Chapter 2: The Science of Life-Span Development

Learning Goals

Learning Goal 1: Describe theories of life-span development.

A. Describe the scientific method and its four-step process.B. Compare and contrast the different psychoanalytic theories. C. Discuss Freud’s psychosexual theory.D. Discuss Erikson’s psychosocial theory. E. Evaluate the psychoanalytic theories.F. Compare and contrast the different cognitive theories.G. Discuss Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory.H. Discuss Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory.I. Discuss the information-processing theory.J. Evaluate the cognitive theories.K. Compare and contrast the behavioral and social cognitive theories.L. Discuss Pavlov’s classical conditioning.M. Discuss Skinner’s operant conditioning.N. Discuss Bandura’s social cognitive theory.O. Evaluate the behavioral and social cognitive theories.P. Discuss ethological theory. Q. Discuss ecological theory.R. Examine diversity in life-span development.S. Discuss the eclectic theoretical orientation.

Learning Goal 2: Explain how research on life-span development is conducted.

A. Define and discuss the two types of observational research.B. Compare and contrast survey and interview research.C. Describe standardized tests and explain why they are used.D. Discuss the case study method of research.E. Describe a life-history record and its advantages.F. Discuss physiological measures of development.G. Describe descriptive research.H. Discuss correlational research and its limitations.I. Describe experimental research and its uses. J. Compare and contrast cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential approaches to

research. K. Define cohort effects.L. Discuss research journals in life-span development.

Learning Goal 3: Discuss research challenges in life-span development.

A. Describe the ethical guidelines for conducting research with human participants.B. Discuss the types of bias in research and how to minimize bias.

Overview of Resources

Chapter Outline Resources You Can UseTheories of Development Learning Goal 1: Describe theories of life-span

development.Psychoanalytic Theories Cognitive Theories

Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories

Ethological Theory

Ecological Theory

An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation

� Lecture Suggestion 1: The Concept of Stage in Life-Span Developmental Psychology� Lecture Suggestion 2: Applications of Learning Concepts� Lecture Suggestion 3: Applying Uri Bronfenbrenner’s Theory �Classroom Activity 1: Theoretical Perspectives�Classroom Activity 2: Critical Analysis of Theories Using Developmental Themes�Classroom Activity 3: Psychological Theories and Methods and Everyday Information�Personal Application 1: Erik Erikson and You �Personal Application 2: But What Can You Do with It?�Personal Application 3: Do I Look like a Pigeon?

Research in Life-Span Development Learning Goal 2: Explain how research on life-span development is conducted.

Methods for Collecting Data

Research Designs

Time Span of Research

� Lecture Suggestion 3: Important Topics Concerning Research Methodology� Lecture Suggestion 4: Understanding Correlational Research�Classroom Activity 4: Design an Experiment�Classroom Activity 5: Observations—Easier Said than Done�Research Project 1: Parent–Child Interaction�Research Project 2: Journal Article Critique

Facing Up to Research Challenges Learning Goal 3: Discuss research challenges in life-span development.

Conducting Ethical Research

Minimizing Bias

Interactive Exercise: Self-Report Bias in Surveys

Review �Classroom Activity 6: Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions and Answers �Classroom Activity 7: Critical-Thinking Essay Questions and Suggestions for Helping Students Answer the Essays

Resources

�Lecture Suggestions

Lecture Suggestion 1: The Concept of Stage in Life-Span Developmental Psychology Learning Goal 1: Describe theories of life-span development.

The concept of stage has long been used in life-span developmental psychology. It appears in the earliest developmental theories and continues to be used in modern theories. However, the concept is frequently misunderstood and misused and is often the subject of controversy and debate. For example, Piaget’s theory has been criticized on the grounds that cognitive development at all levels proceeds more continuously than his theory suggests. Give a lecture that begins with an overview of the historical uses of the concept of stage. A starting point might be Hall’s idea that the stages of development represent various stages of evolution. This can be followed by a brief description of the stages identified by Gesell. These treatments will establish clearly the strongest meanings of the concept and probably also provide clear criticisms of the concept. Next, distinguish various uses of the concept. These might include (a) description, or a handy way to summarize developmental events typical of given points in the life span; (b) metaphor, which chiefly involves applying analogies (which may be misleading) to periods of life (“adolescence is the spring of life”); and, (c) genuine theoretical statements, which indicate that there are definite periods of development characterized by the emergence of qualitatively different types of thinking or behaving.

Flavell (1971) stated that four criteria are essential to the concept of a developmental stage. Briefly, they are (a) qualitative change, (b) movement from one stage to the next involves simultaneous changes in multiple aspects of the child’s behavior, (c) the transition between stages is rapid once it begins to occur, and (d) the changes (e.g., behavioral and physical changes) that indicate the next stage form a coherent pattern. Finally, give examples of contemporary uses of the stage concept (e.g., Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning). You may want to draw on various theories of social cognition that extensively use the concept. Other possibilities include stages of motor development, emotional development, or newer theories of cognitive development. If time permits, you may wish to examine the extent to which a particular theory meets or violates Flavell’s criteria or exemplifies one of the three ways in which the stage concept is used.

Sources: Flavell, J. H. (1971). Stage-related properties of cognitive development. Cognitive Psychology, 2, 241–453. Ross, D. (1972). Stanley Hall: The psychologist as prophet. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Thelen, E., & Adolph, K. E. (1992). Arnold L. Gesell: The paradox of nature and nurture. Developmental Psychology, 28, 368-380.

Lecture Suggestion 2: Applications of Learning Concepts Learning Goal 1: Describe theories of life-span development.

Although classical learning theories have not figured large in developmental accounts of age-related behavioral change, they have contributed greatly to behavior management techniques and to the scientific study of children’s behavior. The concepts of classical and operant conditioning continue to be valuable to teachers and parents, and are enjoying a renaissance in educational practice throughout the country.

