S.1 Environmental Issues

We care about the physical state of our environment because it affects our state of survival and as people become more affluent, our demand of t he environment goes beyond our basic needs.

Climate ch ange and today’s energy systems continue to produce significant environmental and health impact

Chlorofluorocarbons from the refrigeration industry removes the ozone layer that protects the earth from UV radiation

Emissions from combustion processes affect human health

Biodiversity of the ecosystem has been greatly affected by human activities

An estimated 4.6 million deaths each year is attributed to air pollution

source: Normah Mohd. G hazali

P1.1 Literature

Author: Demirbas A., 2000 Title: “Biomass Resources for Energy and Chemical Industry” Publisher: Energy Edu Sci technol

Author: Rubin E.S., 2001 Title: “Introduction to Engineering & the Environment” Publisher: McGraw-Hill New York

Author: Matthew E. Kahn (PhD) and Fran Lostys Title: “Living Green-Ranking the best (and worst) countries” Publisher: Reader’s Digest

Author: Jacques Leslie, 10 th Dec 2007 Title: “The Last Empire: China’s Pollution Problem Goes Global” Publisher: Mother Jones (Smart, Fearless Journalism)

US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Janua ry 1994 Industry, Technology and the Environment, Competitive Challeges and Bussiness Opportunities Publisher: Diane Publishing Co

Author: Roy M. Harrison Title: An Introduction to Environmental Chemistry and Pollution Third Edition Publisher: The University of Birmingham, UK

Author: Richard W. Boubel, Donald L. Fox, D. Bruce Turner, and Arthur C. Stern. Title: Fundamentals of Air Pollution, Third Edition Publisher: Academic Press

P1.2 Acknowledgements

1. Authors: Normah M.G., Tang H.H., Mohd Faizal H., Te rry Oliver , Nor Akmal N.

2. Reviewer: Sanjayan V.

3. Financial Supporter: Asia Link EuropeAid Co-oper ation and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia .

P1.3 Prerequisites

Minimum: Completion of at least 5 years of high sch ool

P1.4 LU and TU

Equivalent to 2 TU

Equivalent to 4 LU

Explanation: 1 Learning Units (LU) corresponds to an approximate 45 minutes of self-learning. 1 Teaching Units (TU) corresponds to an approximate 45 minutes for a teacher to present the material.

P1.5 Climate Change

Most of us know from our undergraduate study or thr ough the mass media that the earth’s environment has been changing over time. The concer n is the climate change that may harm or affect our well-being. Please refer to diagram of energy balance

According to the United Nations Framework Conventio n on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is

� a change of climate caused directly or indirectly b y human activities such as

• land use • resource consumption and emissions • technology development • other human-related activities

� a change in composition of the global atmosphere ob served over a comparable time periods such as

• increase in solar thermal radiation over a 30-year period • increase in concentration of carbon dioxide gas si nce the 1980s • increase in the sea level • others…

The change refers to natural and human-induced activities that cause fluctuations in

temperature

precipitation

wind directions and speed, etc.

P1.5.1 A Simple Earth’s Energy Balance

The earth’s temperature and climate are dependent o n the radiative heat exchange (energy) between the earth and the sun The incident radiation (heat flux = 342 W/m 2) from the sun gets absorbed, reflected and

transmitted The earth itself emits radiation (all bodies emit r adiation) The earth’s average surface temperature is achieved when the rate of incoming solar

radiation just equals that of the earth’s terrestri al outgoing radiation. It is estimated that about 69% of the incoming sola r radiation is absorbed and heats the

earth’s surface.

Reflected solar radiation-107

Incoming solar radiation -342

Reflected by surface - 30

77

Outgoing radiation-235

Absorbed radiation-168

Surface radiation - 390

Atmospheric emission-165

Evapotranspiration -102

Back radiation-324

Absorbed by atmosphere - 67

P1.5.2 Naturally occurring phenomena that may cause climate change:

Increase/decrease in volcanic activities Increase/decrease in solar irradiance

Volcanic Activity

Source Solar Irradiance

Transmitted radiation

Incoming solar radiation: ≈ 342 W/m2 (over earth’s surface)

Earth

Reflected radiation

Earth’s radiation

P1.5.3 Human related activities that may cause climate change:

Anthropogenic (by humans) environmental change is c hanges associated with land use and those induced by residues from products and industr ial processes.

