructurecreated.Theytriedtomakeususetheirstructure.Butwegraduallyconvincedthem,tookthemtoseewhatweweredoingandnowtheyuseourstructure.Oxfam/FC

MuchofthetraininggiventoSG/SHGswasgivenbygovernmenttechnicalspecialistsfacilitatedbytheNGOs.CoSAP/FCgaveitsowntrainingtomembers,facilitatorsandgovernmentofficerswiththeintentionofbuildingmutualunderstandingandknowledge.Mostofthecoalitions(ofclusters)orclustershad,withthehelpofSHGstafforthelocalfacilitators,developedrelationshipswiththelocalWomenandChildren'sOfficestaffandcouldreadilymeetthemtodiscussproblems(oftenconcerningGBV,childmarriage,childlabourorthealienationofland).

Womenaffairs,healthextensionworkers,andlivestockexpertsreportwhathasbeendonethroughtheprojectastheirown[work]so,yes,theyhavegoodrelationshipwithus.Hundee

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5.WeaknessesintheSHG/SGapproach

5.1IndividuallevelFirstyeartrajectoryFornearlyallgroups,thereisatrajectoryofchallengesintheearlymonthsofestablishmentandthisiswhengroupsaremostlikelytofail.Thechallengesarefocusedonthedifficultiesofsavingforpoorhouseholds,thelackofimmediatebenefits,alackoffamiliaritywiththegroupmethodanddisapprovalfromhouseholdmembers,usuallyhusband.

HostilityfromneighboursandchurchesManyrespondentsreportedhighlevelsofhostilitytowardstheirgroup'sformationfromneighboursandalsofromtheOrthodoxchurch,inpartduetolackofinformationaboutandfamiliaritywiththegroup’scoreaims.Thistensionusuallysubsidesoncethegroupisseennottochallengetoomuchlocalreligiousorculturalpracticesandtobenefitthemembers.

InitiallywewerecriticisedbecauseitwasthoughtthatFCwouldconvertustoProtestantismorIslam.Orthatwewerejoiningbecausewedidn’thaveenoughworktodo.Ourchurchforbadeusfromenteringthesavingsgroup.Wewere‘cursed’bythechurchandpeopleweretoldtoshunus.However,whenitwasseenthatnooneconverted,everyonestillfasted,didnotworkonSaintsDaysandHolidays,thepressurediedoff.CoSAP/FCThecommunityunderminesourgroups.Theyconsideredthemembersashopelessbutitischangingnowastheyseesomeofdoingwell.CARE/ASEAtthebeginningthey[othersinthecommunity]wereconsideringus“idle”;butnowtheyarerequestingtojoinus.HundeeFormerlysomemembersofthecommunityconsideredusidleandtheythoughtwearewastingourtime.Butnowtheyareformingtheirowngroupafterseeingwhatwehavebeenbenefitedbybeingagroupmember.Oxfam/FC

DifferentialexperiencesAsweshouldexpect,eveninsuccessfulgroups,examplesweregiventoshowthatnoteveryonebenefitsequallyandsomefailtobenefitatall.Differentactivitieshavequitedifferentreturnsoninvestmentfromplacetoplaceandsomemembersdobetterthanothersforreasonsthatincludeluck,resourcesattheircommandandjudgement.AwomanfromaNazarethreportedthather13yearoldgroupnowhadwomeninverydifferenteconomicsituations;sheherselfhaddoneremarkablywellovertheyearsbutotherswerealittlebetteroff;theywerestill,inherview,appreciativeoftheirmembershipofthegroup,therelationshipsandsolidaritybetweenthemandtheimprovementsintheirlives.Therewerealsoexamplesfromruralareasofenterprisesfailing,forexample,oxthatdidnotfatten,marketsthatfellsothatfattenedsheepweresoldataloss,

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havingtosellanimalsprematurelytoraisefundsforhealthemergencies,andof(asmallnumber)membersleavinggroupsforarangeofreasonsalthoughthiswasmostcommoninthefirstyear.

Unintendednegativeconsequences?Onthewhole,itseemslikelythatchildrenwithinSG/SHGhouseholdsbenefit.Thegroupsoftenreceivestrongmessagesaboutavoidingharmfultraditionalpracticessuchasearlymarriageorsendingchildrenawayaslabourers.Manygroupspenalisememberswhotakepartinsuchpractices.However,theintra-household,includingchild,labourimplicationsofincreasedworkloadsasaresultofgreateraccesstocreditandloans(andevenifworkloadsalwaysincrease)isunclear.SheepandgoatsneedherdingandCoSAP/FCmenwereveryclearabouthowwhilesheepcanbefattenedinthebackyard,goatsneedtobeherded.Onemanmentionedhow,unusually,hiswifeherdsandthatthisispossibleonlybecausetheydonothavetoomanychildren.Moreworkforchildrenisnotproblematicaslongasitisappropriatetotheirageanddoesnotpreventthemattendingschoolordoinghomeworkandtherespondentsfrequentlymentionedhowtheynowcouldinvestintheirchildren'snutrition,education,andmaterialwellbeingthankstotheirincreasedincomesoitseemslikelythatchildrenbenefitfromtheSG/SHG.However,thisresearchdoesnothavefirmevidenceconcerningtheimplicationsforchildlabour.

IssueswithtrainingRespondentsfromCARE/ASE,CoSAP/FCandOXFAM/FCallcomplainedthatwhentrainingwasgiveninthelocaltown,onlyafewarecalledbecauseitistoocostlytotakeallthegroupmembers.Thesetraineesaresupposedtocomebackandtrainothersandusuallythetraineesreceiveaperdiemfortheirstayinthetrainingcentre.However,somegroupmembersreportedthatnotonlydothosewhogofortrainingreturnwith'moneyintheirpocket'butalsooftenfailtopassonthetraining.ThereisadangerthatNGOswillbelievethattheirbeneficiarieshavereceivedtrainingwhentheyhavenotandmonitoringinthisareashouldbeimproved.Oneindividualreportedhowshehadnotpassedonhertraining(thoughitwasnotclearifshehadbeensentasatraineroftrainers).

Fortraining,itisFCthatselectsrepresentativesoftheSHGtogototrainings.Wehavehadtrainingsonbeefarming,onlifestyles,andonhowtoraisechildren.Theyalsotaughtusthatweshouldnotsignwithoutreading.Ifthetrainingshadbeencontinuous,itwouldhavebeenuseful.IhavegonetotrainingstwiceinMerawiandNazreth.Idonotrememberwhatitwasabout.Ididnotshareitwiththeothersinthegroup.IfIhadeducationthenIwouldhavetakenanoteandshareditwiththeothers.Oxfam/FC

However,thiscritiqueofthetrainingoftrainermodelwasnotsystematicallyinvestigatedbutanissuethatcameupindiscussions.Atleastonegroupreportedthatthememberswhoweretraineddidtraintheirfellowmembersalthoughitisnotclearwhetherthelinkageoftrainingandtheobligationtopassonthetrainingwithanassetmadeadifferenceinthiscase.

