Sati (practice) 1

Sati (practice)

"Ceremony of Burning a Hindu Widow with the Body of her LateHusband", from Pictorial History of China and India, 1851.

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Satī (Devanagari: सती, the feminine of sat "true"; also called suttee)spelling was a religious funeral practice amongsome Hindu communities in which a recently widowed Hindu woman either voluntarily or by use of force andcoercion would have immolated herself on her husband’s funeral pyre.[1] The practice is rare and has been outlawedin India since 1829.[2]

The term is derived from the original name of the goddess Sati, also known as Dakshayani, who self-immolatedbecause she was unable to bear her father Daksha's humiliation of her (living) husband Shiva. The term may also beused to refer to the widow herself. The term sati is now sometimes interpreted as "chaste woman."Sati, enforced Widowhood, and Girl marriage are customs that were primarily intended to solve the problem ofsurplus women and surplus men in a caste and to maintain its endogamy.[3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]

Sati (practice) 2

OriginFew reliable records exist of the practice before the time of the Gupta empire, approximately 400 AD. After aboutthis time, instances of sati began to be marked by inscribed memorial stones. The earliest of these are found in Sagar,Madhya Pradesh, though the largest collections date from several centuries later, and are found in Rajasthan. Thesestones, called devli, or sati-stones, became shrines to the dead woman, who was treated as an object of reverence andworship. They are most common in western India.[13]

By about the 10th century sati, as understood today, was known across much of the subcontinent. It continued tooccur, usually at a low frequency and with regional variations, until the early 19th century.Some instances of voluntary self-immolation by both women and men that may be regarded as at least partlyhistorical accounts are included in the Mahabharata and other works. However, large portions of these works arerelatively late interpolations into an original story,[14] rendering difficult their use for reliable dating. Also, neitherimmolation nor the desire for self-immolation are regarded as a custom in the Mahabharata. Use of the term 'sati' todescribe the custom of self-immolation never occurs in the Mahabarata, unlike other customs such as the Rajasuyayagna. Rather, the self-immolations are viewed as an expression of extreme grief at the loss of a beloved one.The ritual has prehistoric roots, and many parallels from other cultures are known. Compare for example the shipburial of the Rus' described by Ibn Fadlan, where a female slave is burned with her master.[15]

Aristobulus of Cassandreia, a Greek historian who traveled to India with the expedition of Alexander the Great,recorded the practice of sati at the city of Taxila. A later instance of voluntary co-cremation appears in an account ofan Indian soldier in the army of Eumenes of Cardia, whose two wives vied to die on his funeral pyre, in 316 BC. TheGreeks believed that the practice had been instituted to discourage wives from poisoning their old husbands.[16]

Voluntary death at funerals has been described in northern India before the Gupta empire. The original practiceswere called anumarana, and were uncommon. Anumarana was not comparable to later understandings of sati, sincethe practices were not restricted to widows — rather, anyone, male or female, with personal loyalty to the deceasedcould commit suicide at a loved one's funeral. These included the deceased's relatives, servants, followers, or friends.Sometimes these deaths stemmed from vows of loyalty,[13] and bear a slight resemblance to the later tradition ofseppuku in Japan.[17]

It is theorized that Sati, enforced widowhood, and girl marriage were customs that were primarily intended to solvethe problem of surplus women and surplus men in a caste and to maintain its endogamy.[18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24]

[25] [26] [27]

Practice

"A Hindu Suttee"

The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act of 1987 PartI, Section 2(c) defines Sati as:

The burning or burying alive of –(i) any widow along with the body of herdeceased husband or any other relative or withany article, object or thing associated with thehusband or such relative; or(ii) any woman along with the body of any of herrelatives, irrespective of whether such burning orburying is claimed to be voluntary on the part ofthe widow or the women or other-wise[28]

Sati (practice) 3

The act of sati is said to exist voluntarily; from the existing accounts, many of these acts did indeed occurvoluntarily. The act may have been expected of widows in some communities, and the extent to which socialpressures or expectations constitute compulsion has been much debated in modern times. However, there were alsoinstances where the wish of the widow to commit sati was not welcomed by others, and where efforts were made toprevent the death.[29]

Traditionally, a person's funeral would have occurred within a day of the death, requiring decisions about sati to bemade by that time. When the husband died elsewhere, the widow might still die by immolation at a later date.Sati often emphasized the marriage between the widow and her deceased husband. For instance, rather thanmourning clothes, the to-be sati was often dressed in marriage robes or other finery. In the preliminaries of therelated act of Jauhar, both the husbands and wives have been known to dress in their marriage clothes and re-enacttheir wedding ritual, before going to their separate deaths.Accounts describe numerous variants in the sati ritual. The majority of accounts describe the woman seated or lyingdown on the funeral pyre beside her dead husband. Many other accounts describe women walking or jumping intothe flames after the fire had been lit,[30] and some describe women seating themselves on the funeral pyre and thenlighting it themselves.[31]

Some written instructions for the ritual exist. For instance, the Yallajeeyam provides detailed instructions about whomay commit sati, cleansing for the sati, positioning, attire, and other ritual aspects.

