eterinary medical decisions are often madeby comparing the similarities and differ-ences that occur between individual pa-tients and an established animal model.

This comparison concept is functional because of therelative similarity between a collie and a poodle, or aPersian and a Siamese, or a holstein and an angus.Any respective difference in anatomy or physiologyor in an animal’s response to a drug or infectiousagent is easy to qualify when compared to a genericspecies model.

Not so, with the avian patient. In a single day, anavian practitioner may be presented with patientsthat belong to five different orders. Each of theseorders is unique, having evolved specific anatomic,physiologic and behavioral characteristics that alloweffective competition in a specific ecological niche.Which of the numerous avian genera will serve as anappropriate comparative model (ie, generic bird pa-tient)?

The avian clinician can be most effective by disposingof the philosophical handicap of basing medical deci-sions on a generic companion bird. Instead, the vet-erinarian must look for the natural differences thatexist in patients from such diverse geographic loca-tions as a rain forest and an African savannah.

There is not a wealth of scientifically derived infor-mation available, particularly with respect to vari-ances in avian dietary adaptations, behavioral char-acteristics and response to drug preparations andinfectious agents. The clinician must compensate byapplying a broad medical checks-and-balances sys-tem based on the use of numerous diagnostic andtherapeutic tools. Medical management decisions fora particular genera within an order must be based onthe interpretation of several changes that indicatethat an abnormality is truly an abnormality. For nowavian veterinarians will continue to be required todiagnose and treat many medical problems subjec-tively until results from avian research efforts beginto satisfy the demand for information.

VC H A P T E R

1THE

AVIAN PATIENT

Ross A. Perry

In developing a health plan, clients and veterinari-ans must strive to view the world from the bird’sperspective, and, in so doing, caretakers will havegreater empathy for the emotional as well as themedical needs of the bird. If the complete needs of abird are not met (nutritional, environmental andpsychologic), disease will inevitably follow. The vet-erinarian must prescribe health, not drugs. By beingfamiliar with the behavioral attributes and species-specific medical problems that may occur, a veteri-narian is more likely to recognize early signs of dis-ease in an individual bird of a given species.

Selection ofCompanion Birds

Birds are remarkable life forms with individual be-havioral and personality characteristics. These char-acteristics are the result of a complex and oftenchanging interaction of environmental influencesthat include food availability, seasonal weather con-ditions and flock dynamics. From a companion bird’sperspective, flock dynamics involve the interaction offamily members with each other and with the bird.

In providing exceptional care and management ad-vice, the veterinarian can become a model for respon-sible companion bird ownership. Unfortunately,many individuals obtain a bird for the wrong reasons(Table 1.1), instead of for the purpose of adding anintelligent, sensitive being to the family.

TABLE 1.1 Misguided Reasons for Choosing Birds as Pets

EntertainmentAmusementAdmirationMaterial acquisitionsSelf-admiration (“He says my name!”)Toys for adultsToys for the childrenDidn’t want to see it suffer in the pet shop.

Some clients rarely handle their birds, even if theydo not bite. To highly social birds, this forced isolationmust be a fate worse than death. Most clients arevery appreciative of some supervised training fromtheir veterinarian on how to handle their bird, butmay be reluctant to ask for guidance (see Chapter 4).

Bird Attributes

Individual clients are likely to differ as to whichattributes of companion birds are desirable andwhich are undesirable. Before choosing a companionbird, a client may want to give careful considerationto the following questions:

Is it possible to tame and touch this bird? How big does its enclosure need to be?How much exercise does it need? Can it take careof all of its exercise needs within the enclosure?Does this species bond to one person and resentothers, or is it likely to allow and enjoy compan-ionship from several people?What are its dietary requirements and what isinvolved in daily maintenance?Are its eating habits and droppings messy?What is its expected life-span? 3-5 years? 5-10years? Over 20 years?Does this species have a tendency to pick itsfeathers?How susceptible is this species to disease?Does this bird have singing ability? What is the potential of this species for screeching,screaming or chewing?Is this species known for its talking (mimicking)ability? (Table 1.2)Does this individual fulfill expectations forphysical beauty in a bird?Will this bird be a source of disease for family?How expensive is the bird to buy and maintain?How much time does the bird require?

TABLE 1.2 Species With Potential Mimicking Ability

African Grey Parrots - male, individual variabilityMynah birdDouble Yellow-headed AmazonYellow-naped AmazonBlue-fronted AmazonMacaws - genus AraEclectus ParrotBudgerigar

By learning more about the characteristics of individ-ual species, the client is able to make a more in-formed decision. Avian veterinarians and avicultur-ists should also strive to match the correctpersonality of a bird with the personality of an owner.For example, Table 1.3 presents a brief referenceguide to some well known characteristics of popularcompanion bird species. Bird clients who understand

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the “uniqueness” of avian species are usually happywith their birds’ qualities (Figure 1.1).

Wild-trapped and Imported BirdsIt is the belief of the author and editors that to beeffective messengers for conservation and responsi-ble stewardship, every avian veterinarian andaviculturist must strive to understand the damageinduced by the harvesting of wild-caught birds, andto take every perceivable opportunity to stop theseactivities. If companion birds are to be relinquishedto flightlessness, they should be individuals thatwere produced in captivity as companion birds andhave never understood flight. Additionally, the trap-pers, brokers, dealers and consumers that trade (ille-gally, in most instances) in rare and endangeredanimal life (frequently under the guise of avian con-servation) should be viewed by the community withgreat disdain. Protecting dwindling habitat shouldbe the focus of individuals truly concerned with avianconservation.

Additionaly, the international movement of wild-caught birds undoubtedly results in the spread ofinfectious agents that could have far-reaching anddevastating effects on indigenous avifauna. Wild-caught birds that escape into suitable habitats canestablish viable populations that irreversibly alterthe habitat of native species (eg, European Starlings,Common House Sparrows). Captive breeding pro-grams can more than sufficiently supply consumerswith the bird species that make the best companions.

Captive-bred, Hand-raised BirdsCaptive-bred, properly hand-raised birds make bet-ter pets than their wild-trapped conspecifics; how-ever, malnutrition, candidiasis, stunting and variousleg, toe, nail and beak deformities can occur in cap-tive-raised birds. This is especially true if the birdsare cared for by novices or in large breeding aviarieswhere caretakers lose sight of the needs of the indi-vidual neonate. Bonding and breeding behavior incaptive-bred and hand-raised birds (eg, masturba-tion, bizarre courting and behavioral rituals, exces-sive feather plucking and self-mutilation) can occurin improperly socialized birds as they reach sexualmaturity. Male birds rubbing their backside andleaving “water” on their owner’s hand is a commonand notable example. Some clients will not acceptthat the bird is masturbating and needs behavioralmodification support (see Chapter 4).