Thosemembers,whotookthecows,aretheonewhotookthetwodaystraininggivenatMukeTuri.Theyhavebeentrainedabouthouseholdandenvironmentalsanitation,cattlekeeping,householdmanagementandtoiletusage.Thetrainingisveryusefulbecausewegainknowledge

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aboutenvironmentalandhouseholdsanitation.Previouslywedidn’thavetoilets;butnoweverymemberhasatoilet.Hundee

ReasonsforjoiningagroupMostgroupmembersjoinedbecausetheyhopedtoimprovetheirlives.ThebeneficiariesunderCARE/ASEwereinadifferentsituation.TheGRADprogrammehadbeenputinplaceforthoseonthePSNPorrecentlygraduatedfromthePSNP.AlltheSHGmemberswhospoketotheresearchersregrettedtheirlossofaccesstothesecurityofthePSNPwhilst,atthesametime,expressingtheirappreciationofthebenefitsofVESA(SG)membership

PeoplefromCARE/ASEcameandtoldustoestablishasavinggroupsothatwecansaveandengageinabusiness.WeestablishedthesavinggroupsandstartedtosaveworkingasadailylaborerCARE/ASEThePSNPtolduswehadgraduated,thatwewerebetteroff;wehadreceivedcashandfoodviathePSNP,weweretoldweshouldopentheirownsavingsgroup.WewerenothappyaboutthisbutwedobenefitfromtheVESA.Weareallex-PSNPand4yearsagowereundertheSafetyNet.Weweretoldthathadtoleave,wewantedtostayinthePSNPbutcouldnot.CARE/ASEThebenefitwegetbybeingamemberofthesesavinggroupscannotbeequivalenttowhatweusedtogetfromPSNP.WebenefitedalotfromPSNP.13.CARE/ASE

Inothersites,Kabeleleaderstoldtheresearchersthattheywerealsoinvolvedintheselectionprocess,recommendingwhichpoorhouseholdsmightsuitparticipationinthesavingsgroups.

ChallengesinmixedgroupsTheevidencefromthisresearchwas,ofcourse,insufficienttoformanyconfidentconclusion.TheresearchersmetInthesitewheregroupsweremixed,respondentsappearedtodivide'naturally'intoawomen'ssideandamen'sside,reflectingthegenderdynamicsstillpervadingEthiopiansocietyandreligion.CARE/ASEwomenfromtwogroupsinterviewedcomplainedthatthemeninthegroupreceivedmoretrainingwhenpressedsaidthattherehadnotbeenthatmuchtrainingyet.ThemaleSGmemberstoldtheinterviewersthatthemenhavetheirownleadersandthewomenhavetheirownleaders.Bothmenandwomensaidthattheleadersofthemenandtheleadersofthewomenwantedtoseebetterrelationsbetweenthegroupofwomenandgroupofmensotheyleaddiscussionsevery50days.Therewasonecasewheremanaccessedgroupmembershipbuthiswifedidnotthatwasreported.

13Reviewingthereport,CARE/ASEcommentedthattherearetwowaysinwhichPSNPgraduationtakesplace:thefirstisselfgraduationwherethehouseholdvoluntarilyleavestheprogramme,recognisingthatitcansupportitselfwithoutgovernmentassistance;or,secondly,throughaprocessofbenchmarkingwhichallowstheKebeleFoodSecurityTaskForce(KFSTF)toassesshouseholds,thismaywellbeperceivedbythehouseholdasanon-voluntaryseverancealthoughanormalpartofthePSNPcycle.

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IhavebeenintheVESAforthelast3years.MywifeisnotamemberoftheVESA,wethoughtoneofusbeinginthegroupisenough.Wethoughtwemightnotbeabletomanagetwosavings.CARE/ASE

ResistancetochangeTherewas,ofcourse,giventheembeddedandcomplexnatureofgenderrelations,oppositiontothesechanges(anditiscertainthatthereisstilloppositiontochanginggenderrelationsgiventhestrengthoftraditioninEthiopia);suchoppositionistobeexpectedandisoftensupportedbyreligiousbeliefandpractice.

Therearesomemenwhostillthinkintheolderways.Theyaredisrespectfuloftheirwivesandtheyteaseussaying“youare[the]slaveofyourwife”.Theythinkthatourpowerandauthorityaretakenbywomen.Oxfam/FC

FemaleheadedhouseholdsfaceparticularchallengesForthemostpart,respondentsagreedthatfemaleheadedhouseholdsfacedatoughertimebecausetheyhadoneadultlessforplanning,agriculturaltasks,businessandhouseholdandinsocialtermswerevulnerable,lackingtheprotectionandrepresentationofamanwherelocallevelpoliticallifeisdominatedbymenandalsorespect.

Itisverydifficultforfemaleheadsofhouseholdstosaveregularly.Becausetheyareexpectedtofulfilleverythingfortheirfamily;theyhavetoengageinfarming,theyhavetodobusinessasthelandisnotproductive;thereisnoonewhocanshareideaswiththem.Moreover,theyhavetosaveregularly.Soitisverydifficultforthemtosaveandattendmeetingsregularly.HundeeIthinkahouseholdwithhusbandandwifelivingtogetherisbetterinearningmoremoneyandsavingmore.Thereisasayingthat“twohandsarebetterthanonehand”.Forfemaleheadedhouseholdsitischallengingtosaveoften.Iam,forinstance,asinglemotherandfacedmanychallengesatthebeginning.Withdependentchildren,itwasverychallengingformetoengageinincomegeneratingactivitiesbecausetherewasnoonewhocantakecareofmytoddler.ButcurrentlythankstoGodIamdoingwell.NazarethFemaleheadedhouseholdsoftenrentouttheirlandorgiveitforsharecropping[becausetheycannotfarmitthemselves].CARE/ASEIthinkmaleheadedhouseholdsarebetterinsavingregularly.Everythingcannotbefulfilledforthosefemaleswhoareheadsofhouseholds.Soitcanbedifficultforthemtosaveandattendmeetingsregularly.Ofcourse,inourgrouptherearenosuchwomen.Oxfam/FC

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Maleheadedhouseholdsarebetterthanfemaleheadedhouseholdsinsavingandattendingmeetingsregularlyasspousessupporteachother.Butwhenwecomparehouseholdswithinflexiblehusbandandfemaleheadedhouseholds,femaleheadedhouseholdsarebetterineverything;womenfromfemaleheadedhouseholdsarefreetoattendthebiweeklymeetings.CARE/ASEFemalehouseholdheadsexperiencedifficultyinsavingregularlythanfemalesinmaleheadedhouseholds.Thisisbecause,inhouseholdswherebothareavailable,theycansupporteachotherandsaveonaregularbasis.CARE/ASEWomenfrommaleheadedhouseholdsarebetterinsavingthanwomenfromfemaleheadedhouseholds.Mostofusinmaleheadedhouseholdssave20birrandthosefromfemaleheadedhouseholdssave5Birr.CoSAP/FC

