A

Safety TrainingSafety Training

AN EMPLOYEE TRIPS over an open file cabinetdrawer. Another has a near-hit when standingbeneath an overhead hoist. The typical solution tosuch incidents? Training, training and more training.But is this really necessary? While workers with-

out occupational safety and health training are likelyat a greater risk for workplace injury and illness, it isthe adequacy of this training that is critical (Cohen &Colligan, 1998, p. 22). Sometimes, too much trainingcan reduce its effectiveness and decrease its credibil-ity. The difference between effective and ineffectivetrainingmay be death, injury, pain, suffering and lostprofits (Whiles, 1999, p. 10).The resources spent on training are astonishing.

An estimated $50 billion is spent annually on formaltraining, with an additional $90 to $120 billion onless-structured, informal training (Broad & New-strom, 1992, p. 5). “According to a 1999 survey byTraining magazine, 77% of respondents offer safetytraining to employees, leading it to rank seventhamong 30 programs offered” (Machles, 2002, p. 32).Each year, corporate America provides nearly 2 bil-lion training hours to 60 million employees (Diether& Loos, 2000, p. 28).How much training content do employees retain

1month, 6months or 1 year after the training has beenconducted? Estimates suggest that only 10% to 15% oftraining content is retained after 1 year (Broad &

Newstrom, 1992, p. 7). This problem iscompounded when management be-lieves that required regulatory trainingneeds are met simply by completing anddocumenting the training, and pays noattention to training effectiveness.Often, training is espoused as the

answer to all safety-related problems inthe workplace. As a result, real prob-lems may not be resolved. Additionally,overtraining can lead to frustration anddamage the credibility of managementand the training program (Blair & Seo,2007, p. 42). The transformation from

implementing required training to today’s newermodel that focuses on performance-based trainingwill only heighten the need to ensure that training isboth the correct solution and effective (Holton, Bates& Naquin, 2000, p. 250).

What Is a Training Needs Assessment?A training needs assessment is used to determine

whether training is the right solution to a workplaceproblem. It is an “ongoing process of gathering datato determine what training needs exist so that train-ing can be developed to help the organizationaccomplish its objectives” (Brown, 2002, p. 569). Saidmore simply, it is the “process of collecting informa-tion about an expressed or implied organizationalneed that could be met by conducting training”(Barbazette, 2006, p. 5).Essentially, information is collected and analyzed

so a training plan can be created. The assessmentdetermines the need for training, identifies whattraining is needed, and examines the type and scopeof resources needed to support a training program(Sorenson, 2002, p. 32). According to Rossett (1987,p. 15), a company conducts a training needs assess-ment to seek information about 1) optimal perform-ance or knowledge; 2) actual or current performanceor knowledge; 3) feelings of trainees and other sig-nificant people; 4) causes of the problems; and5) solutions to the problem.

Why Conduct a Training Needs Assessment?A training needs analysis often reveals the need

for well-targeted training (McArdle, 1998, p. 4). Byconducting an effective assessment, a company ver-ifies that training is the appropriate solution to a per-formance deficiency. Training cannot solve problemscaused by poor system design, insufficient resourcesor understaffing (Sorenson, 2002, p. 32). In somecases, increasing an employee’s knowledge andskills may not resolve the problem or deficiency, sotraining would waste valuable resources and time.A training needs assessment can help determine

Tracey L. Cekada, D.Sc., CSP, CHSP,is an assistant professor of safetysciences at Indiana University ofPennsylvania. She holds a B.S in

Occupational Health and Safety fromSlippery Rock University, an M.S. in

Environmental Science and Policyfrom The Johns Hopkins University,and a D.Sc. in Information Systemsand Communications from Robert

Morris University. Cekada is aprofessional member of ASSE’sWestern Pennsylvania Chapter.

28 PROFESSIONAL SAFETY MARCH 2010 www.asse.org

Training NeedsAssessmentUnderstanding what employees need to know

By Tracey L. Cekada

www.asse.org MARCH 2010 PROFESSIONAL SAFETY 29

and individual. Op-erations analysis isnow more com-monly known astask or work anal-ysis (Holton, etal., 2000, p. 250).

OrganizationalAnalysisOrganizational

analysis “examineswhere training isneeded . . . and underwhat conditions thetraining will be conducted. Itidentifies the knowledge, skillsand abilities that employees willneed for the future, as theorganization and their jobevolve or change” (Brown,2002, p. 572). Through an orga-nizational analysis, data arecollected by looking at factorssuch as absenteeism, safety inci-dents, lost workdays, turnoverrates, grievances, customer com-plaints or other performance prob-lems. These data are then evaluated toidentify where training could improveperformance. The organizational analysis phaseshould also plan for changes in the workplace, suchas future skill needs,worker demographics, and lawsand regulations (Brown, 2002, p. 572).