CompulsionSati was supposed to be voluntary, but it is known that it has often been forced. Setting aside the issue of socialpressures, many accounts exist of women being physically forced to their deaths.Pictorial and narrative accounts often describe the widow being seated on the unlit pyre, and then tied or otherwiserestrained to keep her from fleeing after the fire was lit. Some accounts state that the woman was drugged. Oneaccount describes men using long poles to prevent a woman from fleeing the flames.[32]

Sati (practice) 4

Royal funerals

The Bride Throws Herself on Her Husband's Funeral Pyre.Persian, Safavid period, first half 17th century. Attributed to

Muhammad Qasim

Royal funerals sometimes have included the deaths of manywives and concubines. A number of examples of theseoccur in the history of Rajasthan.[33]

Maharani Raj Rajeshwari Devi of Nepal became regent in1799 in the name of her son, after the abdication of herhusband, who became a sanyasi. Her husband returned andtook power again in 1804. In 1806 he was assassinated byhis brother, and ten days later on 5 May 1806, his widowwas forced to commit sati.[34] [35]

Symbolic sati

There have been accounts of symbolic sati in some Hinducommunities. A widow lies down next to her dead husband,and certain parts of both the marriage ceremony and thefuneral ceremonies are enacted, but without her death.[36]

Jauhar

The Rajput practice of Jauhar, known from Rajasthan andMadhya Pradesh was the collective suicide of a communityfacing certain defeat in war. It consisted of the massimmolation of women, children, the elderly and the sick, atthe same time that their fighting men died in battle.

Burials

In some Hindu communities, it is conventional to bury the dead. Deaths of widows have been known to occur inthese communities, with the widow being buried alive beside her husband, in ceremonies that are largely the same asthose performed in an immolation.[37]

PrevalenceRecords of sati exist across most of the subcontinent. However, there seem to have been major differenceshistorically, in different regions, and among different communities.

NumbersThere are no reliable figures for the numbers who died by sati across the country. A local indication of the numbersis given in the records kept by the Bengal Presidency of the British East India Company. The total figure of knownoccurrences for the period 1813 to 1828 is 8,135;[38] another source gives a comparable number of 7,941 from 1815to 1828,[39] thus giving an average of about 507 to 567 documented incidents per year in that period. Raja RamMohan Roy estimated that there were ten times as many cases of Sati in Bengal compared to the rest of thecountry.[39] [40] Bentinck, in his 1829 report, states that 420 occurrences took place in one (unspecified) year in the'Lower Provinces' of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, and 44 in the 'Upper Provinces' (the upper Gangetic plain).[41]

Sati (practice) 5

CommunitiesIt is said by some authorities that the practice was more common among the higher castes, and among those whoconsidered themselves to be rising in social status. It was little known or unknown in most of the population of Indiaand the tribal groups, and little known or unknown in the lowest castes. According to at least one source, it was veryrare for anyone in the later Mughal empire except royal wives to be burnt.[42] However, it has been said elsewherethat it was unusual in higher caste women in the south.[43]

Regional variationsIt was known in Rajasthan from the earliest (6th century) to the present. About half the known sati stones in Indiaare in Rajasthan. However, the extent to which individual instances of deaths resulted in veneration (glorification)implies that was not very common.It is known to have occurred in the south from the 9th century through the period of the Vijayanagara empire.Madhavacharya, who is probably the best known of those historical figures who justified the practice, was originallya minister of the court of this empire. The practice continued to occur after the collapse of the empire, thoughapparently at a fairly low frequency. In one instance more than fifty women committed Sati in Vijayanagara after theBattle of Talikota. In North-western Karnataka about fifteen sati stones brought from Vijayanagara can be found.The actual immolation of widows might have taken place elsewhere. The relatives of Sati when they migrated tookSati stones along with them and resurrected at their new abodes. A record exists of a minister of the kingdom ofMysore giving permission for a widow to commit sati in 1805.[44]

In the Upper Gangetic plain, while it occurred, there is no indication that it was especially widespread. The earliestknown attempt by a government to stop the practice took place here, that of Muhammad Tughlaq, in the Sultanate ofDelhi in the 14th century.[45]

In the Lower Gangetic plain, the practice may have reached a high level fairly late in history. According to availableevidence and the existing reports of the occurrences of it, the greatest incidence of sati in any region and period, interms of total numbers, occurred in Bengal and Bihar in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.[46] This was duringthe earlier period of British rule, and before its formal abolition. The Bengal Presidency kept records from 1813 to1829. The frequency increased in periods of hardship and famine. Ram Mohan Roy suggested that it was moreprevalent in Bengal than in the rest of the subcontinent. An unusually large number of the surviving reports for thisperiod are from Bengal, also suggesting that it was most common there.In modern times, sati has been largely confined to Rajasthan, mostly in or near Shekhawati, with a few instances inthe Gangetic plain.

Current incidenceSati still occurs, albeit rarely, in the rural areas. A well documented case from 1987 was that of 18-year old RoopKanwar.[47] [48] In response to this incident, some more recent legislation against the practice was passed, first by thestate government of Rajasthan, then by the central government of India.In 2002, a 65-year-old woman by the name of Kuttu died after sitting on her husband's funeral pyre in the IndianPanna district.[49] On 18 May 2006, Vidyawati, a 35-year-old woman allegedly committed sati by jumping into theblazing funeral pyre of her husband in Rari-Bujurg Village, Fatehpur district in the State of Uttar Pradesh.[50] On 21August 2006, Janakrani, a 40-year-old woman, burnt to death on the funeral pyre of her husband Prem Narayan inSagar district.[51] On October 11, 2008, a 75-year-old woman committed sati by jumping into her 80-year-oldhusband's funeral pyre at Checher in the Kasdol block of Chhattisgarh's Raipur district.[52]

Sati (practice) 6

Justifications and criticismsBrahmin scholars of the second millennium justified the practice, and gave reasonings as to how the scriptures couldbe said to justify them. Among them were Vijnanesvara, of the Chalukya court, and later Madhavacharya, theologianand minister of the court of the Vijayanagara empire, according to Shastri, who quotes their reasoning. It was laudedby them as required conduct in righteous women, and it was explained that this was considered not to be suicide(suicide was otherwise variously banned or discouraged in the scriptures). It was deemed an act of peerless piety,and was said to purge the couple of all accumulated sin, guarantee their salvation and ensure their reunion in theafterlife. [13]

Law booksThese are relatively late works. Justifications for the practice are given in the Vishnu Smriti.

