Roman Masks

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Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 3 1992 57

Rom an face masks from the KopsPlateau Nijmegen TheNetherlandsW.J.H. Wil lems

Long before th eexcav ations instigated by the StateArchaeological Service(ROB)on the Kops Plateau inNijmegen began,1 th e area was a popular playgroundfor local children. In 1983, one of them found aseverely corrodedpiece of iron which had apparentlybeen brought to the surface by contractor digging.Despite its condition, the outlines of a human facewere clearly recognizable under th e corrosion, reasonenough for the finder to treat th e metal with some

care. Late in 1989 the object finally came into thehands of H.J.M. Meyers, head of restoration at theROB Am ersfoort, where i t could be examined in moredetail.The object is the iron mask from a two-piece facehelmet (Figs.l and 2). Though lacking part of thechin,thefaceisstill 15.1cm long an d about 14.3cm inwidth.T he sides ar ebadlycorroded,but it isclearthatth e mask never possessed th e ears which are a com-

Fig l Nijmegen: iron face maskfrom the Kops Plateau.


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Journal ofRomanM ilitary EquipmentStudies31992

Fig.2:1ron face maskfrom th eKopsPlateau.m on featureonmostof thecomparable helmetsofthiskind. A hinge at the centre of the forehead originallyjoined the mask to the brow of the skull-cap. Theabsence of ears suggests thatth e helmet would havebeen fittedwith cheek-pieces, even thoughn oattach-ment holes were discovered during the restoration.Suchholes are, forexample, visibleon themask fromVechten, one of the few helmets which is directlycomparable (Fig.3). Another similar mask is thespectacular recent find from Kalkriese nearOsnabrck.2The facial features, with a pronounced, ratherfleshy nosean dopen eyes areratherdifferent tothoseof the Vechten mask. The latter is also of iron,but iscovered by bronze sheeting.During the restorationprocess, there was a suspicion that the Nijmegenexample may have been silvered but the traces weretoo fleeting for any certainty to be obtained. It is,however, noticeable that most, if not all of the ironmasked helmets were originally either silvered ofbronzeplated.3When new, they would have madeafine display,flashing ingoldan dsilver.

Thisaccords well with their purpose, fortheywere

never intended for use in battle.These are the cavalrysports helmets, worn on parade and in displays armaturae).* Several hoards of more orless completesetsofsuch parade armour have beenfound, compris-ing helmets together with scale armour, greaves,phalerae an d horse chamfrons, in variouscombinations.5Although there is no reason to suspect that the newface mask from Nijmegen belonged to such a com-posite hoard, it is perhaps significant that this is thefourth of these relatively rare group of helmets to befound in Nijmegen. Two of the helmets are of thesame type as the Kops Plateau mask, withcompactfeatured, usually beardless, male faces and a hingeplaced centrallyon theforehead.6The finest specimenof this sort is displayed in the Provincial MuseumKam (Fig.4). It has a silvered bronze and iron skullan d still comprises a mask with browband, cheek-pieces an d neck guard, along with fragments of theiron casque.7This helmet wasfoundunder the railwaybridge on the south bank of the river Waal. Thesecond mask comes from th e Gildemeester collectionandwasdiscovered 'in the riverWaalnearNijmegen


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Journal ofRoman Military Equipment Studies 3 1992 59

Fig 3: Iron face maskfrom Vechten.

Fig 4: Silvered face mask from Nijmegen.


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Journal of RomanM ilitary Equipment Studies3 1992

Fig 5: Ironface mask with ornamentalhairstylefrom Nijmegen-Ubbergen.in the last century. This piece, which displays aremarkable similarity to the silvered helmet8is now intheNational Muse umof Antiquit iesinLeiden.

The third helmet from Nijmegen (Fig.5) is some-what different.9 It belongs to a category of 'wigged'or barber s model since they all possess elaborateand highly detailed hairstyles. Here the hinge islocatedat the top of the skull.T hem ask, which comesfrom the Guyot collection, has been in the possessionof the municipality since 1850 and was found inBeekmansdal at Ubbergen, at the foot of the Huner-berg. Inview of theaccepted Hadrianic to early-third-century date ofthese helmets, this maskisprobablytobe associated with one of the units stationed in thesecond-century fort.

