Robinson Research Brief
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Transcript of Robinson Research Brief
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Introduc)on
Given the context of the lengthy U.S. wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, and the increasing number of veterans accessing educational opportunities, the implications for adult and higher education are promising. Recently, scholars (Diramio & Jarvis, 2011) have highlighted the growing trend of veterans taking advantage of their education benefits and pursuing higher education. Researchers who have studied the reentry of veterans into society and higher educat ion have fa i led to disaggregate the experiences of veterans of color especially those from urban areas. These are possible reasons why they and their experiences of returning from war and entering into higher education remain outside of the main gaze of educational researchers.
Who Joins the Military?
For many Americans, regardless of their racial, social or cultural background, the military is perceived as a viable and often attractive option after secondary education. Interestingly, statistical analysis of the demographics of enlisted troops and officers show that enlisted recruits are more likely to come from middle-and upper-class neighborhoods. (See Chart 1)
N e v e r t h e l e s s , w h i l e t h e m i l i t a r y disproportionally attracts recruits who do not come from disadvantaged backgrounds, especially since 9/11, the military has also served as an escape route for many from difficult backgrounds searching for a better life. Diramio and Jarvis (2011) suggest that Americans join the military for a variety of reasons including: “duty to country, adventure, a career, gaining technical skills, or a college degree, providing for their families” (p.69). Army recruiters continue to credit the weak national economy for the rise in recruitment numbers. According to the National Priorities Project (2011), the rise in military recruitment was most significant for African Americans whose representation in the military (between 18 and 24 years old) is above the population representation (Watkins & Sherk, 2008). The recruitment numbers for African Americans have steadily increased between the years
2005-2010, with a small decrease in 2006. (See Chart 2)
Educa)on and African Americans in the Military
The research shows that Americans who join the army are well educated and that they are more likely than civilians to persist and graduate from high school (Watkins & Serk, 2008). However, African Americans generally face multiple disadvantages, especially those living in urban areas, which ultimately restrict their opportunities for positive educational outcomes. African Americans have historically been and remain one of the most undereducated subpopulations in contemporary society (Bernstein, 1996; Graves, 2008; National Center for Education Statistics, 1997, 2009). Much of the literature describing the state of education for African Americans frame the issues around the achievement and opportunity gaps between African American and White students (Landsman & Lewis, 2006; Moore, 2003; Obiakor & Beachum, 2006); their overrepresentation in special education (Coutinho & Oswald, 2000; Donovan & Cross, 2002); and their underrepresentation in gifted and talented programs (Bonner, 2010). These challenges extend from K-12 grades through to the P-20 continuum and as Robinson and Lewis (20ll) highlight, are not a new phenomenon.
While there are considerable increases in the enrollment and college completion rates among African American students over the past 30 years (Snyder, Dillow, & Hoffman, 2007; Roderick, Nagaoaka & Coca, 2009), there still remains a college completion gap when compared to White students (ACE, 2008; Carey, 2004). Further complicating this situation is the challenge for African American veterans who will enter college as non-traditional students. Perhaps the fastest-growing population in this collection of modern students has been the non-traditional student. The National Center for Education Statistics (2002) reported that based on 1999-2000 data, 73 % of all college students could be in some way classified as nontraditional. As Bonner, Marbley, Evans and Robinson (in press) report,
there is much concern on the part of institutions, primarily due to their lack of planning in order to meet the unique needs of nontraditional students.
The National Center for Educational Statistics (2002) offer the following explanation of the term—the same definition we used in this study to identify our population: “A nontraditional student is any student, regardless of age, whose primary life roles and responsibilities exist separately from the university and take precedence over the role of student in time of crises or stress” (p. 1). Since over 2 million veterans are expected to take up their educational benefits in the near term (ACE, 2008) addressing the needs and providing support that fall beyond time-honored academic and student affairs policy and programmatic initiatives is essential to the success and matriculation of all veterans. This is especially important for minority veterans who face a multiplicity of challenges as they try to navigate further educational opportunities, all within the context of their military experiences.
RESEARCH BRIEFS
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Petra RobinsonRutgers University Graduate School of Education
African American Veterans in Pursuit of Adult and Higher Education Opportunities:
Implications for Teachers and Administrators
“For many Americans,
regardless of their racial, social or cultural
background, the military is perceived as a viable and often attractive option after
secondary education. Interestingly, statistical
analysis of the demographics of enlisted troops and officers show that enlisted recruits are more likely to come from middle-and upper-class
neighborhoods.”
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!References
Aud, S., Hussar, W., Kena, G., Bianco, K., Frohlich, L., Kemp, J., Tahan, K. (2011). The Condition of Education 2011 (NCES 2011-033). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for
Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Blake, M. E. & Sickle, M.V. (2001). Helping linguistically diverse students share what they know. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 44(5), 468-475.
Champion, T.B., Rosa-Lugo, L.I., Rivers, K.O., & McCabe, A. (2010). A preliminary investigation of second- and fourth-grade African American students’ performance on the Gray Oral
Reading Test-Fourth edition. Topics in Language Disorders, 30(2), 145-153.