Now the duties of a woman (are) ... After the death of her husband, to preserve her chastity, or to ascend thepile after him.[53]

There is also justification in the later work of the Brihaspati Smriti (25-11).[13] Both this and the Vishnu Smriti datefrom the first millennium.The Manu Smriti is often regarded as the culmination of classical Hindu law, and hence its position is important. Itdoes not mention or sanction sati though it does prescribe life-long asceticism for most widows.

ScripturesAlthough the myth of the goddess Sati is that of a wife who dies by her own volition on a fire, this is not a case ofthe practice of sati. The goddess was not widowed, and the myth is quite unconnected with the justifications for thepractice.The Puranas have examples of women who commit sati and there are suggestions in them that this was considereddesirable or praiseworthy: A wife who dies in the company of her husband shall remain in heaven as many years asthere are hairs on his person. (Garuda Purana 1.107.29) According to 2.4.93 she stays with her husband in heavenduring the rule of 14 Indras, i.e. a kalpa.In the Ramayana, Tara, in her grief at the death of husband Vali, wished to commit sati. Hanuman, Rama, and thedying Vali dissuade her and she finally does not immolate herself. However, Sulochana wife of Indrajit (Meghanath)became Sati on his funeral pyre.[54]

In the Mahabharata, Madri, the second wife of Pandu, immolates herself. She holds herself responsible for the deathof her husband, who had been cursed with death if he ever had intercourse. He died while performing the forbiddenact with Madri, who blamed herself for not having rejected his advances, although she was well aware of thecurse.However it must be noted that this may be a much later addition to the Mahabharata as the entire epic as itexists now was not written and modified over millennia.Passages in the Atharva Veda, including 13.3.1, offer advice to the widow on mourning and her life afterwidowhood, including her remarriage.

Sati (practice) 7

Argument that the Rig Veda sanctions sati

It is often claimed that this most ancient text sanctions or prescribes sati. This is based on verse 10.18.7, part of theverses to be used at funerals. Whether they even describe sati or something else entirely, is disputed, The hymn isabout funeral by burial, and not by cremation. There are differing translations of the passage. The translation belowis one of those said to prescribe it.

इमा नारीरविधवाः सुपत्नीराञ्जनेन सर्पिषा संविशन्तु |अनश्रवो.अनमीवाः सुरत्ना आ रोहन्तु जनयोयोनिमग्रे || (RV 10.18.7)Let these women, whose husbands are worthy and are living, enter the house with ghee (applied) as collyrium(to their eyes). Let these wives first step into the pyre, tearless without any affliction and well adorned.[55]

The text does not mention widowhood, and other translations differ in their translation of the word here rendered as'pyre' (yoni, literally "seat, abode"; Griffith has "first let the dames go up to where he lieth"). In addition, thefollowing verse, which is unambiguously about widows, then contradicts any suggestion of the woman's death; itexplicitly states that the widow should return to her house.

उदीर्ष्व नार्यभि जीवलोकं गतासुमेतमुप शेष एहि |हस्तग्राभस्य दिधिषोस्तवेदं पत्युर्जनित्वमभि सम्बभूथ || (RV 10.18.8)Rise, come unto the world of life, O woman — come, he is lifeless by whose side thou liest. Wifehood with thisthy husband was thy portion, who took thy hand and wooed thee as a lover.[56]

A reason given for the discrepancy in translation and interpretation of verse 10.18.7, is that one consonant in a wordthat meant house, yonim agree "foremost to the yoni", was deliberately changed by those who wished claimscriptural justification, to a word that meant fire, yomiagne.[57]

Counter-arguments within HinduismNo early descriptions or criticisms of the practice within Hinduism, (or in the other native religions of Buddhism orJainism), are known before the Gupta period, as the practice was little known at that time.Explicit criticisms later in the first millennium, included that of Medhatithi, a commentator on various theologicalworks. He considered it suicide, which was forbidden by the Vedas

One shall not die before the span of one's life is run out,[13]

Another critic was Bana, who wrote during the reign of Harsha. Bana condemned it both as suicide, and as apointless and futile act.[13]

Reform and bhakti movements within Hinduism tended to be anti-caste, favoured egalitarian societies, and in linewith the tenor of these beliefs, they generally condemned the practice, sometimes explicitly. The Alvars condemnedsati, in the 8th century.[58] The Virashaiva movement in the 12th and 13th centuries, also condemned it.[59]

In the early 19th century, Ram Mohan Roy wrote and disseminated arguments that the practice was not part ofHinduism, as part of his campaign to ban the practice.