5.2CommunitylevelContextinfluencesNotsurprisingly,thecontextalsoinfluenceshoweasyordifficultitisforSHG/SGmemberstousetheiraccesstocreditmoreproductivelyandprofitably.Thesevariationsmakeitdifficulttounpackwhichfactorshavecontributedmosttothechangesseen,whethertheseareenvironmental,thelocaleconomyorthemethodologyandapproachofthedifferentNGOs.Thisconfoundingofformativeinfluenceslimitswhatcanbesaidwithcertainty,inparticularitmakesithardtocommentonthemoreexternallyinfluencedforcescontributingtoeconomicchange.Forexample,thedenseurbanenvironmentofAdamaoffersmanymoreeconomic,employment,educationalandemploymentopportunitiestotheSHGmembersthantheruralsituationoftheCoSAP/FCsitesvisited.Rurallocationscouldbefurtherdifferentiatedbywhethertheywereperi-urban,thusprovidingdailylabouropportunities,orweremoreremote;orwhethertheywerehighproductivityzones(anofficialEthiopiangovernmentcategory)ordroughtprone.However,therangeofincomegenerating,market,employmentoreducationaloptionsavailabletopoorwomeninruralareaswascertainlysmallerandastartinghypothesisforfutureresearchwouldbethattheSHG/SGmethodologywillhaveeasiereconomicresultswheremarketsandservicesareeasilyaccessible.Theseenvironmentalandeconomicdifferencesmeanthatitishardtoassesswithoutcarefullongitudinalstudiesacrosssimilarenvironmentswhichmethodologicalapproachworksbest.

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5.3Organisationallevel-NGOandapexorganisationsDurationTheprojectsalsoanticipatevaryingdurationsofengagement.Fortheagenciesworkingwithclusterandfederationlevelstructures,thesetaketimetoemergeandneedsupporttostabiliseandbecomeproficient.LinkageswithMFIsandcooperativesalsoneedseveralyearstoestablish.

Duetothesupportreceivedfrompartnerevangelicalchurches,Tearfundprojectsinitiallydidnothavetoworkwithinastrictprojecttimeframeandtheexitstrategywasnotbuiltintothedesign.ProjectdesignhasnowbeenchangedtoreflectfundingconstraintsbetterandtoallowtheNGOtoseegrowthandmovefundsonwardsasfastaspossible.InWomberma,theprojecthaditsownlifespan.FCKNHhavebeenworkingforaround9yearsonthisprojectandhavereachedthebeginningoftheconsolidationphasewhereSHGshaveachievedthefederationlevel,schoolsaremanagedbythegovernment,andseedmultiplicationandmarketingcooperativesweresupportedbythecooperativeandagriculturaloffice.Thesestructureswerenotdependentonfundingtranches;mostoftheprojectactivitiesweredonestartingfromthebeginningbasedonasustainableplanbutaredependentonfundingtranchesfromtheirdonorstocontinuethework.ThisisalsotrueforOxfam,andCSTbutCAREseestheVSLAmodel(notstudiedherebutthemodelthatunderliestheVESAmodelwithregardstosavingsandloans)asselfsufficientafter1year.CST’sprogrammecycleisfrom3-5years,butafteraprogrammecycleisfinished,thereisaconsolidationphasebeforetheinterventionisphasedoutofanarea.

Box2:AnexceptionalexampleoftheclusterandcoalitionsworkingwellistheselfgoverningAdamastructures

TheAdama/Nazarethstructureshavetakenapproximately13yearstoevolveandmuchreflectionandreinventiononthepartofTearfund.AdamahasnowbeenregisteredasassociationbutactslikeanNGOinprovidingcontinuoussupporttoitsmemberswhilefoundingnewgroupsandseekingnewareasofactivitytosupportthegroups.TheresearchersheardsomeremarkablesuccessstoriesabouthowSHGmembershavegrowninconfidenceindecisionmakinginboththeirfamiliesandthelocalcommunity.Manyarenowadvocatingonbehalfofthepoorandmarginalisedintheircommunitiesandthereislittledoubtthattheorganisationhashadsignificantachievementsinbeingrecognisedbygovernmentandinthelinkagesithasdevelopedwithgovernmentofficesandmicrofinanceagencies.ThenumberofwomenitgroupsmeansthattheNGOcanbringinfluenceandevenhavepoliticalambitionsbasedonpromotingtheinterestsoftheirmembersandofpoorwomenmoregenerally.FCKNHalsopromotesthedevelopmentofclusterandfederationorganisationsandthesehavebeenabletorespondto

LinkagestomicrofinanceinstitutesMostaccountsoflinkageswithMFIswerepositivebutthereweresomecasesfromCARE/ASEofhouseholdsbeingpressuredtotakeMFIloansorwhodidnotqualifyforMFIloanssomehowmanagingtoeitherborrowfromtwoatatimeortoborrowmorethantheycouldaffordtorepaywithoutaseriousdegradationinassets.Thehintsofcompulsionbelowareacauseofanxietyand

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meanthatNGOsneedtoensurethattheyhavestrongsystemsofidentificationandregulationinplace.TheclustersystemmayprovideagoodscreeningprocessforMFIs.

Iborrowed4000Birrandboughtanox.Butithadbecomesodifficulttofattenit.WhenItriedtosellit,itwasestimated2800Birr.FinallyIbroughtbacktohomeandslaughteredit.Thankstomychildrentheyrepaidtheloan.ButIpromisedtomyselfnottotakealoanagain.

Care/ASE

Agri-servicelinkeduswithOmo[MFI]andweallborrowedmoneyfromOmobecausetheysaidwecannotbeamemberunlessandotherwisewetakeloan.Buttheproblemisthatwecan’tpayitback.I,forexample,took4000i.e.3400Birrandboughtgoatsbutalldied.IpaidbacktheloansellingmypairofoxenthatIusedtoploughmyland.Someotherofustooktheloanbecausetheypromisedtobuythegoatsafterwefattenedthem.Butnoonecametobuythegoats.Moreover,thereisaninterest.Weareexpectedtopayback6000Birr.Soduetolackofmarketwecan’tpaybacktheloan.Evensomeofussellourlandtorepaytheloan.Thedroughthasitsowneffectfornotrepayingtheloan.Thisisbecausefeedisgettingexpensiveduetothedrought.Sowepromisedforourselvesnottotakeloan[fromMFI]neverandeveragain.