Lecture on the fundamental concepts of classical and operant conditioning. Provide many relevant examples. Point out how various features of behavioral control are operating even as you speak (the students are sitting in chairs, oriented toward the front of the room, taking notes on what you have presented on overheads—all examples of stimulus control). Students often erroneously define negative reinforcement as punishment. Negative reinforcement occurs when an unpleasant event is removed following a desired behavior, thereby increasing the probability of the behavior occurring again. Differentiate these terms. All reinforcements (positive and negative) increase the likelihood of the behavior reoccurring. All punishments (positive and negative) decrease the likelihood of the behavior reoccurring. Positive refers to the addition of something (giving candy or slapping). Negative refers to the removal of something (removing the child’s toy or the uncomfortable shoes). Note that positive and negative are not referred to in the traditional sense. This lecture is most effective if you use multiple examples and if you encourage students to create their own examples.

Lecture Suggestion 3: Applying Uri Bronfenbrenner’s TheoryLearning goal 1: Describe theories of life-span development.

Give a lecture on Uri Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, and engage students in a discussion about how victims of Hurricane Katrina of varying ages, especially those living in New Orleans, will be impacted in their development.

Begin by explaining the various systems—microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. Then, apply examples of those systems from Hurricane Katrina. Ask students for their input and try to apply the theory to different socioeconomic groups.

For instance, the microsystem, the setting in which the victims live is, for all, New Orleans. But not all New Orleans’ neighborhoods were affected in the same way. Some neighborhoods, on higher ground and with large and nice homes, were virtually untouched save for a loss of trees and roof shingles. Other areas, near the canal and Lake Pontchatrain, were totally lost or rendered uninhabitable. Many of the New Orleans schools closed and are being reinvented as charter schools, since the public educational system has virtually collapsed.

For the macrosystem, the culture in which they live is a factor in resilience of Katrina victims. New Orleans is known as the “big easy,” a town that parties hard, even the majority of its residents live below the poverty line. How will living in that culture impact their development?

The chronosystem, the time in which people live and sociohistorical circumstances, is central to a discussion of Katrina victims. Once before, generations ago, New Orleans was flooded. Generations in between have lived in relative meteorological quiet times, though there have been hurricanes. Also in dealing with the chronosystem, discuss how long the effects of Katrina will last. Will this be something people get over in a couple of years? The answer to that depends, too, on the microsystem as well as individual factors.

Don’t forget to include older adults, even the elderly, in the discussion. Many elderly people in nursing homes died from stress or other causes in the immediate aftermath of the storm. There are continuing news reports of high suicide rates post-Katrina, especially among middle-aged and elderly residents.

The Internet has numerous resources for your use to refresh your memory on the Hurricane and its aftermath which continues today. The Librarian’s Internet Index has a huge portal on every aspect of Hurricane Katrina and its victims. The site has links to many other major Katrina sites:

http://www.lii.org/pub/topic/hurricanekatrina

Lecture Suggestion 4: Important Topics Concerning Research Methodology Learning Goal 2: Explain how research on life-span development is conducted.

The purpose of this lecture is to increase students’ awareness of different types of research methods and the challenges associated with them. An excellent resource for this lecture is the McGraw-Hill Annual Editions Research Methods 01/02. It contains articles that provide useful perspectives on important topics concerning research methods. You may want to touch briefly on several of the following topics, or focus on one or two of them.

What Is (and Isn’t) Research?, Debra Viadero, Education Week, June 23, 1999.Research has long been associated with the scientific method, which is logical and linear in approach. In this article, readers are challenged to think about whether other types of human endeavors, such as works of art, might qualify as research. The topic grows even more controversial when research is used to make policy decisions that affect many people’s lives and that require extensive financial resources.

A Primer in Survey Research, Suzanne C. Watson, The Journal of Continuing Higher Education, Winter 1998.When a researcher seeks to gather data on a group that is too large to observe directly, survey research is commonly used. Suzanne Watson provides basic information about survey research, including when to use it, the different types, the methods of gathering data, a 10-step sequence for conducting a survey, and practical suggestions on ways to improve response rates.

Quantitative Attitudes Questionnaire: Instrument Development and Validation, Lei Chang, Educational and Psychological Measurement, December 1996.Although the choice of research method needs to be matched to the nature of the specific research question, the fact remains that researchers have different propensities toward quantitative and qualitative research methods. A 20-item questionnaire, included in the article, enables readers to see how their knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and values concerning quantitative methods might be influenced and assessed.

Practical Issues for Teachers Conducting Classroom Research, Marilyn K. Rousseau and Brian Kai Yung Tam, Teaching Exceptional Children, Spring 1996.Although teachers are encouraged to conduct research in their classrooms, they are frequently left wondering how, exactly, to accomplish this. This article offers a step-by-step procedure for conducting single-subject research with children who have special needs.

The Future of Focus Groups, Richard A. Krueger, Qualitative Health Research, November 1995.Appropriate applications and common misuses of focus group interviewing techniques are explored in this article. Based on extensive experience with conducting focus groups, the author speculates on the future development of the method, particularly as it relates to electronic database focus group interviewing. Six myths about focus groups are identified and counteracted with the correct information.

Videotaped Behavioral Observations: Enhancing Validity and Reliability, Jennifer Harrison Elder, Applied Nursing Research, November 1999.Because of its ease and accessibility, many researchers turn to videotaping as a way of recording behavioral observations. Yet, as Jennifer Elder points out, there are numerous issues that must be addressed if studies relying on videotaped material are to be reliable and valid. Topics such as subject reactivity, extraneous variables, ambiguous behavioral definitions, and low inter-rater agreement are discussed.

Using Electronic Mail to Conduct Research, Liz Thach, Educational Technology, March/April 1995.What is the potential of e-mail as a tool for conducting survey research? The author reviews the research literature and provides a chart analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of e-mail surveys and offers practical suggestions for using technology to gather survey data.

Issues in Teaching Participatory Action Research, Paule McNicoll, Journal of Social Work Education, Winter 1999.Participatory action research, true to its name, involves the participants in the research project and attempts to improve the situation of those involved. The author, an instructor in action research methods in the field of sociology, outlines the skills and attitudes required for this type of research, and the difficulties that are associated with it.