Some species such as Rose-breasted Cockatoos, largemacaws, conures, Monk Parakeets and Sulphur-

FIG 1.1 Important behavioral characteristics to consider whenselecting companion birds are their tolerance for handling, theirtendency toward destructive behavior and their likelihood toscream. In general, hand-raised Umbrella Cockatoos tend to seekaffection from multiple family members and are relatively quiet.Larger macaws are beautifully colored and playful, but they canbe quite loud, tend to be destructive and usually develop a relation-ship with an individual family member.

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crested Cockatoos are particularly prone to excessivebonding and self-mutilation secondary to separationanxiety. Other species may become suddenly aggres-sive toward a family member. Excessively bondedBare-eyed Cockatoos (Little Corellas) can becomequite “spiteful.” These pets are less appropriate infamilies where the bird will remain alone for longperiods. The “mini” macaws, smaller Amazon par-rots, Pionus parrots, Poicephalus species and Um-brella Cockatoos are less likely to develop thesetraits. These problems can be prevented in mostbirds by an effective socialization program when thebird is young. Repeated generations of captive birdsbecome increasingly docile and more adaptive to cap-tivity.

Taming Companion BirdsYoung, hand-raised Psittaciformes adapt readily tonew surroundings and handling procedures. Theyshould be exposed early in life to novel situations (eg,car travel, hospital visits, multiple visitors in thehousehold, other household pets) so that they arewell adjusted to these events. Older birds, especiallywild-caught adults, are usually very difficult to tame.

Patience, self-discipline, a sense of ritual, food brib-ery and reward are necessary to tame some adultbirds (see Chapter 4). Even then, they are rarelytrustworthy and may bite without provocation.

Genetic FactorsThe physical and psychological characteristics of abird are influenced by genetic factors interactingwith aspects of management and disease. Some at-tributes are common to most individuals within aspecies. Others are peculiar to particular strains ofbirds that have been selectively bred over many gen-erations in captivity.

Determining the physical and behavioral attributesof related birds, especially the parents and siblings,can be of value in selecting a companion bird. Itshould be noted that large Psittaciformes have thecapacity to live as long as humans, and adding alarge psittacine bird to the family should be under-taken as a life-long commitment. Knowing the ge-netic background and characteristics of the relativesof a bird is particularly critical when choosing a pairof breeding birds.

TABLE 1.3 Profiles of Common Companion Birds (Some characteristics are rated on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 being the highest value.)

African Grey Parrots (Africa)Excellent talkers - individual variability (9)Extremely intelligent - high-strungProlific breeders once initiatedRequire attention (10)Relatively playful (8)Tend to form individual bonds

Amazon parrots (Mexico to South America)Few enjoy “petting”Excellent talkers (9) species-dependentExtroverted personalitiesAggressive during breeding seasonTend to form individual bondsRequire attention (9)

Budgerigars (Australia)Gregarious - easily tamed (10)Good talkers but require work (7)Quiet and nondestructiveWild-type are most disease-resistantRelatively gentle (7)

Canaries (Australia and Africa)Color mutations are genetically weakBreed prolifically in captivityMales are vocal singersTidy and easy to care forDo not like to be handled

Cockatiels (Australia)Excellent companion birds (10)Easily tamed and gentle (9)Quiet and nondestructive (8)Good whistlers - limited talkersMutations - weak

Cockatoos (Australia, New Zealand, South Pacific Islands)Require attention (10)Scream if neglectedCrave physical contact (10)Hand-raised Umbrella Cockatoos are extremely gentle (9)Intelligent, easily house-trainedProduce abundant powder (10)Can be noisy; destructive; must be socializedMate aggression is common, particularly in Sulphur-crested group

Conures (Mexico to South America)Species variabilitySmaller species are gregarious and playful (9)Enjoy and seek attention (9)Noisy and destructive (7)Generally poor talkers

Eclectus Parrots (Australia and South Pacific Islands)Generally lethargic and unplayfulDimorphic (males=green, females=red)Males are more gentle than femalesTend to form individual pair bonds

Finches (Australia and Africa)Melodious songsShort-lived

Lories, lorikeets (Australia, South Pacific Islands)Colorful, playful, activeNoisy and limited talking abilityHigh-carbohydrate liquid diet; messyFrequently bathe

Lovebirds (Africa)Relatively nondestructive, quietHand-raised birds are calmParent-raised birds are difficult to tame

Macaws (Mexico to South America)Extremely intelligentRequire attention (10)Can be destructiveRequire large living spaceTend to be noisy (10)Aggressive during the breeding seasonBlue and Gold most family-orientedHyacinth - least noisy and most mellow

Mynahs (India)Prefer not to be handledGood talkers (7)Loose, messy droppingsNondestructive

Pionus parrots (Mexico to South America)Small and quietMay hyperventilate when disturbedHighly stressedHigh altitude species cannot tolerate heat andhumidity

Toucans (South America)Quiet and anticPrefer some live food (rodents)Highly territorial Messy, loose droppings

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Color MutationsColor mutations are highly valued by many avicul-turists. The specific genetics involved in establishingthese color mutations are discussed in a number ofavicultural publications. It should be noted that mu-tations in color are generally the result of continuedinbreeding. In selecting for particular color muta-tions (eg, lutino cockatiels), scant priority is placedon other important attributes, so that decreased dis-ease resistance, disorders, reduced longevity andbirth defects often result. In Australia, clinical im-pressions suggest that there is a higher incidence ofPBFD virus in the color mutations of Peach-facedLovebirds than in wild-type green lovebirds.

Conformation and SizeConformation of birds is influenced by genetic fac-tors. This is most apparent when comparing thedifferent breeds of canaries and budgerigars. Cur-rently, show budgerigars are approximately twice themass of their free-ranging conspecifics. Attempts toproduce larger birds has also led to numerous unde-sirable characteristics including feathering that im-pairs flight, interferes with normal ambulation, ac-cumulates excrement pericloacally and protrudesacross and sometimes into the cornea.

LongevityLongevity, the potential maximum duration of life fora species, has little relevance to exhibition or showbird breeders (who discard imperfect nestlings andolder breeding birds) but should be of critical impor-tance to the companion bird client. Some highly bredstrains of birds may have life expectancies one-thirdto one-tenth the duration of “wild-type” or less highlyinbred individuals of the same species. For example,it is believed that inbreeding has contributed to thereduction in the life expectancy of cockatiels from arecord of 32 years to the present-day average of fourto six years. When seeking a healthy companion birdthat has the greatest potential of reaching its full lifeexpectancy, clients should avoid highly inbred birdsin favor of the wild-type characteristics.

