Roedel - LCA of Protein Soil Composites

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If applicable, page number will go here after aggregating all papers

Proceedings of the International Symposium on

Sustainable Systems and Technologies, v2 (2014)

Life Cycle Assessment of Protein-Soil Composites for

Sustainable Construction

Henning Roedel PhD Candidate, Stanford University, [email protected] Aubuchon Graduate Student, Stanford University, [email protected] Desai Graduate Student, Stanford University, [email protected] Grey Graduate Student, Stanford University, [email protected] Havelia Graduate Student, Stanford University, [email protected] Nowacki Graduate Student, Stanford University, [email protected] LepechAssistant Professor, Stanford University, [email protected] J. Loftus Medical Officer, NASA Ames Research Center, [email protected]

Abstract. The results of a life cycle analysis (LCA) are presented for a novel biocompositematerial that is under investigation by NASA for the purpose of construction on planetarysurfaces. The material consists of soil particles solidified by the addition of a protein bindingagent. Preliminary compressive strength data suggests the biocomposite could be used forconstruction on earth. To assess the biocomposites potential for use in more sustainableconstruction a comparative process-based LCA between biocomposite bricks and concretepavers was performed to analyze the embedded energy and greenhouse gas emissions of bothtypes of bricks. In order to account for economies of scale, a functional unit of ten thousand 12inch by 12 inch by 1.5 inch pavers was chosen. Analysis of both types of bricks included rawmaterial acquisition, material processing, manufacturing and end of life disposal/recycling aswell as transportation between phases. The manufacture of biocomposite bricks assumed themixing of protein binder with water and soil, followed by the formation of bricks using ahydraulic press. The use phase was not analyzed due to limited data on the service life of thebiocomposite material. The software package SimaPro was used to construct the life cycleinventories of the two brick designs as well as to analyze their impacts using the IMPACT 2002+ methodology. Results show that the concrete bricks outperform the biocomposite by a factorof 8 in initial impact. However, biocomposite bricks reduce their life cycle impact by 94% whenrecycling scenarios are taken into account. Analysis of the LCA results for the biocompositepoint to the purification of the protein binder as a significant source of emissions, whichcontribute 80% of the environmental impact of the composite. Based on these results,recommendations include switching to a mixture of proteins, i.e. a lower grade, to reduce thebiocomposite impact as well as further laboratory investigations into recycling scenarios of thematerial.

Proceedings of the International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technologies (ISSN 2329-9169) is

published annually by the Sustainable Conoscente Network. Melissa Bilec and Jun-Ki Choi, [email protected].

Copyright 2014 by Henning Roedel, Patricia Aubuchon, Satej Desai, Flavia Grey, Pratyush Havelia, CarolineNowacki, Mike Lepech, and David Loftus Licensed under CC-BY 3.0.

Cite as:

Life cycle assessment of protein-bonded composites for sustainable construction, Proc. ISSST, H. Roedel, P.

Aubuchon, S. Desai, F. Grey, P. Havelia, C. Nowacki, M. Lepech, and D.J. Loftus. http://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.1157525.v2 (2014)
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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Life cycle assessment of protein-bonded composites for sustainable construction


Introduction

Materials production is a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions. As an example,cement production accounts for 5% of global anthropogenic CO2emissionsalong withsignificant levels of SO2, NOx, particulate matter and other pollutants (Hendriks et al.1998;Worrell et al.2001). Moreover, the mining, manufacturing, and transportation of other concrete

components (i.e. sand, aggregates, supplementary cementitious materials, admixtures) createsadditional burdens in the form of CO2emissions, SO2 emissions, NOxemissions, particulatematter releases, and other impacts (Keoleian et al.2005). Following this pattern, theproduction flows for many materials that form the foundation of our modern economy (i.e.cement, silicon, steel) are energy-intensive, consume raw materials in an inefficient manner,and are emissions-intensive in nature. In response, research and development of moresustainable materials and processes are being suggested from a wide variety of disciplines andindustries.