•Future skills. Understanding how an organiza-tion may be changing can reveal future skill needs.For example, will new equipment be installed ornew processes implemented? Will standards or reg-ulations change? Is technology changing? Willemployees be required to work with other employ-ees or in teams that will require communication andinterpersonal skills? Will cultural changes be takingplace in the organization?

•Labor pool. The labor pool is changing as moreworkers age and as women or other minoritiesbecome more prominent. Economic changes andoperating cost adjustments also may require work-place changes, as may competing on a global level.

current performance or knowl-edge levels related to a specificactivity, as well as the optimalperformance or knowledgelevel needed. For example,suppose slips, trips and fallsare up 25% in the productionline area. This could signal adeveloping problem. By con-ducting a needs assess-ments, the company cangather information regardingthe competence of workers orthe task itself; such informationhelps identify causes of problems(Rossett, 1987, p. 15).Those who conduct the assessment must have a

clear understanding of the problem and must con-sider all solutions, not just training, before they pres-ent their findings to management and determine thebest solution. “When properly done, a needs analy-sis is a wise investment for the organization. It savestime, money and effort by working on the rightproblems” (McArdle, 1998, p. 4). Failure to conducta training needs assessment or conducting one inef-fectively can lead to costly mistakes. For example,suppose a company relies on training to fix a prob-lem when another solution may have been moreeffective or uses training to solve a problem withoutaddressing the skills needed to perform a task.

Background Informationon Training Needs AssessmentAlthough the scholarly literature on training

needs assessments is limited, several case studiesdescribe how specific organizations or industrieshave conducted such assessments. Moseley andHeaney (1994) examine reports of assessments con-ducted across several different disciplines and iden-tify a wide variety of models and techniques thatwork for each discipline.Moreover, much of the research on this topic indi-

cates that organizational characteristics, such as size,goals and resources, public versus private sector,global marketplace and corporate climate, may influ-ence the assessment methodology selected. In addi-tion, special challenges that organizations addressmay require special tools for conducting a trainingneeds assessment (Hannum &Hansen, 1989).One traditional assessment method asks employ-

ees to list or rank desired training courses. Suchassessments have been used to quickly assess thetraining needs of large organizations and allowmanyemployees to be included in the assessment. How-ever, while employeemoralemay increase temporar-ily, improvement in on-the-job performance has beenlimited. One likely reason is that this approach is notperformance-based and employees often identifytraining wants versus training needs.McGehee and Thayer’s (1961) three-tiered

approach to conducting needs assessments serves asa fundamental framework. This approach identifiesthree levels of assessment: organization, operations

Abstract: Developing atraining program requiresknowing what training isneeded. A training needsassessment answers thequestion of why trainingis needed and providessome certainty that theresources required todevelop and conducttraining will deliver thedesired performance-based results. This articledescribes how a trainingneeds assessment is con-ducted and examinesmodels that can befollowed.

30 PROFESSIONAL SAFETY MARCH 2010 www.asse.org

4) Gain senior management support for and com-mitment to the process.5) Review and select assessment methods and

instruments.6) Determine critical time frames.7) Schedule and implement.8) Gather feedback.9) Analyze feedback.10) Draw conclusions.11) Present findings and recommendations.Barbazette (2006) suggests that training needs

assessment should answer questions such as why,who, how, what and when.•Why. Asking why helps tie the performance

deficiency to a business need and asks whether thebenefit of the training is greater than the cost of thecurrent deficiency.•Who. Asking who is involved in the perform-

ance deficiency will identify those affected andensure that the program is customized for them.Other important considerations include the targetaudience for the training; what is known about themto design and customize the training; and who elsemay benefit from the training.•How. Asking how the performance deficiency

can be corrected will help determine whether train-ing will fix the problem. Doing so reveals whether askill or knowledge deficiency led to the problem.•What.Asking what is the best way to perform a

specific job task will help achieve the desired results.Standard operating procedures may outline how toconduct a task or which government regulationsneed to be considered when completing a task. Itis also important to ask what occupations areinvolved in the deficiency. Doing so identifies criticaltasks that have the potential to produce personal orproperty damage. This process also may involvereviewing incident data and records, and interview-ing employees to gain insight.•When. Asking when training can best be deliv-

ered helps minimize the impact on the business.Also, it is important to ask what else is needed toensure that the training is delivered successfully.These models help guide development of a train-

ing needs assessment. One conclusion from the liter-ature research is that no single model can work inevery situation. Instead, the literature available canmore purposely serve as a set of guidelines, princi-ples or tools (Holton, et al., 2000, p. 251).

