sapphires and other gemstones in Swedish collections...

For love, healing and protection : notes on Medieval finger rings with sapphires and other gemstones in Swedish collections Bengtsson Melin, Piahttp://kulturarvsdata.se/raa/fornvannen/html/2014_259Fornvännen 2014(109):4 s. 259-266Ingår i samla.raa.se

Rings are closely linked with magical power, andthroughhistorymanymyths, fairy tales andstoriesfeature rings with magical or allegorical function.The idea of a ring that influences its bearer’s fateis very old. Plato, for example,mentions theRingof Gyges, which allowed the bearer to becomeinvisible. Gyges, king of Lydia, obtained powerandwealth by using the ring'smagical ability. Heseduced the queen, killed the king and assumedthe throne for himself. Plato uses the story as astarting point in the dialogue between SocratesandGlauconaboutmorality, justice and their op-posites (Plato, TheRepublic, Book II). Do you be-have differently if you need not care about theconsequences of your actions?Gyges would havelived in the 7th century BC, and the story of howhe seized power is told by Herodotus. Only in

Plato's Republic however does the ring appear asan object used for that purpose.

The theme of invisibility is also central to theMedieval romance aboutDuke Frederick ofNor-mandy, of which only a Swedish translation sur-vives. HereDuke Frederick receives an invisibilityring from the dwarf king Malnrit as thanks forhelping the dwarves recover their kingdom (Her-tig Fredrik af Normandie 1853, pp. 96–99). Aidedby the ring, the Duke can sneak into a tower unseenandfirst seduceandthenfreehisbelovedPrin-cess Floria. Nowadays, the most famous magicring is probably the one in Tolkien’s Lord of theRings.

Finger rings are common archaeological findsand have been found in all kinds of Medieval en-vironment– town, countryside, castle andmonas-

Fornvännen 109 (2014)

For love, healing and protectionNotes on Medieval finger rings with sapphires and othergemstones in Swedish collections

By Pia Bengtsson Melin

Bengtsson Melin, P., 2014. For love, healing and protection. Notes onMedieval finger rings with sapphires and other gemstones in Swedish col-lections. Fornvännen 109. Stockholm.

Like clothing, jewellery is an indicator of taste, status and wealth. In theMiddle Ages, themost common itemof jewellerywas the finger ring. Thesewere often set with gems, which were in turn ascribed magical properties.Their powers, appearance and symbolic importance were described in abook genre called lapidaries. Finger rings are common in museum collec-tions, but have attracted relatively little attention from art historians. Thematerial presented in this paper is part of an art-historical project on thestyle, function and context of finger rings in Swedish collections, datingbetween 1250 and 1550.

Pia BengtssonMelin, Upplandsmuseet, Fyristorg 2, SE–753 [email protected]

tery – indicating that they were worn by virtual-ly all social classes. The rings come in many dif-ferent designs and materials. Not only gold andsilver are common but also bronze and copper.Many designs occur: plain ones, rings with ima-ges and inscriptions, or ones with settings of var-iousmaterials.One such is gemstones. Theywerepopular in all forms of jewellery and had a muchwider use than today. Gemstones were notmere-ly decorative elements of a ring, brooch or neck-lace, but also possessed amagical cachet. The sap-phire, for example, was a symbol of loyalty andtruth. It was also thought to be able to counter-act poisoning and expose hidden toxins. Anotherprecious stone highly regarded in the 14th centu-ry was the toadstone. These are actually the but-ton-shaped fossil teeth of the ancient fish Lepi-dotes, but in the Middle Ages they were thoughtto come from the heads of living toads.What kindof magic suffused these stones and what purposemay they have fulfilled at court and elsewhere?

Abrief history ofMedieval gemstonesA gemstone is generally a colourful and translu-centmaterial (Schumann1976,p. 10,48).Theyaresurrounded by mysticism and have often beenascribed magical properties. The Bible speaks ofgemstones on several occasions, e.g. in Exodus39:10–14,where the artfullywoven breastplate ofAaron is fittedwith twelve precious stones, includ-ing sapphire and ruby. Jewellery with polishedstones wasmade in ancient Egypt, spread to otherancient civilisations and then followed the Ro-mans further north. During the Middle Ages,decorative settings on jewellery and other itemswas common, including rings fitted with preciousstones or polished pieces of glass. The mountedglass imitates gems and is sometimes difficult todistinguish from the real thing. For the commonMedieval owner, issues of authenticity andmate-rial were less important. Their belief in the pow-er and supposed magical properties of the stonewas the central issue.