NASA Ames Research Center has started to examine materials and means that could enableconstruction on planetary surfaces. Building materials that could be manufactured largely fromresources available at the destination could provide a substantial benefit to NASA, by greatly

reducing or even eliminating the requirement to launch these materials into space (Bodiford etal.2006). The solution, is the use of soil, or regolith, from the surface, mixed with water andproteins, produced in situ, to fabricate a brick or other building products. Recent laboratoryexperiments have shown that the mixture of bovine serum albumin with lunar regolith simulant,JSC1A, form a composite strong enough for use on earth (Roedel et al.Accepted). Themotivation for this study is to determine whether altering and scaling the laboratory process forearth based construction could potentially have fewer environmental impacts than traditionalcement-based construction materials.

To evaluate large scale manufacture of products, like cement, life cycle assessment (LCA) is avaluable tool for understanding the environmental impacts. LCA can be applied to both productsand processes to help identify sources of pollution or to compare products using the same

functional unit. As defined by the International Standards Organization 14040 document, thereare four steps to performing an LCA: 1) goal definition and scoping, 2) inventory analysis, 3)impact assessment, and 4) interpretation. The remainder of this paper will go through thisprocess.

Goal and Functional Unit

The goal of this study is to compare resource depletion and climate change impacts of cementbased pavers used for sidewalk construction versus the protein based approached beingdeveloped at NASA. The functional unit is defined as 10,00012in by 12in by 1.5in paverbricks (Nantucket Pavers Patio-on-a-Pallet 2014), which is chosen in order to captureeconomies of scale for protein production that are already accounted for in cement based brick

production. Additionally, the use of a volume definition, rather than mass definition, allows thedifferences in product composition to contribute to the LCA.

Methodology

In this paper, a comparative process-based LCA was implemented to determine theenvironmental impacts of concrete vs. protein-soil pavers (biocomposite bricks) based on theaforementioned functional unit. The LCA was modeled using the SimaPro 7.2 software packageand inventory data from the following databases: Eco-Invent 2000, Franklin Associates USA 98,


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and BUWAL 250. The following subsections describe scope, method of assessment, and thematerials and processes used to model and assess the inventory.

The scope of the LCA includes material extraction, material processing and purification, pavermanufacturing, and disposal as well as transportation between cradle-to-gate phases. The usephase is specifically not included as there is little data, laboratory or otherwise, to predict the

performance of the biocomposite paver. Figure 1 depicts the scope of the LCA.

The IMPACT 2002+ methodology was used to determine a single point impact score from themodeled life cycle inventories. The IMPACT 2002+ assessment was chosen due to its robustcharacterization of over 1500 different life cycle inventory results, as well as its assessment ofgreenhouse gas emissions and resource depletion, which are key metrics in addressing theissues outlined in the introduction of this paper (Jolliet et al.2003).

Figure 1: LCA Scopes of Cement and Protein Bound Pavers. Modeled scope of the two paver materials, dashedboxes were excluded from the analyses. Data sources of the items within the scope of the model originate fromavailable databases, laboratory studies, and literature.

Concrete Paver Inventory Analysis

The concrete paver was modelled using a lightweight concrete block, with an expanded clayaggregate included in the Eco-Invent database (Frischknecht et al.2005). The mass of each


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paver was calculated assuming a density of 2,055kg/m3, which equates to 7.3kg per paver. Thetotal mass modelled using the lightweight concrete block is therefore 72,727kg.

Biocomposite Paver Inventory Analysis

The biocomposite paver is modeled as a mixture of regolith, protein, and water at the following

ratios 13:1:2.5 respectively. This ratio is based on data collected during laboratory experimentsusing JSC1A lunar regolith simulant (Orbitec), and bovine serum albumin (BSA) protein (Sigma

Aldrich). Thus the mass of regolith, BSA, and water required to meet the functional unit was59,750kg, 4570kg, and 11390kg respectively. The next subsections describe the manufacture ofJSC1A and BSA respectively.

The manufacture of the biocomposite involves mixing, forming, and drying the three constituents.The process was modelled using a DASION JS1500 concrete batch plant mixer and a hydraulicDY-150TB brick molding machine. Paver desiccation was assumed to be a passive evaporativeprocess and was not modeled. For both mixing and molding only power consumption wasmodeled using the Franklin USA power grid mix. Calculations are included in Appendix A.