The other three helmets are rather earlier in date.Such short-faced masks, lacking hair, appear from theAugustan period and last into the beginning of thesecondcentury .10 The twoNijmegenfinds areconsid-ered to be Flavian in date, an d that from Vechtenisdated to the second half of the first century. This isprobably also true of the new Kops Plateau mask,although in this case it is likely to date to beforeA.D.70.The Kops Plateau was the location chosen for asuccession of three early Roman mili tary camps,

datingfrom about 12 B.C. until the Batavian Revolt ofA.D.69 (Fig.6).11The find location of the helmet canbe fixed with a fair degree of certainty. Assumingithad not been greatly displaced, it was found in thearea j ust outsidethesouth-west corner of thecamp,inan as yet unexcavated part of the plateau. Dozens ofrefuse pits dating to theperiodof the camp have beenlocatedin theimm ediately adjoining areas w hich havealready been excavated. This is, unfortunately , notconclusive, since, although they have greatly thinnedout, the easternmost suburbs of the 10th legion scanabae legionis extend onto this part of the plateaufrom the fort on the Hunerberg.This settlement wasfounded shortly after A.D.70 and was occupied intoth esecondcentury.A helmet is, of course, by its very nature morelikely to belong to a specifically military context. Amask of the type has also been found in the earlylegionary c a m p of Haltern.12 In addition, as hasalready been ment ioned,th e mask belongs to a cav-alry helmet, which corresponds well to the generalcharacter of the finds from the Kops Plateau. Theexcavations have already produced large amountsofhorse gear, along with horse bones an d even aninscription mentioningaturma.^Inaddition,theface maskis no longer theonly on e


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Fig 6: Roman Nijmegen between 12B.C.andA.D.25:l legionary fortress on theH unerberg; 2. military campson th e Kops Plateau; 3. annex; 4. cemetery; 5. military camp at the Trajanusplein; 6. the early nucleus ofthe civilian settlementBatavodorum.The approximate f ind spots of the face masks are indicated by if .

from th e Kops Plateau. Dur ingth e preparationof thisarticle, the number of cavalry sports helmets hasincreased dramatically. Excavations during th e pastyear have yielded no less than three virtually completespecimens from the centre of the camp (Fig.7). Theseare still undergoing restoration. Two complete hel-mets were found together in a small pit in the cornerof a building. Presumably they were deposited thereby a cavalry officer an d never retrieved. In any case,they were carefully hidden and the helmet belongingto one of the three face masks on Figure 8 was pro-vided with an unique and beautifully decorated clothcover, preserved by theiron-oxides of thehelmet.The n u m b e r of sports helmets from Ni jmegenhasnow reached seven, and it is quite likely that furtherdiscoveries will bemade in thethree years th eexcava-tions have still left to run: work will go on unti lSeptember 1995. So far, apart from the helmets withface masks , th eremainso f some 20other iron helm etshave been found. Unfor tunately th e condi t ion of theiron is sopoor that restoration is impossible. Bronze

helmets have not been found at all. Several of theidentifiable iron specimensare probably also cavalryhelmets.In this context it is of interest to mention some ofthe more exceptional finds of the previous years.14Amongs t the dozens of strap terminals and harnessmounts, the silvered and nielloed bronze pendants ofFigure 8 deserve mention. These trifid mounts aretypical of the horse harness illustrated on Figure 10 .They could also be suspended from the phaleraeserving as strap junctions or as decorative mounts onth e harness. Comparable, though undecorated andusually smaller, pendants are regularly found amongs tth e excavated material . However, th e specimensillustrated, which were found close together, areunlikely to have formed a work-a-day set, and bearcomparison with th e well -known hoard from th eRhineatDoorwerth.15Another exceptional find is formed by two bronzesaddle horns (Fig.9) found together in a pit. The setcomprises th efront and therear h orn, belongingto the


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62 Journal of Rom anMilitary Equipment Studies3 1992