Currently, the available information on the popula-tion dynamics of free-ranging birds and those main-tained as pets is sparse. It is doubtful that the longev-ity for many companion bird species is knownbecause of a lack of scientifically derived diets andless-than-ideal management parameters; however,some general working guidelines with respect to lon-gevity are listed in Table 1.4. An increase in longevitydata will require that aviculturists and avian veteri-

narians keep and compile information from accurateand long-term records.

TABLE 1.4 Suggested Longevity of Selected Companion Species

Bird Maximum Average

Gouldian Finch unknown 4

Zebra Finch 17 5

Canary 20 8

Mynah 8 3

Toucan unknown 4

Budgerigar 18 6

Agapornis sp. 12 4

Neophema 10 5

Cockatiel 32 5

Rainbow Lorikeet 15 3

Rosella 15 3

Eclectus Parrot 20 8

Galah 20 5

Bare-eyed Cockatoo 40 15

Sulphur-crested Cockatoo 40 15

African Grey Parrot 50 15

Pionus parrot 15 5

Amazon parrot 80 15

Macaw 50 15

Conure 25 10

Grey-cheeked Parakeet 15 8

Superb Parrot 36 6

Domestic pigeon 26 15

Selected Species RecommendationsThe Grey-cheeked Parakeet, Dusky and Maroon-bel-lied Conures and Monk Parakeets are reputed to berelatively resistant to common diseases and arelonger-lived than most cockatiels, budgerigars andlovebirds. Grey-cheeked Parakeets have been de-scribed as quiet but playful; the conures are not asquiet, yet they can be tame and affectionate; and theMonk Parakeet is considered docile, quiet and rela-tively nondestructive (chewing). Other bird speciesthat are considered relatively quiet include the Ring-necked Parakeet, Pionus species, Hawk-headed Par-rot, Caique, Dusky-crowned Conure, Senegal Parrot,Jardines Parrot, Cape Parrot, Meyer’s Parrot, Red-bellied Parrot and Brown-headed Parrot.

An individual wishing to obtain a companion birdshould be patient. Developing a relationship with anaviculturist or pet retailer and checking several ref-erences are well worth the effort. Some unscrupulous

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pet retailers (particularly traveling dealers) will usedyes and bleaches to make common inexpensivebirds look like less-common, more-expensive birds inthe same genus. This is a frequent practice withAmazon parrots that enter the United States fromMexico and some South American countries. Theconsumer should be wary of strange and exotic colormutations.

Choosing a Healthy Bird

Parameters that may increase the likelihood of add-ing a healthy, mentally stable companion bird to thefamily are:

Obtaining the bird from a reputable breeder whospecializes in the particular species or genus ofbird that is desired and has a closed flock.Obtaining the bird from a reputable source whoworks in close liaison with an avian veterinarian.Obtaining a young, recently fledged, parent- orhand-raised bird.Obtaining a well adapted companion bird from anindividual who is no longer able to provide for thepet (due to age, moving, finances).Obtaining a bird that has normal-appearing feath-ers and droppings, a good appetite, appears to bebright, alert and responsive to its environment,and has not been exposed to birds from othersources.

Parameters that increase the likelihood of adding adiseased, unhappy bird to the family are:

Obtaining a wild-trapped bird.Obtaining a recently imported bird.Obtaining a bird suspected of being smuggled.Obtaining a bird with an asymmetrical beak, ex-cessively scaly legs, twisted digits, missing toes, ablocked nostril, slight swelling around the eyes,deformed eyelids, stained feathers above the nos-trils, stained feathers around the vent, tail bob-bing, fluffed appearance, soiled vent, poor featherquality, diarrhea, yellow urates, increased urineproduction, pectoral muscle atrophy, abdominaldistention, fault lines and depigmented feathers(eg, black or yellow where normally green plumageoccurs).

Identifying an overtly ill bird in a retail outlet shouldcaution the consumer to purchase a bird from an-other source. Birds that are unusually inexpensivefor the species may have a sordid past that can

include specific diseases or exposure to pathogensthat may cause problems when the birds are intro-duced to a home or aviary. Wild-caught birds, par-ticularly those that are likely to be illegal imports(smuggled), should always be avoided.

Health ChecksA veterinarian is well advised to seek legal advice indeveloping a form to be used as a certificate of exami-nation. The term “health certificate” should beavoided because it is impossible to certify “health.” Itis possible only to certify that no abnormalities weredetected using a particular battery of tests. The ex-pectations of a dealer or client regarding a veterinaryexamination may be quite different, and require-ments and liabilities are likely to vary among coun-tries and states.

Clients should always be offered state-of-the-art di-agnostic, medical and surgical services that areavailable on a national level. It is then the client’schoice to determine what level of care they desire fortheir pet. It is important to note in a patient’s medicalrecord what services were offered to a client andwhich of those services were chosen, in order to pre-vent accusations of negligence. A state-of-the-arthealth examination for birds can include a physicalexamination, CBC, biochemistries, radiographs, en-doscopy, Gram’s stain of the feces and rostral choanalslit, Chlamydia sp. screening and (where available)DNA probing for psittacine beak and feather disease(PBFD) virus and polyomavirus. Because the resultsof a single diagnostic test are not absolute, the prac-titioner must combine the values reported by thelaboratory with his assessment of a bird’s overallcondition, diet and environment.

When all the data on a patient is collected and evalu-ated, the practitioner can state only that in his opin-ion, there were no detectable abnormalities at thetime of testing. Table 1.5 lists some disease condi-tions that are frequently diagnosed in popular com-panion bird species.

Transporting the BirdClinicians will need to evaluate a bird’s excrement forthe day or two before an examination; therefore, abird’s enclosure should not be cleaned for the twodays before it is taken to the veterinarian. If thebird’s enclosure is too large to move (in most situ-ations it should be), then clean butcher’s wrap or anynon-absorbent paper should be placed on the bottomof the bird’s enclosure for 12 to 24 hours before an

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TABLE 1.5 Common Diseases in Companion Birds by Species*

African Grey and Timneh Grey ParrotsFeather pickingRhinoliths (bacterial, fungal, secondary to malnutrition)Oral abscessesHypocalcemia syndromeHypovitaminosis AResistant bacterial infections - Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, E. coli, StaphylococcusAspergillosisNeoplasms (apparent higher incidence than other species)Tapeworm infestation (imported birds)Blood parasites (occasionally imported birds)ReovirusPBFD virusHematuria syndrome in infantsNon-regenerative anemia (neonates)Neuropathic gastric dilatation

Amazon parrotsBumblefootHematuria with metal poisoning (Zn, Hg, Pb)Egg-bindingChronic sinusitis, pharyngitis, tracheitisHypovitaminosis AChlamydiosis - rhinitis, sinusitis, enteritisPolyomavirusMalcolored feathers (hepatopathy or malnutrition)Oral abscessesLymphocytosisPoxvirus infection (primarily imports)Mutilation syndromesCloacal papillomatosisEpilepsy in Red-lored Amazons (idiopathic)Neoplasia (especially liver adenocarcinomas)Herpesvirus-induced tracheitisCoagulopathies