JSC1A Inventory Analysis

The production of JSC1A lunar regolith simulant was commissioned by NASA for the purposesof preserving Apollo return samples while promoting research and development for technologiessuch as the biocomposite in this study. Orbitec, Inc. located in Madison, WI oversees themanufacture and distribution of JSC1A. Basaltic material is sourced from the San Franciscovolcano near Flagstaff, AZ, and is then hauled to a jet milling facility in Richardson, TX to reducethe particle size distribution to that of lunar mare regolith. Once milled to the appropriate size,the material is sent to the Orbitec warehouse where it is packaged and distributed. For thepurpose of this LCA, JSC1A was chosen as the soil component of the biocomposite brick, withthe understanding that a wide variety of terrestrial soils or sand may in fact be more practical ifthe technology were to be adopted for use on earth.

The source material was modelled in SimaPro using an Eco-Invent module. The jet millingenergy and transport are also included modules from the Franklin Associates USA 98 database.Calculations are included in Appendix B.

BSA Inventory Analysis

Serum albumin is the most abundant protein in blood plasma, accounting for approximately 50%of the total protein, and over 3% of the total blood mass (Duarte, et al.1999). The production ofpurified bovine serum albumin follows a series of precipitation and centrifugation steps toseparate it from red blood cells and other proteins found in the plasma. Figure 2 below, adoptedfrom Proliant Biologicals, Inc. (Ankey, IA), depicts a purification process commonly referred to

as the heat shock method, which was used as the basis for the BSA model. The method fromProliant Biologicals was chosen because of its industrial scale and large BSA production marketshare.

The heat shock process was broken down and modeled as seven steps: 1) red blood cell andlipid separation, 2) transport to Ankey, IA (the location of the Proliant Biologicals plant), 3)removal of immunoglobulin, 4) heat shock, 5) filtration, 6) lyophilization, and 7) transport toMountain View, CA.


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A key assumption in this model excludes the embedded impacts associated with the bovineprotein source. This assumption was made due to the small amount of albumin that constitutestotal bovine mass, roughly 0.2% (Alberghina et al.2011), and the fact that cows are not raisedfor albumin production. Due to the proprietary nature of the process, several sources for eachstep were referenced in order to qualify assumptions in the modeling process. Plant andinfrastructure were not included in the model because the throughput of the Proliant Biologicals

factory is unknown. The calculations and their references for heat shock purified BSA areincluded in Appendix C.

Figure 2: Bovine Serum Albumin Heat Shock Purification Process. The process for separating and purifying BSA

from a solution of bovine plasma as used by Proliant Biologicals, Inc.

Disposal Scenario Inventory Analyses

The disposal of the cement-based bricks assumes the majority (95% or 9,500 bricks) would becrushed and recycled to be used as aggregate, with the remainder sent to landfill to account forlosses during recycling. The impacts for crushing the pavers are modeled using a rock crushingmodule from the Eco-Invent database.

The biocomposite disposal scenario reflects the recyclability of both the soil and the protein,since the protein is readily soluble in water and can easily dissociate from the soil particles.Once submerged, rotary mixed, and centrifuged, 95% of the protein and regolith, can be reused

for new biocomposite. The disposal scenario assumes the remaining 5% of protein and soil issent to landfill. Energy of the mixer and centrifuge and 11390kg of water are modelled as part ofthis process. The energy calculations assume the use of the same type of centrifuge and mixerused in the production of BSA and can be found in Appendix C.

Impact Assessment

Results were obtained from the SimaPro 7.2 LCA software, where the inventories of the cementand biocomposite pavers were modeled. Figure 3 shows the life cycle single point scores for the


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cradle to gate phases and additional life cycles of the two materials based on the IMPACT2002+ impact assessment methodology. The values of the single point scores, climate damage,and energy resource damage for the cement and biocomposite pavers are shown in Table 1.Network flow diagrams depicting the single score impacts of the cement paver andbiocomposite are included as Appendices D and E respectively.

Figure 3: Life Cycle Models of Cement and Protein bound Pavers. (Left) Cradle to gate single point score

comparison of the lightweight concrete paver and the biocomposite paver. (Right) Life cycle single point scorecomparison over several cycles of the concrete and biocomposite pavers. Scores were determined using the

IMPACT 2002+ impact assessment methodology.