Industrialization growth that generate gaseous prod ucts into the atmosphere and affect the atmospheric concentration of certain gases

The study of geology, biology, and other natural sc iences related to the environment has indicated the relationships between human activitie s in accelerating environmental change

Source: Normah Mohd. Ghazali ACTIVITY

Indirect environmental effects

Direct environmental

effects

Clearing of large forests /wetlands

Oil drilling in the arctic/antartic Air -

conditioning/Refrigeration

Transportation

Manufacturing Wastes

Pollution

P1.5.3.1 Activity

Look at your community and identify an anthropogeni c environmental effect. List out the possible direct and indirect cause and effect and b riefly justify your arguments.

HINT #1: A change in your community may be related to the land use, the weather patterns or the air that you breathe, that you may have noticed for the last 10 – 20 years HINT #2: What are the events/scenarios that had ini tiated that change in land use/climate? HINT #3: Could the environmental change have been c aused by any other event/scenario i.e. natural catastrophe?

P1.6 Chemical compounds Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

These stable odorless chemical compounds are the mo st well known compounds within the haloalkanes group, alkanes with one or more hydroge n atoms replaced by one or more halogen atoms ( fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or/and iodine)

These compounds containing chlorine, fluorine, and carbons (no hydrogen) were first introduced in 1924 to replace ammonia(NH 3), chloromethane (Ch 3Cl), and sulfur dioxide (SO2) which are toxic

Initially used in refrigerants, they were subsequen tly used as propellants in aerosol cans and cleaning solvents for circuit boards.

The compounds have been implicated in negative envi ronmental effects particularly in the thinning of the ozone layer and global warming

Some are well known by their commercial names such as R11 (trichlorofluoromethane) and R12 (dichlorodifluoromethane), their use have b een controlled under the Montreal Protocol

There are, however, applications where their use ca nnot be replaced or replacements result in lower performance of systems

One CFC molecule may be able to degrade 10,000 – 1, 000,000 ozone molecules before its removal from the atmosphere

Although the production of CFCs have almost ceased, their lifetime in the atmosphere is long (50-100 years)

S.2 Educational Objectives

On completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

Relate environmental impacts against energy use

Analyze monitoring regulations (Kyoto Protocol) fo r environmental impacts

S.3 Environmental Impact

Energy use and its impact on the environment is one of the most important technical, social, and public-policy related issues that face mankind today. The retrieval of energy sources, processing, transportation, storage and end-use con versions confront humanity with the prospect of global atmospheric change that they bro ught about.

Depletion of the ozone layer (also known as ozone h ole) in the earth’s stratosphere

particularly over the Antartic is documented and co rrective actions are underway. • Ozone layer is a strong absorber of ultra-violet (U V) radiation from the sun • Exposure to UV radiation increases the probability of skin cancer and UV radiation cause damage to the ocean phytoplankton which is basic to the food chain • A total reduction of 3% of ozone has been reported, with 50% of that over the Antartic regions • In 1992 the ozone hole phenomenon was reported spre ading to more densely populated areas in the Northern Hemisphere at an alarming rate

Global warming caused by the entrapment of infra-re d radiation from the earth’s surface

have been accepted as being caused by man’s activit ies. • Global temperature has been reported to have increa sed • CO2 has been identified as one of the major gases caus ing global warming by trapping outgoing radiation from the earth’s surf ace • Evidence of increasing amounts of CO 2 and the possibility of a significant increase of the atmospheric temperature on a global scale as a result of human activities have amplified our concerns for the hazardous impacts on our well-being.

S.4 Environment as a Waste Dump

It is only in the last 40 years that man has realiz ed that our atmosphere and environment is finite. Man has been dumping the wastes of our soci ety into the environment as we progressed towards higher growth in population and standard of living

Many of the most severe problems of environmental p ollution involve the earth’s

atmosphere. The major permanent constituents in the atmosphere are • Nitrogen – 78.08% • Oxygen – 20.95% • Argon – 0.93% • Neon, Helium, Krypton, Hydrogen – the rest

There are constituents in small amounts lie • Water vapor • Carbon dioxide • Methane • Carbon monoxide • Ozone • Ammonia

Most of our serious air pollution is produced direc tly or indirectly by fuel combustion for generating electricity, fuel combustion for the ind ustries and transportation

P4.1 Pollution

Most standard regulated pollutants are from the transport sector

Advances in the technological development of new engine systems have managed to reduce the pollutants

A simple model calculation of CO 2 shows the emissions of CO 2 from 1 tonne of oil/coal/gas

There has been a decrease in pollutants for the past ten years for the average cars in general

1 toe coal ≈1.579 tonnes of coal; 1 toe of gas ≈ 0.946 tonnes of gas or 1182.29 m3 of gas

P4.1.1 Regulated Pollutants from the Transport Sector

Regulatory history is different for different countries across the globe. Standard regulations do exist in many countries but complian ce; monitoring, enforcement and penalty are generally reliance on geographical, soc ioeconomic and political factors.