BudgerigarsNeoplasm (lipoma, testes, ovary, liver, kidney)GoiterHypothyroidism (not documented)PolyomavirusUnilateral leg paralysis - renal or gonadal neoplasiaKnemidokoptes sp. mites infectionsFeather mites and lice in Australian budgiesRetained feather sheathsOvergrowth of beak and nails (malnutrition or hepatopathy)Egg-bindingPododermatitisGoutTrichomoniasis ObesityDiabetes mellitusHyperglycemia secondary to neoplasmsFrench Moult (acute PBFD or polyomavirus)PolyfolliculosisChlamydiosis (usually chronic low grade)GiardiasisMegabacteriaMycoplasmosisSalpingitisOvarian cystsStroke (older budgerigars)

CoccidiosisSplay leg in juvenilesCere abscessesHepatopathyPancreatic insufficiency

CanariesFeather cystsObesity - lipomaAlopecia syndromeStraw feather syndromeKnemidokoptes sp. mite infectionAir sac and tracheal mitesCanary poxDry gangrene of extremitiesMyeloproliferative diseaseEgg binding, egg-related peritonitisDyspnea (acute, inhaled seeds)Yolk emboliLymphocytosisEosinophilia with inflammationCataractsPlasmodium sp. and toxoplasmosis

CockatielsGiardiasis (in USA)Ascaridiasis in AustraliaMycoplasmosisSpirochetosisObesityIdiopathic neurologic dysfunctions Diabetes mellitusEgg-binding and egg-related peritonitisDyspnea (acute, inhaled seed)Yolk emboliEosinophilia with inflammationUpper respiratory sinusitis, conjunctivitisParalysis of lower eyelid, weak eye blinkMouth and tongue paralysis (esp. neonates)Yellow feathers in lutinos (hepatopathies)PancreatitisLiver failure - fatty liver, cirrhosis, neoplasia

CockatoosSelf-mutilation (feathers, skin)Psychotic behaviorIdiopathic liver cirrhosisTapeworm infestation (wild-caught)Blood parasites (recently imported)Proliferative foot lesions (herpesvirus)PododermatitisCere hypertrophy and occluded naresOral abscessesTrematode infestation (imported birds)ObesityLipomas (Rose-breasted and Sulphur-crested)Cloacal prolapse (idiopathic)Microhepatia

Corella, Short-billed and Long-billedAcute and chronic PBFD virusMalnutritionUpper respiratory tract infectionsBumblefoot and leg callusesAnti-social behaviorJealousy and aggression (breeding season)

Gang Gang CockatoosMalnutritionMetabolic bone disease (juveniles)

Feather picking, barbering and self-mutilationPBFD virus

Major Mitchell’s CockatoosPBFD virusAspergillosisSinusitisMetabolic bone disease in juvenilesPododermatitis and leg callusesFeather picking and barbering

RosellasPBFD virusFeather pickingAggression toward people and other birdsFlightinessPododermatitis (often severe)Motile protozoa (fatal intestinal disease)

ConuresBlack splotches in feathers (malnutrition, hepatopathy)Pacheco’s disease virus carriers (probably no more so than other South American species)PolyomavirusBleeding syndrome (erythemic myelosis)ScreamingFeather picking (severe)CannibalismPBFD virus Megabacteria Heat stressNeuropathic gastric dilatation

Eclectus ParrotsLead poisoning, biliverdinuriaFemale aggressivenessAnnular toe deformitiesFeather pickingCataractsPBFD virusPolyomavirusHypovitaminosis A

FinchesAir sac mites - GouldiansTapewormsTrichomoniasisBacterial infections (particularly susceptible)Egg bindingLymphocytosisForeign body constrictive toe necrosisDry gangrene of extremities

Frogmouths, Tawny (Australian captive)ErysipelasSubcutaneous white wormsNutritional deficiencies (vitamin B complex- responsive neurologic signs)Fatal pandemic convulsive syndromeObesity

Grey-cheeked Parakeets (Brotogeris sp.)Sarcoptiform mange (Metamicrolichus nudus)Chronic active hepatitis (E. coli)Normally high AST valuesMycobacteriosisChlamydiosisFeather picking refractory to therapyResistance to disease and stressScreamingNail trimming lameness

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appointment. The paper should then be brought withthe bird to the veterinarian.

A clean, padded cardboard box or carrying crate withadequate ventilation is suitable for most short peri-ods of transportation. The bird should be maintainedat an ambient temperature of 70° to 80°F and shouldnever be left unattended. Containers that have beenpreviously used to transport birds must be cleanedand sterilized before reuse (see Figure 2.17). Carry-ing containers constructed of wood should be usedonly once, because they are impossible to disinfect.Most birds travel quite well in dark, cool enclosuresand do not require, nor should they be given, tran-quilizers (see Chapter 7).

For safety, the bird should remain in some type ofsecure enclosure in the veterinarian’s waiting room.A bird that flies in the reception area is subject tosubstantial injuries.

The Home Environment

Quarantine

If a client already has companion birds, any newadditions to the household should be isolated (quar-antined) for six to eight weeks. The purpose of thequarantine period is to allow sufficient time for newlyacquired birds to exhibit clinical signs of disease andto prevent transmission of disease to other birds.During this quarantine period, the bird should beexamined by a veterinarian and any identified prob-lems should be corrected. It should be noted thatmany avian infectious diseases involve a carrier state(eg, PBFD virus, polyomavirus, Pacheco’s diseasevirus) and that quarantine alone is insufficient toensure that one of these diseases is not introduced toa home. As diagnostic tests become available to detect

TABLE 1.5 Common Diseases in Companion Birds by Species (continued)

KakarikiKnemidokoptes sp. (new species in feathers)PBFD virus

KookaburraObesity and fatty liver syndrome (excess fat)Vitamin B complex-responsive neurologic disordersGapeworm

King Parrots (Australia)Acute PBFD virus (juveniles)Chlamydiosis

LorikeetsHepatopathyPBFD virusFungal infectionsCoccidiosisAscaridiasisCestodesBacterial infectionsInjuriesNecrotic enteritis (possibly clostridial)

Lovebirds (Agapornis spp.)AggressionCannibalismPBFD virusPolyfolliculitisMegabacteriaHeat stressLovebird poxEpilepsy (idiopathic)Viral infectionsObstetrical problems (egg binding)Bilateral clenched foot syndromeCapillariasis