Non-Hindu views and criticismsThe Sikh religion explicitly prohibited the practice since Sikhism's origin.[60]

The principal early foreign visitors to the subcontinent who left records of the practice, were from Western Asia,mostly Muslim, and later on, Europeans. Both groups were fascinated by the practice, and they sometimes describedit as horrific, but they also often described it as an incomparable act of devotion.[61] Ibn Battuta described aninstance, but said that he collapsed or fainted and had to be carried away from the scene. European artists in theeighteenth century produced many images for their own native markets, showing the widows as heroic women, andmoral exemplars.[62]

Sati (practice) 8

As Islam established itself in the subcontinent, opinions about sati changed and it was increasingly regarded as abarbaric practice. The earliest known governmental efforts to halt the practice were undertaken by Muslim rulers,including Muhammad Tughlaq. [63]

Europeans also showed a change in their attitudes regarding local customs as their home countries became dominantlocal powers. The earliest Europeans to establish themselves were the Portuguese in Goa. They tried early on tooverride local customs and practices, including sati, as they attempted to spread Christianity throughout theterritories in their control. The British entered India as a trading body, and in the earlier periods of their rule, theywere largely indifferent to local practices. The practice of sati, and its later legal abolition by the British (along withthe suppression of the thuggee) went on to become one of the standard justifications for British rule. British attitudesin their later history in India are usually given in the following much repeated quote, usually ascribed to GeneralNapier -

You say that it is your custom to burn widows. Very well. We also have a custom: when men burn a womanalive, we tie a rope around their necks and we hang them. Build your funeral pyre; beside it, my carpenterswill build a gallows. You may follow your custom. And then we will follow ours.[64]

In her article "Can the Subaltern Speak?", Gayatri Spivak, then an English professor at Columbia University,discusses whether sati can be a form of self-expression by women who cannot demonstrate their independence in anyother manner.[65]

Suppression

Mughal periodHumayun issued a royal fiat against sati, which he later withdrew.Akbar required that permission be granted by his officials, and these officials were instructed to delay the woman'sdecision for as long as possible. The reasoning was that she was less likely to choose to die once the emotions of themoment had passed. In the reign of Shah Jahan, widows with children were not allowed to burn under anycircumstances . In other cases, governors did not readily give permission, but could be bribed to do so.[66] Later on inthe Mughal period, pensions, gifts and rehabilitative help were offered to the potential sati to wean her away fromcommitting the act. Children were strictly forbidden from following the practice. The later Moghul rulers continuedto put obstacles in the way but the practice still persisted in areas outside their capitals.Guru Nanak, the first Guru of the Sikhs spoke out against the practice of sati.The strongest attempts to control it were made by Aurangzeb. In 1663, he "issued an order that in all lands underMughal control, never again should the officials allow a woman to be burnt".[67] Despite such attempts however, thepractice continued, especially during periods of war and upheaval.

British and other European territoriesBy the end of the 18th century, the practice had been banned in territories held by some European powers. ThePortuguese banned the practice in Goa by about 1515, though it is not believed to have been especially prevalentthere.[68] [69] The Dutch and the French also banned it in Chinsurah and Pondicherry. The British who by then ruledmuch of the subcontinent, and the Danes, who held the small territories of Tranquebar and Serampore, permitted ituntil the 19th century.

Sati (practice) 9

Suttee, by James Atkinson 1831, digital image (c)British Library Board 2009 (F165)

Attempts to limit or ban the practice had been made by individualBritish officers in the 18th century, but without the backing of theBritish East India Company. The first formal British ban was imposedin 1798, in the city of Calcutta only. The practice continued insurrounding regions. Toward the end of the 18th century, theevangelical church in Britain, and its members in India, startedcampaigns against sati. Leaders of these campaigns included WilliamCarey and William Wilberforce, and both appeared to be motivated bytheir love for the Indian people and their desire to introduce Indians toChristianity. These movements put pressure on the company to ban theact, and the Bengal Presidency started collecting figures on the practicein 1813.

From about 1812, the Bengali reformer Raja Rammohan Roy startedhis own campaign against the practice. He was motivated by theexperience of seeing his own sister-in-law being forced to commit sati.Among his actions, he visited Calcutta cremation grounds to persuadewidows not to so die, formed watch groups to do the same, and wrote

and disseminated articles to show that it was not required by scripture.

On 4 December 1829, the practice was formally banned in the Bengal Presidency lands, by the then governor, LordWilliam Bentinck. The ban was challenged in the courts, and the matter went to the Privy Council in London, butwas upheld in 1832. Other company territories also banned it shortly after. Although the original ban in Bengal wasfairly uncompromising, later in the century British laws include provisions that provided mitigation for murder when"the person whose death is caused, being above the age of 18 years, suffers death or takes the risk of death with hisown consent".[66]

Sati remained legal in some princely states for a time after it had been abolished in lands under British control.Jaipur, banned the practice in 1846. [70] Nepal continued to practice Sati well into the 20th century. On theIndonesian island of Bali, sati was practised by the aristocracy as late as 1905, until Dutch colonial rule pushed forits termination.[71]

Sati (practice) 10

Modern times

A shrine to wives of the Maharajas of Jodhpurthat have committed sati. The palmprints are

typical.

Following outcries after each instance, there have been various freshmeasures passed against the practice, which now effectively make itillegal to be a bystander at an event of sati. The law now makes nodistinction between passive observers to the act, and active promotersof the event; all are supposed to be held equally culpable. Othermeasures include efforts to stop the 'glorification' of the dead women.Glorification includes the erection of shrines to the dead, theencouragement of pilgrimages to the site of the pyre, and the derivationof any income from such sites and pilgrims.

Another instance of systematic Sati happened in 1973, when SavitriSoni sacrificed her life with her husband in Kotadi village of SikarDistrict in Rajasthan. Thousands of people saw this incident.Following the outcry after the Sati of Roop Kanwar,[72] the IndianGovernment enacted the Rajasthan Sati Prevention Ordinance, 1987 onOctober 1, 1987[73] and later passed the Commission of Sati(Prevention) Act, 1987.[28]

The Prevention of Sati Act makes it illegal to abet, glorify or attempt tocommit Sati. Abetment of Sati, including coercing or forcing someoneto commit Sati can be punished by death sentence or lifeimprisonment, while glorifying Sati is punishable with 1–7 years inprison.