The regulated pollutants are;

NOx,

particulate matter (PM) or soot,

carbon monoxide ( CO), and

volatile hydrocarbons (volatile organic compounds o r VOCs).

Non-regulated pollutants are:

Sulfur dioxide ( SO2),

carbon dioxide ( CO2), and

water vapor ( H2O).

P4.1.1.1 Different in Regulations Between Pollutants and Countries

In recent years, the health risk associated with ex posure to pollutants that affect the human health has been a dominant concern. A brief history on the regulations adopted by some countries is given here

Example: U.S.A

• The first air pollution statutes were passed by the cities of Chicago and Cincinnati in 1881 to control smoke and soot from furnaces and locomotives • In 1948 twenty died and thousands more suffered fr om the 5-day weather stagnation confined pollutants from the heavy industries in a town • Since 1952, the states began to pass legislation o n smoke and particulate matter • The Clean Air Act on uniform national air quality standards was enacted in 1970 • The 1990 Clean Air Amendment remains the highest s tandard in the world on particulate matter and volatile organic compound s

Example: Malaysia

• The first official environmental legislation was pr obably the environmental quality act (EQA) of 1974 under the Department of Environment (DOE) • The DOE deals primarily with industrial pollution a nd environmental quality • EQA has been substantially amended, the latest bein g in 1996

Example: Germany • The regulations on standard emissions of SO 2 and NOx is the strictest in the world • Regulations limiting/preventing harmful environment al influences on human, animal, or plant life go under the Law on Protection from Harmful Environmental Influences of Pollution, Noise, Vibrations, and Similar Process es of 1974.

P4.1.1.2 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) include nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitric oxide (NO)

In the early 1970s the transportation sector was th e dominant source of NOx. With improvement in vehicle engine performance, coal-fir ed power plants now account for the highest contributor to NOx

NO2 is are reddish brown gas which is toxic in high co ncentrations NO2 is primarily a product of a complete combustion

CH4 (methane) + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O (water vapor) + heat

High temperature combustion processes of fuel in ai r produce NO Oxidation of NO in air generates NO 2 NOx can also react chemically in the atmosphere to form fine nitrate particles NOx has been implicated in acid deposition and the formation of ground-level ozone

P4.1.1.3 Total suspended particulates (PM).

PM is mixtures of small solid/liquid particles susp ended in air. Technology-related particulate emissions are given off by fuel combustion and by m ost industrial and manufacturing processes

Some PM may be seen as dust, smoke, or haze while o thers can only be identified with an electron microscope

The health effects are generally associated with pa rticulate air pollution include respiratory and cardiovascular disease

PM may take on additional potency by serving as car riers that adsorb other pollutants on particle surface

Particulates smaller than 10 microns (10 -6 meters) are referred to as PM 10, fine enough to penetrate into lungs – these are the particle sizes regulated by air quality standards

Recent air quality standards (since 1997) particle sizes regulated have been reduced to 2.5 microns (PM 2.5)

PM can reduce visibility, cause soiling or damage t o materials and pose a nuisance in the form of dust

P4.1.1.4 Colorless, Odorless Gas

CO is produced during incomplete combustion of foss il fuels and other carbon-containing materials

The gas when inhaled is absorbed by the blood haemo globin Elevated levels of CO in the atmosphere can cause s hortness of breath and dizziness as

the body’s oxygen delivery system is choked off The transportation sector is the dominant source of CO emissions Recent technologies in vehicle engines have managed to control the emissions despite

the fast increase in the total number of vehicles Increase in world population and the breakneck grow th of developing countries like

China and India has caused concerns over the CO emi ssions

P4.1.1.5 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)

Volatile Organic Compounds or VOCs are organic chem icals that easily vaporize at room temperature. They are called organic because they c ontain the element carbon in their molecular structures.

VOCs have no colour, smell, or taste. VOCs include a very wide range of individual substances, such as hydrocarbons (for example benze ne and toluene), halocarbons and oxygenates.

Hydrocarbon VOCs are usually grouped into methane a nd other non-methane VOCs. Methane is an important component of VOCs, its envi ronmental impact principally related to its contribution to global warming and t o the production of ground level or lower atmosphere ozone. Most methane is released to the atmosphere via the leakage of natural gas from distribution systems.

Evaporation of solvents, used for example in paints , cause a release of hydrocarbons, oxygenates and halocarbons to the atmosphere.

Some VOCs are quite harmful, including benzene, pol ycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and 1,3 butadiene.