Components of anEffective Training ProgramTo determine what type of model to follow when

selecting a training needs analysis technique, Brown(2002) suggests asking the following questions:1)What is the nature of the problem being

addressed by instruction?2) How have training needs been identified in the

past and with what results?3) What is the budget for the analysis?4) How is training needs analysis perceived in the

organization?

Understanding these potential changes will help anorganization begin to accommodate employees’needs while still meeting the organization’s needs.

•Laws and regulations. Changes in current safe-ty and environmental regulations as well as newlaws may dictate that an organization provide train-ing in specific areas. For example, employees work-ing with hazardous materials may be required toreceive annual refresher training. Under the FamilyMedical Leave Act or Americans with DisabilitiesAct, information may need to be transferred toemployees. If policies on workplace violence or sex-ual harassment change, this information must becommunicated to employees.

Operations/Task AnalysisOperations/task analysis looks at the knowledge

and skills requirements of each specific job and com-pares these requirements to employees’ actual knowl-edge and skills. Any gaps reveal a training need.Sources for collecting data include job descrip-

tions, standard operating procedures, job safetyanalysis/job hazard analysis, performance stan-dards, review of literature and best practices, andon-site observation and questioning (Miller &Osinski, 1996, p. 3-4).An effective task analysis identifies “tasks that

have to be performed; conditions under which tasksare to be performed; how often and when tasks areperformed; quantity and quality of performancerequired; skills and knowledge required to performtasks; and where and how these skills are bestacquired” (Brown, 2002, p. 573).

Individual AnalysisIndividual analysis looks at individual employees

and how they are performing in their jobs.Employees can be interviewed, questioned or testedto determine their individual level of skill or knowl-edge. Data also can be collected from their perform-ance reviews. In addition, performance problems canbe identified by examining factors such as productiv-ity, absenteeism, tardiness, accidents, grievances, cus-tomer complaints, product quality and equipmentrepairs needed (Miller & Osinski, 1996, p. 4). Whendeficiencies are identified, training can be initiated tomeet an individual employee’s needs.All three levels of the needs analysis are interre-

lated and data must be collected at all levels. Basedon the information gathered, training needs can beidentified, learning objectives can be established, anda training program can be developed to meet theorganization’s needs aswell as the employee’s needs.

Models for Training Needs AssessmentsMcClelland (1993) discusses an open-systems

model for conducting training needs assessments.This model involves an 11-step approach to con-ducting a training needs assessment.1) Define assessment goals.2) Determine assessment group.3) Determine availability of qualified resources to

conduct and oversee the project.

Operations/taskanalysis looks at the

knowledge andskills requirementsof each specific joband compares these

requirements toemployees’ actualknowledge andskills. Any gapsreveal a training

need.

www.asse.org MARCH 2010 PROFESSIONAL SAFETY 31

needs assessment will vary depending on organiza-tional needs, resources, time available and manage-ment commitment. However, the basic steps in thisprocess are as follows:1) Determine the purpose for the needs assess-

ment. What questions need to be answered? Most

5) Who is available to help conduct the analysis?6) What is the time frame for completing the

assessment exercise?7) What will be the measure of a successful train-

ing needs analysis report?The amount of time spent conducting a training

Figure 1Figure 1

Example of a Training Needs Assessment

This five-questionmodel is one ofseveral that can beused to conduct atraining needsassessment.

32 PROFESSIONAL SAFETY MARCH 2010 www.asse.org

which theywill do it; and establish criteriaby which successful performance will bejudged (Molenda, Pershing & Reigeluth,1996). Training objectives must be alignedwith an organization’s business goals andmission. ANSI/ASSE Z490.1 (2001), Cri-teria for Accepted Practices in Safety,Health and Environmental Training, pro-vides guidance on writing clear, achiev-able and measurable objectives.c) Create content and instructional

design. Determine the most effectivedelivery method for the particular situa-tion. Classroom training may be effectivefor one situation, but not so effective foranother. In some cases, a combination ofclassroom and on-the-job training may bemost effective. Other delivery optionsinclude video, web-based or computerbased-training.Another consideration is who will

deliver the training, internal or externalsources The benefits of in-house trainingmay include lower cost, more flexibilescheduling and greater hands-on knowl-edge of the task at hand. The benefits of anoutside consultantmay includemore inter-est and credibility related to the topic.The material created to support the