Human Subjects and Informed Consent: The Legacy of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, Carol A. Heintzelman, Scholars: Research, Teaching, and Public Service, Fall 1996.In 1932, a group of African American men, who had already contracted syphilis, were invited to participate in a research project with the misleading promise of special, free treatment, when the real purpose of the study was to determine the natural course of untreated syphilis. Even after antibiotics were widely accepted as the preferred treatment, penicillin was withheld. This infamous investigation was perhaps one of the most glaring examples of failure to obtain informed consent.

The Social Consequences of Bad Research, Daniel Tanner, Phi Delta Kappan, January 1998.The author expresses concern about the way that research is sometimes used to confirm preexisting premises. He cites numerous examples of misleading results that are used by policy makers to render important decisions and the adverse consequences of such decisions. The author advises practitioners to evaluate research critically in order to minimize the effects of being manipulated by researchers with hidden agendas.

Source: Jalongo, M., Gerlach, G., & Yan, W. (Eds.) (2000). Annual editions research methods 01/02. New York: McGraw-Hill/Dushkin.

Lecture Suggestion 5: Understanding Correlational Research Learning Goal 2: Explain how research on life-span development is conducted.

Give a lecture on correlational research, as students often misunderstand the important concepts. It is beneficial to provide numerous examples.

Correlation does not equate to causation. For example, exercise is associated with less severe depression. However, it would be a mistake to conclude that exercise causes less severe

depression (severely depressed people may not have the energy to exercise). It could be that some third variable affects the other two variables (interacting with others during exercise may affect depression, not exercise per se).

Define correlation coefficient (a statistic that provides a numerical description of the extent of the relatedness of two variables and the direction of the relationship).

Values of this coefficient may range from –1.0 to +1.0. Thus, each correlation coefficient indicates the direction of the relationship and the strength of the relationship.

Direction of the relationship:A positive relationship is indicated by a correlation value that falls between 0 and 1.0. A positive relationship means that as one variable increases, the other variable increases (the more a student studies, the higher his grades).A negative relationship is indicated by a correlation that is between 0 and –1.0. A negative relationship means that as one variable increases, the other variable decreases (the more television a student watches, the lower his grades).

Strength of the relationship:Zero indicates no relationship between the two variables; they do not vary together.The closer the number is to 0, regardless of the direction of the relationship (positive or negative), the weaker the relationship between the two variables. The closer the number is to 1.0 or –1.0, regardless of the direction of the relationship (positive or negative), the stronger the relationship between the two variables.

Complete this lecture by providing an example of a correlational research study.

�Classroom Activities

Classroom Activity 1: Theoretical PerspectivesLearning Goal 1: Describe theories of life-span development.

This activity introduces various theoretical perspectives, and also allows students to determine how much of the material they already know. As an instructor, you will learn the students’ strengths as well as the theoretical perspectives that need the most class coverage.

List each of the following perspectives (you may use fewer, or modify labels, to fit how you cover the course material), leaving room below each to add comments. Then have students contribute terms, ideas, and “great psychologists” associated with each. By the end of the exercise, they will be able to see some similarities and dissimilarities for each group.

Here is an example of this exercise from one class:

PSYCHOANALYTIC: Freud, Adler, id, ego, superego, sex, early childhood, psychosexual stages, “mom’s fault,” Erikson, unconscious, defense mechanisms, dreams, Jung, Oedipal complex, birth order, sibling rivalry, inferiority, libido.

BEHAVIORAL/SOCIAL LEARNING: Skinner, Pavlov, reinforcement, punishment, imitation, Bandura, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, modeling, delay of gratification, Watson, token economy, systematic desensitization, behavioral modification, mazes, mechanistic.

BIOLOGICAL/ETHOLOGICAL: Lorenz, split-brain, neurotransmitter, dopamine, genetics, heredity versus environment, central nervous system, instinct, critical periods, pregnancy, genes, genetic counseling, DNA, autonomic nervous system, stress.

COGNITIVE: Piaget, Ellis, memory, information-processing, Binet, Terman, intelligence tests, accommodation, assimilation, language, development, moral development, Kohlberg.

ECOLOGICAL: environment, culture, ethnicity, Bronfenbrenner.

Logistics: Group size: Full-class discussion. Approximate time: 30 minutes.

Source: Irwin, D. B., & Simons, J. A. (1984). Theoretical perspectives class activity. Ankeny, IA: Des Moines Area Community College.

Classroom Activity 2: Critical Analysis of Theories Using Developmental Themes Learning Goal 1: Describe theories of life-span development.

We are never quite sure that students have grasped the basic components of developmental theories, or that they know how the theories are the same and how they differ. To check their understanding and their ability to discriminate, list several theories and theorists down one side of a piece of paper and the distinguishing characteristics of the theories across the top of the paper. Characteristics that could be used to discriminate between the theories include whether development is deterministic (yes or no), biological versus environmental, characterized by stability versus change, whether there are critical periods for different aspects of development (yes or no), whether culture plays a role in development (cultural universal or cultural relativism), and the role of the participant in development (active or passive). The students’ task is to indicate where each theorist or theory stands on each of the characteristics and to provide an explanation for their answers. Emphasize that the reasoning behind their decisions is the primary focus. Students generally find the activity difficult; however, answers to essay questions about the theories show that they seem to learn a lot from the exercise.

Logistics: Group size: Small groups (2 to 4), and then full-class discussion. Approximate time: 30 minutes for small groups, then 30 minutes for full-class discussion.

Classroom Activity 3: Psychological Theories and Methods and Everyday Information Learning Goal 1: Describe theories of life-span development.