Care/ASE

SustainabilityTheexitstrategyforthesegroupsandtheirapexorganisationvariedbutallNGOsvisitedwereclearthattheyhaddevelopedsuchastrategy.Thegroupsandcluster/federationswheretheseexistedareeitheralreadyselfsustainingorhavethepotentialtobeso.ThediscussionofwhenNGOsshouldremovesupportwilldependontheobjectivesoftheNGOandtheneedsofgroupmembers.InthecaseofFCKNH,theyintendedthattheinstitutionsleftbehindwouldbemanagedbytheirmemberswhileOxfam/FCenvisagedhandingtheirprojectovertogovernment;governmentofficerswerealreadycloselyinvolvedintheseprojectsandwerekeentotakeoverthetechnicalsupport.ForAdama,theorganisation'sfederationlevelorganisationwasalreadyfunctioningasanindependentNGOandtheirvisionincludedthecreationofaresourcecentreforallgroupstouseandthefurtherevolutionofthekindergartentheyhadestablished.HundeehadbuiltonthelocaldebereinstitutiontomanagethemovementofassetsbetweentheSGmemberssothisoversightbodywaslikelytoremaininplaceinthelongterm.

Asmentionedabove,theclustersoftenranktheSHGsbytheirperformancetoencouragethemembers.Rankingsarebyattendance,contributions,savingsandrepayments.Experiencesharingfortheclustercanbeveryimportantandtheyalsohavetheirownenterprisestoearnfundsforclusterperse.Thefederationandclustersalsoorganiselargescalecelebrationsofthewomen'sgroupswithannualfestivitiesallofwhichcontributetotheidentityandcohesionofthegroupinthelongterm.

ErraticrelationswithgovernmentRelationshipsandinteractionwithgovernmentatlocallevelseemedtofollowanerraticanduncertaintrajectory.Adama'sfederationsetupakindergartentocreateasafeandeducational

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environmentformembers'childrenwhilewomenworkedandtogenerateincome.Afterafewyearsoflobbyingforland,theschoolwasaccommodatedinagovernmentschool.Butlateronandquitesuddenly,thisspacewasthentakenback.Similarly,afeepayingpre-schoolsetupbyCoSAP/FCwasunderminedbythesettingupofagovernmentpre-schoolwhichdidnotchargefees.

Asinanymajororganisationsorbureaucracies,individualscanbeexceptionstotherule.AgovernmentlivestockofficerinDangilawasunmitigatedlyenthusiasticabouttheworkbeingdonebyOxfam/FCandhadonlypraisefortheNGO;hisviewwasthatallthiswasbeingdoneforgovernmentashisdepartmentwouldsoontakeoverthisgoodwork.Althoughwedonothavedirectevidenceofthis,itseemsreasonabletosuggestthatthevariousclustersandcoalitionsofwomen'sSHGsalsostrengthenthewomen'saffairsofficebyprovidinganotherstronglobbyforwomen'srights.

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6.Promisingpracticesandtheirunderlyingchangepathways

6.1Themoreyousow…themoreyoureapHowwellthegroupscoalescestrucktheresearchersasverymuchafunctionofhowwelltheorganisationpromotedthegroups.Wherethegroupsarefiercelycoherent,thisisaresultofunparalleledlongtermsupportandinsistenceongroupselfrelianceaswithNazareth.Theresearcherswereextremelyimpressedbytheresultsseenthere,butnotethatitwouldhavebeenmorehelpfultohavealsovisitedaruralversionofthesameagency'sapproachasithasbeendifficulttoknowhowtoattributethissuccess(todisentangletheimpactoftheurbancontext,thelongtermsupportandtheintensefocusonselfreliantgroups).However,takingthegroupsseriouslyandinvestinginthemasanentitythatcaninitselfmultiplybenefitsforruralwomendoesseemtobearesultthatpaysoff.TheworkcarriedoutbyCoSAP/FCinruralareaswhichhasscaledupfrom12to21kebelessupportsthefindingthatSHGshaveconsiderablepotentialtoempowerwomensociallyandeconomicallyalthoughtheeconomicopportunitiesweremorelimitedandeconomiesofscalewerereducedinruralareas.

6.2TheadvantagesofthesocialfundsThesocialfundsembeddedintheby-lawsofmostSGsareaveryusefulinnovation.Theynowconstituteaplacetoturntointimesofcrises,particularlyhealthcrisesandmustallowforgreaterpeaceofmindingroupmembers.SocialfundsareakeymeansbywhichSHG/SGmembershavebeenabletoavoidtraditionalmoneylendersandtheirhigherinterestratesatvulnerabletimes.Avoidanceoftheserichhouseholdsalsoprotectstheassetsofthepoor,mostparticularlyandimportantly,theirland.LandshortagesinEthiopiaandintermittentredistributionbygovernmentmeanthatthereispressurefromthebetteroffonlandownership.Theobligationinothergroupsnottobuilduparegularsocialfundbyaweeklyorbiweeklycontributionbuttohavememberscontributeintimesofneedseemsamuchweakerversionofthesocialfundandtohaveamuchreducedprotectivedimension.

6.3ThebenefitsofinsuranceOneofthemostimpressiveresultsoftheSGsisthattheyprovideaformofmicro-insuranceviathesocialfundandthesocialcapitaldevelopedwithinthegroupwhichleadstosupportintimesof'happinessandsadness'.Whereself-helpgroupscanevolveintocooperativesocietiesbasedontheirinterest,thisalsooffersanopportunityforsustainabilityandforlinkageswiththeformalsectors.ThedisturbingaccountsofpoorwomenfromSGswhohadsomehowplayedthesystemtoobtainloansfrommorethanoneMFIsuggestthatNGOscouldsupportMFIsindevelopingbetteroversightordatamanagementpractices.

6.4RotationinleadershippositionsTherewillalwaysbetheriskthatwhilstprovidingauniquevehicleforwomen(andmen)whoare,forthemostpartuneducatedandpoor,thatamongstthosewomenandmen,somewillcometodominate.Theprinciplesoftransparencyandrotationoftrainingandleadershipremaincrucialtoolstoallowalltorealisetheirpersonalpotentialandtoprevent,wherenecessary,aneweliteemergingtocapturetheknowledgebased,economicandpoliticalcapitalopportunities.

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6.5TrainingasacatalystTherangeoftrainingonoffertomostofthegroupshasbeenasterlingsuccessandbuildingontheefficienciesembodiedingroupformationshouldcontinue.Groupsallreportedonwhattheyhadlearntandmanyappearedtohavegenuinelynewskillsandknowledgeincriticalareasofagriculture,nutrition,climatechangeadaptation,livestockcareandmarketing,beekeeping,integratedfunctionalliteracyandgenderrelations;allofwhichsuggestedthattheprovidersoftraininghadtakencarefulnoteoftheneedsoftheirgroupmembersTearfundviewsitselfasnotsomuchsupportingtrainingbutcreatingtheopportunityforlearning;theeffectappearssimilarandpositive.Mostoftenreportedonassuccessfulwasthe'savingsculture'thathadspreadwithinthegroupswherebyimprovedfinancialmanagementconceptshadbecomeembeddedinruralhouseholds.Thesuccessofthesavingsculturewasillustratedbythefactthat,inmanycases,itwasbeingadoptedbyothercommunitymembersthroughjoiningSGsorformingtheirowngroups.Wheretrainingwasbyatrainingoftrainerssystem,theresultsappeartohavebeendiluted;NGOsshouldseekimprovedtrainingmethodsorwaystoguaranteethequalityofTOTsystems.

