Sample preparation prior to molecular amplification: Complexities and opportunities
Transcript of Sample preparation prior to molecular amplification: Complexities and opportunities
Sample preparation prior to molecular amplification: Complexitiesand opportunitiesSophie Butot, Sophie Zuber and Leen Baert
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ScienceDirect
Molecular amplification using Reverse Transcription
quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-qPCR) is currently
considered as the gold standard to detect enteric human
pathogenic viruses such as norovirus and hepatitis A virus in
food and water. However, the molecular-based detection
requires an adequate sampling strategy and a sample
preparation specific for viruses. Sampling for enteric human
viruses in water and food should not necessarily follow
bacterial sampling plans. The development of a reference
detection method including sample preparation as proposed in
ISO/TS 15216 represents a milestone to facilitate the evaluation
of the performance and eventually validation of future virus
detection methods. The potential viral infectivity linked to a
positive PCR result is a remaining issue and pretreatments
allowing the differentiation of infectious viruses would be useful
for future risk assessments.
Addresses
Food Safety and Quality Competence Pillar, Nestle Research Centre,
Vers-chez-les-Blanc, Box 44, 1000 Lausanne 26, Switzerland
Corresponding author: Butot, Sophie ([email protected])
Current Opinion in Virology 2014, 4:66–70
This review comes from a themed issue on Environmental virology
Edited by Lee-Ann Jaykus and John Scott Meschke
For a complete overview see the Issue and the Editorial
Available online 16th January 2014
1879-6257/$ – see front matter, # 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights
reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coviro.2013.12.004
IntroductionMolecular amplification using Reverse Transcription
quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-qPCR) is
currently considered as the gold standard to detect enteric
human pathogenic viruses such as norovirus (NoV) and
hepatitis A virus (HAV) in food and water. Viruses cannot
grow outside their specific host cells and therefore repli-
cation does not occur in the environment nor in foods. For
this reason, enrichment, which is typically used for bac-
terial propagation for analytical purposes, cannot be
applied to increase virus concentration [1,2]. Therefore,
an adequate sampling strategy including sample prep-
aration, specifically for viruses, is required. The food or
water sample needs to be subjected to virus extraction
and concentration steps followed by nucleic acid purifi-
cation prior to molecular amplification. The complexities
and the opportunities associated with the sampling, the
Current Opinion in Virology 2014, 4:66–70
sample preparation consisting of virus extraction and
concentration steps and the preparation of ready-to-use
nucleic acids will be discussed.
SamplingAs for any other microbial contaminant, detection of human
enteric viruses in water and food should start with a rational
sampling plan in which sampling points, number and
volumes of samples should be determined based on the
aim of the testing, the anticipated prevalence and the
desired accuracy [3]. Unfortunately, this can be challen-
ging. While there is information available on the prevalence
of NoV in oysters where outbreak- and non-outbreak-
related positive samples were compared, there is only
limited information on the prevalence of viruses in other
foods such as different fruits and vegetables [4,5,6��]. This
general lack of data may explain why there is no specific
mention of sampling for human enteric viruses in any of the
available standards from international bodies [7�].
Currently, sampling for viruses is based on sampling
strategies for bacteria such as published by the Inter-
national Commission for the Microbiological Specifica-
tions of Foods (ICMSF) [8]. As an example, for the
enhanced monitoring for NoV and HAV in frozen straw-
berries imported from China to the European Union, a
sampling plan is proposed requiring 5 samples to be taken
throughout a batch [9�,10]. This could prevent highly
contaminated berries from reaching the consumer. In a
similar way, monitoring of NoV in shellfish appears to be a
relevant approach to determine whether contamination is
present above a particular level, in order to prevent highly
contaminated shellfish batches reaching the market [6��].
Sampling for virological analyses of food should not
necessarily follow the bacterial approach since important
differences are evident, such as the generally low level of
viral contamination, the inability to enrich viruses and the
complexity and high cost of assays [7�]. Relevant and
economically viable new approaches are needed for the
food industry to incorporate sampling for enteric viruses,
and the future standards for microbial sampling should
include recommendations for enteric viruses.
For instance, viral sampling of fresh produce presents
many difficulties and limitations, including especially low
numbers of heterogeneously distributed viruses in com-
bination with the high cost of the analysis. In such
circumstances, testing environmental samples, for
example irrigation or washing water at a production or
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Sample preparation prior to molecular amplification Butot, Zuber and Baert 67
a processing stage, may prove more relevant than testing
the produce directly [11��]. In comparison to food
samples, sampling volumes and procedures for enteric
virus detection in water are more comprehensively docu-
mented and related to water quality [3]. Following the
same logic, it could be more useful to undertake virus
screening on swabs from the hands of harvesting person-
nel or other environmental surfaces than to sample the
produce or food directly [11��]. Such indirect evidence of
virus contamination could be added to certain raw
material specifications to ensure greater traceability and
enhance the confidence in critical raw materials such as
berries.