Craig, H. K., & Washington, J. A. (2004). Grade-Related Changes in the Production of African American English. Journal of Speech, Language & Hearing Research, 47(2), 450-463.
DOI:10.1044/1092-4388(2004/036)
Fogel, H. & Ehri, L.C. (2006). Teaching African American English forms to standard American English-Speaking teachers: Effects on acquisition, attitudes, and responses to student use.
Journal of Teacher Education, 57(5), 464-480.
Johnston, J. (2010, August). Early reading results show substantial improvements in reading skills. Vanderbuilt University. Retrieved from:
http://news.vanderbilt.edu/2010/08/early-results-show-substantial-improvements-in-reading-skills/
Jonsberg, S.D. (2011). What’s (White) teacher to do about Black English? The English Journal, 90(4), 51-53.
Office of Elementary and Secondary Education (2011). Even start facts and figures: Student achievement and school accountability programs. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from:
http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oese/sasa/esfacts.html.
Pittman, R. (2007) Improving spelling ability among speakers of African American Vernacular English: An intervention based on phonological, morphological, and orthographic
principles. Ph.D. dissertation, Texas A&M University, United States -- Texas. Retrieved April 20, 2011, from Dissertations & Theses @ Texas A&M System.(Publication No. AAT
3281137).
Terry, N., Connor, C., Thomas-Tate, S., & Love, M. (2010). Examining Relationships Among Dialect Variation, Literacy Skills, and School Context in First Grade. Journal of Speech,
Language & Hearing Research, 53(1), 126-145.
Toppo, G. (2008, May). Study: Bush’s reading first program ineffective. U.S.A. Today. Retrieved from: http://www.usatoday.com/news/education/2008-05-01-reading-first_N.htm.
U.S. Departent of Education (2003). Guidance for the William F. Goodling Even Start Family Literacy Programs. Part B of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA).
U.S. Department of Education (2009). The second evaluation of the Improving Literacies through School Libraries program. Retrieved from:
http://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/other/libraries/libraries09.pdf.
U.S. Department of Education (2011). National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), Selected Years 1992-2009 Reading Assessments, NAEP
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References
Conclusion
Facilitators of educational programs, across all contexts and institutional types must make an intentional effort to support student veterans through policies, programs, strategies and services. These initiatives should consider their multiple identities and focus on their identities as African American nontraditional students with military experiences and include:
• Institution-wide training for administrators and facilitators of learning (faculty and staff at campuses) to raise awareness of issues unique to this group of learners. This should include support for a host of services from serving and teaching nontraditional students,
completing G.I. Bill Applications, to being able to identify and support students suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder.
• Implementing a systematic set of procedures that encourage student veterans to support each other across the institution.
• Providing opportunities for these veterans to lean on their unique experiences to help identify areas in which they feel they need to be supported with suggestions on how they can be supported.
ACE. American Council on Education. (2008). Minorities in higher education 2008:23rd status report. Washington, DC: American Council on Education. Retrieved from http://www.acenet.edu/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Press_Releases2&TEMPLATE=/CM/HTMLDisplay.cfm&CONTENTID=29423.
Bernstein, A.R. (1996). Underprepared students. Washington DC: Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education.
Bonner, F.A. II (2010). Academically gifted African American male college students. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
Bonner, F.A. II , Marbley, A., Evans, M. & Robinson, P.A.(In press). Triple Jeopardy: A Qualitative Investigation of the Experiences of Nontraditional African American Female Students in One Hispanic Serving Institution.
Carey, K. (2004). A matter of degrees: Improving graduation rates in four-year colleges and universities. Washington, DC: The Education Trust.
Coutinho, M. & Oswald, D. (2000). Disproportionate representation in special education: A synthesis and recommendations. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 10, 135–156.
Donovan, S., & Cross, C. (Eds.). (2002). Minority students in special and gifted education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Diramio, D. & Jarvis, K. (2011). Veterans in higher education: When Johnny and Jane come marching to campus. ASHE Higher Education Report 37, (3).
Graves, L. (2008). The gap in graduation rates: At many colleges, a disparity who makes it to a diploma. Retrieved from http://www.usnews.com/education/articles/2008/05/02/the-gap-in-graduation-rates
Kane, T. (2005) Who bears the burden? Demographic characteristics of US military recruits before and after 9/11. A Report of the Heritage Center for Data Analysis No CDA 05-08. Retrieved from http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2005/11/who-bears-the-burden-demographic-characteristics-of-us-military-recruits-before-and-after-9-11
Landsman, J., & Lewis, C. (Eds.). (2006). White teachers/diverse classrooms: A guide to building inclusive schools, promoting high expectations, and eliminating racism. Sterling, VA: Stylus.
National Center for Education Statistics. (1997). Confronting the odds: Students at risk and the pipeline to higher education. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Education.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2009). Achievement gaps: How Black and White students in public schools perform in math and reading on the National Assessment of Educational Progress. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Education.