The purpose of this activity is for students to see the relationship between psychological theories and methods, on the one hand, and everyday reading material and information, on the other. One week before you want to use this in class, have students find two or three articles on human development from parenting or other popular magazines. They should bring the magazine issue or copies of the specific articles to class. Have the students get into small groups to discuss their answers to the following questions: Who is the audience for the article (e.g., parents, teachers, or adolescents)? What is the topic of the article? What are some examples of information provided? Does the article emphasize heredity (nature) or environment (nurture)? What theoretical perspective does the author seem to use (e.g., psychoanalytic, behavioral, humanistic, biological,

cognitive, or ecological)? Does the article rely on scientific findings, expert opinion, or case example? Do the conclusions of the article seem valid?

Also have the students consider all of the magazine articles that their group has collected. Which theoretical perspectives seem to be most popular? What topics are getting the most coverage? Are most articles well-done and useful?

Logistics: Materials: Students must gather popular magazine articles. Group size: Individual, small group, and full-class discussion. Approximate time: Individual (1 hour), small group (15 minutes), and full-class discussion

(30 minutes).

Source: Simons, J. A. (1990). Evaluating psychological value of magazine articles. Central Iowa Psychological Services.

Classroom Activity 4: Design an Experiment Learning Goal 2: Explain how research on life-span development is conducted.

The purpose of this activity is to take students step by step through the basic processes of designing a research experiment. Given the number of new concepts (such as independent and dependent variables, random selection, etc.), the most effective way for students to understand what they are and how they are used is to see them implemented.

Choose a very basic study, such as one based on the question “Does watching violent television increase aggressive behavior in children?” Begin by identifying the independent variables (What will your “violent” show be? Might you have a passive, nonviolent show too? Will there be a control group who watches nothing?) and dependent variables (How are you going to measure “aggression”? Determining both this and what constitutes a “violent” program should prompt an explanation of operationalizing.). Determine the age of subjects you wish to study (have students determine this and explain why they think that it is a valid/useful age group to focus on). Go through the process of how and where you might obtain subjects, and how you will assign them to the various groups. Develop a procedure for carrying out the experiment—where the participants will watch the show, what they will do following the viewing so that you may observe behavior to assess aggressiveness (playground, room with toys, problem solving activity). Consider whether the study needs to be blind or double blind; the importance and logistics of both. Then create some results and discuss possible interpretations, making sure to include consideration of any confounding variables or methodological limitations. To go even further, demonstrate how a write-up of this study would conform to the standard professional journal format.

Logistics: Group size: Full-class discussion. Approximate time: 45 minutes.

Classroom Activity 5: Observations – Easier Said than DoneLearning Goal 2: Explain how research on life-span development is conducted.

Have students watch five minutes of a popular cartoon that is likely to have action that could be construed as aggressive behavior.

First, ask students to count the number of aggressive acts they see in the video clip. At the end of the segment, write down the range of counts that students recorded (it is likely the counts will vary widely). Discuss the reasons the students’ data on aggressive acts varied so widely.Next, ask students to watch for a more specifically defined behavior (e.g., physical aggression that involves physical contact between two characters) and record the counts. Discuss the range of data gathered.

Discuss observer bias (do they really LIKE that cartoon?), cultural issues (perhaps “slapping five” would be considered aggressive in some cultures but not others), how the observer might factor in “intention” (e.g., did one character actually mean to hit another character in the head, or was it an accident?), etc.

Discuss reliability and validity issues in observations, and have students write a half page about what they learned from the activity.

Classroom Activity 6: Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions and Answers Learning Goal 1: Describe theories of life-span development.Learning Goal 2: Explain how research on life-span development is conducted.Learning Goal 3: Discuss research challenges in life-span development.

Discuss the answers to the critical-thinking multiple-choice questions (Handout 1). The purpose of this activity is to facilitate student understanding of various concepts in chapter 2. For each question on this handout, students are asked to indicate which the best answer is and to explain why the alternate answers are incorrect. You may want to assign Handout 1 as homework or as a small-group activity. The answers are presented in Handout 2.

Discuss the critical-thinking questions. For question 1, find out if students know who the “observers” are in the quote. They probably will not know, in which case you will want to explain that they were people who introspected about their mental processes in early perception and cognition experiments.

For question 2, students will appreciate a careful review of the differences between correlational and experimental research; they are apt to see Chi’s research as experimental if left to their own devices. They will have little difficulty with the other concepts, but note that Chi’s measures do not fit neatly with any of those offered, which may necessitate some discussion of how to interpret Santrock’s catalogue of measures.

For question 3, discuss with your class the notion that assumptions are not always directly expressed, but may be very important motivators for researchers. That is, assumptions suggest how to solve problems and lead to choices of methods, techniques, or strategies to solve them. Remember that an inference is a conclusion that is drawn because it is a logical extension of a statement or a fact.

Logistics: Materials: Handout 1 (Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions) and Handout 2

(Answers) Group size: Small groups to discuss the questions, then a full-class discussion.

Approximate time: Small groups (15 to 20 minutes), full-class discussion of any questions (15 minutes).

Classroom Activity 7: Critical-Thinking Essay Questions and Suggestions for Helping Students Answer the Essays Learning Goal 1: Describe theories of life-span development.Learning Goal 2: Explain how research on life-span development is conducted.Learning Goal 3: Discuss research challenges in life-span development.

Discuss the answers to the critical-thinking essay questions (Handout 3). The purpose of this activity is threefold. First, answering these questions facilitates students’ understanding of concepts in chapter 2. Second, this type of essay question affords students an opportunity to apply the concepts to their own lives which will facilitate their retention of the material. Third, the essay format also will give students practice in expressing themselves in written form. Ideas to help students answer the critical-thinking essay questions are provided in Handout 4.

Logistics: Materials: Handout 3 (Critical-Thinking Essay Questions) and Handout 4 (Ideas to Help

Answer). Group size: Individual, then full class. Approximate time: Individual (60 minutes), full-class discussion of any questions (30

minutes).

�Personal Applications

Personal Application 1: Erik Erikson and You Learning Goal 1: Describe theories of life-span development.

The purpose of this exercise is for students to consider their own lives and the lives of their friends and family in terms of Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development. Erikson viewed behavior as the manifestation of an individual’s progressive responses to social “dilemmas” that present themselves throughout the life span. The direction that people take in dealing with the dilemma at each stage provides the perspective from which they will approach subsequent stages. Examining one’s current behavior can indicate which stage of Erikson’s theory an individual is experiencing, as well as provide some insight into how he or she may have responded to previous stages.