The use and choice of gemstones were notsimply amatter of supply andeconomy. Itwas alsorestricted by regulations and sumptuary laws. Im-portant in this context was the inherent magicaland symbolic functions ascribed to the stones.And gemstones were regarded as both rarities

and economic resources. Precious stones and je-wellery set with gems were included in royal col-lections. The French kingCharles V theWise (li-ved 1338–80) owned several rings mounted withgemstones such as rubies and diamonds of vari-ous formsandsizes, but alsoa largenumberof loo-se or non-mounted precious and semi-preciousstones (Scarisbrick 1993, p. 11). Another collec-tor of gemstones and precious jewellery was hisbrother Jean, theDuke ofBerry.Heboughtmanyof his gemstones from the reputable merchantNicolace Pigace of Genoa, a city famous for itstrade in gemstones and other luxuries (Cherry1992, p. 22). Both the gemstones themselves andluxurious objects set with gems were populargifts among the nobility and royalty throughoutthe Middle Ages.

Gemstones were mined in several parts ofEurope including Germany, Britain and France.Throughout the Middle Ages they were alsoimported from the East. Themain regions wheregemstones were mined were India, Afghanistan,Myanmar, Thailand and Sri Lanka, places alsomentioned by Marco Polo. The stones came viatrade routes to Aleppo and Constantinople andwere carried on from there viaVenice to southernGermany and then further north. During theLate Middle Ages, Bruges was an important cen-tre for the processing and polishing of preciousstones.

Medieval aesthetics and lapidariesGems were frequently used for both decorativeand liturgical purposes from the Early MiddleAges on. Mounted on chalices, metal altar fron-tals, reliquaries and elaborate book covers, theirability to reflect and refract light in a variety ofcolours contributed to this use. Bright coloursand light were essential parts of Medieval aes-thetics (Tatarkiewicz 1970). Earthly things suchas colourful stones could thus convey the glory ofGod to the beholder. Jewellery set with gemscould also serve religious purposes, linked to theaforementioned Biblical use.

From the 12th century on rings set with sto-nes became more common, due among otherthings to an increased interest in classical litera-ture at this time. This included lapidaries, bookson the appearance and characteristics of gem-

260 Pia BengtssonMelin


stones. They fuelled an interest in gemstone ma-gic. The lapidaries were largely based on ancientwriters, particularly Pliny the Elder whose greatwork Naturalis Historia (book 37) contains muchinformation on minerals and their appearanceandproperties.Lapidaries sawwideuseduring theMiddleAges butwere particularly popular atWes-tern European courts. One of the most popularoneswasLiberdeLapidibus,writtenby thearchdea-conMarbodiusofRennes(c.1035–1123).Thebookexplained the appearance of the stones as well astheir characteristics and magical properties. Be-fore 1400 it was translated into several languagesincluding French, Italian, andDanish. An impor-tant source on the Medieval Scandinavian use ofgemstones is the lapidary of PederMånsson, writ-ten in 1519 (Månsson 1913–15, pp. 457–498). It isbased largely on Camillus Leonardi’s Speculumlapidum from1502,which is in turnbasedonPliny.Månsson does not just characterise the stones,but also describes how to polish, mount and usethem.

Cabochonwas themost commoncutting formin the Middle Ages and has remained so since.The stone's underside is flat, while the top is dom-ed and smooth. They are usually round or oval inoutline. Facet cutting occurs only on Late Me-dieval rings, as it was not technically feasible be-fore. As for mountings, there were several tech-nical solutions, and it was also believed to be im-portant that the stone was fixed to the ring at theright time. Ideally this would follow astrologicalprinciples. If the stone was mounted when theinfluence of planets or stars was at its greatest, itsmagical power would improve (Kunz 1917, p.291). The stone could be held by a clamped metaledge or vase-like containers of varying depth.The material could also be held by claws. Thesesometimes take the form of a bird's or beast’sclaw, or of an animal body where the head andfront legs form the bezel. These animal heads orclaws were a survival from Viking Period jew-ellery and occur mainly on rings from the 13thcentury, although later ones do occur.