The majority of impacts from the pavers stemmed from the manufacturing phase. For thebiocomposite, the largest contributions to its impact are generated during the protein purificationstages, with the largest share, 39%, coming from the energy needed to freeze dry the protein.By comparison the production of JSC1A contributes roughly 27% of the biocomposite impacts.The biocomposite material end-of-life scenario, greatly improves the impact score, reducing it bynearly 95% as the majority of the proteins and JSC1A can be reused. With this impactreduction, RBCs will outperform cement pavers after 14 life cycles. For the cement basedpavers, however, nearly the entirety of the impact stems from the production of the bricks.

Table 1: Impact Assessment of Cement and Biocomposite Pavers. Scores and values were determined using theIMPACT 2002+ impact assessment methodology.

Cement PaverBiocomposite

(Cradle to Gate)

Biocomposite(Cradle to Gate

after reuse)

Single Point Score 8.5 69.7 3.7

Climate Damage (kg CO2-eq)

30,800 180,000 9,600

Energy Resource Damage(MJ Primary Energy)

362,000 2,390,000 129,000

Interpretation and Conclusion

One of the outcomes of this LCA is to identify areas for further research and development forthe RBC material. From the results, it is clear that without the reuse of the protein and soilconstituents, RBC would not be a useful contribution to construction. The realization of a cradle-to-cradle life cycle relies on the ability of the BSA protein to readily re-solubilize into water evenafter RBC manufacture (Giacomelli and Norde 2001), which allows for separation of theconstituents. The timing of this desorption process, however, must be controlled in order to


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maintain the strength of the composite. Two such control approaches are suggested; the first isto apply an exterior coating or admixture to protect the protein from contact with water; and thesecond is to apply a heat treatment (>65oC) to irreversibly denature solvated protein moleculesmaking them insoluble. Such approaches would be best studied with the use of aweatherometer in order to simulate the use phase environmental conditions of the life cycle.Subsequent experiments of the separation and purification of the two constituents would need to

follow, whereupon an updated LCA model can be analyzed.

Beyond the reuse of the protein, results from the LCA highlight the large impacts associated withthe use of BSA and JSC1A, which were initially chosen for space exploration research. For useon earth, the formulation of RBC will change to incorporate lower impact constituents. As anexample, the transport of JSC1A contributed 16% of the overall impact of RBC, thus choosing alocal source of aggregate will significantly reduce this outcome. Another example is thelyophilization of BSA, which contributed 39% to the overall impact of RBC. There are, however,other methods of obtaining BSA, albeit in a less pure form, that have a lower environmentalimpact; such as spray-drying. Changing the formulation of RBC will require additional laboratoryinvestigation to ensure the resulting strength satisfies construction standards, however theexpectation is that these changes can significantly reduce the biocomposites impact.

In highlighting the technical challenges to RBC production, this LCA has also introducedbusiness challenges that warrant discussion. The foremost challenge, which stems again fromthe cradle to cradle approach, is to determine what business models (if any) that cansuccessfully incorporate the end-of-life scenario proposed in the LCA? An adequateinvestigation into the reuse of constituents will require experimentation with service andlicensing business models. Initial research has shown little precedent for cradle to cradleproducts available in the building construction industry, thus addressing this question may provebeneficial for other similar technologies. Another economic challenge is a question of scalability;whether the constituent materials are available in large quantities? The assessment ofscalability will be based on the aggregate formulation of RBC as limited quantities of JSC1Aexist. The availability of BSA however does not seem to limit RBC production as an estimated

maximum annual production of BSA is 28.9x106kg (Holocomb 2013), which is three orders ofmagnitude greater than what was assumed in the LCA. The further investigation of businessmodels and scalability will lead to changes in the LCA model of RBC, as is the case withchoosing an aggregate available in large quantities, and requires further investigation.

This report presents, for the first time, an LCA for the production and utilization of albumin at anindustrial scale. Furthermore it compares the impacts of using albumin proteins versus cementin building product (paver) production. Our results show that the protein-based product has 43%of the impact of the concrete-based product, when recycling is taken into account, owing to theexcellent solubility of the binding proteins in water. However there is a relatively high uncertaintyin this assessment as much of the data is predicated on laboratory experiments, which do notalways translate when scaled up. A prime example is the mass production of the JSC1A lunar

regolith simulant which is produced in limited quantities on an as-needed basis. Furthermore,since there is no data on the durability of the biocomposite over time, the LCA does not accountfor the use phase of the pavers. The value of the LCA lies in guiding future research anddevelopment activities to further reduce environmental impacts of the RBC material.