However, enforcement of these measures is not always consistent.[74] The National Council for Women (NCW) hassuggested amendments to the law to remove some of these flaws.[75] Prohibitions of certain practices, such asworship at ancient shrines, is a matter of controversy.

Although many have tried to prevent the act of sati by banning it and reinforcing laws against it, we can still see itbeing practiced in many parts of India under coercion or by voluntary burning. As in the case of Charan Shah, a 55year-old widow of Manshah burnt herself on the pyre of her husband in the village of Satpura in Utar Pradesh. [76]

Her death on the funeral pyre is surrounded by much controversy since questions of whether she willingly performedthe Sati or not were being asked. Charan Shah did not profess strong feelings to becoming a Sati to any of her familymembers and no one saw her close to the burning body of her husband before she jumped into the fire. The villagers,including her sons, state that she became a Sati of her own accord and that she was not forced into it. They continueto pay their respects to the house of Charan Shah since it has become a shrine for them since they strongly believethat one who has become a sati is a deity and she is worshipped and endowed with gifts. [76]

Sati (practice) 11

Cultural referencesA sati attempt features in the novel Sea of Poppies by Amitav Ghosh.In Around the World in Eighty Days by Jules Verne, Phileas Fogg and his accomplice Passepartout attempt to rescuea a young Parsi woman, Aouda from an enforced sati ritual in India.

See also• Self-immolation• Women in Hinduism• Hindu Goddess• Ritual suicide• Deorala

Notes1. The spelling suttee is a phonetic spelling using the 19th century English orthography. However the sati

transliteration is correct using the more modern IAST (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration) which isthe academic standard for writing the Sanskrit language with the Latin alphabet system.[37] [77]

References[1] "SATI" (http:/ / www. sos-sexisme. org/ english/ sati2. htm). Sos-sexisme.org. . Retrieved 2010-07-26.[2] "South Asia | India wife dies on husband's pyre" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 5273336. stm). BBC News. 2006-08-22. .

Retrieved 2010-04-23.[3] Nagendra Kr. Singh(2000) p. 214.[4] Ekta Singh, Caste System in India: A Historical Perspective, p.133[5] Ailsa Burns, Cath Scott, Mother-headed families and why they have increased, p.131[6] John Ernest Goldthorpe, The sociology of the Third World: disparity and involvement, p.143[7] Steven J. Kautz, The Supreme Court and the idea of constitutionalism, p.136[8] Indian antiquary, Volume 46 p.87[9] M. P. Joseph, Legitimately divided:towards a counter narrative of the ethnographic history of Kerala Christianity, p.108[10] Meera Nanda, Prophets Facing Backward, p.198[11] Elizabeth Joy, Lived realities:faith reflections on gender justice, p.99[12] Saroj Gulati, Women and society: northern India in 11th and 12th centuries, p.122[13] Shakuntala Rao Shastri, Women in the Sacred Laws -- The later law books (1960), also reproduced online at (http:/ / www. hindubooks. org/

women_in_the_sacredlaws/ ).[14] Many, including Yuganta, by Irawati Karve[15] Ibn Fadlan, Risala: Ibn Fadlan's embassy to the King of Volga Bulgaria (http:/ / membres. multimania. fr/ nbulgaria/ bulgaria/ risala. htm)

(English-language translation)[16] Strabo 15.1.30, 62; Diodorus Siculus 19.33; Sati Was Started For Preserving Caste (http:/ / www. ambedkar. org/ research/

Sati_Was_Started_For_Preserving_Caste. htm)[17] "Bhagwan Swaminarayan's Life: Biography - Uplift of Women" (http:/ / www. swaminarayan. org/ lordswaminarayan/ biography/ 4. htm).

Swaminarayan.org. . Retrieved 2010-04-23.[18] Nagendra Kr. Singh(2000) p. 214.[19] Ekta Singh, Caste System in India: A Historical Perspective, p.133[20] Ailsa Burns, Cath Scott, Mother-headed families and why they have increased, p.131[21] John Ernest Goldthorpe, The sociology of the Third World: disparity and involvement, p.143[22] Steven J. Kautz, The Supreme Court and the idea of constitutionalism, p.136[23] Indian antiquary, Volume 46 p.87[24] M. P. Joseph, Legitimately divided:towards a counter narrative of the ethnographic history of Kerala Christianity, p.108[25] Meera Nanda, Prophets Facing Backward, p.198[26] Elizabeth Joy, Lived realities:faith reflections on gender justice, p.99[27] Saroj Gulati, Women and society: northern India in 11th and 12th centuries, p.122[28] Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 (http:/ / nrcw. nic. in/ shared/ sublinkimages/ 13. htm). Official text of the Act on Government of

India's National Resource Centre for Women (NCRW) Website (http:/ / nrcw. nic. in/ )

Sati (practice) 12

[29] Letter, Panduranga Joshi Kulkarni (http:/ / chnm. gmu. edu/ wwh/ lessons/ lesson5/ lesson5. php?s=3) is a description by a man who stoppedhis daughter-in-law's suicide. It has been suggested that his motivations were monetary. Women in World History (http:/ / chnm. gmu. edu/wwh/ index. html) A project of the Center for History and New Media, George Mason University.

[30] See Kamat for two examples[31] Primary Sources: Letter, Francois Bernier (http:/ / chnm. gmu. edu/ wwh/ lessons/ lesson5/ lesson5. php?s=1) Women in World History

(http:/ / chnm. gmu. edu/ wwh/ index. html) A project of the Center for History and New Media, George Mason University.[32] The Representation of Sati: Four Eighteenth Century Etchings by Baltazard Solvyns (http:/ / asnic. utexas. edu/ asnic/ hardgrave/ Satiart. rft.

html) by Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr. The account uses the word "likely".[33] Women In The Sacred Laws (http:/ / www. hindubooks. org/ women_in_the_sacredlaws/ index. htm) by Shakuntala Rao Shastri The later

law - Books: Page 24 (http:/ / www. hindubooks. org/ women_in_the_sacredlaws/ the_later_lawbooks/ page24. htm) Some of these includedservants. These should probably all be seen as being in the original tradition of anumarana, perhaps a separate article.