Benzene may increase susceptibility to leukaemia, i f exposure is maintained over a period of time.

There are several hundred different forms of PAH, a nd sources can be both natural and man-made. PAHs can cause cancer. Sources of 1,3 but adiene include the manufacturing of synthetic rubbers, petrol driven vehicles and ci garette smoke. There is an apparent correlation between butadiene exposure and a higher risk of cancer.

P4.1.1.6 Sulfur Dioxide

Sulfur dioxide is a gas. It is invisible and has a nasty, sharp smell. It reacts easily with other substances to form harmful compounds, such as sulfu ric acid, sulfurous acid and sulfate particles.

The main source of sulfur dioxide in the air is ind ustrial activity that processes materials that contain sulfur, e.g. the generation of electri city from coal, oil or gas that contains sulfur. Some mineral ores also contain sulfur, and sulfur dioxide is released when they are processed. In addition, industrial activities t hat burn fossil fuels containing sulfur can be important sources of sulfur dioxide.

Sulfur dioxide is also present in motor vehicle emi ssions, as the result of fuel combustion. In the past, motor vehicle exhaust was an important, but not the main, source of sulfur dioxide in air. However, this is n o longer the case.

Sulfur dioxide affects human health when it is brea thed in. It irritates the nose, throat, and airways to cause coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, or a tight feeling around the chest. The effects of sulfur dioxide are felt v ery quickly and most people would feel the worst symptoms in 10 or 15 minutes after breath ing it in.

Those most at risk of developing problems if they a re exposed to sulfur dioxide are people with asthma or similar conditions.

P4.1.1.7 Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide, CO 2, is one of the gases in our atmosphere, being unif ormly distributed over the earth's surface at a concentration of about 0.0 33% or 330 ppm.

Commercially, CO 2 finds uses as a refrigerant (dry ice is solid CO 2), in beverage carbonation, and in fire extinguishers. Because the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is low, it is not practical to obtai n the gas by extracting it from air.

Most commercial carbon dioxide is recovered as a by -product of other processes, such as the production of ethanol by fermentation and th e manufacture of ammonia. Some CO2 is obtained from the combustion of coke or other c arbon-containing fuels.

Carbon dioxide is released into our atmosphere when carbon-containing fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas, and coal are burned in ai r. As a result of the tremendous world-wide consumption of such fossil fuels, the amount o f CO2 in the atmosphere has increased over the past century, now rising at a ra te of about 1 ppm per year.

Major changes in global climate could result from a continued increase in CO 2

concentration.

P4.1.1.8 Water Vapor

Water vapor is water in its gaseous state-instead o f liquid or solid (ice).

Water vapor is totally invisible. If you see a clou d, fog, or mist, these are all liquid water, not water vapor.

Water vapor is extremely important to the weather and climate. Without out it, there would be no clouds or rain or snow, since all of th ese have their source in water vapor.

All of the water vapor that evaporates from the sur face of the Earth eventually returns as precipitation - rain or snow.

Water vapor is also the Earth's most important gree nhouse gas, giving us over 90% of the Earth's natural greenhouse effect, which helps keep the Earth warm enough to support life.

When liquid water is evaporated to form water vapor , heat is absorbed. This helps to cool the surface of the Earth. This "latent heat of condensation" is released again when the water vapor condenses to form cloud water. This source of heat helps drive the updrafts in clouds and precipitation systems.

P4.1.2 Transport Factor

This particular sector is important in the developm ent and economic growth of regions. The

pollutants from the sector has increased and will c ontinue to so with the growth of regional integration (“the world is getting smaller”)

The sector includes;

• Air transport

• Railways

• Roads and highways

• Waterborne transport

P4.1.3 Advanced in Automobile Industries

The most important technological development of the 20th century that greatly affected the environment may very well be the automobile industr y

For some developing and developed countries, the nu mber of vehicles could equal that of the number of population

It is an industry that directly (birth and growth o f cities and the suburbs, and the extensive networking) and indirectly (wastes, pollu tion) affect the environment

The most aggressive environmental impact is air pol lution from CO (NOx, HC) which has also be identified as the major cause of global war ming

From the late 1960s to today have seen a marked dec rease in the production of these pollutants as a result of technological advances wh ich had be driven by air pollution and government intervention through legislations

U.S. Passenger car exhaust emission standards (grams per mile)

Model Year Hydrocarbons Carbon Monoxide Nitrogen Oxides 1968-1971 4.1 34.0 - 1972-1974 3 28.0 3.1 1975-1976 1.5 15.0 3.1 1977-1979 1.5 15.0 2.0 1980 0.41 7.0 2.0 1981-1982 0.41 7.0 1.0 1983-1993 0.41 3.4 1.0 1994 0.25 3.4 0.4 1995-2003 0.25 3.4 0.4 2004-2006 0.125 1.7 0.2