A gold ring from Östergötland with a cabo-chon sapphire (fig. 1; SHM 23651) has a mount-ing with shoulders shaped like dragon heads andshould frommyunderstanding of the design datefrom around 1300. Claws are especially suitable

when the stone is largeor irregular in shape,whichis common for both cabochons and raw stones.Sometimes combinations ofmountingwere used.The stone may be mounted with a metal edge,but retained in the latter by claws. A ring (SHM2802) from Tjällmo parish in Östergötland is agood example of this. The ring has a combinedmounting, where the shoulders turn into animalheads fromwhosemouths a tongue-like sleeveuni-teswith a red stone, probably a ruby, held in placeby four claws.

Rings with sapphiresThe sapphire was one of the most popular gem-stones during the Middle Ages. Its name proba-bly originates from Sanskrit sauriratna, whichmeans“consecrated toSaturn” (Bank1970,p. 18).Sapphires were imported from Sri Lanka, asmen-tioned by Marco Polo. They consist of the mine-ral corundum,which is colourlesswhenpure. Sap-phires can have different colours but the mostcommonone is blue.What colour a sapphire getsdepends on what impurities are included (Schu-mann 1976, p. 102). The blue colour comes fromiron and titanium, and the most coveted colourof sapphires is the cornflower blue. This stonewaslong considered magical and several rings with itare preserved from Sweden and abroad.

A 13th century ring found in Visby (fig. 2;Arwidsson 1950, p. 28; Tegnér 1996, p. 484) car-ries a cabochon cut sapphire and the Latin in-scriptionDICOR : SAFIRUS :VINCIT :VIRTVS:MEA:UIRUS :OPTO:TUUS:DICI :BIA(NU-

261For love, healing and protection


Fig. 1. Gold ring with cabochon sapphire fromÖstergötland. SHM 23651. Photo: Ulf Bruxe, SHM.

LUS?) : QVI : FUERAM : LODOVICI – “I amcalled sapphire. My task is to conquer poison. Iwill be called yours. Once Iwas the ring of Louis.”From the inscription we learn one of the magicalproperties that a sapphire was believed to pos-sess, to counteract and prevent poisoning. Sym-bolically, the sapphire was associated with truth,sincerityandfaithfulness, characteristics thatmadeit attractive for betrothal rings. A sapphire ringfrom Konungsund in Östergötland (SHM 6466)has the inscriptionPAXPOSSESORI,“Peace to theowner”, engraved on the outside. This speaksdirectly to the stone’s protective power.

The ring from Visby holds a large sapphireand the ring itself is heavy. Such a precious ringcannot have beenworn by just anyone. The gold-smith’s work however is not technically advanc-ed, and the lettering is clumsy in parts. GretaArwidsson (1950, p. 29) discussed who Ludovi-cus may have been, but felt that it would proba-bly remain amystery. Shementioned, however, aBrother Ludovicus who appears in the VisbyFranciscans' necrologium. It says that Ludovicuswas gardianus and that he probably died about1325 (Lindström 1895, p. 327). A gardianus wasthe director of the convent and thus a person ofhigh rank. He would had the same right to wear

such insignia as bishops and abbots. A gold ringset with a gemstone usually belonged to the in-signia of a prelate (Stolt 1964, p. 23). On a stylis-tic basis, the ring can be dated to the late 13thcentury. One possible scenario is that the ringwasmade for Ludovicus to be used by him and tobe inherited by subsequent gardians. This mightexplain the inscription. The ring once belongedto Ludovicus, but now shows its loyalty towardhis successors.

The Swedish material contains several ringsset with sapphires. The aforementioned SHM23651was found somewhere inÖstergötlandpro-vince and purchased by the SwedishHistoryMu-seuminStockholmfromanantiquedealer in1946.It has a large cabochon sapphire. Interestingly, thestone is pierced,which suggests that its usehere issecondary. Olle Källström (1947, p. 334) suggestedthat the sapphire may have been part of a Byzan-tine or Oriental type necklace with stones of var-ious sizes hanging from thin links. Secondary useof gem stones was common inWestern Europeangoldsmith’s work, and many sapphires used be-tween the 7th and 12th centuries in Europe arelikely to be reusedByzantine pieces (Ogden 2006,p. 144). For example, a ring that belonged to theArchbishop of Canterbury during the 1360s, Wil-



Fig. 2. Gold ring with sapphire from Visby, Gotland.Gotland County Museum C9605. Photo: author.

Fig. 3. Gold filigree prelate ring from Svärta parish,Södermanland. SHM 18461. Photo: Ulf Bruxe, SHM.

liam Wytlesey, and was found in his grave, has asapphire pierced in a similarway (Ogden2006, p.147).