[34] Genealogy, The Royal House of Shah, Nepal (http:/ / www. 4dw. net/ royalark/ Nepal/ nepal6. htm):

1777 - 1799 H.H. Svasti Sri Giriraj Chakrachudamani Narnarayanetyadi Vividha Virudavali VirajamanaManonnata Shriman Maharajadhiraja Sri Sri Sri Sri Sri Maharaj Rana Bahadur Shah Bahadur ShamsherJang Devanam Sada Samar Vijayinam, Maharajadhiraja of Nepal. ... m. (first) at Katmandu, 1789, SriSri Sri Maharani Raj Rajeshwari Devi [Sri Vidya Lakshmi Devi] (k. by forced sati on the orders ofBhimsen Thapa, on the bank of the Salinadi rivulet, at Sankhu, 5th May 1806)

[35] Worldwide Guide to Women in Leadership, "Women In Power, 1770-1800" (http:/ / www. guide2womenleaders. com/ womeninpower/Womeninpower1770. htm) ("1799-1800 and 1802-04 Regent Sri Sri Sri Maharani Raj Rajeshwari Devi of Nepal ... she was imprisoned atHelambu and killed by being forced to commit sati.").

[36] Defying blessings of the goddess and the community: Disputes over sati (widow burning) in contemporary India (http:/ / www. zinbun.kyoto-u. ac. jp/ ~shakti/ EnglishHP/ suttee. html) by Masakazu Tanaka. An example in Tamil Sri Lanka.

[37] The Representation of Sati: Four Eighteenth Century Etchings by Baltazard Solvyns (http:/ / asnic. utexas. edu/ asnic/ hardgrave/ Satiart. rft.html) by Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr.

[38] Hindu Bengali Widows Through the Centuries (http:/ / www. datamationfoundation. org/ women4. htm) from the Datamation Foundation anon-profit, apolitical, non-partisan registered Charitable Trust (Trust Deed # 3258 dated March 8, 2001) with its head office at Delhi.

[39] Sakuntala Narasimhan, Sati: widow burning in India, quoted by Matthew White, "Selected Death Tolls for Wars, Massacres and AtrocitiesBefore the 20th Century", p.2 (http:/ / users. erols. com/ mwhite28/ warstatv. htm) (July 2005), Historical Atlas of the 20th Century(self-published, 1998-2005).

[40] Sakuntala Narasimhan, Sati: widow burning in India[41] Modern History Sourcebook: On Ritual Murder in India (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ mod/ 1829bentinck. html), 1829 by William

Bentinck[42] John Ovington, A Voyage to Surat:

Since the Mahometans became Masters of the Indies, this execrable custom is much abated, and almostlaid aside, by the orders which nabobs receive for suppressing and extinguishing it in all their provinces.And now it is very rare, except it be some Rajah's wives, that the Indian women burn at all.

[43] Quoted from Kamat.[44] The Tradition of Sati Through the Centuries (http:/ / www. kamat. com/ kalranga/ women/ sati/ timeline. htm) Kamat's potpourri (http:/ /

www. kamat. com/ copyrite. htm): The Sati System[45] L. C. Nand, Women in Delhi Sultanate, Vohra Publishers and Distributors Allahabad 1989.[46] The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 (No.3 of 1988) (http:/ / www. hsph. harvard. edu/ Organizations/ healthnet/ SAsia/ forums/

sati/ prevention. html) on the web site of the Harvard School of Public Health[47] "This Date in History: Sati in India" (http:/ / atheism. about. com/ b/ 2006/ 10/ 04/ this-date-in-history-sati-in-india. htm).

Atheism.about.com. 2006-10-04. . Retrieved 2010-07-26.[48] "Magisterial inquiry ordered into 'sati' incident" (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ news/ 2002/ aug/ 07mp. htm). rediff.com. 2002-08-07. .

Retrieved 2010-07-26.[49] "Magisterial inquiry ordered into 'sati' incident" (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ news/ 2002/ aug/ 07mp. htm). rediff.com. 2002-08-07. .

Retrieved 2010-07-26.[50] The Times of India, "Woman commits 'sati' in UP village" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ articleshow/ 1538375. cms), May 19,

2006.[51] BBC News, "India wife dies on husband's pyre" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 5273336. stm), Aug. 22, 2006.[52] (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ India/ Woman_jumps_into_husbands_funeral_pyre/ articleshow/ 3587874. cms) Woman jumps into

husband's funeral pyre[53] Vishnu Smriti, 25-14 (available online at sacred-texts.com (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ hin/ sbe07/ sbe07027. htm)).[54] Pollet, Gilbert (1995). Indian epic values: Rāmāyana and its impact (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=EVnK3q48dL0C& pg=PA62&

dq=Sulochana& q=Sulochana). Peeters Publishers. p. 62. ISBN 9068317016. .

Sati (practice) 13

[55] 3.1 Women in Indo-Aryan Societies:Sati (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20091027153622/ http:/ / www. geocities. com/ Athens/ Agora/4229/ in3. htm) this translation is ascribed to Kane References Pages 199-200

[56] Compare alternative translation by Griffith:

Let these unwidowed dames with noble husbands adorn themselves with fragrant balm and unguent.