Source: USEPA, 1998: AAMA, 1997

P4.1.4 Simple Model Calculation of CO2

Fuel type/Amount CO2 released (kg)

Oil (C7H16 – C10H22) – 1 tonne 3142.8

Coal (C135H96O9NS) – 1 tonne 3616.4

Gas (CH4) – 1 m3 2.2

P4.2 Transport Sector

This particular sector is important in the developm ent and economic growth of regions. The pollutants from the sector has increased and will c ontinue to so with the growth of regional integration (“the world is getting smaller”)

The sector includes;

Air transport

Railways

Roads and highways

Waterborne transport

P4.3 Automobile Industry

The most important technological development of the 20th century that greatly affected the environment may very well be the automobile industr y

For some developing and developed countries, the nu mber of vehicles could equal that of the number of population

It is an industry that directly (birth and growth o f cities and the suburbs, and the extensive networking) and indirectly (wastes, pollu tion) affect the environment

The most aggressive environmental impact is air pol lution from CO (NOx, HC) which has also be identified as the major cause of global war ming

From the late 1960s to today have seen a marked dec rease in the production of these pollutants as a result of technological advances wh ich had be driven by air pollution and government intervention through legislations

U.S. Passenger car exhaust emission standards (grams per mile) Model Year Hydrocarbons Carbon Monoxide Nitrogen Oxides 1968-1971 4.1 34.0 0 1972-1974 3 28.0 3.1 1975-1976 1.5 15.0 3.1 1977-1979 1.5 15.0 2.0 1980 0.41 7.0 2.0 1981-1982 0.41 7.0 1.0 1983-1993 0.41 3.4 1.0 1994 0.25 3.4 0.4 1995-2003 0.25 3.4 0.4 2004-2006 0.125 1.7 0.2

Source: USEPA, 1998: AAMA, 1997

P4.4 Impacts of different pollutants

The quantity and quality of scientific literature o n the health effects of air pollution vary considerably by pollutant type and by health outcom e. Following is a list (in no particular order) of some of the issues in understanding healt h impacts of air pollution. The harmful effects of pollutants on human beings have been the major reason for efforts to understand and control their sources.

Pollutant Impact

Nitrogen Oxides (NO x)

hacking coughs, kidney disease, effects on pulmonary functions

Particulate Matter (PM); soot respira tory -related diseases (bronchitis), cardiovascular diseases, damage to lung tissue

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

shortness of breath, dizziness

Carbon Dioxide (CO 2)

adverse effects on heart-problem patients

Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2) + Water breathing difficulties, alterations in the lung’s defenses, aggravation of current cardiovascular or chronic lung diseases

P4.5 Decrease in pollutants in the transport sector

The implementation of a certain regulation and some studies in pollution reduction has resulted in the decrease of total emission of CO, H C, NOx, and PM for all the classes of vehicle. However this decrease in emission has beco me inefficient due to increase in vehicle population.

Pollutants Emitted in Driveing 16,000 km (10,000 miles), in Kilograms

050

100150200250300350

average1990 car

average1998 car

average1998

pickup/SUV

2001Volkswagen

Lupo

Year / category

Pol

utio

n E

mitt

ed (k

g)

CO

HC

NOX

PM

PM10 is for particles of size under 10 µm.

S.5 Global Warming

Warming on the global scale is expected to occur as a result of the increase of carbon dioxide, CO2/ and other greenhouse gases (those that absorb and reradiate portions of the infrared radiation from the earth). What is debatable is the amount of warming that will occur by a particular point in time. Other greenhouse gases su ch as methane and chlorofluorocarbons have increased by much higher factors. Firm evidenc e for the amount of warming taking place in terms of actual temperature measurements has bee n complicated primarily by the magnitudes of natural climatic variations that occu r.