training program is also critical. The content needsto be aligned with the objectives. Activities shouldenable trainees to apply the principles learned in theclassroom. Understanding the audience is essentialas well. Adult learners learn differently than othersand understanding the challenges and assets that goalong with instructing adults will make the trainingmore effective.d) Transfer knowledge from classroom to work-

place. Implementing effective training requires thatthe learner be enabled to apply the knowledgelearned in the classroom in the workplace. Barriersto this training transfer include lack of reinforcementon the job, interference from the environment or anonsupportive organizational culture (Broad &Newstrom, 1992). Coaching, behavior observation,and accountability for managers, supervisors andemployees are ways to improve training transfer.e) Evaluate training effectiveness. This process can

range from having trainees complete course ratingforms and taking posttraining tests to more complexand aggressive evaluation methods such as usingleading and trailing indicators (e.g., accident datarecords) to measure performance improvement.When evaluating training, one must differentiatebetween programs that teach skills and those that con-vey information (Charney & Conway, 2005, p. 19).Delivering information about policy changes involvesconveying information. Enabling someone to performa job more safely or efficiently or that enables an indi-vidual to produce a higher-quality product that im-proves customer satisfaction is teaching a skill.f) Implement recommendations from the evalua-

commonly, needs assessments provide data for budg-eting or scheduling (DiLauro, 1979, p. 352). However,consider other needs as well, such as identifying indi-vidual skill or knowledge needs, organizationaldevelopment needs, financial planning, staffing con-cerns and performance improvement needs.2) Gather data. A wealth of knowledge can be

gathered using tools such as observations, question-naires, interviews, performance appraisals, focusgroups, advisory groups, tests and document re-views. The best approach may be a combination ofmethods such as focus groups followed by observa-tion that may reinforce the findings.

3) Analyze the data. This involves identifyingany discrepancies or gaps between the skills andknowledge possessed by employees and those skillsand knowledge required or desired for the job.4) Determine what needs can be met by training.

This step involves identifying performance problemsthat can be corrected by increasing employees’ skill orknowledge. Problems related to issues such as moti-vation, morale, resources, system design or learningdisabilities should not be fixed with training.5) Propose solutions. If the solution is related to a

training deficiency, then a formal or informal train-ing program may be needed. While not the focus ofthis article, delivering an effective training programencompasses several key steps.a) Conduct a cost-benefit analysis or business

case to determine the financial benefit from conduct-ing the training class.b) Establish clear objectives. Objectives describe

what learners will do; state the conditions under

Figure 2Figure 2

Annual Review Questionnaire

Note. Adapted fromHow to Identify Your Organization’s Training Needs (pp. 84-85), byJ.H. McConnell, 2003, New York: American Management Association.

A training depart-ment can use an

annual review ques-tionnaire as a firststep in conductinga training needs

assessment. It asksdepartment man-agers several keyquestions abouttraining needs.

www.asse.org MARCH 2010 PROFESSIONAL SAFETY 33

organization’s bottom line. These negative percep-tions are often the result of the failure to illustrate thecost-benefit of training. This requires asking andanswering a key question: What is the differencebetween the cost of no training versus the cost oftraining? (Michalak &Yager, 1979, p. 20). Illustratingthe cost savings provides a clear indicator (andneeded support) to continue with training. �

ReferencesANSI/ASSE. (2001). Criteria for accepted practices in safety,

health and environmental training (ANSI/ASSE Z490.1-2001). DesPlaines, IL: Author.

Barbazette, J. (2006). Training needs assessment: Methods, tollsand techniques. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.

Blair, E. & Seo, D. (2007, Oct.). Safety training: Making theconnection to high performance. Professional Safety, 52(10), 42-48.

Broad, M.L. & Newstrom, J.W. (1992). Transfer of training.Reading, MA: Perseus Books.

Brown, J. (2002, Winter). Training needs assessment: Amustfor developing an effective training program. Public PersonnelManagement, 31(4), 569-578.

Charney, C. & Conway, K. (2005). The trainer’s tool kit. NewYork: American Management Association.

Cohen, A. & Colligan, J. (1998). Assessing occupational safetyand health training: A literature review (NIOSH Publication No. 98-145). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and HumanServices, CDC, NIOSH.

Diether, J. & Loos, G. (2000). Advancing safety and healthtraining. Occupational Health and Safety, 69, 28-34.

DiLauro, T. (1979, Nov./Dec.). Training needs assessment:Current practices and new directions. Public Personnel Manage-ment, 8(6), 350-359.