Instructions for Students: What stage of Erikson’s psychosocial theory are you currently in? What stage are your friends in? Your parents? Provide evidence to support your reasoning.

Use in the Classroom: Demonstrate how to think through behavior with regards to Erikson’s theory by using yourself as an example. Discuss the current stage of your life, behaviors that reflect your response to the dilemma posed by that stage, as well as memories from past stages and relevant behavioral manifestations.

Personal Application 2: But What Can You Do with It? Learning Goal 1: Describe theories of life-span development.

The purpose of this exercise is for students to think critically about the possible applications of several theories. In psychologists’ efforts to understand and explain behavior, theories are considered tools that are useful and meaningful for real-life application to human behavior.

Instructions for students: Familiarize yourself with the theories of Freud, Erikson, and Piaget. Consider practical applications for each.

Use in the Classroom: To help students see the potential usefulness of each of the theories, begin by having them identify particular behaviors to be approached from a practical standpoint. Once they have thought about an area of application, prompt them to identify ways in which these behaviors may be approached, enhanced, used, etc. Lead them through the process of using the tenets and assumptions of the theories to answer questions about, and provide solutions to, issues in human development.

Personal Application 3: Do I Look like a Pigeon? Learning Goal 1: Describe theories of life-span development.

The purpose of this exercise is to get students to understand the process of operant conditioning by employing it themselves. The processes identified by learning theorists are constantly occurring in our everyday lives. We do not realize how much of our behavior is followed by some kind of reinforcement. The impact of many of these consequences usually affects us only at a subconscious level, but if we are tuned in to their occurrence, the results become very clear. Bandura acknowledged that we are cognitive beings, and that not only do we have the ability to self-reward and self-punish, but we do so regularly.

Instructions for Students: Design an operant conditioning experiment to shape someone’s behavior (yours, your roommate’s, or your partner’s). Identify either a bad habit that you would like to break or a good new one that you would like to establish. Write up what you did, identifying the desired or undesired behavior, your reinforcement, the schedule of reinforcement implemented, and the results. This should take approximately two to three weeks to carry out.

Use in the Classroom: Have students brainstorm the behavior(s) they would like to tackle prior to starting the experiment. Provide your own example of something you would like to change about yourself or your spouse or partner, and how you might go about accomplishing it. Once they have established their plan of action, tell them you will compare results of all experiments in class at the end of the time period allotted.

�Research Project Ideas

Research Project 1: Parent-Child Interaction Learning Goal 2: Explain how research on life-span development is conducted.

In this project, your students will observe a parent–child interaction and interpret it according to psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive theoretical approaches. They should go to a local supermarket and watch a mother or father shop with a 2- to 4-year-old child. (Instructors will want to provide students with a letter on school letterhead explaining the exercise and its purpose in case a student is questioned by store security.) They should describe the interactions that they

observe, including demands on the part of the child, verbal exchanges between parent and child, and ways in which the parent responds to the demands of the child. Then have them answer the questions listed in Handout 5.

Use in the Classroom: Have several students present their observations to the class. Are there commonalities to the observations or is each unique? How would the various theories interpret aspects of the interactions? Do some of the interpretations seem more comprehensive than others? Do some of the interpretations seem more reasonable than others?

Research Project 2: Journal Article Critique Learning Goal 2: Explain how research on life-span development is conducted.

Part of conducting psychological research is reviewing and understanding published research studies. In this research project (Handout 6), students will choose one of the topics that will be covered in this course (e.g., play, gender roles, moral development, effects of television, or memory and aging) and find a research report on the chosen topic in a development journal.

They should read the article and write a report about it. Request that they enclose a copy of the research article with their report. In addition to including the main points of the study, they should give their personal reactions to the research findings and address the questions in Handout 6.

Use in the Classroom: Possible modifications of the project are (1) assign specific articles to students; (2) have students choose articles all on one topic; (3) have students choose articles from only one journal; (4) have students read two different articles on the same topic; (5) have students read research articles that address a current social issue—e.g., abortion, teenage pregnancy, racial prejudice—and decide what the research findings would suggest for social policy; (6) have students compare journal reading to textbook reading and magazine reading. Which sections were difficult to understand? Which sections of their articles were easy to comprehend? How did the article compare with their expectations? Were their articles based on basic or applied research? What did the students see as the value of their articles?

Interactive Exercise (found on the LifeMap student CD accompanying the textbook)

Self-Report Bias in SurveysStudies of life-span development are most useful when they are conducted without bias or prejudice toward any particular group of people. Of special concern is bias based on gender and bias based on culture or ethnicity.

�Feature Film

In this section of the Instructor's Manual, we suggest films that are widely available from local video rental outlets.

Awakenings (1990)

Starring Robin Williams, Robert DeNiro, Julie KavnerDirected by Penny Marshall

Based on a true story about neurologist Oliver Sacks who has a ward full of comatose patients who have been in this state for decades. When Sacks finds a possible chemical cure, one patient bravely takes a leap of faith. This patient is now an adult having gone into a coma in his early teens. The film delights in the new awareness experienced by the patients, and then the upsets that come when the doctor and his patients must face the consequences of the drug’s possible failure, both physically and emotionally.

�Web site Suggestions

At the time of publication, all sites were current and active; however, please be advised that you may occasionally encounter a dead link.