6.6TransformationsingenderrelationsThisresearchdidnotinterviewenoughmenwithinthecommunitiestoassessconclusivelytheimpactofthetrainingongenderrelationsbuttherewereencouragingsignsofpositivechangereportedbymenandwomenofchangesinwhatwasconsideredappropriateforwomenintermsofmobility,enterprise,consultationanddecisionmaking.Thereweremanyreportsthatthisbroughtpositiveresultsforchildrenintermsofparents(especiallymothers)beingabletoprovidethematerialsforeducationinatimelyfashion.Workingwithmenongenderrelationstrainingthereforeseemstobeasolidmoveintherightdirectionandlikelytohaverepercussionsonthewholeoflifeandwellbeingforwomen.Wheresufficientmenhavebeenconvincedthattraditionalgendernormscanbequestioned,therearealsosocialbenefitsasnormsinturnshiftandadapt..

6.7 NGOeconomicinputsneedtobecarefullymanagedTheevidencefromthisresearchsuggeststhatstronglycohesiveandindependentgroupscanformevenwhereNGOsprovideeconomicinputstoprovideaneconomicimpetus,thequotesbelowarefromHundeewhichdoesgiveassetsandeconomicincentivesanddoesnotpromotetheclusterandfederationstructureverystrongly..

Atthebeginningmembersusedtofightsaying“youaretheoneyoumademetobepenalized”.Butnowwemisseachotherandcannotwaittomeetinourweeklygatherings.Wealsovisiteachotherattimesofmaternity,deathandillness.WecontributeETBandtakeinjerawithsaucetothosemembers’housewhoaresick,givebirthtonewbaby,orwhoareonmourningduetodeathoffamilymembers.HundeeSHGWehavebecomelikeafamilyandwedonotwanttodisruptthat.HundeeSHG

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6.8Multiplyingtheimpact-clustersandfederationsTheformationofclustersandcoalitionsbasedontheSGshasthepotentialforseveraldevelopmentalbenefits.Firstly,havingorganisationsofandforpoorwomenprovidesapowerfuladvocacytoolforwomenandchildren'srights(currentlyfocusedongenderbasedviolenceandharmfultraditionalpracticessuchaschildmarriageandchildlabour).Coalitionsandclustersbackedbyalargenumberofwomencanconstituteacounterweighttounequalgenderrelationsandentitlementsatastructurallevel.TheclustersandthecoalitionshavebeenabletomakestronglinkageswiththelocalWomenandChildren'soffice,thepoliceandjudiciaryandmayevenprovideaconstituencyfortheWomenandChildren'soffice.Trainingwomenintherangeofskillsrequiredtofacilitateattheclusterandfederationlevelfurtherdevelopstheleadershipandmanagementskillsthatarealreadyemergingatgrouplevelinmanycases.Clusteringorganisationsalsooffersapathtosustainabilityaswelltrainedclusterofficersandcoalitionscanmaintainthemselvesthroughgroupcontributionsandincomegeneratingactivities.Clustersandcoalitionsofempoweredwomenalsocreatemorediverserolemodelsforwomeninruralareas,thisisreinforcedbytheiractivismonissuesthatharmwomenandchildren.Itisalsoeasiertobringsympatheticmenonboardwhentherearemassedgroupingsratherthanindividualvoicesandtoprotectindividualwomenfromcriticism

6.9SticktosinglesexgroupsTheevidenceproducedhere,whileverylimited,hintsthatsinglesexgroupsworkbetterifanobjectiveoftheprogrammingistoempowerwomensociallyandeconomically.Ifeconomicempowermentisthemainobjective,thatisadifferentmatter.However,tofullyexploitthepotentialembeddedingroupformationanddynamics,itisimportanttobeabletomoveawayfromthetraditionalorganisationofsociety.Takinga2014definitionofeconomicempowermentfromPereznietoandTaylor,itcanbeseenthatpowerinhabitsseveralandrelateddimensionsandislikelyto'leak'intothesocialspherebecauseincreasedcontrolofresources,greatersayindecisionmakingandgreaterautonomyallfeedintoeachother:

'Powerwithin:theknowledge,individualcapabilities,senseofentitlement,self-esteem,andself-belieftomakechangesintheirlives,includinglearningskillsforjobsorstartanenterprise.

Powerto:economicdecision-makingpowerwithintheirhousehold,community,andlocaleconomy(includingmarkets)notjustinareasthataretraditionallyregardedaswomen’srealmbutextendingtoareasthataretraditionallyregardedasmen’srealm.

Powerover:accesstoandcontroloverfinancial,physicalandknowledge-basedassets,includingaccesstoemploymentandincome-generationactivities.

Powerwith:theabilitytoorganisewithotherstoenhanceeconomicactivityandrights'.14

14Reviewofevaluationapproachesandmethodsusedbyinterventionsonwomenandgirls’economicempowerment

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Acrossallthesedimensionsitcanbeseenthatwomenarelikelytolearnmoreabouthowtodowhattheywanttodoandtolearntohavemoresayinwhattheydofromworkingwithinsinglesexgroups.

Carefullyfacilitatedandtrainedwomenonlygroupsaremorelikelytocreatesafespacesforwomenandgeneratemorediverserolemodelsforwomen(andalsoforgirlsinthearea)aswomenexploreandtakeonproblemsolving,decisionmakingandrolesasleaders.Womenalso,thereby,enhanceself-esteemandself-confidencethattheycanthentakebacktotheirenterprises,householdsandcommunities.Womenonlygroupsarealsomorelikelytodevelopstronginter-personalrelationshipsandmutualsupport,particularlyaroundkeylifecycleevents;thisisnotyetacceptablebetweenpoorruralunrelatedmenandwomeninEthiopia.ToinvolvewomenindecisionmakingandtopromoteleadershipqualitiesamongthemistothereforetoprovideopportunitiesstillunavailableintraditionalEthiopiansociety.

Thisbeingsaid,however,thereisalsoariskthatparticipantscouldbe‘encouraged’tograduateprematurelyfromthePSNPiftheirnewfoundeconomicempowermentisprecarious.Carefulandmedium-termmonitoringisthereforecritical.

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7.ConclusionsTheoverallobjectiveofthisstudywastodocumentanddevelopacommonunderstandingacrosskeyGovernmentandNon-Governmentstakeholdersofthedevelopmentalprocess,impactandpotentialofSG/SHGapproachesinEthiopia.Morespecificallyitaimedto:

1. ReviewtheSG/SHGapproachesofdifferentNGOstodeterminethesimilaritiesanddifferencesoftheapproachesovertime

2. AssesstheoutcomesofthesevariedSG/SHGapproachesintermsofcontributionstoindividualempowerment,intra-householdrelationships,grouprelationsandsupport,andcommunitydynamics

3. Determinepromisingpracticesandtheirunderlyingchangepathways.

4. ReviewtheexperienceoftheMFIsthatareprovidingfinancialsupporttoSG/SHGanddeterminechallengesandgoodpracticesandtheimpactthishasonthegroups.