Alternatively, rather than attempting to monitor the pre-
sence of viral pathogens, sampling for a more prevalent
index virus could be used to indicate the potential pre-
sence of human pathogenic viruses in water coming into
contact with food or even the food itself. Candidate
viruses would be those which are largely carried by
healthy people and eliminated via the fecal route. Atten-
tion has focused on human Adenovirus (hAdV) which are
excreted in large quantities by the populations of widely
divergent geographical areas and are more resistant to
environmental degradation than many other enteric
viruses [12,13]. Other virus types such as polyomavirus
and more recently, pepper mild mottle virus, have also
been proposed [14,15]. The use of such ‘indicator’ viruses
might represent a more reliable approach in terms of risk
management and could be used by the food industry to
build trust in certain supply chains.
Sample preparationSample preparation for the detection of viruses in food
and water requires two steps: (i) virus extraction and
concentration from the sample and (ii) nucleic acid
extraction and purification. The latter step no longer
represents a bottleneck as reliable and reproducible com-
mercial kits are available [7�,16]. However, the former
step can be restrictive due to the high variability of virus
recoveries and the low extraction efficiency [17–19].
Furthermore, the large spectrum of matrices and the
broad diversity of existing virus extraction and concen-
tration approaches add complexity [17]. Indeed, a great
number of protocols with the aim of detecting viruses in
foods are published. In fact, these protocols represent
numerous variants on each other and can be grouped.
Two distinct approaches are applied: (i) elution–concen-
tration of virus particles or (ii) the direct viral RNA
extraction from food [17]. Similarly, for water, several
technologies are described to concentrate viruses; the
number of protocols can be categorized mainly as (i)
various adsorption–elution methods using electronega-
tive or electropositive filters and (ii) ultrafiltration-based
methods [20�]. The comparison of method performance
for those available methods is lacking and the limited
number of viral extraction studies that are available for
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any given combination of virus, water or food type are
limited.
To monitor the efficiency of a virus extraction method, a
process virus control needs to be included at the begin-
ning of the virus extraction step. This control should be a
virus with similar morphological and physicochemical
proprieties and environmental persistence to the target
virus [21]. ISO/TS 15216 [22��,23��], a reference method
for high risk food categories (bivalve molluscan shellfish,
soft fruits and salad vegetables, food surfaces and bottled
water) developed by the CEN/TC 275-Food analysis,
Horizontal Methods; Working Group 6, Technical Advi-
sory Group 4 (CEN TAG4), proposed the use of a
genetically modified mengovirus. Other candidates are
reported in the literature, such as feline calicivirus [24],
MS2 bacteriophage [19], and murine norovirus 1 (MNV-
1) [21]. It is important to point out that MNV-1 is not
easily accessible to private companies.
A meta-analysis comparing the recovery of the process
virus control can be used to evaluate the performance of
methods. Cashdollar [20�] carried out this type of analysis
for water, but the compilation of different process control
viruses resulted in a wide range of recoveries. It was not
evident if the divergence in recoveries was due to the
process virus control or the method itself. It was
suggested that the virus itself, rather than the matrix,
filter type or sample volume, is more important in pre-
dicting the performance of a method for detection of
viruses in water [20�]. Additionally, the mechanism of
virus adsorption to food or virus behavior in water is
poorly understood since no systematic investigations have
been performed. The latter would help to clarify the
difference in recoveries observed between methods
and virus types.
The recovery can be also impacted by the presence of
inhibitory substances, such as polysaccharides, proteins
and fatty acids compounds [25–28]. To mitigate RT-
qPCR inhibition a 10-fold dilution of ribonucleic acid
(RNA) is commonly applied. For the detection of HAV
and MNV-1 in lettuce, Coudray et al. [18] obtained higher
recoveries using a 10-fold dilution compared to an un-
diluted RNA. However, viral RNA copy number is close
to the assay detection limit, the diluted RNA will give a
negative result, demonstrating the importance of analyz-
ing diluted and undiluted RNA [18], as recommended in
ISO/TS 15216 [22��,23��]. These inhibitors should be
removed and controlled before molecular detection to
avoid false negative results.
An alternative means of comparing methods might be to
consider the detection limit achieved by each method. It
is difficult to make robust comparisons based on detection
limits as these are defined differently in different studies
e.g. RT-qPCR units (RT-qPCRU), Plaque Forming
Current Opinion in Virology 2014, 4:66–70
68 Environmental virology
Units (PFU), RNA copies or Tissue Culture Infectious
Dose 50% (TCID50). For several viruses it is known that
there is a lack of correlation between infective viruses
(expressed as PFU or TCID50) and viral genomes
(expressed as RT-PCRU or RNA copies) [29–31].
The establishment of a reference method as currently in
preparation by CEN/TC 275/TAG 4 is very important, as
newly developed viral methods can be compared against
the proposed standard. It facilitates the performance
evaluation of the method itself and benchmarks the
method relative to other existing methods. As an
example, Coudray et al. [18] evaluated a novel extraction
method for lettuce against the proposed virus standard.