Energy conversion and use are major contributors to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions

The rise in earth’s temperature has been attributed to the greenhouse effects

This occurs due to absorption and/or insulation of long wave radiation by gases in the atmosphere

The green house effect normally keeps the earth’s temperature at an acceptable level

Greenhouse effect can significantly alter the wind flow pattern and cause melting of the ice caps (increased in sea level)

The GHG identified are;

• Carbon dioxides, • methane, • nitrous oxide, • hydrofluorocarbons, • perfluorocarbons, and • sulphur hexafluororide

P5.1 Greenhouse gases

More than half of the GHG is caused by carbon dioxides from combustion processes in industrial plants and transportation sectors (distribution here)

Each greenhouse gas is characterised by a Global Warming Potential (GWP) with carbon dioxide used as a base of unity

GHG released through human activities have long lifetime in the atmosphere

P5.1.1 Greenhouse gases: contributions to global warming

Nitrous Oxide6% Methane

15%

CFCs24%

Carbon Dioxide55%

S.6 Environmental Impact – Ozone Depletion

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons are released by the refrigeration industries

These compounds break down the ozone layer

Without the ozone layer, ultra-violet (UV) radiation may reach the earth and damage;

• terrestrial plant life

• single-cell organisms

• aquatic eco-systems

Increased UV radiations in humans can cause;

• higher risk in skin cancer

• cataracts

• suppression of immune system

Figure xxx

Cl C F

F

P6.1 What is Ozone?

Each ozone molecule contains 3 oxygen atoms (O 3)

It is a pungent bluish gas, naturally present in ou r atmosphere

90% of ozone is found in the stratosphere – ozone l ayer

Ozone layer absorbs the ultra-violet radiation from the sun

S.7 Environmental Impact – Acid Rain

Power plants emit sulphurous gases in their flue

Chemical processes convert these gases to sulphate particles and other acids

Precipitations in areas with sulphate particles tur n into acid rain

• Killing some sensitive living species

• Declining other living species

• Disrupting complex soil chemistry

• Deteriorating building materials, and

• Affect human healthy

S.8 Environmental Impact – Lead Poisoning

Lead is one of the oldest human-made atmospheric an d occupational toxins

Dates back 8000 years ago to the first lead-smeltin g furnaces

Leaded gasoline is the most significant source of e xposure

Exposures to lead can cause impairments in intellec tual functioning, kidney damage, miscarriage, and hypertension

Exposure is high in poor populations in developed a nd developing countries;

• the exposures are in higher density (from vehicle e missions)

• populations are more susceptible (older housing wit h lead-based paint, complete absorption from empty stomachs lacking from essenti al trace elements such as iron, calcium, and zinc)

S.9 Environmental Impact – Deforestation

Rapid growth of cities and modern suburbs require f ast and huge area deforestations.

Degradation and loss of ecologically rich habitats occur at the expense of development without proper planning

Population growth and fragmentation of forested are as result in the decline and loss of aquatic and terrestrial species.

S.10 Environmental Regulations

The Energy Information Administration projects the continued increase of the world’s carbon dioxide emission from fuel combustion.

The major emissions from normal combustion processe s affecting public health are

• NOx,

• SOx,

• particulates, and

• unburned hydrocarbons.

Environmental regulations have been formulated to m inimize the environmental and public health impacts of these emissions.

S.11 Kyoto Protocol – 1997

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 to deal with the greenhouse gases.

The broad features of the Kyoto Protocol were ident ified at a conference in Kyoto (Japan).

183 countries have ratified the Protocol excluding the USA and A ustralia.

Leaders of industrialized countries agreed to

• Reduce their overall emissions of CO 2, CH4 and N2O to an average of 5.2% below 1990 levels by the period 2008 to 2012.

• Reduce overall emissions of perfluorocarbons (PFCs) , hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF 6) are to be reduced to 5.2% below 1995 levels.

The greenhouse gases identified in the Kyoto Protoc ol are;

• carbon dioxide,

• methane,

• nitrous oxide,

• hydrofluorocarbons,

• perfluorocarbons, and

• sulphur hexafluoride.

P11.1 Countries involved in the Kyoto Protocol

Green colour indicates the countries that have signed and ratified the treaty

Yellow indicates those have signed and hope to ratify it

Red indicates those have signed but not ratified it

USA and Australia are the countries that not ratified

Participation in the Kyoto Protocol

Source

S.12 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

It was established with emissions trading

Introduced to assist parties not included in Annex I of the Kyoto Protocol in achieving the objective of the convention

Introduced to assist parties included in Annex I in achieving compliance under Article 3

P12.1 Emissions trading

Emissions trading (or cap and trade)

It is an administrative approach used to control po llution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions in the emission s of pollutants.

A central authority sets a cap on the amount of a p ollutant that can be emitted

Companies or other groups that emit the pollutant a re given credit which represents the right to emit a specific amount.

The total amount of credits cannot exceed the cap, limiting total emissions to that level.

Companies that pollute less get to sell credits to those who pollute more than their allowances.

The exercise aims to encourage countries (companies ) to get involve in clean technologies

P12.1.1 Example of company involved in CDM-LDEO Sdn Bhd, Sabah, Malaysia

Biomass residue from palm oil industries used as fuel…..