American Psychological Association (APA)http://www.apa.org/

Association for Psychological Science (APS)http://www.psychologicalscience.org/

Council for Exceptional Children Online Journalshttp://journals.sped.org/

Office for Human Research Protections (Ethics for Human Research)http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/humansubjects/guidance/45cfr46.htm

Research Methods and Statisticshttp://psych.athabascau.ca/html/aupr/tools.shtml

University of Chicago Press Journalshttp://www.journals.uchicago.edu/pub-alpha.html

Handout 1 (CA 6)

Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions

1. Chapter 2 presents several different schools of thought about the appropriate subject matter and methods of life-span developmental psychology. The author of the following quote was most likely a proponent of which of the perspectives below: “I never wanted to use human subjects. I hated to serve as a subject. I didn’t like the stuffy, artificial instructions given to subjects. I was uncomfortable and acted unnaturally. With animals I was at home. I felt that, in studying them, I was keeping close to biology with my feet on the ground. More and more the thought presented itself: Can’t I find out by watching their behavior everything the other students are finding out by using observers?” Circle the letter of the best answer and explain why it is the best answer and why each of the other answers is not as good.

a) cognitiveb) behavioralc) life-spand) psychoanalytice) ecological

2. The following describes a study that compared the memory performance of children and adults:

Do adults remember more than children because they know more about what they are trying to remember? Would children remember more than adults if they knew more than adults did about a topic? These were questions Michelene Chi tried to answer by comparing the memory performances of children and adults with differing levels of knowledge about the information they tried to remember.

Chi asked children from grades 3 through 8 who were experienced chess players to study either 10 numbers or the positions of chess pieces in a chess game for 10 seconds. The children then tried to remember all the numbers or the chess positions, after which they studied the items again for 10 seconds. The look–recall cycle continued until the children remembered all the items. Memory performance was measured in two ways: the total number of items remembered on the first trial, and the number of trials that were needed to remember all the items. Chi compared the children’s performances on both tasks to the performances of adults who were novice chess players. The results suggested that knowledge of to-be-remembered material is important to memory. The child chess experts remembered more chess positions and needed fewer trials to achieve perfect recall than did the adult novices. On the other hand, the adults—who presumably knew more about numbers than the children—outperformed the children in both ways when remembering the numbers.

Source: Chi, M. T. H. (1978). Knowledge structures and memory development. In R. S. Siegler (Ed.), Children’s thinking: What develops? Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

3. Which of the following types of studies best describes Chi’s research? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why each of the other answers is not as good.

a) cross-sectional, experimental study using interviewsb) longitudinal, correlational study using standardized testsc) cross-sectional, correlational study using observationsd) longitudinal, experimental study using questionnairese) cross-sectional, experimental study using multiple measures

4. Read the passage about Jim and his teachers that follows:

In my 10 years of teaching middle school science, I don’t remember ever having a kid as difficult to manage as Jim. Jim is a big boy, one of the tallest and heaviest students in the school. He excels at sports, especially aggressive contact sports like football. Off the playing field, Jim often goes out of his way to use his athletic abilities to intimidate the other kids—and the faculty. On more than one occasion we’ve had to suspend him for violent behavior. Jim revels in displaying the classic “tough guy” anti-authority attitude: arriving late to class, slouching and smirking, drawing pictures and writing notes while I’m talking, and refusing to participate in class discussions. I confess I have sometimes refrained from criticizing his poor classroom performance, because I was afraid of arousing his anger. Imagine my bewilderment, then, when Jim walked into class one day before the bell rang, sat up straight in his chair, and proceeded to make eye contact with me as I began the day’s lesson. His facial expression was uncharacteristically friendly, and I saw that he was actually taking notes. It was as if he were an entirely new person. On his way out of class, Jim smiled at me and said, “Thanks, I learned a lot today.” I almost fainted! On my lunch break, I told my colleagues what had happened, and one of them said that Jim and some other “at-risk” students were taking a special class where they were learning about behavior modification. Behavior modification, I was told, is a method of using favorable consequences to strengthen desirable behaviors and unfavorable consequences to weaken undesirable ones.

Now, consider the following:Studies have been carried out to evaluate what effect behavioral modification training can have on students. Typically, these last for five weeks, with one 45-minute class each day. Students are taught how to manipulate their teachers’ behavior and given an opportunity to practice using rewards and other behavior modification approaches. For example, they are taught to encourage some teacher behaviors by being attentive, sitting up straight, smiling, and making eye contact—all of which help evoke a positive response in the teacher. If necessary, the students may be videotaped while they practice these methods, so that they see how they really present themselves and to help them improve their social skills. Some find that what they think is a smile appears to others as a menacing grin. They are also taught how to use praise to improve their relations with teachers as we saw in the example of Jim in the account at the beginning of this handout. Conversely, they also learn how to discourage certain teaching approaches that may be detrimental to their progress by, for example, making a statement regarding how a particular approach has the effect of inhibiting them in their efforts to learn.

The short-term results of some of these studies have been remarkable. But the long-term outcome is still uncertain. There are some suggestions that once the training framework ends, the students revert to their original behavioral problems, but informally teachers have also reported that the improvements are long-lasting.

Based on ideas in:

Graubard, P., & Rosenberg, H. (1974). Classrooms that work: Prescriptions for change. New York: Dutton.

Which of the following statements is most likely to be an assumption about difficult students, rather than an inference or an observation? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why each of the other answers is not as good.

a) Difficult students’ behavior is not caused by disturbed personalities or mental abnormalities.

b) The normal reactions of teachers reinforce the disruptive or harmful behavior of difficult students.

c) Students exert control over their teachers’ behavior.d) After receiving behavior modification training, students change the way they

interact with their teachers.e) The improved interaction between students and teachers continues for a short

time after the students finish their behavior modification class.

Handout 2 (CA 6)

Answers for Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions

1. Chapter 2 presents several different schools of thought about the appropriate subject matter and methods of life-span developmental psychology. The author of the quote presented was most likely a proponent of which of the following perspectives:

a) Cognitive is not the best answer. The main reasons are that the speaker (1) is mainly interested in animals, whereas cognitivists typically (though not exclusively) are interested in people, and (2) prefers to focus on observing behavior. Cognitivists are interested in making inferences about the mind and studying conscious mental activity.

b) Behavioral is the best answer. The first reason is the speaker’s interest in the objective study of behavior, and the second is the interest in studying animals rather than people. This seems to parallel the development of Skinner’s behaviorism—though the speaker is actually John Watson.

c) Life-span is not the best answer. The main reasons are that the researcher (1) is mainly interested in animals, and (2) says nothing that relates clearly to the seven characteristics of the life-span perspective. For example, the focus of observation is on the “here and now” without reference to the context in which development is embedded; the researcher is delighted to be grounded in biology to the exclusion of other disciplines.

d) Psychoanalytic is not the best answer. Psychoanalysts are interested in people and the inner workings of their thoughts. They also do not typically rely on formal observation as a technique for finding things out, preferring instead various forms of clinical interviews or clinical devices for revealing the nature of personality and personality function.

e) Ecological is not the best answer. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory is based on an analysis of systems of human behavior, not the observation of individuals—especially not of animals.