Sapphires often occur on rings belonging tobishops and other clergy, which can be linked tothe magical and protective properties they werebelieved to possess. The sapphire's ability to pro-mote its bearer's chastity and piety was commonknowledge during the Middle Ages. The link be-tween the sapphire and the clergy ring thus hasan obvious explanation. Sapphires were also be-lieved to be able to change colour if their carrierwere to behave sinfully or unchastely or lacked infaith (Ogden 2006, p. 146). The precious stone ontheir finger was thus a public guarantee and proofthat the wearer lived as he taught and had no-thing to hide. The stone could furthermore beused to bolster intelligence. According to Hilde-gard ofBingen, an unintelligent personwhowant-ed to become clever should frequently lick a sap-phire. The power of the stone combined with themoisture from the saliva would then affect one’sintelligence inapositivemanner (Schumann1976,p. 287).

TheSwedishHistoryMuseumholdsa fewringsinterpreted as prelate rings (Andersson 1959, p.266), including one from Svärta parish in Söder-manland (fig. 3; SHM18461) andone fromGand-arve in Vänge, Gotland (SHM 3373). The ringsthus classified have in common that they are large,of high quality and fitted with gems, almost al-ways sapphires and/or rubies.Carl afUgglas inter-preted the Svärta ring as a piece of Swedish gold-smith’s work from themid-13th century (afUgg-las 1933, p. 46). The ring is made of gold and dec-orated with filigree. Several of the sapphires thatwere presumably once set on the ring are nowgone. The ring fromGandarve, dating fromaboutthe same time, is made in similar techniques, andis set with both sapphires and rubies.

Rings with rubiesLike the sapphire, the ruby belongs to the corun-dum family, but instead of titanium and iron, itcontains chromiumthatgives it a redcolour (Schu-mann 1976, p. 98). The word comes from Latinruber, meaning red. In ancient times, rubies wereoften referred to as carbuncles. The ruby has tra-ditionally been seen as symbolically valuable, and

considered the noblest and most valuable of thetwelve gemstones that God created. In the Mid-dle Ages they were regarded as generally salu-brious, but they were also believed to curb lust(Campbell 2009, p. 96). This is probably one ofthe reasons why rubies were considered suitablein both betrothal rings and prelate rings. Theywere rare and expensive. In William Langland's(c. 1330–93) poem The Vision of Piers Plowman, apersonification of wealth named Lady Meed isadorned with “Rings also with rubies and richthings many” (Langland 1959, Passus III, p. 19).This suggests that rubies were considered a signof luxury and wealth. A ring set with rubies (fig.4; SHM 2485:10) formed part of a hoard fromAmunde inBurs parish onGotland.The typewascommon on Gotland in the early 14th century: aring with rectangular shoulders and a square be-zel with high, slanted sides decorated with pal-mettos. Mounted in this is an oval ruby.

Toadstones: myth, fact and useDuring the Middle Ages many gems and miner-als were not only thought to have magical prop-erties, but were also ascribed a magical origin.One of the most fabled stones was the toadstone,also known as bufonite. These shimmery brown,



Fig. 4. Gold ring with ruby from Amunde in Burs,Gotland. SHM 2485:10. Photo: Christer Åhlén,SHM.

button-shaped objects are actually fossil of teethfrom the extinct prehistoric fishLepidotes (Camp-bell 2003, p. 13). The Victoria and Albert Muse-um and British Museum in London hold a fewrings mounted with toadstones. Most date fromthe Late Middle Ages or the Renaissance.

The earliest mention of toadstones is to myknowledge in Pliny’s aforementioned NaturalisHistoria (book37, chapter 55),wherehe calls thembatrachites, “frog stones”. Today, however, thatword denotes a different type of fossil. Both thecolour and shape of a toadstone can recall theappearance of a frog or a toad. The stones wereconsidered to have magical properties and to actas a cure and relief for numerous ailments anddiseases including kidney problems, dropsy, in-testinal disorders, epilepsy, fever and all kinds ofwounds (Scarisbrick&Henry 2003, p. 27;Camp-bell 2009, p. 13). They were also believed to re-lieve labour pains and insect bites. A commonbe-lief during the Middle Ages was that toadstonesgrew in the heads of old toads.