…in the boiler… … …almost zero waste…

P12.2 Annex I of the Kyoto Protocol

Countries in Annex I have accepted the GHG emission reduction obligatio ns and must submit an annual GHG inventory

S.13 Living in Green World

The balance between “Green” and “Livable” is the ma in aspects must be considered to sustain the perfect life

Countries must make more effort to capitalize on na tional strengths to get greener (See Example-Finland )

Energy efficiency must be improved to fight air pol lution problem (See Example of Scenario-United States )

The developed countries must preserve what’s left o f their pristine wilderness to offset the harmful effects of their urban population (See Example-Canada )

Educated public are very important to stop the envi ronmental destruction because they more likely to be aware in doing something that wou ld affect the environment (See Example-Norway )

Global cooperation is very important for sharing te chnologies that can be used to develop clean, alternative energy (See Example- China )

P13.1 Example-Finland

Finland is one of the countries that produces very high quality of air and water and a low case of infant disease

However, it produces a big amount of greenhouse gas es and has a large ecological footprint that affects significantly on their envir onment

This increasing of greenhouse gases is mainly due t o the dependence on the fuel-intensive forestry and quarry industries

Besides that, colder winters and lower rainfall cau se the decrease of hydroelectricity production. Consequently, the country consumed a la rge amount of fossil fuel(major source of greenhouse gases) for their industries

Countermeasure: Finland is one of the world’s lar gest exporters of wind power technology. But, production of their electricity via wind power is less than one percent currently. As inf ormation, the average coastal wind speed in Finland exceeds until 24 k m/hr, which is 50% stronger than those in the “Windy City” Chicago. Because of that, they must utilize the strengths that they have b y increasing the use of wind energy for industry and daily life

P13.1.1 Windy City

The factors of geographic conditions (example: loca l prevailing wind) make Chicago a naturally breezy area

Another contributing factor is how the city was reb uilt after the Great Chicago Fire Planners modeled new streets on the grid system. Th is resulted in man-made wind tunnels

in high density areas (Example: Loop), as the wind could travel down the columns and rows formed by the buildings and pick up speed. However, Chicago is not noted to be significantly windier than any other US cities.

The term ‘Windy City” was firstly used by New York Sun (Editor: Clyz Ioid in the bidding for the 1893 Columbian Exposition.

P13.1.1.1 Great Chicago Fire

Was a conflagration that burned from Sunday October 8,1871. Killing hundreds of people and destroying about fou r square miles in Chicago, Illnois. On Tuesday, October 10, 1871, a saving rain began t o fall, and the flames finally died out,

leaving Chicago a smoking, steaming ruin Although it had been one of the most largest disast ers in U.S. of 19 th century, the

rebuilding that began almost immediately spurred Ch icago’s development into one of the most popular and economically important American ci ties.

Please refer to website “The Great Chicago Fire and The Web of Memory” for detail information.

P13.2 Example-United States

In 1969, the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, da maged by fire because sparks of train

ignited a surface oil slick. This cause a big impac t on environment of US

This accident had lead to creation of Clean Water A ct in 3 years later to improve the quality of US’s air and water

As a result, today, people able to do recreational activities at the river

But, United States still needs to make a lot of eff ort to reduce greenhouse gases

In 2004, per capita CO 2 emissions were almost 5 times the average of world wide per capita figure. Total CO 2 grew by 22 percent between 1990 and 2005

Countermeasure: US congress expanded the average f uel economy standard for passenger cars from 18 mpg (?) to 27.5 mpg (?) b etween 1978 and 1985. Perhaps, offering greater incentives for o wners of alternative- fuel vehicles could also be one of the effective counter measures

P13.3 Example-Canada

Wild forests had been almost explored in most devel oped cities and very difficult to find

“green” in big cities

The presence of the “green moats” which is protecte d against development in rural areas, cause Canada rates well overall for clean water and air

Their presence are very important to offset the air pollution in densely populated cities like Montreal

P13.4 Example-Norway

Their affluence and education make the citizens mor e likely to be aware with the activity

that cause problem to their environment

Norway is party to more than 40 international envir onmental accords

Nearly 100 percent of Norwegian children graduate f rom secondary school

The educated public is the powerful person to preve nt and stop the destruction of environment

P13.5 Example-China

The explosive economy today in China puts great pre ssure on environmental effects

Acid rain caused by sulfur dioxide emissions seriou sly damages forests and watersheds in Korea and Japan, and even reduce the air quality in the United States

In Beijing, the level of one type of harmful air po llution is more than 4 times than the level in New York City

Before Olympic 2008 in Beijing, China has announced several ambitious green goals like:

� Reduce the use of coal by 50 percent

� Eliminate 200 manufacturing plants in the Beijing s uburbs

� Lowering sulphur levels in gasoline

To fulfill the hope China’s hope, more developed co untries need to move quickly in sharing

with China the technologies that can be used for de veloping clean and safe alternative energy

S.14 Summary

Energy systems continue to produce significant envi ronmental and health impact

Global warming, ozone depletion, acid rain and defo restation are major environmental effects that must be addressed.