2. Which of the following types of studies best describes Chi’s research? Circle the letter of the best answer and explain why it is the best answer and why each of the other answers is not as good.

a) A cross-sectional, experimental study using interviews is not the best answer. Chi’s study is cross-sectional because it compares children with adults. However, the researchers did not manipulate the independent variables (age, chess expertise), but rather selected subjects who had these characteristics. Finally, the researchers did not interview children about their performance, but rather asked them to remember as many items as they could.

b) A longitudinal, correlational study using standardized tests is not the best answer. As indicated in “a.,” Chi used a cross-sectional design, not a longitudinal one. Correlational does best describe the research strategy because Chi attempted to show an association (more knowledge is associated with better memory, regardless of age). However, Chi did not use standardized tests to measure performance; this was measured with a recall task designed for the study.

c) A cross-sectional, correlational study using observations is the best answer. See “a.” for cross-sectional and “b.” for correlational study. Although the claim that Chi used observations is not exactly correct, this term better fits the kind of research she conducted than the possibilities mentioned in the other answers. One can say that she observed how

well children remembered the items by counting the number that they were able to name when asked to remember them.

d) A longitudinal, experimental study using questionnaires is not the best answer. See “b.” for longitudinal and “a.” for experimental study. Chi did not measure performance in terms of respondents’ written responses to questions they had read.

e) A cross-sectional, experimental study using multiple measures is not the best answer. See “a.” for cross-sectional and experimental. Identifying the measures as multiple measures is not correct because the phrase implies the use of several different types of measures—for example, combining interviews and questionnaires, or observations, interviews, and standardized tests.

3. Which of the following statements is most likely to be an assumption about difficult students, rather than an inference or an observation? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why each of the other answers is not as good.

a) The answer difficult students’ behavior is not caused by disturbed personalities or mental abnormalities is the best because it is indeed an assumption. This appears to be a key belief of researchers who worked with students like Jim. If they had not believed this, they would not have focused on specific behaviors that students could change, which, in turn, might change the way teachers treated them. The statement is not made explicitly in the passage, nor does it seem to be a conclusion of the research, nor is it an observation.

b) The answer the normal reactions of teachers reinforce the disruptive or harmful behavior of difficult students is not the best answer because it is an inference based on the following reasoning: the article demonstrated that a change in the students’ behavior produced a change in the teachers’ behavior and that, in fact, the changes reinforced each other. The suggestion is that in “normal” day-to-day interactions, the specific pattern of behaviors that people engage in reinforce and maintain each other. For example, the students report things like, “I have a rough time working well when you get mad at me.” To change behavior, one has to intervene in this self-maintaining pattern.

c) The answer students exert control over their teachers’ behavior is not the best answer because it is an inference or a conclusion that one might derive from the research. The teachers’ behavior changed when the students changed their own behavior. Since no other factors appear to have generated this change, the inference is that what the students did actually caused the change (controlled it).

d) After receiving behavior modification training, students change the way that they interact with their teachers is not the best answer because it is an observation. This is a “fact”—something deliberately done and directly observable. A teacher/trainer taught students to smile, make pleasant comments, and so on. Students’ teachers in other classes then noticed these changed behaviors.

e) The improved interaction between students and teachers continues for a short time after the students finish their behavior modification class is not the best answer as it is an observation. Teachers have reported informally after such studies that they continue to see pleasant interactions between the so-called problem students and their teachers.

Handout 3 (CA 7)Critical-Thinking Essay Questions

Your answers to these kinds of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed in this chapter.

1. What is science? How does a scientific understanding of life-span development differ from an understanding that has evolved through everyday experiences with people of various ages?

2. Compare and contrast the psychoanalytic theories of Freud and Erikson. Also explain whether Erikson changed psychoanalytic theory in a fundamental way.

3. Compare and contrast the Piagetian and information-processing approaches to cognitive development. Which approach appears to be more “developmental”? Defend your answer using the characteristics of life-span development outlined in chapter 1.

4. Think about your life during the past 24 hours from the perspective of behavioral and social cognitive theories. Provide at least two examples of how (a) rewards, (b) punishments, and (c) observational learning have influenced your behavior during this time frame.

5. Explain and evaluate ethological theory by indicating its strengths and limitations, and the aspects of development that are not explained by this approach to life-span development.

6. Define and distinguish the five systems in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory. Provide at least two examples of each system by citing aspects from your own personal life.

7. Explain the meaning of an eclectic theoretical orientation to life-span development. Evaluate the pros and cons of such an approach before you explain which approach is most agreeable to you personally.

8. Discuss the factors that influence a researcher’s selection of methodology (e.g., controlled observation in a laboratory; naturalistic observation; interviews and questionnaires; case studies; standardized tests; cross-cultural studies; physiological research; research with animals; or a multimeasure, multisource, and multicontext approach) for scientifically collecting data about life-span development.

9. Compare and contrast correlational and experimental strategies for research in life-span development. What do you gain and lose by using a correlational rather than experimental strategy in research?

10. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches to research? In what ways do cross-sectional and longitudinal designs differ from experimental strategies? What kinds of conclusions can you draw from each?

11. Explain how research on development can be sexist. Also, discuss ways to reduce sexism in life-span developmental research.

