22 November 2016

Yuri Takaya (Ph.D.)

Research Fellow, Kobe University, Japan

The 2nd INGEER International Symposium Theory and Practice of Export Regulation

Safety Framework for Nuclear Power Source Applications in

Outer Space and its Challenges

Outline

*1. Introduction

*2. International Instruments related to NPS

*3. Safety Framework on the Use of Space NPS in Outer Space

*4. Challenges

*5. Conclusion

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1. Introduction – UNCOPUOS and IAEA

UN Committee on Peaceful Uses of

Outer Space

Scientific and TechnicalSubcommittee

2009Safety Framework on the

Use of NPS in Outer Space

Legal Subcommittee

1992UN Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space

IAEA

1. Introduction – Definitions

Nuclear Power Sourceall devices that make use of any form of energy

(usually heat) generated via nuclear reactions

Space Nuclear Power Sourcea device that uses radioisotopes or a nuclear reactor for

electrical power generation, heating or propulsion in a space application

Space Nuclear Power Source Applicationthe overall system (space nuclear power source, spacecraft,

launch system, mission design, flight rules) in a space mission involving space NPS

[UNGA A/AC.105/934]

1. Introduction – Why NPS is used for space?

As a source of electrical power,NPS is used for space missions

that cannot use solar panels due to:① the long duration; and/or② the great distance from the Sun.

Examples: Deep Space ExplorationInter-Planetary ExplorationRovers on the Celestial Bodies

States: 1960s- US, Russia, EU (△)2014- China

1. Introduction – The use of space NPS by US

- Early NPS 1961 Navy’s Transit 4A navigation satellite1969 Nimbus III weather satellite

- Batteries on the Moon 1960s Apollo mission- Mission on Solar System 1989 Galileo for Jupiter exploration

1990 Ulysses for heliosphere (Sun) studies2005 Cassini for Saturn exploration2006 New Horizen for Pluto exploration

- Inter-planetary Mission 1970s Pioneer series (10, 11)1970s Voyager 1 & 2

- Missions to Mars 1975 Viking 1 & 21996 Mars Pathfinder2003 Spirit and Opportunity2011 Curiosity (rover on Mars)

1. Introduction – Types

① Radioisotope Power Sources

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs)

using the heat generated during the decay of

unstable isotopes

※ extensively deployed in Arctic region by USSR

② Nuclear Reactors

relying on the heat generated during the controlled and sustained nuclear fission reaction

1. Introduction – Accidents by Space NPS

◆ Accidents of NPS-equipped Satellites

1962 US navigational satellite Transit 5BN-3 failed to reach orbit, the nuclear core disintegrated without incident over the Indian Ocean

-1978 a number of US and USSR satellites caused incidents releasing radioactive materials from NPS in the atmosphere but no serious contamination

1978 USSR Cosmos-954 crashed in the territory of Canada

Canada informed the UN Secretary-General and USSR of the discovery and claimed for compensation to USSR under the Liability Convention of 1972; however, the reparation was not fully paid (diplomatic consultation).

Working Group was established in the STSC of the UNCOPUOS to examine technical aspects of NPS for the safety.

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2. International Instruments related to NPSBefore and After NPS Accidents

◆IAEA:Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident of 1986Convention on the Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident

or Radiological Emergency of 1986Convention on Nuclear Safety of 1994IAEA Regulations for the safe transport of radioactive material

–2005 Edition (1961, as amended in 2003)

◆UNCOPUOS:UN Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources

in Outer Space of 1992Safety Framework for Nuclear Power Source Applications

in Outer Space of 2009

◆EU: CNES Nuclear Safety Requirements (2002)RNC-CNES-R-15

2. International Instruments related to NPS Safety Regulations for Transport

◆Radioactive material is categorized as “dangerous goods” in the special cargo group

- UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods, Model Regulation of 1992

- Each regulations of different organizations (ICAO, IMO, OTIF)- IAEA Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material

(No. TS-R-1. 2005 edition)

not legally binding but are implemented in many national legislations

(example: by all EU Member States)