5. Createatoolfordialogueforthoseworkinginthisspacewhichcanserveasanentrypointtofindmorecommongroundandpossibleentrypointsforcoordinationandcollaboration.

Inthisconcludingsection,wereviewtheseissuesinwhatseemsthemostappropriateorder,withpoint4subsumedunderpoint2andwiththeassumptionthatpoint5is,infact,thereport.

7.1SimilaritiesandDifferencesOverall,whiletheapproachesofthefiveNGOsandtheirrepresentativepartnersvary,thisresearchsuggestthattheyhavealsomuchincommon.

SimilaritiesThefundingagencieshave,despitedifferentphilosophicalunderpinnings,usedverysimilarmethodologies,theseinclude:

i. Groupformationofapproximatelythesamesizeandsimilareconomicstatusinordertoseehomogeneity

ii. Workingwiththepoorestandmostvulnerable.Allhaveafocusontargetingthepoorestandmanyaimtoworkwithwomen

iii. Groupbylawsagreedbythegroupsthemselves

iv. Agroupcommitteeofapproximately5tobechairman,treasurerandsecretarywithavicechairandavicesecretary

v. Externalsupportforthegroup.Allgroupshadsupportfromfacilitatorsoranimatorsonaregularbasis

vi. Regularmeetingsforsavingsandtheencouragementofloansforproductivepurposeswithloansscrutinisedandaguarantorwithinthegroup

vii. SocialFund.TheestablishmentofaSocialFundorbylawprescribingcontributiontosocialfundtohelpmembersmanagecrisesmoresmoothly

viii. Trainingonsavingsandloansprinciples,practicesandrecordkeepingandtrainingforofficeholdersontheirtasks.

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ix. Trainingonkeydevelopmentissues.Afurthersetoftrainingpackageswhichoverlapincontentastheagenciestendtosubscribetoasharedsetofdevelopmentpriorities(nutrition,sanitation,basicprimaryhealthcare,genderequality,moreresilientandclimateadaptivelivelihoods,newincomegeneratingactivitiesandsoon).

x. Structureddiscussions.Meetingscentreonstructureddiscussionsinmeetingsaroundproblemsfacedbymembers,keydevelopmentissues(savingsandloans,agriculture,IGAs,harmfultraditionalpracticesandsoon)

xi. Socialcapital.Highvaluegiventothesocialcapitalgeneratedbythegroupmembership.

xii. Relationshipswithgovernment.Closeworkingrelationshipwithlocalgovernmentagenciesiscompulsoryandcommon

xiii. Linkageswithmicrofinanceinstitutionsandcooperativesisbuiltintotheprogrammingororganicallyemergesfromtheprogramme.

xiv. Involvementofmen.Alltheagenciesattempttoengagehusbandsormenfromthehouseholdsineithertraining,savingsgroups,cooperativesorsupportgroupsandoffermentraininginatleastgenderrelations

xv. Geographicaltargeting.Theagenciesworkinsimilarareas,oftentargetingpovertygeographically,andmayworkthroughthesamelocalpartners

DifferencesThedifferencesbetweentheNGOobjectivesderiveinlargepartfromtheirphilosophicaldifferences.

i. ThefunctionoftheSHG/SG-meanstoanendorendinitself?TearfundandCoSAPstressthattherelationshipswithintheSHG/Cluster/Federationstructureareable,inthemselves,tobringaboutsocialempowermentandevenpoliticalandinstitutionalchange.TheotherNGOstendtoseetheSGsasameanstoanendorasanefficientdeliverymechanism,andaimtolinkthegroupmemberswithformaleconomicgroupings,suchasmicrofinanceinstitutionsandcooperatives,tosupporteconomicchange.

ii. Longer-termvision-transformedsociety,individualsoreconomicallytransformedhousehold,whatcomesfirst?CAREandOxfamfocusonchangeatthehouseholdlevelalthoughOxfamspecifiesafocusonwomen'sempowerment.TearfundandCoSAPdesiretoeffectsocialandpoliticalchangethroughthegroupformationandrelationshipstomovecommunities(Tearfund)andwomen(CoSAP)outofpoverty.CSTenvisageseconomicempowermentasanentrypointforthesocialtransformationofwomen(alongwiththedecisionmakinginfluencethisbringsintothehouseholdforwomen)andastheprocesswhichwillshiftcommunitiesoutofpoverty.

iii. StressoneconomicversussocialempowermentAllagencieswishtoseeeconomicempowermentbutareatdifferentplacesonthesocialempowermentspectrum.TearfundandCoSAPprioritisesocialempowermentwithpoorruralcommunitiestakingresponsibilityfortheirowndevelopment.Theotheragencies,CAREandCSTaremorestronglyfocusedoneconomicempowerment,yetthenatureofthegroupformationandtherangeoftraining

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offeredmeansthatsocialempowermentisalsoanimportantconcernandoutcome.Oxfamsitssomewherebetweenthetwocampsasitalsopromotestheclusterstructure.

iv. EconomicinputstostimulateproductivityandprofitabilityorgroupselfrelianceAmongtheNGOs,onlyCST/Hundeegivesproductiveinputs,includingagrant(4heiferspergroup,calvesforonwardredistributionwithinthegroup;aprizeforgoodperformanceandrevolvingloanstogroups).Tearfundwillconsidereconomiclinkagesorsupportintimesofcrisisthatdonotunderminegroupsustainability.

v. TheintegratedroleofthegroupandapexstructuresTearfundandCoSAPhaveastrongvisionofthecommunity,advocacyandpoliticalroleoftheclustersandthefederationsystemandhopethatthissystemwillbeultimatelyselfsustainingaswellasselfgoverned.Theirvisionisofanintegratedsystemthatenableslocalleaderstomeetatregionalandnationallevelstodiscussandseeksolutionsforsharednationalproblemsthroughitsownactionandthroughlinkageswithgovernmentagenciesandotherdevelopmentalentities.Oxfamisalsopromotingthesestructures.

vi. GroupReplicationSHGpractitionersarguethatorganicreplicationthrougheitherorbothlocalchurchesandClusterLedAssociationscreatesstrongergroups,betterabletograduateintoclustersandcoalitionswhichsupportmembersandworktowardsgreatersocialjustice.SGpractitionershaveeithersoughttoreplicategroupsthroughtheirownstafforcreatedacadreofindependentfeechargingserviceproviderstoformandtraingroups.

vii. Singlesexversusmixedgroups.OnlyCARE/ASEhasmixedsexgroups,theothersagenciesworkwithsinglesexgroupsastheyconsiderthemmoreempoweringforwomen.

viii. Partnershipsandfundingcycles:Tearfundworksthroughthedevelopmentwingofdifferentevangelicaldenominations/churchesandwashistoricallyabletotakeanunusuallylongtermapproachintermsoftheprojectcyclecomparedtoagencieslikeCAREorOXFAMwhichareoftenon3-5yearfundingterms.HenceNazarethhadmorethanadecadeofthoughtfulsupportbeforebecomingindependent.CSTsimilarlyworksinpartnershipwiththeEthiopianCatholicSecretariat-SocialandDevelopmentCoordinationOffice(ECC-SADCO)andothersecularpartnersona3-5yearProgrammecycle.

ix. Workingwiththenonpoor:Oxfam,CoSAP,CARE,Tearfund/Nazarethwillworkwithbetteroffgroupswhereresourcespermit,notethatthesearenotrichgroups,butnotthepoorest.