Self-mutilation “stress dermatitis” axillae, patagium and base of tail

MacawsAvian viral serositisNeuropathic gastric dilatationSensitive to doxycycline, trimethoprim, gas anestheticsBehavioral problemsCapillaria and ascarid infestation (imported birds)Feather cysts in Blue and GoldsOral and cloacal papillomatosisFeather picking and mutilationHerpesvirus feet lesionsSunken eye sinusitisAnnular toe deformities in young macawsPancreatic dysfunctionsCataractsPolycythemia in Blue and GoldsSensitive to vitamin D3Uric acid gout in young Blue and GoldsUpper respiratory tract infection and sneezingMalcolored feathers (turn black in Blue and Golds and miniature macaws)PolyomavirusMicrohepatiaCoagulopathies

Magpies, AustralianSoft pliable beaks and bones in juveniles (parathyroid gland dysfunction)Spiruroid throat wormsScaly leg mite (Knemidokoptes-like)

MynahsHepatopathiesIron storage diseaseCirrhosis of liver

Chronic active hepatitisCombination hepatopathyHeart diseaseEye diseases (corneal scratches, keratitis, chronic keratoconjunctivitis)Epilepsy (idiopathic)

Pionus ParrotsObesityMalnutritionRespiratory infectionsPoxvirus infection

ToucansHepatopathiesBacterial infectionsGiardiasisCoccidiosisBeak injuriesDiabetes mellitus (Toco Toucans)Iron storage disease

*This list is a guide to the most commonly re-ported clinical problems. All species dis-cussed are susceptible to malnutrition, bacte-rial infections, fungal infections and toxicities.All Psittaciformes are susceptible to Chlamydiasp. to varying degrees. Unless a species has aparticular propensity or a characteristic presen-tation, these problems are not mentioned.

Diseases mentioned may be common in somelocalities or bird populations, whereas thesame diseases are rarely encountered in otherlocalities or populations.

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subclinically infected birds, they should be inte-grated into the post-purchase examination procedure(see Chapter 6).

Enclosures

Enclosures for birds come in numerous shapes, sizes,styles and materials. Many are designed primarily toappeal aesthetically to the client but fail dismally toaddress the needs of the bird. The materials or de-signs of some enclosures may actually create a healthhazard for a bird (Table 1.6).

TABLE 1.6 Inappropriate Enclosure Designs

Bubble-shaped (domed plastic, usually with peat substrate)Small rectangular or cuboidal shapeShort or tall cylindrical shapes of small diameter (< 2 meters)Bamboo constructionHighly convoluted enclosures (ornately designed)Multiple crevices and hard to clean areasEnclosures that prevent full extension of the wingsStacked perches that result in fouling of the lower perchPerches placed so the bird fouls its water or food containerGalvanization (lead/zinc poisoning)Metal water containers soldered at the seams (lead poisoning)Copper fittings (copper poisoning)Internal hooks (trauma), sharp objects or sharp edgesFine, easily chewable mesh constructionLittle room to hop (preferably to fly) between two perches Overcrowded with toys and food containers (obesity)Difficult to clean or serviceUnpolished welds/brass “beads” (foreign body ingestion)Difficult access to the bird (small door)Insecure door latches.

Enclosures for companion birds should be as spaciousas possible, with emphasis on length more thandepth or height (Figure 1.2). The minimum size wouldallow a bird to spread its wings without touching the

sides of the enclosure. The enclosure should be cleanand easy to service and should be constructed of adurable, nontoxic material. Enclosures should beused to house the bird when no one is home and atnight; therefore, the enclosure should be secure andfree of potential traps. Gaps between sections of theenclosure can entrap toes, beaks or wing tips andshould be minimal in a well designed enclosure (Fig-ure 1.3). Newspaper, paper towels or paper bagsappear to be the best substances for the bottom of theenclosure. They are inexpensive, easy to clean and donot promote the growth of pathogens as do woodchips or ground corncob. Cedar, redwood and pres-sure-treated wood chips should not be used for sub-strate or nesting material in birds. The design of theenclosure should minimize the likelihood and possi-bility of a bird having access to its own or other birds’droppings.

Position of EnclosureA bird’s enclosure should be positioned so that atleast some of the perches allow the bird to be at orabove eye level of standing family members. Birdsare generally more secure at this level than lowerand are less likely to develop dominant or aggressivetendencies than if they are placed at higher levels.The enclosure should be positioned so that it par-tially receives direct sunlight on a daily basis andoffers a shaded area. Because a bird’s normal hormo-nal cycles are influenced by photoperiod, it is best forthe enclosure to be placed near natural lighting. Theneed to avoid drafts is exaggerated. Covering birds isdiscouraged because fresh air is more important thanbeing exposed to home lights. A bird is best kept inthe dark for sleeping.

FIG 1.2 Enclosures that are long and provide some room for exercise are preferable to enclosures that are extended in height. The extraheight of the enclosure creates no advantage for the bird. Doweling-type perches should be replaced with clean, nontoxic hardwood perchesof variable size (courtesy of Ross Perry).

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It is ideal for a companion bird to have a largeoutdoor enclosure in which it can be placed on aregular basis for exercise and exposure to fresh airand sunlight. An outdoor enclosure for a companionbird should be protected from extremes in weather aswell as from predators and rodents. The enclosureshould be securely placed on its fittings to preventmovement, and food and water supplies should beprotected from contamination by free-ranging birds.

PerchesPerches should be made from selected branches ofclean, nontoxic hardwood trees and shrubs that havenever been sprayed with pesticides or chemicals andare free from mold and wood rot. Variably sizedperches should be provided; those with small diame-ters allow the toes to almost touch when wrappedaround the perch and those with large diameterscause the feet to be flattened. The branches should beirregular in cross section, as opposed to cylindrical,to decrease the pressure placed on any one point ofthe foot and reduce the potential for bumblefoot.Bumblefoot is believed to be induced primarily bymalnutrition but may be aggravated by inappropri-ate or fouled perches. Providing chew toys may pre-

vent some birds from destroying a perch as quickly.Perches should be replaced frequently, especially iffouled by feces. Perches should not be positionedabove each other or above the food and water contain-ers (Figure 1.4). The use of concrete perches in com-bination with wood perches is becoming increasinglypopular and appears to be safe as long as the diet isbalanced and natural perching is also available.Sandpaper perches should never be used in a bird’senclosure. They have no effect on nail length andmay predispose a bird to foot problems.

AccessoriesOvercrowding the enclosure with toys and food con-tainers can be detrimental. Some birds will use and

FIG 1.3 Enclosures with gaps (particularly those that have a“spring” action) should be avoided. These areas of the enclosure canentrap toes, beaks or wings and result in fractures, concussions ordeath. Note the damage to the enclosure bars, indicating that thiswire was not of sufficient strength for the Amazon parrot it housed.

FIG 1.4 Perches should not be positioned over each other or overthe food and water containers. Note the excrement contaminatingthe lowest perches and the water containers. Additionally, thisenclosure does not have a grate, allowing birds access to their ownexcrement (courtesy of Ross Perry).