In Johannes de Cuba's botanical work HortusSanitatis, a handbookonherbs, animals and stonespublished in 1498, he describes how to get thecoveted stone from the toad's head (fig. 5). Thetrickwas to put the captured toadon apiece of redwoollen fabric. At the sight of the red fabric theanimalwould become excited anddistracted, andthen voluntarily throw up the stone. Since theclever toad would quickly swallow it again, youhad to have a secret hole in the fabric where thestone could fall through. If the stone then fellinto a container ofwater, the toadwouldnot dareto take the stone back. If thismethod did not suc-ceed, one could insteadbury the toad alive in a pitwith some ants. The ants would eat the toad, butleave the bones and stone. It was important thatthe toad give away the stonewhile itwas still alive.If the toad was dead, the stone was considered tobewithout power and useless. The belief that thestones lost their magical properties if the animaldied was common to many magical things cap-tured from animals. Pliny, for instance,mentions



Fig. 5. Extracting a toadstone.Woodcut from theHortus Sanitatis,“The Garden of Health”, publishedin German 1485 and later in Latinin several editions.Image: Wikimedia Commons.

the magical draconite. If you cut the head off asleeping snake, a substance in its headwould turninto a gemstone.However, itwas important to actfast, because if the snake woke up during the be-heading it would understand right away what wasgoing on and use its remaining powers to counterthe transformation (Naturalis Historia, book 37,chapter 57).

Toadstones were also believed to protect thebearer from poison and to warn against poison-ing. When the stone came near toxic matter itwas commonly believed that it could change co-lour andpossiblyheatup (Kunz1917, p. 341;Ken-nedy 1976, p. 42). And as noted, the notion thattoadstones could neutralize toxins made themuseful as a protection against insect stings. In theearly 20th century, Scottish farmers still rubbedtheir cowswith smallbrownstones toprotect themfrominsect stings inamanner thatwas clearlyMe-dieval. These were probably not toadstones, justordinary pebbles that by colour and appearancecould be associatedwith the rare fossils, andwerebecause of this considered magical.

The toad itself was also of great interest toEarly Modern physicians. Dried and pulverizedtoads tucked into amulets were regarded as effec-tive against the bubonic plague (Baldwin 1993, p.227). Several examples of this are known fromthe 17th century, but there are also many indica-tions of the custom being current already in theMiddle Ages. The reason was probably the toad'swarty skin, resembling the scarred appearance ofplague survivors. This is an example of the oldbelief that anything can be curedwith the help ofsomething similar in nature or appearance. Toad-stones are frequently mentioned in Renaissanceliterature, including Ben Jonson’s Volpone TheFox and William Shakespeare’sAs you like it.

ASwedish toadstone ring?At least one toadstone is mentioned in the writ-ten Swedish sources from the Middle Ages. Theinventory written for the Swedish King MagnusEriksson's treasury at Bohus in 1346 mentions agolden finger ring with a toadstone. Item vnumannulumaureumcumunopaddosten (DS3484).ThatKing Magnus kept a ring with a toadstone is notparticularly surprising, since his reignwas turbu-lent and he was periodically contested as ruler.

Financial crises were the rule rather than the ex-ception. For instance, the redemption of Scaniarequired large loans from theChurch and in addi-tion pledges of several castles and counties, in-cluding Kalmar, which was strategically impor-tant. This in turnmeant that theCrownno longerearned the same income as before from theselands.

Magnus’s relationship with the Privy Counciland aristocracy were periodically also very poor,and it was not improved by the sons he appoint-ed as successors: Erik in Sweden and Håkan inNorway. One ofMagnus's sharpest critics was St.Bridget. During the 1340s the king made severalattempts to improve relationswith thearistocracy.For example, he apologised in a public letter forthe extra taxes that he had collected. The turbu-lent developments around King Magnus wouldhave been a constant threat and he very likely liv-ed in permanent fear of being poisoned or killed.Wearing a toadstone ring could be a way to seekmagical protection from enemies.

No rings with certainly identified toadstonesare preserved in Swedish collections. However,there is one possible candidate from Kalmar (fig.6; SHM 15176). This gold ring dates from 1250–1300 and has a large brown speckled stone thathas to date not been examined by a gemmologist.But even if it is not a real toadstone it may stillvery well have been seen as one. Stones that were



Fig. 6. Gold ring with possible toadstone fromKalmar, Småland. SHM 15176. Photo: Ulf Bruxe,SHM.

not of the right kind, but looked like them, wereused and considered to possess similar propertiesas the genuine article. As so often during theMiddle Ages, it was the visual approach and thebelief in the object's power that was important,not what material it actually consisted of.