Decked with fair jewels, tearless, free from sorrow, first let the dames go up to where he lieth.Hymn XVIII. Various Deities. (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ hin/ rigveda/ rv10018. htm), Rig Veda, tr. by Ralph T.H. Griffith (1896)

[57] The Rigveda: Widows don’t have to burn by O. P. Gupta, The Asian Age, Oct. 23, 2002, available at Hindu-religion.net (http:/ / www.hindu-religion. net/ showflat/ cat/ hinduism/ 67586/ 0/ collapsed/ 5/ o/ 1).

[58] The little-known Srivaisnava sect in Tamil Nadu is among the few religious traditions in India that treats women on par with men (http:/ /www. sabrang. com/ cc/ comold/ feb99/ ethos1. htm) by Yoginder Sikand, in Communalism Combat February 1999.

[59] "About Lingayat" (http:/ / www. lingayat. com/ alingayat/ alingayat. asp) on lingayat.com[60] Women in Sikhism (http:/ / www. sikhs. org/ women. htm) Sandeep Singh Brar[61] AN INCOMPARABLE PROPHET:Guru Amar Dass (1479-1574) (http:/ / allaboutsikhs. com/ articles/ an_incomparable_prophet. htm) by

Sirdar Kapur Singh (National Professor of Sikhism) on the "Gateway to Sikhism".[62] The Representation of Sati: Four Eighteenth Century Etchings by Baltazard Solvyns (http:/ / asnic. utexas. edu/ asnic/ hardgrave/ Satiart. rft.

html) by Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr. Bengal Past and Present, 117 (1998): 57-80.[63] (http:/ / webjcli. ncl. ac. uk/ 2009/ issue2/ ahmad2. html) Ahmad; Sati Tradition - Widow Burning in India: A Socio-legal Examination[64] Usually ascribed to Charles James Napier. See, e.g., S. M. Stirling, Island in the Sea of Time. New York: Penguin (1998); pg. 526; Polly

Toynbee, "Limp liberals fail to protect their most profound values" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ waronterror/ story/ 0,1361,566722,00.html#article_continue), The Guardian October 10, 2001.

[65] "Can the Subaltern Speak?" entry (http:/ / www. readysubjects. org/ teachiwiki/ index. php/Gayatri_Chakravorty_Spivak_"Can_the_Subaltern_Speak?), Teachywiki.

[66] Central Sati Act - An analysis (http:/ / www. pucl. org/ from-archives/ Gender/ sati. htm) by Maja Daruwala is an advocate practising in theDelhi High Court. Courtsy: The Lawyers January 1988. The web site is called " People's Union for Civil Liberties (http:/ / www. pucl. org/history. htm)"

[67] XVII. Economic and Social Developments under the Mughals (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ itc/ mealac/ pritchett/ 00islamlinks/ ikram/part2_17. html) from Muslim Civilization in India by S. M. Ikram edited by Ainslie T. Embree New York: Columbia University Press, 1964.This page maintained by Prof. Frances Pritchett, Columbia University

[68] The Portuguese: Goan History (http:/ / goenkar. com/ node/ 11) from: Inside Goa by Manohar Malgonkar.[69] To Cherish and to Share: The Goan Christian Heritage (http:/ / www. goacom. com/ culture/ religion/ gch/ ) Paper presented at the 1991

Conference on Goa at the University of Toronto by: John Correia Afonso S.J. from: "South Asian Studies Papers", no 9; Goa: Goa Continuityand Change; Edited by Narendra K. Wagle and George Coelho; University of Toronto Centre for South Asian Studies 1995

[70] PUCL. "Central Sati Act - An analysis" (http:/ / www. pucl. org/ from-archives/ Gender/ sati. htm). Pucl.org. . Retrieved 2010-04-23.[71] A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300, by Merle Calvin Ricklefs[72] Rajalakshmi, T.K. (February 28 - March 12). "`Sati' and the verdict" (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ fline/ fl2105/ stories/

20040312002504600. htm). Frontline Magazine, The Hindu 21 (5). .[73] Trial by fire (http:/ / www. sabrang. com/ cc/ archive/ 2004/ mar04/ sreport3. html), Communalism Combat, Special Report, February-March

2004 , Volume 10, No.96, Sabrang Communications.[74] "No violation of Sati Act, say police" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2005/ 06/ 01/ stories/ 2005060110150500. htm). The Hindu. June 6, 2005. .

Retrieved 2007-11-20.[75] No. 2: Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 (http:/ / ncw. nic. in/ page2. htm) National Council for Women, Proposed amendments to

the 1987 Sati Prevention Act[76] Revival and Spread of Sati Huma Khan Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 34, No. 51 (Dec. 18-24, 1999), p. 3578 Published by:

Economic and Political Weekly[77] "Not available when footnotes constructed" (http:/ / www. vivaaha. org/ sati. htm). Vivaaha.org. . Retrieved 2010-04-23.

Sati (practice) 14

Further reading• Nagendra Kr. Singh(2000). Ambedkar on religion; New Delhi: Anmol Publications, ISBN 81-261-0503-8.• Shastri, Shakuntala Rao. Women in the Sacred Laws (http:/ / www. hindubooks. org/ women_in_the_sacredlaws/

). - The later law books. 1960.• M.P.V.Kane History of Dharmashastra, Vol. IV, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 1953• L. C. Nand Women in Delhi Sultanate, Vohra Publishers and Distributors Allahabad 1989• Enrica Garzilli, "First Greek and Latin Documents on Sahagamana and Some Connected Problems", part 1, in

Indo-Iranian Journal, 40/3 August 1997 (http:/ / www. ingentaconnect. com/ content/ klu/ indo/ 1997/ 00000040/00000003/ 00072348;jsessionid=og713ih0tc8h. victoria), part 2 in Indo-Iranian Journal, 40/4 October 1997 (http:// www. ingentaconnect. com/ content/ klu/ indo/ 1997/ 00000040/ 00000004/ 00077521;jsessionid=og713ih0tc8h.victoria)

External links• Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 (http:/ / nrcw. nic. in/ shared/ sublinkimages/ 13. htm). Official text of

the Act on Government of India's National Resource Centre for Women (NCRW) Website (http:/ / nrcw. nic. in/).