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seem to enjoy a swing but it should beplaced so that it does not obscure aflight or jumping path. If there is in-sufficient room for both proper perch-ing and a swing, the swing should beremoved. Food and water containersshould be placed in the enclosure toencourage and maximize activity in ahealthy bird; the water containershould be placed high at one end of theenclosure, and the food container lowat the other end of the enclosure. If abird is ill, food and water containersshould be easily accessed with a mini-mal expenditure of energy.

ToysAny toys available to a bird must befree of toxic metals, hooks, sharp objects or small,easily consumed components. Various gadgetry canbe placed in a psittacine’s enclosure to stimulateactivity and satisfy its natural tendency to chew. It isbest to have a collection of different toys that arechanged on a daily basis to keep a bird from becomingbored with any one type of toy. There is no qualitycontrol for the avian toy market, and the client mustbe acutely aware of potentially dangerous toys. Toysdesigned for small birds should not be used withlarger birds. In general, there is not one multiple-part toy that is 100% safe. There are some commontoy components that are more dangerous than oth-ers. These include snap-type clasps, open chainlengths and bell clappers that can be removed andswallowed. Safer toys have a screw-type clasp withclosed chain links (Figure 1.5). Most toys with a thinrope or substantial length of sheet chain should beprovided to a bird only while it is under direct super-vision. If left in an enclosure, a bird can become easilyentangled in these toys and die from asphyxiation(Figure 1.6). The most suitable toys for unsupervisedbirds include natural foods such as grass runners (eg,kikuyu, buffalo grass), various seed pods (eg,melaleuca, hakea, eucalyptus, callistemon and espe-cially banksia for larger cockatoos), liquid amber,pine cones, vegetables, apple cores, clumps or tufts ofgrass freshly sprayed with water and short lengths ofsoft wood with bark attached (especially if live beetlelarvae or borers are present). Any natural plant ma-terials provided to birds must not have been sprayedwith pesticides, chemicals or fertilizers. Fresh-cutbranches from unsprayed fruit trees or vines with thebark intact are favorite treats for birds.

MirrorsMany smaller birds housed alone are offered mirrors.Some mirrors contain mercury, which is toxic if con-sumed. Some properly made and designed glass andplastic mirrors are suitable for small birds but can bereadily demolished and consumed by large Psittaci-formes. Polished stainless steel mirrors are moresuitable for large birds. Sexual regurgitation of foodonto the mirror is common. If regurgitated debris isallowed to accumulate on or near the mirror, thedebris may become a source for exposure to fungus ormycotoxins. Windows and large mirrors in rooms

FIG 1.5 Unsafe toys have snap-type clasps, open chain links and easily consumable toxiccomponents. Toys that are safe for a bird under supervision have screw-type clasps andclosed chain links. Toys with long ropes or chains should not be left in the enclosure ofan unsupervised bird.

FIG 1.6 Some publications discuss the use of leg chains to restraincompanion birds. Chains can cause lacerations, fractures, concus-sions or death and should never be used with companion birds(courtesy of Ross Perry).

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where birds are allowed to exercise should be coveredto prevent inexperienced or startled birds from flyinginto these fixed objects causing severe head and necktrauma.

Hygiene and SanitationWith a companion bird, it is better to be fanaticalwith cleanliness rather than to rely on disinfectantsto prevent disease transmission in a dirty, contami-nated environment. Good hygiene involves the fre-quent cleaning of a bird’s enclosure and is far moreimportant in the prevention of disease than the useof disinfectants. Organic debris (food, excrement,feathers) must be physically removed before a disin-fectant will be effective. Water and food containersshould be physically scrubbed or placed in the dish-washer on a daily basis to prevent the accumulationof slime and algae.

Multiple layers of butcher’s paper, recycled computerpaper or newsprint can be used in the bottom of theenclosure. The soiled layer should be removed each dayand the entire enclosure should be thoroughly cleanedand dried in sunlight on a weekly basis. Clientsshould be advised to avoid the inhalation of moldspores and dried, aerosolized particles of excrement.

There has been some discussion of an increased riskof lung disease in clients that are exposed to compan-ion birds. The primary problems that have been re-ported are in association with the keeping of pigeonsin loft-type enclosures where fecal and food debrisare allowed to accumulate. One report that discussedan increased risk of lung cancer in association withthe keeping of companion birds did not address thetype of birds or adjust for exposure to cigarettesmoke. However, clients that maintain any type ofpet in the home should keep the pet’s living spaceclean and should ensure a fresh supply of air at alltimes. The addition of electrostatic-type air filters toa central air system can also reduce the amount ofanimal-related debris that is circulating in the air.Clients should always be encouraged to inform theirphysicians that they have companion birds. Thisinformation may be of value in diagnosing and treat-ing some zoonotic diseases.

When disinfectants are necessary, chlorine or glutaral-dehyde preparations are effective for most avianpathogens (see Chapter 2). Many disinfectants emittoxic fumes and should be used only with adequateventilation and never near a bird. Disinfectantsshould be thoroughly rinsed from an enclosure toprevent the bird from contacting residual compounds.

Home HazardsBirds that are allowed unrestricted access to thehome can encounter numerous physical dangers ortoxins (see Chapter 37).

Mixed Aviaries

Many species of birds are highly territorial or aggres-sive toward other species of birds and would not besuitable for a mixed aviary. Others may be compat-ible except during the breeding season. The dietarypreferences of some birds change during the breedingseason such that they may predate eggs and nest-lings from other birds. Some birds may appear quitecompatible during the day but become active andpossibly predatory at night.

The birds in established mixed flights develop apecking order or hierarchy that is likely to be upsetby the introduction of another bird, even if it is of acompatible species. This introductory period causesa substantial “stress” in the flock and may precipi-tate subclinical disease problems. It is best to planwell in advance the number and species of birdsintended for a mixed aviary and to introduce all thebirds to the facility at the same time. Almost cer-tainly there will be a need for multiple feeding anddrinking stations, each of which can be easily cleanedand accessed by the aviculturist. At least some ofthese feeding stations should be situated withinsmaller “trap-type enclosures” constructed withinthe large flights. The trap door is normally securedin an open position, but can be used to safely catch aparticular bird with minimal disturbance of the otherbirds. Mixed flight aviaries should be provided witha variety of sight barriers and retreat areas for thoseindividuals low in the pecking order. Each bird needsto have an area in which it can rest and feel secure.

Feeding and Watering Techniques

Healthy birds should always have a supply of clean,fresh, uncontaminated water. There is frequent dis-cussion concerning the use of chlorhexidine in thewater to reduce bacterial growth; however, in addi-tion to reducing bacteria in water, this agent alsoalters the normal microbial population of the gastro-intestinal tract (see Chapter 5). The routine additionof any disinfectant to a bird’s water should be dis-couraged. Water that has been “sitting” in plastic orcopper pipes can accumulate toxic levels of somechemicals, and pipes should be flushed for severalminutes before collecting drinking water. During the

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summer months, some city municipalities add disin-fectants and algae inhibitors to the water that can betoxic to birds and fish.