National Priorities Project (2011). Military recruitment 2010. Retrieved from http://nationalpriorities.org/analysis/2011/military-recruitment-2010/
Obiakor, F., & Beachum, F. (2006). Urban education for the 21st century: Research, issues and perspectives. Springfield, IL: Thomas.
Roderick, M., Nagaoaka, J. & Coca, V. (2009). College readiness for all: The challenge for urban high schools. Retrieved from http://futureofchildren.org/futureofchildren/publications/docs/19_01_09.pdf
Snyder, T. D., Dillow, S.A., & Hoffman, C.M. (2007). Digest of education statistics (NCES 2007-017). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education.
Watkins, S.J., & Sherk, J. (2008). Who serves in the U.S. military? The demographics of enlisted troops and officers. A Report of the Heritage Center for Data Analysis No CDA 08-05. Retrieved from http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2008/08/who-serves-in-the-us-military-the-demographics-of-enlisted-troops-and-officers
“While there are considerable increases in the enrollment and college completion rates among African American students over
the past 30 years (Snyder, Dillow, & Hoffman, 2007;
Roderick, Nagaoaka & Coca, 2009), there still remains a
college completion gap when compared to White students (ACE, 2008; Carey, 2004).”
Suggested Cita)on: Robinson, P. (2012). African American veterans in pursuit of adult and higher educa)onal opportuni)es. (UERPA Research Brief, April 2012) CharloLe, NC: UNC-‐CharloLe, Urban Educa)on.
Submission Guidelines:
The Urban Educa.on Research and Policy Collabora.ve accepts manuscripts for review and publica.on considera.on for the Research Brief series. Submi?ed manuscripts should not exceed 1,000 words and must conform to the guidelines outlined in the 6th Edi.on of the Publica0on Manual of the American Psychological Associa0on. All manuscripts will undergo a blind review and refereed process. The review process takes approximately 3-‐4 weeks. Manuscripts can be submi?ed for review via e-‐mail to Dr. Chance Lewis ([email protected]).Correspondence regarding this report may be sent via e-‐mail to: [email protected]
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!References
Aud, S., Hussar, W., Kena, G., Bianco, K., Frohlich, L., Kemp, J., Tahan, K. (2011). The Condition of Education 2011 (NCES 2011-033). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for
Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Blake, M. E. & Sickle, M.V. (2001). Helping linguistically diverse students share what they know. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 44(5), 468-475.
Champion, T.B., Rosa-Lugo, L.I., Rivers, K.O., & McCabe, A. (2010). A preliminary investigation of second- and fourth-grade African American students’ performance on the Gray Oral
Reading Test-Fourth edition. Topics in Language Disorders, 30(2), 145-153.
Craig, H. K., & Washington, J. A. (2004). Grade-Related Changes in the Production of African American English. Journal of Speech, Language & Hearing Research, 47(2), 450-463.
DOI:10.1044/1092-4388(2004/036)
Fogel, H. & Ehri, L.C. (2006). Teaching African American English forms to standard American English-Speaking teachers: Effects on acquisition, attitudes, and responses to student use.
Journal of Teacher Education, 57(5), 464-480.
Johnston, J. (2010, August). Early reading results show substantial improvements in reading skills. Vanderbuilt University. Retrieved from:
http://news.vanderbilt.edu/2010/08/early-results-show-substantial-improvements-in-reading-skills/
Jonsberg, S.D. (2011). What’s (White) teacher to do about Black English? The English Journal, 90(4), 51-53.
Office of Elementary and Secondary Education (2011). Even start facts and figures: Student achievement and school accountability programs. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from:
http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oese/sasa/esfacts.html.
Pittman, R. (2007) Improving spelling ability among speakers of African American Vernacular English: An intervention based on phonological, morphological, and orthographic
principles. Ph.D. dissertation, Texas A&M University, United States -- Texas. Retrieved April 20, 2011, from Dissertations & Theses @ Texas A&M System.(Publication No. AAT
3281137).
Terry, N., Connor, C., Thomas-Tate, S., & Love, M. (2010). Examining Relationships Among Dialect Variation, Literacy Skills, and School Context in First Grade. Journal of Speech,
Language & Hearing Research, 53(1), 126-145.
Toppo, G. (2008, May). Study: Bush’s reading first program ineffective. U.S.A. Today. Retrieved from: http://www.usatoday.com/news/education/2008-05-01-reading-first_N.htm.
U.S. Departent of Education (2003). Guidance for the William F. Goodling Even Start Family Literacy Programs. Part B of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA).
U.S. Department of Education (2009). The second evaluation of the Improving Literacies through School Libraries program. Retrieved from:
http://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/other/libraries/libraries09.pdf.
U.S. Department of Education (2011). National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), Selected Years 1992-2009 Reading Assessments, NAEP
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Appendix
Chart 1
Chart 2
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Data Source: Na-onal Priori-es Project (2011). Military recruitment 2010. Retrieved from hBp://na-onalpriori-es.org/analysis/2011/military-‐recruitment-‐2010/