For terrestrial use, further development of the biocomposite technology is needed, with effortaimed at developing strategies for protecting the product from precipitation and other sources ofwater, to help ensure durability, while maintaining the beneficial recyclability. The LCA alsopoints to the need to reduce impacts associated with production of the protein binder. The use of


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less stringently purified blood proteins, or the use of protein mixtures, should go a long waytoward addressing this issue. Finally, the terrestrial application of this technology will benefitfrom the use of locally acquired soil or sand, rather than the lunar soil simulant (JSC1A)developed by NASA. If the desirable properties of the product can be maintained when locally-acquired soil or sand is used, manufacturing impacts and transportation impacts can beexpected to drop significantly.

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Blood Plasma. 2014. MatWeb, LLC. Accessed April 28.http://www.matweb.com/search/datasheet.aspx?matguid=050739e6b6444699a8ec223a000137fd.

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Chang, C.E. 1993.Albumin Purification. Google Patents.http://www.google.com/patents/US5250662.

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http://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB04519.Duarte, Renata T., Miriam C. Carvalho Simes, and Valdemiro Carlos Sgarbieri. 1999. Bovine

Blood Components: Fractionation, Composition, and Nutritive Value. Journal ofAgricultural and Food Chemistry47 (1): 23136. doi:10.1021/jf9806255.

Elert, Glenn. 2014. Density of Blood. Hypertextbook.com. Accessed April 28.http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2004/MichaelShmukler.shtml.

Evans, Joe. 2014. Centrifugal Pump Efficiency - Whate, How, Why & When? Pump-FloSolutions. Accessed April 28. http://pump-flo.com/pump-library/pump-library-archive/joe-evans,-phd/centrifugal-pump-efficiency-what,-how,-why-when.aspx.

Frischknecht, Rolf, Hans-Jrg Althaus, Christian Bauer, Christian Capello, Gabor Doka, Roberto

Dones, Roland Hischier, et al. 2005. Documentation of Changes Implemented inEcoinvent Data v1.2. ecoinvent report No. 16. Dbendorf: Swiss Centre for Life CycleInventories. http://www.ecoinvent.org/fileadmin/documents/en/16_Changes_v1.2.pdf.

Giacomelli, Carla E., and Willem Norde. 2001. The AdsorptionDesorption Cycle. Reversibilityof the BSASilica System. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science233 (2): 23440.doi:10.1006/jcis.2000.7219.

Hendriks, Chris A, E Worrell, D De Jager, K Blok, and Pierce Riemer. 1998. EmissionReduction of Greenhouse Gases from the Cement Industry. In , 93944.


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Holocomb, Rich. 2013.Agricultural Statistics 2013. Washington, D.C.: United StatesDepartment of Agriculture.http://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/Ag_Statistics/2013/Agricultural_Statistics_2013.pdf.

Hydraulic DY-150TB Cement Paver Brick Molding Machine. 2014. Alibaba.com. AccessedMay 5. http://sddymachine.en.alibaba.com/product/1109418936-

219484791/Hydraulic_DY_150TB_Cement_paver_brick_molding_machine.html.Jolliet, Olivier, Manuele Margni, Raphal Charles, Sbastien Humbert, Jrme Payet, Gerald

Rebitzer, and Ralph Rosenbaum. 2003. IMPACT 2002+: A New Life Cycle ImpactAssessment Methodology. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment8 (6):32430. doi:10.1007/BF02978505.

Keoleian, Gregory A., Alissa Kendall, Jonathan E. Dettling, Vanessa M. Smith, Richard F.Chandler, Michael D. Lepech, and Victor C. Li. 2005. Life Cycle Modeling of ConcreteBridge Design: Comparison of Engineered Cementitious Composite Link Slabs andConventional Steel Expansion Joints. Journal of Infrastructure Systems11 (1): 5160.doi:10.1061/(ASCE)1076-0342(2005)11:1(51).