Many companion birds will readily adapt to a waterbottle, which is easier to clean and keep free of con-taminating food and excrement than a water bowl.The use of water bottles is encouraged in birds thatwill use them and not destroy them (see Figure 2.9).In general, medication should not be added to drink-ing water; this is particularly true when water bot-tles are used. If a medication settles out of solution,it will settle to the bottom of the bottle, which couldresult in a bird consuming toxic levels of a medication(see Chapter 17).

Birds should be provided fresh food in clean bowls ona daily basis. A combination of formulated diets (70%)supplemented with some fresh fruits and vegetables(30%) appears to keep a bird in the best health (seeChapter 31). Some companion bird clients allow theirpets to eat at the dinner table, by serving the birdfrom its own plate or by allowing the bird to roam thetable and sample whatever it chooses from the platesof family members. Other clients may hold food intheir lips and allow a companion bird to nibble at thefood. This practice should be discouraged. High levelsof salt and ingestion of some foods (chocolate, avo-cado) can be toxic (see Chapter 37).

GritWhether or not to provide soluble shell grit andinsoluble coarse sand grit to a bird is controversial.This practice is viewed with disfavor in the UnitedStates, especially if given free choice, which may leadto over-consumption and obstructive gastritis. InAustralia, grit is frequently offered to companionbirds with few ill effects; however, birds fed formu-lated diets are unlikely to need either insoluble orsoluble grit. As a compromise, a cockatiel-sized birdcan be offered five grains of grit biannually; a cocka-too-sized bird can be offered a half-teaspoon of gritbiannually. Cuttlefish bone may be provided as asupplemental source of calcium; however, with thewidespread availability of formulated diets, theseagents are no longer required to provide supplemen-tal calcium. Additionally, cuttlefish bone may accu-mulate high levels of toxins (particularly heavy met-als), and with the severe and continued degradationand pollution of the environment, this product maypose a health hazard to birds (see Chapter 37).

Seed bells that have been fashioned with wood glueshould not be offered to birds. Additionally, these

products may contain a wire loop or hook that is apotential health hazard. Mite protectors are not ef-fective for birds, and the constant exposure to theaerosolized toxins in these products may be a healthhazard. Effective therapy is available for the occa-sional bird that develops a mite infection (see Chap-ter 36). In nature, birds will sometimes be observedfeeding from sun-bleached, uncooked bones. Char-coal may be consumed by a bird when it is offered;however, it has been shown that charcoal can causea vitamin B deficiency and it should not be offered ona regular basis.

Preventive Care

Wing ClippingAdvantages and disadvantages exist for each of sev-eral methods for clipping the wings. The clinicianshould determine the client’s expectations of the ap-pearance and the reduced flight capacity of the birdprior to performing a wing clip. The client shouldauthorize the trimming or removal of any featherthat will alter the appearance or function of the bird,particularly with respect to show or racing birds. Itis important to identify and avoid any pin feathers(blood feathers, blood quills), as a developing featherthat is cut below the pulp cap will bleed profusely.

The goal of clipping the wings is to prevent the birdfrom developing rapid and sustained flight and not tomake a bird incapable of flight (Figures 1.7, 1.8). Abird that is unable to gain any lift with the wingsbecomes a free-falling object if it jumps from a highlocation. Excessive wing trims can result in fracturesof the legs, wings or lacerations of the keel (see Color8).

A bird will require additional trimming eight totwelve weeks after the start of a molt cycle. Wingclipping has been loosely associated with featherpicking and self-mutilation in species that are proneto this behavior (Gang Gang Cockatoos, MajorMitchell’s Cockatoos, Moluccan Cockatoos, Rose-breasted Cockatoos or rosellas); however, the rolethat feather clipping plays is unsubstantiated. Insmaller athletic birds, both wings may require clip-ping to reduce flight capacity.

Nail ClippingHealthy birds usually have strong, sharp nails thatcan be uncomfortable to the client when the bird isperching on the arm or shoulder. A short length (usu-ally about 2 mm) of the nail can be removed bytrimming or grinding without causing pain or bleed-

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ing (Figure 1.9). Sandpaper perches are contraindi-cated for birds and are not an alternative to nailtrimming. Short-blade podiatric nail clippers can beused to trim the tip of the nail with minimal risk ofaccidentally cutting adjacent toes.

Alternatively, a motor driven hobby grinder (prefer-ably with a rheostat foot switch) with a cone-shapedstone may be used for filing and shaping nails andbeaks (Figure 1.10). When using a grinder, it is easyto slowly reduce the length of the nail or beak and tostop at a point just before bleeding might occur. Anybleeding that does occur is best controlled with abipolar radiosurgical unit (beak), silver nitrate stick(nails) or Monsel’s solution (both). It is best not to usea silver nitrate stick around the beak. The silvernitrate deposited at the wound site can remain active

and cause caustic burns to the tongue or oral mucosa.The dust created by grinding the nails and beak is ahealth hazard and should be exhausted. The grind-ing stone and nail clippers should be sterilized be-tween birds.

BathingMany birds enjoy a bath or shower and should begiven the opportunity to determine the degree andduration of exposure to moisture. Frequent mistingencourages normal grooming activity, which is criti-cal to proper feather maintenance. After bathing,birds should have access to a warm, draft-free areato preen and dry. Some birds like a shallow containerin which to bathe, while others prefer a fine spray(clean misting bottle). Some smaller birds prefer tobathe in a wet clump of grass or wet salad greens.Some like to fly onto and off the client’s shoulder orhead while the client is having a shower.

Very few birds like to be physically placed in bathwater and washed. The few indications for manuallybathing a bird include the removal of oils, greases,waxes, paints, dirt and dried medications. Unless amaterial contaminating the plumage is toxic, it canbe removed a little at a time with repeated baths ofshort duration. This prevents the bird’s exposure toexcessive quantities of soaps and detergents (see

FIG 1.7 During the wing trimming process, the wing is held at theshoulder with the humerus in a fixed, extended position. Eachindividual feather is depressed with the scissors and cut below thecovert, being sure to miss any pinfeather shafts to avoid bleeding.An aesthetically pleasing wing trim can be performed by pushinga feather to be cut ventrally and then clipping the quill at a levelunder the wing covert feathers.

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Chapter 15). It may take months for birds that havebeen washed in soaps and detergents to regain thenormal color and water resistance of their plumage.

Medications or food particles that have dried andbecome encrusted on the feathers around the mouthare removed by pre-moistening the material, thengently washing with a cloth a few minutes later.