7.2TheoutcomesItishardtogeneralisefromthesmallsampleofmainlysuccessfulgroupsinterviewed.However,thedepthoftheinterviewsandtherepetitionofsimilarthemesandexperiencesbygroupaftergroupmeanthattheresearchersareabletosaywithsomeconfidencethatmanyoftheindividualandhouseholdleveloutcomesaresimilarwhichevertheagencyandwhetherthegroupisconsideredaselfhelpgrouporasavingsgroup.Longerestablishedgroupstendedtohavebetteroutcomesbecausetheyhadsavedlonger,investedmoreandhadtimetoenjoythebenefitsofsocialcapitalwherethatemerged.

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Whatreachedthepoorest?Thequestionofwhichapproachworksbestforthepooralsoremainsunanswered,partlybecausealltheNGOsappearedtohavesomesuccessinreachingandworkingwiththeverypoor.Wouldtheextremepoorpreferprogrammeswhichoffersomelevelofeconomicsupportorarethey,inthelongerterm,moreempoweredbytheintrinsicmotivationalapproachoftheagencieswhichrelyontransformationofrelationswithoneselfandwithinthegroupandthelargergroupstructuresofclusterandfederation?Thisresearchcannotsay,however,wherewellimplemented,theapproachesreviewedallbroughtbenefitstotheirmembersthatcouldnotbereadilyaccessedelsewhere:improvedmoneymanagement,savings,accesstocredit,trainingimportanttowellbeingandtolivelihoodsandrelationshipswithacohortofpeerslivinglocallywhocouldprovidesupportandfriendship.

IndividualEmpowermentInnearlyallgroups,respondentsreportedthedevelopmentofasavingsculturethattheyhadnothadbeforeintermsofagreaterabilitytosaveandtoplanforinvestmenttheycouldmakefromtheirsavings.Investmentstendedtofollowatrajectoryassavingsincreasedandloansbecamelargerbutcouldalsofailastherisksbecamehigher.Respondentsreportedbeingabletodiversifytheirincomestreams,particularlyinthedenseurbanenvironmentofAdama.AstheNGOsdidnotgivegrants(exceptforCST),thiswasverymuchtheworkoftheindividualsintheirgroups.Expenditureincreasedandgeneratedanincomestreamunderthecontrolofthewoman(orman)concernedalbeitonethatwasnormallyspentonhouseholdneedsandchildren'seducation.Thesocialfundseemedtobeasolidsuccessalbeitlimitedinscalewhilstitandtheloansystemenabledmemberstoavoidtraditionalmoneylenderswithhighinterestratesandprotecttheirassetsbetter.GroupmembersalsovaluedthesocialbenefitsofSG/SHGmembershipintermsofincreasedsocialcapitalwhichstrengthenedovertime.Thevariousfinancial,economic,agricultural,gender,socialandhealthtrainingsofferedwereappreciatedandrespondentsaskedformoretraining.Thediscussionsheldinmeetingswerealsovaluedasausefulwayoflearningwithastructuredagendatofollowandissuessuchaschildlabourraised.

Wherethemainrouteoutofpovertyisenhancingengagementwithmarkets,thismeansthatindividualshavetotakeincreasedrisks.Inevitably,somewillfail,thegroupbasedmodeldoesrestonmajoritysuccessandmoreinformationisneededastohowthegroupsdealwithmemberswhodefaultbecause,forexample,theanimalboughttofattendiesunexpectedly.Hundee'soversightcommitteeforanimalsharinghastheauthoritytodecideifananimaldiedthroughnofaultofawoman'sandtoforgivethedebt;infuture,theaimmaybetoensureanimalswithreliableinsurancecompanytomitigatethisproblem(theresearchersweretoldthatsomeinsurancecompanieshaveexpressedinterestinworkingwithfarmers).Thegroups,clustersandfederationsmightwellbesuitableentitiesforengagementwithmicro-insurancewherethelawpermits.

Intra-HouseholdrelationshipsGenderrelationsareafocusofthisreportsincealltheNGOsregardthegroupsasawayinwhichwomenmaybecomesociallyaswellaseconomicallyempowered.Respondentsreporteddistinctandpositiveshiftsingenderrelationsintermofsharingofwork,greaterinfluenceandconsultationwithinthehousehold,thedevelopmentofwomen'sskillsandknowledgeandgreaterconfidence

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andmobility.Thesignificanceandscaleofthisshiftingenderrelationsishardtoassess,notonlybecausetheseweremostlysuccessfulgroupsbutbecauseitwashardtoseparatetheimpactofNGOtrainingfrombroaderandmorestructuralshiftsasaresultofgovernmentpoliciesaroundgender(e.gthepromotionofcontraception,afocusonwomen'sreproductivehealth)andthegovernment'sowntrainingprogrammes.Yet,thereseemedtobechangesunderwaythatnotonlyallowedwomentocontributetotheirhouseholdsbutalsopromisedtodeliverlastingchangesintermsofwomen'sstatusandinfluence.Groupsolidarityreinforcedthesechangesandgavewomenastructuralbaseaswellas.

CommunitylevelGroupstructureshadconsiderablepotentialforenhancingresilienceagainstshocksandstresses.Theroleofthesocialfundwasthefirstlevelofsupportbutthiswascomplementedbytrainingonclimateresistantagriculture,accessingloansforinputsorevenconsumptionandthepossibleuseofthegroupstructureforNGOresponsesintheformsofarotatingloanorsimilardistributions.Onlythreeoftheagenciesregardedtheformationoftheclustersandthefederationsasintegraltotheirworkandyet,whereconsiderablededicationwasgiventosupportingthesesystems,theyappearedtoofferbenefitsbeyondthosetransformationsaccessibleatgroup,householdorindividuallevels.Successful

Linkagestogovernment,exitstrategiesAlltheagencieshadastrongworkingrelationshipwiththeirrelevantlocalgovernmentofficesthoughintheEthiopiancontext,theselinkagesandoversightarecompulsory.TheexperiencesreportedbytheNGOsvaried,unsurprisingly,fromsitetositeandwereofteninfluencedbytheindividualofficers.Linkagestomicrofinanceinstitutionsappearedriskier.ItwillbeimportantfortheseNGOstoensurethathouseholdsarenotpushedtoofasttowardslargeandoverlappingloans.TheexamplesthatemergedduringtheresearchofthishappeningwerefromareaswhereCARE'spartner,Agri-Servicewasworkingbutitmustbekeptinmindthatinthissite,theresearcherswereabletovisitgroupsindroughtaffectedareasthatwerenotselectedforhighperformanceandwheretheindividualswhoreporteddifficultieshadalsotriedtoplaythesystem.Areviewofthechecksandqualificationsforloansmightbesensibleinthiscontext.