Gupta, K. (1999). A practical guide to needs assessment. SanFrancisco: Pfeiffer.

Hannum, W. & Hansen, C. (1989). Instructional systems devel-opment in large organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. EducationalTechnologies Publications.

Holton, E., Bates, R. & Naquin, S. (2000, Summer). Large-scale performance-driven training needs assessment: A case study.Public Personnel Management, 29(2), 249-267.

Machles, D. (2002, Feb.). Training transfer strategies for thesafety professional. Professional Safety, 47(2), 32-34.

McArdle, G. (1998). Conducting a needs analysis.Menlo Park,CA: CrispLearning.

McClelland, S. (1993). Training needs assessment: An “open-systems” application. Journal of European Industrial Training, 17(1),12-17.

McConnell, J. (2003). How to identify your organization’s trainingneeds. New York: American Management Association.

McGehee, W. & Thayer, P. (1961). Training in business andindustry. New York: Wiley.

Michalak, D. & Yager, E. (1979).Making the training processwork. New York: Harper and Row.

Miller, J. & Osinski, D. (1996, Feb.). Training needs assess-ment. Retrieved Jan. 26, 2010, from http://www.ispi.org/pdf/suggestedReading/Miller_Osinski.pdf.

Molenda, M., Pershing, J.A. & Reigeluth, C.M. (1996).Designing instructional systems. In R. Craig (Ed.)., The ASTDtraining and development handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Moseley, J. & Heaney, M. (1994). Needs assessment acrossdisciplines. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 7, 60-79.

Robotham, G. (2001, May). Safety training that works.Professional Safety, 46(5), 33-37.

Rogers, M. (1991). Health and safety training. AccidentPrevention, 38,(20).

Rossett, A. (1987). Training needs assessment. Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Sorenson, S. (2002, June). Training for the long run. EngineeredSystems, 32.

Warshauer, S. (1988). Inside training and development: Creatingeffective programs. San Diego: University Associates.

Whiles, A. (1999, Sept.). Workplace training: The learningcurve. Occupational Health and Training, 10.

tions. These improvements may range from chang-ing training materials, adjusting the time allotted tocontent and changing locations to actual improve-ment in instructor performance, content and evalua-tion tools. However, if the assessment process stopsonce program effectiveness is evaluated and the rec-ommended improvements are not made, then con-tinuous improvement is not achieved.

Example of a Training Needs AssessmentFigure 1 (p. 31) presents a simplified example of a

training needs assessment for a small-sized organi-zation (fewer than 100 employees) using Bar-bazette’s (2006) five-question approach.The scenario is as follows: Maintenance employ-

ees in a manufacturing plant must enter outdoormanholes (confined spaces) each quarter to checkthe water levels in these spaces. If water buildupbecomes a concern, then the water must be pumpedout of these spaces. The spaces are considered per-mit-required confined spaces (PRCS), so staff mustfollow the company’s PRCS entry program.To further simplify this process, McConnell (2003)

created an annual review questionnaire (Figure 2)that a training department can use as a first step inconducting a training needs assessment. It enablesthe training department to ask departmentmanagersseveral key questions.

ConclusionAtraining needs assessment is used to identify an

organization’s training needs and determine the typeand scope of resources needed to support a trainingprogram. The needs assessment is the first step inestablishing an effective training program. It servesas the foundation for determining learning objec-tives, designing training programs and evaluatingthe training delivered. It also provides managers andtrainers an opportunity to get out into the organiza-tion and talk to people. Information is collected, ideasare generated and energy is createdwithin the organ-ization. This excitement can help energize any train-ing that may result (Warshauer, 1988, p. 15).Well-orchestrated training needs assessments can

provide many benefits (Warshauer, 1988). Theseinclude:1) increasing the commitment of management

and potential participants to ongoing training anddevelopment;2) increasing the visibility of the training function;3) clarifying crucial organizational issues;4) providing for the best use of limited resources;5) providing program and design ideas;6) formulating strategies for how to proceed with

training efforts (p. 16).Other benefits include the obvious need to pro-

vide employees with the skills and knowledge toperform their jobs; helping an organization meet itsperformance objectives; and improving relationshipsand employee morale (McConnell, 2003, p. 44-45).Training is often viewed as a nuisance and as a

costly endeavor rather than as a tool to boost the

A needs assessmentis the first step inestablishing aneffective trainingprogram. It serves asthe foundation fordetermining learn-ing objectives,designing trainingprograms and evalu-ating the trainingdelivered.