Identification Methods

Leg Band RemovalOpen leg bands should always be removed from com-panion birds. Some closed leg bands aid in the iden-tification of a bird and may suggest that the bird wascaptive-bred; however, they can constitute a healthhazard. Potential band-induced problems include en-trapment of the leg in the enclosure accessories or theaccumulation of a constrictive ring of keratin (usu-ally associated with malnutrition or Knemidokoptesmites) between the band and the leg that can lead toimpaired circulation and necrosis (Figure 1.11). Flatbands that are often too wide to comfortably ride onthe tarsal bone can lead to traumatic exosteal boneformation. Any details on the leg band should berecorded in the bird’s record prior to removal. Theclient’s consent should always be obtained before theband is removed. A highly prized breeding bird couldbe rendered almost valueless if its leg band is re-moved and no other form of identification (such as amicrochip) is available. A band that is removedshould be given to the client.

Bands are easiest to remove before they begin to

constrict the tissues. It is generally recommended toanesthetize a bird with isoflurane to ensure that aband is safely removed. This prevents the bird fromsuddenly moving during the band removal process,which can result in lacerations or fractures of the legdepending on the type of removal device used. Inremoving any band, it is important that forces beapplied to the band itself; pressure must not be ap-plied from any direction to the leg.

Small closed bands made of plastic or aluminum canbe easily transected with Heath-type stitch removingscissors (Figure 1.12). Two diagonally opposing cuts

FIG 1.8 In larger birds, clipping the secondaries and all but the most distal two or three primaries generally results in a bird that has someflight capabilities that allow it to float to the ground in a spiral fashion. In smaller athletic birds, both wings may require clipping to reduceflight capacity.

FIG 1.9 Nail trimming is most easily achieved using a motor drivenhobby tool.

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are made and the band falls off in two halves. Largesplit bands are easiest to remove by using two pairsof locking pliers to apply opposing force at the site ofthe opening. Attempting to cut large, open importbands can result in collapse of the band against theleg, resulting in bruising, lacerations or fractures(Figure 1.13). Additionally, the force placed on theband becomes uncontrolled at the point where thecutters fully penetrate the band, and undue stress isplaced on the leg.

Bands that are associated with constrictive accumu-lations of keratin (in-grown bands) can best be re-moved by using a variable speed hobby tool and a finetip cutting bit. The bird should be anesthetized andthe leg should be held by the individual using thehobby tool to prevent slipping of the tool or leg, whichcan result in severe laceration (Figure 1.14). Theconstrictive rings of accumulated keratin should beremoved by moistening them with skin softeners oraloe vera gel and gently peeling them away. A ban-dage or light splint may be necessary to support thebone if it has been weakened by the constrictingmaterial.

Closed bands are applied to developing neonates toindicate that the bird is captive-bred; however, this isnot reliable identification because closed bands mayalso be placed on free-ranging neonates in the nest,or chicks of free-ranging species can be close-bandedafter their eggs were stolen from the nest and carriedillegally to other countries. Closed leg bands can beof different colors and may have imprinted on thema variety of coded information. They are designed tobe worn permanently by the bird but can createproblems in some situations.

TagsNumerous shapes and sizes of tags have been appliedwith varying degrees of success to the wings, thepatagial membrane or backs of birds. This method ofidentification is used by field biologists in the studyof free-ranging birds and is rarely encountered withcompanion birds.

TattoosSpecific information placed in the skin of a bird bytattoo rarely remains legible. In practice, tattoos are

FIG 1.10 Beak trimming can best be accomplished using a motordriven hobby tool. Resting a finger on the beak or head can facilitatecontrol when trimming the upper beak. The lower beak can be mosteasily trimmed by placing the tip of the upper beak inside the lowerbeak.

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generally restricted to indicating the gender of a birdfollowing endoscopic evaluation of the gonads. Byconvention, tattoo ink injected into the left patagialmembrane indicates a female and in the right pata-gial membrane indicates a male (see Color 8). Thetattoo ink used should be sterilized to prevent the inkfrom serving as a nidus for bacterial granulomas.

MicrochipsMicrochips are small electronic devices that are in-jected into the musculature (usually, the pectoralmuscle of birds) to provide permanent identifica-tion. A radiograph can establish the presence andlocation of a chip (Figure 1.15). The microchips arecoded and the code can be read by use of an appro-priate reader (see Figure 2.1). Microchips are ofparticular use for establishing proof of ownership of

FIG 1.11 Closed bands that are too small can cause constrictive lesions or can lead to the accumulation of keratin debris under the band,which results in constriction. The leg of an Amazon parrot after removal of a band shows the constriction of the soft tissue (arrow), andbruising and swelling of the distal limb (open arrow).

FIG 1.12 Stitch removal scissors and flush cutting or diagonal cutters can be used to remove small aluminum or steel bands, respectively.

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birds that are likely to be stolen. The use of micro-chips is hindered only by their cost and the restrictedavailability of readers. Unfortunately, there is noindustry standard, and a single reader model cannotidentify all available microchips. Microchips can beinjected into the pectoral muscle of most birds with-out sedation or anesthesia, although given the op-tion, the author prefers to perform the procedure inan anesthetized bird. The public awareness of theimplantation of microchips into endangered birds orother populations that are susceptible to illicit trap-ping may act as a deterrent to illegal collection andmovement of these birds.

DNA FingerprintingDNA fingerprinting offers a technique for accuratelyidentifying an individual bird and, with proper sam-ples, identifying the bird’s immediate relatives. Stor-age banks for DNA collected from Psittaciformes arecurrently available in some countries. Collecting andstoring the information is relatively inexpensive, butthe manipulation or evaluation of the data is rela-tively expensive.

DNA fingerprinting may be of particular value instudying free-ranging birds for government officialsinvolved in the monitoring of local and internationalbird trade or for establishing genetic information onbirds in large aviaries or zoologic collections. In sev-

FIG 1.13 The easiest and safest way to remove open steel bands isto use two pairs of locking pliers to control the opposing force of theband’s opening. Attempting to use large bolt cutters to removethese bands can cause lacerations or fractures. Note that gainingsufficient purchase on the band with the cutters places opposingforce on the leg (arrow).

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eral legal cases, DNA fingerprinting was used toevaluate the lineage of birds. In one case in Europe,this technology was used to prove that a group ofbirds had been illegally imported, resulting in theproper criminal prosecution of a smuggler. In anothercase, DNA finger printing was used to disprove that

a pair of supposedly proven breeding birds had notbeen the parents of a neonate.

FIG 1.14 A hobby tool with a fine cutting bit is best for removingclosed bands that are constricting tissue. The patient should beanesthetized for the removal process and fluids should be con-stantly flushed over the band to prevent it from heating during thecutting process.

FIG 1.15 Radiographic appearance of a microchip implanted in thepectoral muscle of a companion bird.

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