Kyoto Protocol is one of the agreements made by ind ustrialized countries to reduce greenhouse gases.

Self Assessment Set 1 (TRUE/FALSE and CALCULATION) Self Assessment Set 2 (TRUE/FALSE and CALCULATION) Self Assessment Set 3 (DISCUSSION)

S.15 Self Assessment (Set 1)

TRUE/FALSE Questions: 5. The regulated pollutants include NO x, COx, particulate matter and volatile hydrocarbons 5. The main source of CO 2 emissions from the residential sector is the burni ng of natural gas

and oil for HVAC systems 5. Almost all of the energy consumed in the transpo rtation sector is petroleum based and the

combustion of these fuels generates CO 2. 5. The main contributor to CO 2 emissions is the transportation sector 5. The proportion of carbon to hydrogen is largest in coal, thus combustion of coal produces

more greenhouse gases compared to natural gas. 5. CFCs deplete the ozone layer as well as cause gr eenhouse effects. 5. Large area deforestation can cause unpredictable weather patterns 5. The greenhouse gases identified in the Kyoto Protoc ol are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,

hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulphur he xafluoride . Calculation Question:

5. Given this information Pollutants emitted in driving 16,000 kilometres (10,000 miles), in kilograms CO HC NOx PM10 Average 1990 car Average 1998 car Average 1998 pickup/SUV

295 159 182

48 17 0.1

23 17 19

5.45 0.33 0.06

determine the amount of pollutants emitted for 5 ye ars, by a 20,000 units of a 1998-passenger car, each traveling an average of 20,000 kilometres per year.

S.16 Self Assessment (Set2)

TRUE/FALSE Questions: 1. The regulated pollutants include Nitrogen Oxide, Carbon Dioxide, soot, and volatile

hydrocarbons 2. The main source of CO 2 emissions come from the electricity generation ind ustry 3. A computer switched on for 24 hours a day uses m ore electricity than a television 4. Leaded gasoline is no longer used today. 5. Greenhouse gases absorb incoming energy from the sun 6. Use of oil as an energy resource produces more C O2 emissions than use of natural gas. 7. 183 countries have ractified the protocol except US A, Australia, and Argentina 8. Kyoto Protocol is an accord between leaders of all countries to reduce acid rain and greenhouse

gases . Calculation Question:

9. Given this information Pollutants emitted in driving 16,000 kilometres (10 ,000 miles), in kilograms CO HC NOx PM10 Average 1990 car Average 1998 car Average 1998 pickup/SUV

295 159 182

48 17 0.1

23 17 19

5.45 0.33 0.06

determine the amount of pollutants emitted for 5 ye ars, by a 10,000 units of a 1998-passenger car and 5,000 units of 1998 SUV, each tra veling an average of 20,000 kilometres per year.

S.17 Sell Assessment (Discussion Questions)

1. Identify 1 global agreement that address the iss ue of environmental impact (example the Vienna Protocol). Obtain data on one of the address ed issue for before and after the agreement and discuss the implications and the impa cts it has on the current environmental problem.

2. Compare the pollutant emission (CO 2, HC, NOx etc) from the two most commonly used car types (type A and B) in your housing area. Project a total pollutant emission in a year if each household in your community uses either or bot h types of cars

3. Find out the standards for car exhaust emissions in your locality (country) and determine the percentage reduction in CO, HC, and NOx over th e last 10-year period. Compare these emissions with that from the Unites States.

4. Knowing the amount of coal/oil/gas used in a sec tor/country, compare the amount of CO 2 emitted (pick 2 from each list) (i) transport , residential, industrial sector

(ii) developed , developing , underdeveloped cou ntry (iii) from 2 countries of similar population 5. Pick anyone of the following environmental polic y proposals and discuss the pros and

cons of such a proposal to your community if it wer e implemented by your country. If such a policy has been legislated, discuss issues that m ay have hindered the success of it.

(i) Incentives to encourage the production and use of biomass derived fuels for vehicles (ii) Incentives to encourage the use of more envir onmentally friendly refrigerants in the air- conditioning/refrigeration industry (iii) A stiff tax on single-occupant vehicles in c ertain areas of your community