Additionally, a full validation of any proposed method is
needed as required for alternative microbial methods
described in ISO 16140:2003 [32] to prove the robustness
and reproducibility of the newly developed method. A
similar approach was performed by Schultz et al. [33�]where virus concentration methods in bottled water were
evaluated. An intra-laboratory study was carried out by
comparing the newly developed method against the
proposed reference method. Subsequently, an inter-
laboratory study was conducted where a noteworthy
variation in the detection limit between laboratories
was observed. The authors suggested that this may be
due to the lack of adequate standardized virus stocks and
suggested the use of standardized control viruses and
RNA for validation studies.
The harmonization of methods will enable the reliable
comparison of prevalence data from different studies.
This would facilitate the use of the data for risk assess-
ment and, if possible, eventually to define an acceptable
threshold of virus presence [34]. In such circumstances,
the accuracy of quantitative data would have to be
Figure 1
Sampling
Opportunities:
• Testing environmental samples may prove more relevant than testing produce directly
• Sampling for an «index» virus could be used to build trust in certain supply chains
Complexities:
• No specific mention of sampling for human enteric viruses in current standards
• Only limited information on the prevalence of viruses in produce
Complexities and opportunities of virus detection prior to molecular amplific
Current Opinion in Virology 2014, 4:66–70
assessed. Therefore, the question arises as to whether
or not the quantitative result is corrected for the extrac-
tion efficiency of the process virus. Because of the
inherent difficulties associated with virus analytics, there
have not been a substantial number of risk assessments
performed for a number of matrices. Exceptionally, com-
prehensive risk assessments were conducted for shellfish
[35,36,37]. Such studies are needed for the food industry
to address the viral risk associated with food and water
and to set appropriate standards for raw materials and the
production environment.
One neglected concern in most of the virus extraction
methods is internalization, particularly for fresh produce
where virus particles may be internalized within plant
tissue. Indeed, some studies have demonstrated the
capacity of viral particles to be trapped inside vegetables
[38–41]. Hirneisen et al. [42] have observed internaliz-
ation of MNV-1 and HAV in plants grown in contami-
nated hydroponic systems but found this phenomenon
rare when plants were grown in soil. As highlighted by
Bosch et al. [7�], this needs further investigation to be
confirmed and could in the future modify the way viruses
are detected/recovered from fruits and vegetables.
The detection of viruses necessitates the use of molecular
methods due to the inability to cultivate them, and
various detection approaches have been investigated
intensively over the last decade. Nevertheless, the mol-
ecular-based detection methods can only indicate the
presence of viral nucleic acids and thus no information
about their infectivity is provided [43]. Consequently, the
real viral risk linked to a positive RT-qPCR result is
unknown [3]. Moreover, most of the extraction and con-
centration methods seek to recover intact viral particles as
well as RNA [16]. Pretreatments with proteinase K and
RNase A, with RNase alone, with intercalating agents
Sample preparation
Complexities:
• High variability of virus recovery
• Low extraction efficiency• Large spectrum of matrices• Broad diversity of methods
Opportunities:
• Comparison versus ISO/TS15216 and harmonization of available methods are needed
• Methods to differentiate infectious versus non-infectious virus particles are needed
Current Opinion in Virology
ation techniques.
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Sample preparation prior to molecular amplification Butot, Zuber and Baert 69
(ethidium monoazide and propidium monoazide) or using
integrated RT-qPCR approaches [7�,16,44–46] have been
studied in the attempt to correlate detection of viral RNA
with infectivity. Validation is needed to verify these
approaches in food and water. Shellfish may represent
an exception, as bioaccumulation of RNA in shellfish
appears to be insignificant [47]. That suggests that shell-
fish detection methods mostly detect intact particles, but
this also needs to be verified [16].
ConclusionAn overview of complexities and opportunities of virus
detection prior to molecular amplification techniques is
presented in Figure 1. Sampling for enteric human
viruses in water and food should not necessarily follow
bacterial sampling plans since important differences are
evident, such as the low level of viral contamination, the
inability to enrich viruses and the complexity and high
cost of assays. As there is currently no specific mention of
virus sampling in any of the available standards from
international bodies, there is room for the development
of new approaches to incorporate recommendations for
the sampling of enteric viruses into current standards.
The development of a reference detection method,
which includes matrix specific sample preparation proto-
cols as proposed in ISO/TS 15216 [22��,23��], is a mile-
stone to facilitate the evaluation of the performance and
eventually validation of future virus detection methods.
The ability to link viral infectivity to a positive PCR
result is a remaining issue. Pretreatments allowing the
detection of infectious viruses only would be useful for
future risk assessments.
References and recommended readingPapers of particular interest, published within the period of review,have been highlighted as:
� of special interest�� of outstanding interest
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