Fig 7: Three ne wface masks from the Kops Plateauat therestoration laboratory of the ROB.leftsideof thesaddle.16Both horns have sewing holesaround theedges and a circular aperture at the base.Again, these are notisolateditems: there is also a lonefront horn, but of much greater significance is therecent discovery of a complete set of four decoratedhorns.17Finally, mention should be made of a special formof horse control, namelythehackamore,five ofwhichhave already been identified. Figure 11 illustrates adecorated specimen.Thehackamore, w hich could alsobe used in combination with a conventional bit , isrelatively common in military contexts. No less thanseven are known from th e legionary camp of Hal-tern.18 Despite numerous depictions there is still noconsensus on the mannerinwhichthehackamore wasused.19 Its function is , however, clear enough. Themetal slides over th e horse s muzzleand it could fo rinstancebe fitted on ahorsewithatender m outhso asto avoid using a bit. But incom bination with a bit, itconsiderably strengthens the rider s control over hismount.This is the arrangement favoured here, and in

th ereconstruction drawing Figure 10.20 An additionalparallel from modern dressage riding may also berelevant: the use of a hackamore gives the rider firmcontrol even when using only one hand on the reins.For a R oman ca valry ma n carrying both shield an dlance this consideration must have been of paramountimportance.The metalfindsreviewed here m ake it clear thatatany rate the early Roman camps on the Kops Plateausheltered a mounted contingent of considerable size,althoughwhether legionary cavalryor an auxiliary a/aare concerned remains uncertain. Indeed, the campcould well have been used by both since it was drasti-cally reconstructed on several occasions. For thepresent it isassumed thatatleastthe first of theseriesof defences was constructed for a legionary detach-ment. In part, this conclusion is based on the presenceof an exceptionally large building which may beinterpreted as a praetorium.2^ On the other hand, th elater camps could just as well have been intended tohouse auxiliary troops. Hopefully,the excavations of


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Journal of R o m a n Military Equipment Studies 3 1992 63

Fig.8: Silvered and nielloed bronze pendants scale 1:1.th e coming years will clarify the situation as regardsth e fort occupation.NOTES1. See WILLEMS, 1990, 23-30; 1991b and the annualreports of the ROB for 1986 onwards.2. For the description see KL UM BA CH , 1974, 64 andTa f.49. The ma sk is also discu ssed in KAL EE , 1989, inconjunction with several ne w helmets from Vechten.Kalkriese: F R A N ZI U S ,1991.3. YP EY, 1966, 197; GA RB SC H, 1978, 16;F R A N ZI U S ,1991.4. Se e GARBSCH, 1978, 3 and 35-7. An exampleof the

use of face helmets occurs in the Taktika of FlaviusArrianus,whichwas written inA.D.I36.5. For asummary seeGARB SCH, 1978.6. KO HLE RT, 1978, type 1.7. Fordetails,see YPEY, 1966, 189-96.8. KL UM BA CH , 1974, 62-3. Se e also BRAAT, 1939.9. KOH LERT, 1978, type 5. For details see YP EY , 1966,187-9.10. KOHLERT, 1978,20-1.11 . Se e note 1.12. GAR BSCH , 1978, 62, nr.O-1. Seealso KROPATSCH-ECK, 1909, 351, nr.12 an d Taf.39.2. This specimen isno tlisted inKlum bac h's (1974) catalogue.

13. See WILLEMS, 1990, 25(withillustrations).14 . This is only a random selection of some of the moreimportant objects which have passed through the ROB

conservation department. Th e vast majority of finds stillawaittreatment.15. See BRO UW ER, 1982. An overview is given byBIS HO P, 1988, 96-8.16. For atypology anddiscussion see BIS HO P, 1988, 91-2and 127-8.17. For the reconstruction see G R O E N M A N - V A N W A A -TERINGE, 1967, 114-20; BISHOP, 1988, 113;CONNOLLY VAN DRIEL -MUR RAY , 1991; JUNK -E L M A N N , 1992, 34ff.18. A S S K A M P , 1987. For a general treatment see TAY-LOR, 1975.19 . See BISHOP, 1988; PALAGYI, 1989; SCHWINDEN,1987; and JUNKELMANN, 1992, espec. 24-34, contraTAYLOR, 1975; G R O E N M A N - V A N W A A T E R IN G E ,1979; an d ASSKAMP. 1987. Lawson (nee Taylor)corrected her earlier statement (TAYLOR, 1975) inLAWSON, 1978, 143.20. Following BISH OP, 1988 and the depiction in the roundfrom Trier discussed by SCH W IND EN , 1987.21. W ILLEM S, 199 la.