2. International Instruments related to NPS Security Regulations and Guidance for Import and Export

- Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material of 1979, 2005

international nuclear transport, in domestic use, storage and

transport as well as to import, export and transit procedures

- IAEA Safety Series Recommendation

“Physical Protection of Nuclear Material and Nuclear Facilities”

requirements for physical protection against sabotage, unauthorized

removal of nuclear material in use and storage, and during transport

- Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons of 1968

- International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against

Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety of Radiation Sources

- Code of Conduct on the Safety and Security of

Radioactive Sources of 2005

2. International Instruments related to NPSThe UN NPS Principles

① Applicability of international law② Definition of “launching State” and “State launching” in line with

the Article VII of the Liability Convention of 1972 ③ Guidelines and criteria for safe use of NPS to minimize

the quantity of radioactive material in space and the risk involved④ Safe assessment under the criteria of Principle 3 ⑤ Notification of NPS re-entry ⑥ Rules for consultations with additional information ⑦ Assistance to States for re-entry ⑧ International responsibility under Article VI of the OST of 1967 ⑨ Liability and compensation in line with Article VII of the OST of 1967⑩ Dispute settlement ⑪ Revision of the principles no later than 2 years after their adoption

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3. Safety Framework on the Use of Space NPSIAEA’s Efforts to Control Radioactive Sources

1998: IAEA Action Plan for the Safety and Security of Radiation SourcesCode of Conduct on the safety and security of radioactive sources

2001: IAEA Nuclear Security Plan of Activities2004: Strengthening control over radioactive sources in authorized use

and regaining control over orphan sources: national strategies[IAEA-TECDOC-1388]

At that time, RTGs are not major concern because…:1) designed to operate unattended in remote regions;2) only used in the Arctic region and outer space; and3) only developed by a few countries.

3. Safety Framework on the Use of Space NPS

2009:

The Safety Framework for Nuclear Power Source Applications

in Outer Space

- Purpose:

To provide high-level guidance in the form of

a model safety framework

- Safety Objective:

To protect people and the environment in Earth’s biosphere from potential hazards associated with relevant launch, operation and end-of-service phases of space nuclear power source applications.

- For whom? :

Governments, international organizations and private entities

3. Safety Framework on the Use of Space NPS Beyond the Scope

✓Humans in space involved in missions that use space NPS applications

✓Environments of other celestial bodies

Due to no comparable scientific data to provide a technically sound basis for developing a space NPS application framework for protecting humans in space and beyond Earth’s biosphere

3. Safety Framework on the Use of Space NPSContents

① Guidance for governments applies to governments, international intergovernmental

organizations that authorize, approve or conduct space NPS missions

② Guidance for management applies to the management of the organization that

conducts space NPS missions (NASA, ESA, JAXA)

③ Technical Guidance applies to the design, development and mission phases of

space NPS applications

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4. Challenges

① Lack of binding force

no international monitoring measures for complianceno information-sharing on the use of space NPS in IAEA

② The increasing number of actors/missions for inter-planetary space missions

Celestial bodies: Moon, Mars, AsteroidNew actors: China (Any other NWS under NPT?)

+ Private entities(Google Luncer X Prize)

New Business: Space resource mining

4. Challenges

③ No direct link with the NPT regimeno check with Nuclear-Weapon-States

- US Department of Energy restarts developing RTGs for the Mars Mission

- China left NPS-rover on the Moon which were broken from the

beginning

④ Limited involvement of the IAEAThe Framework is not in the IAEA Safety Standard Series

⑤ Not covering the environment protection of celestial bodiesSee ② ＆ ③Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 is enough?

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5. Conclusion

The Safety Framework on the use of Space NPS is:non-binding;not covering the environmental protection of celestial bodies;not covering export control of space NPS; andnot providing monitoring scheme on the use of NPS

on celestial bodies.

Therefore, the use of Space NPS needs to be in the scope of IAEA

for controlling nuclear safety and security.

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