12. What precautions must be taken to safeguard the rights and welfare of a child who might be a psychological subject? In your answer, relate each precaution to a specific ethical concern. In addition, discuss at least two examples of other types of subjects who pose similar ethical difficulties for researchers.

Handout 4 (CA 7)

Ideas to Help You Answer Critical-Thinking Essay Questions

1. Think about how you view and interpret the behavior of people around you on a daily basis. Recall some judgments and conclusions you have drawn about how and why individuals of any age acted as they did. Now review the description of science in the textbook as it relates to life-span development. What does the author do when attempting to examine and explain behavior? What do you do that is not a part of the scientific process?

2. Start by separately listing characteristics of each theory in a column. Then, match up the concepts that appear in both columns to delineate the similarities. After you have completed the similarities, note the characteristics that appear in only one of the columns, to delineate the differences.

3. Begin by reviewing the main themes of development outlined in chapter 1, and create a graph of the two approaches with regard to each theme. You will then be able to visualize the areas in which they converge and differ, and depending on what you find, you can more easily draw your conclusion about their “developmentalness.”

4. Our own lives are rich with demonstrations of the processes of behavioral and social cognitive theories. When you identify your own personal experiences with them, it will ensure that you will both understand and remember the basic tenets of these approaches to behavior. Keep in mind when thinking about the last 24 hours of your life that your example does not necessarily have to include your actual experiencing of the learning process, but rather much behavior reflects the manifestation or results of that process. Also, always check with your instructor that your personal examples are correct. Cognitive theories and processes can be tricky and, if your example is not quite right, it can really mislead you.

5. Review the main themes of development outlined in chapter 1. Create a chart of the themes and note where ethological theory falls with regards to each. This will provide you with the basis for identifying its strengths and weaknesses, which in turn, will provide you with the answer for what may be missing from this approach.

6. Examples of concepts and phenomena are not separate and distinct entities from the concepts themselves. Sometimes to understand something, we must incorporate the example as part of the explanation—it gives us the ability not only to recognize the nature of the concept itself, but to identify its importance and contextual impact. Use your examples to guide you in your definitions and delineation of Bronfenbrenner’s systems for a more comprehensive coverage of the ecological theory.

7. Begin by rereading and familiarizing yourself with all of the various theories. Pull them apart piece by piece and decide which aspects you think are useful in addressing and explaining human development. What concepts are not effective or are not applicable scientifically? After you have spent time viewing the theories from this perspective, you will then be able to

understand both the origin and implementation of eclectic theoretical orientations. You will also have done the leg work to enable you to identify which approach you prefer.

8. For each research method, consider what it is you might be studying were you to employ it. What information would you expect to gain by using each particular method? From here, take the next step and identify the specific factors that would serve to influence your selection of a certain research method.

9. Begin by rereading and making certain you understand correlational and experimental strategies. Then design your own (very basic) studies using each method. Compare and contrast what you are able to learn from each study based on the method you chose.

10. Choose a behavior you would like to study developmentally. Approach it both longitudinally and using a cross-sectional design. Where would you have challenges with each? What would you gain from each approach? How might you decide which one ultimately to use? Answers to these questions will enlighten you on the strengths, weaknesses, and useful contexts of each design.

11. Create a sexist research study. In what ways could someone claim it is sexist? Why would this be problematic? Now, alter your design to study the same behavior, but eliminate the problematic factors. Was this difficult? What general recommendations can you make that might apply to numerous studies in life-span development?

12. As you read through each ethical concern for life-span developmentalists, consider its relevance to subjects of all ages. Do those ethical concerns relate and apply to all potential age groups that are studied or are they only relevant to individuals of a particular age? Are there ethical concerns that are only valid for certain ages, but would not be an issue with others? Which concerns cover all age groups, thus indicating a greater issue of general unethical methodology? By familiarizing yourself with these aspects of research design, you will gain a greater understanding of issues life-span developmentalists must consider when studying human behavior.

Handout 5 (RP 1)

Parent–Child Interaction

In this project, you will observe a parent–child interaction and interpret it according to psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive theoretical approaches. Go to a local supermarket and watch a mother or father shop with a 2- to 4-year-old child. Describe the interactions you observe, including demands on the part of the child, verbal exchanges between parent and child, and ways in which the parent responds to the demands of the child. Then answer the questions that follow, referring to your observations.

Child: Age _____ Sex _____Parent: Age _____ Sex _____

Description:

Questions:

What would a psychoanalytic theorist focus on in this example? How would the sequence of observed events be explained?

How would a behavioral psychologist analyze the situation? What reinforcers or punishers characterized the interaction? Did specific things occur that would make a behavior more likely to occur in the future? Less likely to occur?

What would a cognitive theorist focus on in this situation? Why?

What is the child learning in this situation? What does the child already know?

Handout 6 (RP 2)

Journal Article Critique

Part of conducting psychological research is reviewing and understanding published research studies. In this research project, you will choose a topic covered in this course (e.g., play, gender roles, moral development, effects of television, memory and aging) and find a research report in a journal (e.g., Adolescence, Child Development, Developmental Psychology, Family Therapy, and Journal of Marriage and the Family) on the chosen topic. Read the article and write a report about the article. Enclose a copy of the research article with your report. In addition to including the main points of the study, give your personal reactions to the research findings.

Questions:

Can you use the title of the study to identify the independent and dependent variables? (Many titles are in this format: “The Effects of IV on the DV.”)

What did you learn from the introduction section? What is the historical background of the research topic? Which earlier research findings are presented as most relevant to the current study? What theoretical explanations are emphasized in this section? What is the hypothesis of the present study?

What did you learn from the methods section? Who were the subjects? What procedures (e.g., apparatus, directions, assessment tools) were used?

What did you learn from the results section? What kinds of statistical procedures were used? What did you learn from charts, frequency tables, and bar graphs? What results did the authors say were statistically significant?

What did you learn from the discussion section? How did the authors interpret their results? Did they provide alternative explanations? Did they talk about the limitations of the present research study? What future research studies were suggested?

What kinds of ideas did this article make you think about? Can you design a similar study on this topic?