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8.Recommendations

8.1ReachingthepoorestThedatacollectedforthisresearchsuggeststhattheverypoorestdoneedtobetargetedinadeliberatemannertobeabletobepartofthesegroupsandthatmoreremoteruralareasarestillthehardesttoreach.Allagenciesshouldcontinuetoseekmodalitiesthatworkforthepoorestandmaywellbeabletolearnfromeachotherinthisregards.

8.2TimeandresourceinvestmentingroupsTakingthegroupsseriouslyandinvestinginthemasanentitythatcaninitselfmultiplybenefitsforruralwomenseemedtobearesultthatpaysoff.SHGshaveconsiderablepotentialtoempowerwomen,butforthistotakeplace,theSG/SHGneedstrongorganisationalsupport.

8.3SupportsocialfundsGiventheimportanceofsocialfundstoreducevulnerabilityandmitigaterisks,waystostrengthenthesocialfundortolinkwithhealthinterventionswouldbeapromisingwayforward.

8.4DevelopaninsurancefunctionIdentifyingthemostappropriatemicrocreditfunctionsforpoorhouseholdsalsoseemsapracticalandpotentialprofitablewayforward.Ethiopianshaveafirmattachmenttoiddir,theindigenousandlocallybasedfuneralinsurance;thissuggeststhatotherformsofbasicinsurancesuchashealthinsurancemightalsobeacceptable.However,theremaywellbelegalbarriersinEthiopiatoNGOsdevelopinginsurancepackagesthatmeanquickerresultswouldcomefromworkingwithMFIstodevelopalternativepackages.

8.5AvoidingelitesformingNGOsshouldensurethatrotationinleadershippositionstakesplaceas,otherwise,empowermentgainswillonlybemadebythealreadyassertivemembersofagroup.

8.6MoreandbetterqualitytrainingTrainingshouldbedeliveredbywell-trainedfacilitatorsandNGOandgovernmenttechnicalexpertsandnotbeshortcircuited.Alternatively,structuresforoversightorreportingoftheformalsharingoflearningcouldbeexploredsuchasensuringthesesharedtrainingsareongroupagendas.

8.7GroupmaintenanceWhatseemsimportantisasteadyfocusongroupmaintenanceandcohesionthroughregularmeetings,therotationofofficers,ensuringloanscirculate,andarerepaidalongwithbuildingthecapacityofthemembersintermsofleadershipskillsandtraininginkeydevelopmentareas

8.8SupporttheformationofclustersandfederationsGiventhebenefitsofhavingclustersandfederations,itseemsimportantthatthecurrentprogrammesthatpromotethismodelcontinuetosupportit.ItmaybethatthistypeofinvestmentinsocialchangebyanNGOpartnerrequiresalongterminvestmentandconsiderablelevelsofsupportintechnicalandfacilitativeifnotfinancialterms,buttheinvestmentseemstobeworthwhile.Churchbasedagenciesmaybebetterplacedtomakethistypeofinvestment.

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8.9ExpandsavingsandloansgroupstoallPSNPrecipientsThevalueofthe'savingsculture'meansthatitisapplicabletoanywealthgroup(inthedevelopedordevelopingworld)butthatitcanhavethemostpositiveimpactforextremelypoorhouseholdssuchasthosereceivingthePSNPandothercashtransferprogrammes.Atthecoreofthistrainingisasimplefocusonbettermanagementofmoney,onplanning,goalsettingandbusinessplanningfromwhichallhouseholdscanbenefit.AsavingsculturecanalsobegintocontributetowardsthegraduationobjectivesofaprogrammesuchasthePSNP.Theadvantagesfromgroupformationarisefromthepoolingoffunds,theefficiencyintermsoftrainingdeliveryandthesocialcapitalandmicroinsurancebenefitsdescribedinthisreport.

8.10MoremeaningfulM&EisessentialThisreporthaslearnedaboutthemonitoringandevaluationactivitiesfromthedocumentationprovidedbytheheadofficesinEthiopiaandfromtalkingtoNGOofficersontheground.Ideally,thiswouldhavebeencomplementedbymeetingsseniorNGOM&Estaffasitislikelythatsomekeyactivitieshavebeenoverlookedbuttimewaslimitedduringthefieldworkperiod.Theimpressiongarneredatlocallevelwasthatmuchmonitoringisreducedtocountingoutputsintheformoftrainingsdelivered,loansmade,animalsboughtorsharedandsoon.Thisenumerationisnotrevealingofprocessesandisunlikelytodelivermuchinthewayoffeedbackloopswhenthingsgowrong.Theremayalsobetoogreatafocusonsuccesswhichconcealschallengesfacedbyothermembers.Werecommendaskingforstoriesofchallenges,dropoutandlossinadditiontosuccessstories.TheNGOsshouldalsoinvestigatetheimpactofthetrainingpackagestheydeliver.Forexample,abeforeandaftertimeusestudywithmenandwomenwhohavereceivedgendertrainingmightproduceinterestingresultswhichvalidatetheprogramming.

Agreyarea,forexample,iswhatmoreproductiveandprofitableworkforwomenmeansforchildren.Moreworkforthehouseholdcanhaveamixedimpactonchildrenaccordingtotheirgenderandage.Thereweremixedmessagesfromtheaccountsinthisreview:someparentswereclearlyawarethatchildrenshouldnotcompromisetheirschoolworktohelpathomebutchildren'slabourwaspartofthehouseholdlabourportfolio.TheNGOsshouldfollowuphere.

IftheNGOsareseriousaboutlearningfromeachother,thereareopportunitiesheretodevelopcommonframeworksofM&Ethatwouldallowthemtocomparebetterbetweenthedifferentprogrammesforimpactovertime.RCTshavebeenreportedtobeproblematicduetotheswiftadoptionofsavingsgroupsbyothercommunitymembersbutitshouldbepossibletodesignareasonablyrobustcomparativemixedmethodslongitudinalstudyacrossthevariousNGOstotracktheimpactandresonanceofparticularinterventionsinameaningfulway.Someagenciesdislikethenon-treatmentcomponentoftheRCTforethicalreasonsbutthesecanoftenbeovercomewherethereisasequencingofprogrammingsothatthosecurrently'non-treatment'knowthattheywilleventuallyreceivetheintervention.Certainly,morejointvisitsarerecommendedbythedifferentNGOstoeachother'ssiteswithspecificlearningagendas.ThesecouldbeaccompaniedbymutualsupportofSavingsandSelfHelpGroupreviewandstudyeventsatanationalandregionallevel.

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