• Maja Daruwala, A History of Sati Legislation in India (http:/ / www. pucl. org/ from-archives/ Gender/ sati. htm),People's Union for Civil Liberties Website.

• About the Sati rite (http:/ / vaniquotes. org/ wiki/ Sati_rite) as described by Srila Prabhupada

Article Sources and Contributors 15

Article Sources and ContributorsSati (practice)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=397524095  Contributors: A Ramachandran, Aafee, Abanima, Abecedare, Aciram, Acs4b, Acsenray, Adashiel, AjaxSmack,Ajraddatz, Aldux, Alma mater (En), Almazi, Ambarish, Ambuj.Saxena, Anthonzi, Anwar saadat, Arjun01, Azsymkamen, Bcrowell, Bharatveer, Bhu z Crecelu, Birdsmight, Blanchardb,BlueDome, BoLingua, Bobo192, BorgQueen, Brian0324, Brihas, Bunnyhop11, Bwithh, C.Fred, CIreland, CapitalR, CarTick, Causantin, CellularAutomata, Chazz88, Chris the speller,Cmdrjameson, Cminard, Corelog, Crum375, Cyanolinguophile, Cybercobra, DaGizza, Dangerous-Boy, Dantheox, Davidsteinberg, Dbachmann, Deeptrivia, Delirium, DemolitionMan,Destynova, Devanshusood, Diderot, Doldrums, Donfbreed, Dpr, Draft1, Draglikepull, E. Fokker, Ekabhishek, Energyworm, Exact, Exe, Fleebo, Fly by Night, Fordmadoxfraud, Frecklefoot,Genie, Gilliam, Gobeshock Gobochondro Gyanotirtho, Good Olfactory, GraemeLeggett, Gurkhaboy, Guy Harris, Harappa, Harisingh, Hiddekel, Imc, India Gate, Infrogmation, Itsmejudith,JW1805, Jagged 85, Janet13, Jarry1250, Jmm6f488, Joyous!, Julesd, Justamina, Justin Bacon, Keitei, Kerowyn, Kopaka649, Korin43, Ksquarekumar, Kungming2, Kushal one, Kyorosuke,LRBurdak, LaFoiblesse, LadyofShalott, Lakshwadeep, LazyEditor, LeyteWolfer, Life of Riley, Lightmouse, Lignomontanus, Lihaas, Ljean, Lquilter, MANOJTV, Mahaakaal, Maleabroad, Malo,Marskell, Materialscientist, MatthewVanitas, Meta, Michal Nebyla, Miffy900, Mike R, Mladifilozof, Mordicai, Morgankevinj, Mushroom, Mythealias, NSINGH, NatusRoma, Nlsanand,Omnipaedista, Orpheus, Outlanderssc, Palnatoke, Paultaylorsensei, Peacefulworld9, Philip Baird Shearer, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pkulkarni, Polygnotos, Portillo, Postdlf, Pranathi, Prashy, Pricejb,Prodego, Queenmomcat, Qwerty Binary, Qxz, Raguks, Rajeshnaroth, Randhirreddy, Ranjithsutari, Reahad, Redtigerxyz, Relata refero, Reversionist, Riana, Rjwilmsi, Robertgreer,Rumpelstiltskin223, RustDragon, SRGLipscomb, Sadashiv n, Sahadeva, Sameboat, Satanael, Scienter, Sciyoshi, Screen name1234, Scythian1, Seges, Shakko, Shick1, Shiva's Trident,Sillyfolkboy, Skbhat, Smmurphy, Smyth, Sniperz11, Sonjaaa, Sukh, Sundar, Susanbamboozlin, Swaminworld, TabEnter, Technomad, The Anome, TheFeds, Theelf29, Thumperward, Triona,Tripping Nambiar, Tuncrypt, Upparna, Username2577u, Utcursch, Vedas123, Vssun, Washnahiotha, Wavelength, Whistlesgowhoo, WikHead, Wiki alf, Woohookitty, Xijjix, YellowMonkey,Zachwoo, Zanypoetboy45, Zhou Yu, Zioroboco, Zirland, Zocky, 415 ,لیقع فشاک anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Burning of a Widow.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Burning_of_a_Widow.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Immanuel GielFile:Om.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Om.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos, BRUTE, Bdk, Davin7, Dbachmann, Editor at Large, Exact,Gregory Orme, Herbythyme, Marshie, Mystical Sadhu, Nilfanion, Nishkid64, Rugby471, The Evil IP address, Toyboy84, Túrelio, Wutsje, Xhienne, 52 anonymous editsImage:HinduSwastika.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HinduSwastika.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:MasturbiusImage:Hindu Suttee.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hindu_Suttee.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Brian0324 at en.wikipediaFile:Muhammad Qasim Bride.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Muhammad_Qasim_Bride.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Muhammad Qasim. Originaluploader was Евгений Ардаев at ru.wikipediaImage:Suttee by James Atkinson.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Suttee_by_James_Atkinson.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Original painting by JamesAtkinson, digital image (c) British Library Board 2009 (F165)Image:Jodhpur Sati.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jodhpur_Sati.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: user:Flicka

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unportedhttp:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/