Manufacture of Bovine Serum Albumin. 2001. Meat and Livestock Australia.http://www.meatupdate.csiro.au/infosheets/Manufacture%20of%20Bovine%20Serum%2

0Albumin.pdf.Micronizer Jet Mill Overview | Sturtevant Products. 2014. Sturtevant, Inc. Accessed May 4.

http://www.sturtevantinc.com/products/product/micronizer/.Nantucket Pavers Patio-on-a-Pallet. 2014. Homer TLC, Inc. Accessed April 21.

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Page, Mark, and Robin Thorpe. 2002. Purification of IgG by Precipitation with Sodium Sulfateor Ammonium Sulfate. In Protein Protocols Handbook, The, by John M. Walker, 0:98384. New Jersey: Humana Press. http://link.springer.com/10.1385/1-59259-169-8:983.

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Supplementary Information

Appendix A: Calculations for Biocomposite Production

Mixer Energy Calculation

Volume of bricks = 12in 12in 1.5in 10000 1.64E-5m3/in3= 35.4m3Production rate of mixer = 75 m3/hr*Time required to mix = 35.4m3 1 hr/75m3= 0.47hrPower requirement = 66.5kW*Energy entered into SimaPro = 0.47hr 66.5kW = 31.4kWh

*(2012 New Arrival Industrial Cement Mixer JS Mixer Mortar Mixer and Pump 2014)

Hydraulic Molder Energy Calculation

Production rate = 3500 bricks/8hr = 437.5bricks/hr**Time required to compact bricks = 10000bricks 1hr/437.5bricks = 22.9hr

Power requirement = 7.7kW**Energy entered into SimaPro = 22.9hr 7.7kW = 176kWh

**(Hydraulic DY-150TB Cement Paver Brick Molding Machine 2014)

Appendix B: Calculations for JSC1A Production

Step 1: Mining

Amount of JSC1A required = 59750kgLosses due to jet milling = 0.5kg loss/1000kg product

Amount of Sand to be mined = 59750kg (1+0.5kg/1000kg) = 59780kg

Step 2: Transport to Texas for Jet Milling

Driving distance = 1539kmTransportation impact = 1539km 59.8tonne = 91980tkm

Step 3: Jet Milling

Production rate = 4536kg/hr*Time required to mill = 59782kg 1hr/4536kg = 13.2hrPower requirement = 580.9kW*Energy entered into SimaPro = 13.2hr 580.9kW = 7656kWh

Mass to be transported = 59750kg

Step 4: Transport to Madison, WI


Step 5: Transport to Mountain View, CA


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*(Micronizer Jet Mill Overview | Sturtevant Products 2014)

Appendix C: Calculations for BSA Production

Amount of BSA needed = 4570kg

Step 1: Blood and Lipid Centrifugation

Concentration of BSA in blood = 20kg BSA/1,000kg blood = 2%*Mass of blood needed = 4,570kg / 2% = 228.3tonne of bloodDensity of blood = 1,050kg/m3**Volume of blood needed = 228.3tonne 1 m3/1050kg = 217m3= 217,000LCentrifuge throughput = 2,900L/hr***Time to separate lipids, red blood cells, and plasma = 217,000L 1hr/2,900L = 74.8hrPower required for centrifuge = 2.2kW***

Energy entered into SimaPro = 74.8hr 2.2kW = 164.6kWhVolume of plasma in blood = 65-70% = 67.5%****Volume of lipids removed by centrifugation = 1.4%****Volume reduction = 67.5%1.4% = 66%Plasma volume = 217,000L 66% = 143,220L = 141.9m3

Plasma density = 1,025kg/m3**Plasma mass = 141.9m3 1,025kg/m3= 146,800kg

Centrifuge waste was not modeled as the red blood cells are used in downstream processes.