BibliographyAndersson, A., 1959. Fingerring.Granlund, J. (ed.).Kul-

turhistoriskt lexikon för nordiskmedeltid 14. Malmö.Arwidsson, G., 1950. Ludvigs amulettring. Gotländskt

arkiv 22. Visby.Baldwin,M.R., 1993. Toads and plague: amulet therapy

in seventeenth-century medicine. Bulletin of theHistory ofMedicine 67. Baltimore.

Bank, H., 1970.Ädelstenar ochmineral. Stockholm.Campbell, M., 2009.Medieval Jewellery in Europe. Lon-

don.Cherry, J., 1992.Medieval Craftsmen. Goldsmiths. Toronto

& Buffalo.DiplomatariumSuecanum(SvensktDiplomatarium),1829.

Ed. J.G. Liljegren et al. Stockholm.Hertig Fredrik af Normandie. En medeltidsroman. Efter

gamla handskrifter på svenska och danska af J.A.Ahlstrand. 1853. Samlingar tryckta af SvenskaForn-skriftssällskapet 3:2. Stockholm.

Kennedy, C.B., 1976. A fossil for what ails you. Theremarkable history of fossil medicine. FossilsMaga-zine 1.

Kunz, G.F., 1917. Rings for the Finger. From the earliestknown times to the present, with full descriptions of ori-gin, earlymaking,materials, thearchaeology,history, foraffection, for love, for engagement, for wedding, com-memorative, mourning etc. Philadelphia & London.

Källström, O., 1947. Safirring från högmedeltid, Forn-vännen 42.

Langland, W., 1959. The Book concerning Piers the Plow-man. Rendered into modern English by Donaldand Rachel Attwater. London & New York.

Lindström, G., 1895.Anteckningar omGotlandsmedeltid2. Stockholm.

Marco Polo, Travels. Translated and with an introduc-tion by Ronald Latham. Harmondsworth 1958.

Ogden, J., 2006. The Intelligent Layman's Book of Jew-ellery.London.

PederMånssons skrifter på svenska: efterhandskrifter i Stock-holm, Uppsala och Linköping med en inledning utgifnaafRobertGeete, 1913–15. Samlingar utgivna av Sven-ska fornskriftsällskapet. Serie 1, Svenska skrifter.Stockholm.

Plato,TheRepublic. Translated byBenjamen Jovett 1892.www.gutenberg.org

Pliny, Naturalis Historia. Ed. K.F.T. Mayhoff. Leipzig1906.

Scarisbrick, D., 1993. Rings. Symbols of wealth, power andaffection. London.

Scarisbrick, D. & Henig, M., 2003. Finger rings froman-cient to modern. Oxford.

Shakespeare, W., 1996. As You Like it. The New Pen-guin Shakespeare. London.

Schumann, W., 1976. Gemstones of the world. 4th ed.London & New York.

Stolt, B., 1964.Kyrklig skrud enligt svensk tradition. Stock-holm.

Tatarkiewicz, W., 1970.History of Aesthetics. Vol. 2. Me-dieval Aesthetics. The Hague.

Tegnér, G., 1996. Smyckekonsten. Den gotiska konsten.Signums svenska konsthistoria. Lund.

afUgglas, C.R., 1933.Kyrkligt guld- och silversmide.Stock-holm.



Summary

Jewellery is probably the most personal of all thedecorative arts and has several levels of impor-tance and value: monetary, fashionable and,probably most of all, emotional and symbolicalvalue. Like clothing, it is an indicator of thewear-er's taste, social status and wealth. In the MiddleAges, themost common itemof jewellerywas thefinger ring. These were often set with variousgems, which were ascribed magical properties.Sapphires and rubies were popular and regardedas particularly powerful, as they were mentionedin the Bible. Both gems were used in jewellery of

great symbolic value, like prelate rings andbetrothal rings. The toadstone is less known, butwas afforded great importance during the Mid-dle Ages and the Renaissance because of its sup-posed ability to detect poison. A finger ring witha toadstonewas ownedby the Swedish kingMag-nus Eriksson and probably used as a protectiveamulet. Another ring, found in Kalmar and keptin the collections of theMuseumof SwedishHis-tory in Stockholm, may be such a toadstone ringor at least have been used as one.

sapphires and other gemstones in Swedish collections...

Documents

Transcript of sapphires and other gemstones in Swedish collections...