BIBLIOGRAPHYA S S K A M P 1987: R. Asskamp, 'Ausgrabungen 1985 imrmischen Hauptlager Hal tern , Flavusstrae ' , Aus-

grabungen un dFunde in W estfalen-Lippe 5,205-19BISHOP 1988: M.C. Bishop, 'Cavalry equipment of theRoman armyin the first century A.D.', in J.C. Coulston


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Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 3 1992

Fig 9: Bronze saddle horns, scale 1:3.(ed.), Military Equipment and the Identity of RomanSoldiers, BARInternational Series394,Oxford,67-195B R AAT 1939: W.C. Braat, 'Romeinsche helmen in hetRijksmuseum van Oudheden' , Oudheidkundige Mede-delingen uit het Rijksmuseum van Oudheden 20,2946B R OUWER 1982: M. Brouwer, 'Rmische Phalerae un danderer Lederbeschlag aus demRhein ' , OudheidkundigeMededelingen uit het Rijksmuseum van Oudheden 63145-99CONNOLLY VAN DRIEL-MURRAY 1991:P.Connollyand C. vanD riel-Murray, The Roman cavalry saddle',Britannia 22,35-50VA N DRIEL-MURRAY 1989: C. van Driel-Murray (ed.),Roman Military Equipment: the Sources of Evidence,BA RInternationalSeries476,OxfordFRANZIUS 1991: G. Franzius, Die Maske eines Gesichts-helms ' , in W. Schlter (ed.), Rmer im OsnabrckerLand. DieAusgrabungen inKalkriese,Bramsche,53-9GARBSCH 1978: J. Garbsch, Rmische Paraderstungen,Mnchener Beitrge zu r Vor-un d Frhgeschichte 30 ,Mnchen

GROENMAN-VAN W A A T E R I N G E 1979: W . Groenman-va n Waater inge, 'Zwei K appzu me oder Hebelarm-Hackamoren aus ugst' , Jahresberichte aus ugst undKaiseraugst1972-1975 ugst ,101-16HYLAND 1990:A. Hyland,Equus. Th e Horse in the RomanWorld, LondonJUNKELMANN 1992: M . Junkelmann, Die Reiter Roms. TeilIII: Zubehr, Reitweise, Bewaffnung, MainzKALEE 1989:C .A.Kalee, 'Roman helmets and other militariafrom Vechten' , in VAN D R I E L - M U R R A Y ,1989,193-226K LU M B A CH 1974: H. Klumbach , Rmische H elme ausNiedergermanien, Kuns t un d Altertum am Rhein 51BonnKOHLERT 1978:'Typologie und Chronologie der Gesichts-masken ' ,inGAR B SCH, 1978, 19-28KROPATSCHECK 1909: 'Ausgrabungen bei Haltern. DieFundstcke de r Jahre 1905-1907 , Mitteilungen de rAltertumskommissionfr Westfalen S,323-75LAWSON 1978: A.K.Lawson, 'Studien zum rm ischenPferdegeschirr', Jahrbuch de s Rmisch-Germanischen


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Fig 1 : Reconstruction of aTiberio-Claudian horse harness after BISHOP, 1988).

Fig ll Decorated bronzehackamore scale 1:2.


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66 Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 3 1992Zentralmuseums Mainz 25,131-72PALGYI 1989: S. Palgyi, 'Rekonstruktionsmglichkeitende r Pferdegeschinfunde au s Pannonien', in VANDR IEL-MUR R AY,1989, 123-42SCHWINDEN 1987: L. Schwinden, Zur Tragweise de rMetallhackamore be i rmischen Pferden', Funde un dAusgrabungen im Bezirk Trier 19 36-41T AYLOR 1975: A.K .Taylor, 'Rm ische Hackamoren un dKappzume au s Metall , Jahrbuch de s Rmisch-Ger-manischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 22,106-33WILLEMS 1990:W .J.H. Willems, Romeins Nijmegen. Vier

eeuwen stad en centrum aan de W a a l ,Historische ReeksNijmegen 2, UtrechtWILLEMS 1991a: W.J.H. Willems, Oorzaak en gevolg va neen opgraving, inaugural lecture, LeidenWILLEMS 1991b: W.J.H. Willems, 'Early Roman camps onthe Kops Plateau atNijmegen' , in V.A.Maxfield M.J.Dobson (eds.), Roman Frontier Studies 1989 Exeter,210-14YPEY 1966:J. Ypey, Twee viziermaskerhelmen uit Nijme-gen', Numaga13 187-99

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