Secondary Calculation to Determine Percent BSA in Blood

Average Concentration of BSA in blood = 31.864.60g/L*****Percent BSA in blood = 31.86g/L 1L/1,050g** = 3%2% is more conservativeuse as assumption

*(Manufacture of Bovine Serum Albumin 2001)**(Elert 2014)***(New Brunswick CEPA High-Speed Centrifuges 2013)****(Duarte, Carvalho Simes, and Sgarbieri 1999)*****(Alberghina et al.2011)

Step 2: Transport Plasma to BSA Production Facility

Assume average distance = 250km (locally sourced cattle)Transportation impact into SimaPro = 250km 146.8tonne = 36,700tkm

Step 3: Removal of Immunoglobulin (IgG) by Sodium Sulphate

Na2SO4solution concentration = 18%(w/v)*Mass of Na2SO4needed = 18% 143,220L = 25,780kgCentrifuge throughput = 2,900L/hr (same as Step 1)Time to separate IgG = 143,220L 1hr/2,900L = 49.4hr


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Power required for centrifuge = 2.2kW (same as Step 1)Energy entered into SimaPro = 49.4hr 2.2kW = 108.6kWh

Fraction of solution that is IgG = 4.2%**Mass reduction from centrifugation = 146,800kg 4.2% = 6,170kgMass of plasma and Sodium Sulphate minus IgG = 146,800kg + 25,780kg 6,170kg =

166,410kgVolume of new solution = 166,410kg 1m3/1,025kg = 162.4m3= 162,400L

Centrifuge waste was not modeled as the IgG is used in downstream processes.

*(Page and Thorpe 2002)**(Duarte, Carvalho Simes, and Sgarbieri 1999)

Step 4: Heat Shock

Sodium Caprylic acid solution concentration = 3%(w/v)*Mass of Sodium Caprylic acid = 162,400L 3% = 4,870kg

Enter into SimaPro = 4,870kg of Fatty alcohol, from palm kernel oil, at plant/RER SCaprylic acid is naturally found in palm kernel oils, assume 100% substitute is on-site atfactory**

Mass of solution = 164,880kg + 4870kg = 171,290kgSpecific heat of plasma = 3.93kJ/kg-K***Temperature Rise = 43K

Assumed heating element efficiency = 0.95Heat energy entered into SimaPro = 171,290kg 3.93kJ/kg-K * 43K/0.95 * 0.000278kWh/kJ =8,460kWh

Temperature reduction = 53K

Cooling energy entered into SimaPro = 171,290kg 3.93kJ/kg-K * 53K/0.95 * 0.000278kWh/kJ= 10,430kWh

Volume of solution = 171,290kg * 1m3/1,025kg = 167,110LCentrifuge throughput = 2,900L/hr (same as Step 1)Time to separate remaining proteins = 167,110L 1hr/2,900L = 57.6hrPower required for centrifuge = 2.2kW (same as Step 1)Energy entered into SimaPro = 57.6hr 2.2kW = 126.8kWh

Assume new volume is original plasma volume = 143,220L

*(Chang 1993)**(DrugBank: Caprylic Acid (DB04519) 2013)

***(Blood Plasma 2014)

Step 5: Purification

Assumed pump pressure = 15 psiPressure head* = 15psi 2.31 / 1.025 = 35.5ftPump efficiency = 0.8**Pump power requirement = 12.7kW***Pump flow rate = 420,000L/hr***


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H. Roedel et al.


Time to pump = 143,220L 1hr/420,000L = .34hrEnergy entered into SimaPro = .34hr 12.7kW = 4.3kWh

Calculation does not include degradation of filters due to use, also assumes reverse osmosispressure gradient is constant.

*(Converting PumpHead to Pressure 2014)**(Evans 2014)***(Pump Power Calculator 2014; Chemical ProcessingPumps 2014)

Step 6: Lyophilization

Assume BSA concentration = 30%(w/v)Mass of BSA = 4,570kgTotal volume of solution = 4570kg / 30% = 15,220LSolution density = 1.0555kg/L (Laboratory measurement)Mass of solution = 1.0555kg/L 15,220L = 16,070kgMass of water = 16,070kg4,570kg = 11,500kg

Ice capacity of lyophilizer = 800 kg/day*Time required to freeze dry = 11,500kg 1day/800kg = 14.4dayPower requirement = 284kW*Energy entered into SimaPro = 14.4day 24hr/day 284kW = 97,980kWh

*(450FXS800-SS25C 2014)

Step 7: Transport to Mountain View, CA

Distance Ankey, IA to Mountain View, CA = 2,970kmTransportation impact into SimaPro = 2,970km 4.57tonne = 13,550tkm


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Appendix D: Single Point Score Network Flow Diagram for Cement Pavers*

*Not all process and material flows shown


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Roedel - LCA of Protein Soil Composites

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