Roadmap

1.1 What is the Internet?

1.2 Network edge

1.3 Network core

1.4 Network access and physical media

1.5 Internet structure and ISPs

1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks

1.7 Protocol layers, service models

1.8 History

Protocol “Layers”Networks are complex! • many “pieces”:

– hosts– routers– links of various

media– applications– protocols– hardware,

software

Question: Is there any hope of organizing structure of

network?

Or at least our discussion of networks?

Organization of air travel

• a series of steps

ticket (purchase)

baggage (check)

gates (load)

runway takeoff

airplane routing

ticket (complain)

baggage (claim)

gates (unload)

runway landing

airplane routing

airplane routing

ticket (purchase)

baggage (check)

gates (load)

runway (takeoff)

airplane routing

departureairport

arrivalairport

intermediate air-trafficcontrol centers

airplane routing airplane routing

ticket (complain)

baggage (claim

gates (unload)

runway (land)

airplane routing

ticket

baggage

gate

takeoff/landing

airplane routing

Layering of airline functionality

Layers: each layer implements a service– via its own internal-layer actions– relying on services provided by layer below

Why layering?Dealing with complex systems:• explicit structure allows identification, relationship of

complex system’s pieces– layered reference model for discussion

• modularization eases maintenance, updating of system– change of implementation of layer’s service

transparent to rest of system– e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect rest

of system• layering considered harmful?

2. TCP/IP Reference Model (Layers)

IP, ICMP and IGMP

IEEE 802 Ethernet X.25 V.24 V.28 EIA-232 ISDN etc.

Gateway protocols

TCP UDP

FTP TELNET MAIL …….. (4)

(3)

(2)

(1)

(1) Data link and physical layer: The protocols at this layer needed to manage a specific physical medium, such as Ethernet or a point to point line

(2) Network layer: IP, which provides the basic service of getting datagrams to their destination

(3) Transport layer: A protocol such as TCP that provides services need by many applications

(4) Application layer: An application protocol such as mail

Internet protocol stack• application: supporting network

applications– FTP, SMTP, HTTP

• transport: process-process data transfer– TCP, UDP

• network: routing of datagrams from source to destination– IP, routing protocols,

• link: data transfer between neighboring network elements– PPP, Ethernet

• physical: bits “on the wire”

application

transport

network

link

physical

sourceapplicatio

ntransportnetwork

linkphysical

HtHn M

segment Ht

datagram

destination

application

transportnetwork

linkphysical

HtHnHl M

HtHn M

Ht M

M

networklink

physical

linkphysical

HtHnHl M

HtHn M

HtHn M

HtHnHl M

router

switch

Encapsulationmessage M

Ht M

Hn

frame

Figure 3-1

OSI Model

Figure 3-2 OSI Layers

Figure 3-3

WCB/McGraw-Hill The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

An Exchange Using the OSI Model

Figure 3-4

Physical Layer

Figure 3-14

Summary of Layer Functions

Introduction: Summary

Covered a “ton” of material!• Internet overview• what’s a protocol?• network edge, core,

access network– packet-switching versus

circuit-switching• Internet/ISP structure• performance: loss, delay• layering and service

models• history

You now have: • context, overview,

“feel” of networking• more depth, detail

to follow!

MAC Addresses and ARP

• 32-bit IP address: – network-layer address– used to get datagram to destination IP subnet

• MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address: – used to get frame from one interface to another

physically-connected interface (same network)– 48 bit MAC address (for most LANs)

burned in the adapter ROM

LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address

Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF

= adapter

1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD

58-23-D7-FA-20-B0

0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98

71-65-F7-2B-08-53

LAN(wired orwireless)

LAN Address (more)• MAC address allocation administered by IEEE• manufacturer buys portion of MAC address space

(to assure uniqueness)• Analogy:

(a) MAC address: like Social Security Number

(b) IP address: like postal address• MAC flat address ➜ portability

– can move LAN card from one LAN to another

• IP hierarchical address NOT portable– depends on IP subnet to which node is attached

ARP: Address Resolution Protocol

• Each IP node (Host, Router) on LAN has ARP table

• ARP Table: IP/MAC address mappings for some LAN nodes

< IP address; MAC address; TTL>

– TTL (Time To Live): time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)

Question: how to determineMAC address of Bknowing B’s IP address?

1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD

58-23-D7-FA-20-B0

0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98

71-65-F7-2B-08-53

LAN

137.196.7.23

137.196.7.78

137.196.7.14

137.196.7.88

ARP protocol: Same LAN (network)

• A wants to send datagram to B, and B’s MAC address not in A’s ARP table.

• A broadcasts ARP query packet, containing B's IP address – Dest MAC address = FF-

FF-FF-FF-FF-FF– all machines on LAN

receive ARP query • B receives ARP packet,

replies to A with its (B's) MAC address– frame sent to A’s MAC

address (unicast)

• A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out) – soft state: information that

times out (goes away) unless refreshed

• ARP is “plug-and-play”:– nodes create their ARP

tables without intervention from net administrator

Routing to another LANwalkthrough: send datagram from A to B via R

assume A know’s B IP address

• Two ARP tables in router R, one for each IP network (LAN)

• In routing table at source Host, find router 111.111.111.110• In ARP table at source, find MAC address E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B, etc

A

RB

• A creates datagram with source A, destination B

• A uses ARP to get R’s MAC address for 111.111.111.110

• A creates link-layer frame with R's MAC address as dest, frame contains A-to-B IP datagram

• A’s adapter sends frame

• R’s adapter receives frame

• R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame, sees its destined to B

• R uses ARP to get B’s MAC address

• R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B

A

RB

Link Layer

• 5.1 Introduction and services

• 5.2 Error detection and correction

• 5.3Multiple access protocols

• 5.4 Link-Layer Addressing

• 5.5 Ethernet

• 5.6 Hubs and switches

• 5.7 PPP• 5.8 Link Virtualization:

ATM

Ethernet“dominant” wired LAN technology: • cheap $20 for 100Mbs!• first widely used LAN technology• Simpler, cheaper than token LANs and ATM• Kept up with speed race: 10 Mbps – 10 Gbps

Metcalfe’s Ethernetsketch

Star topology

• Bus topology popular through mid 90s• Now star topology prevails• Connection choices: hub or switch (more later)

hub orswitch

Ethernet Frame Structure

Sending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame

Preamble: • 7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one

byte with pattern 10101011• used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates

Ethernet Frame Structure (more)

• Addresses: 6 bytes– if adapter receives frame with matching destination

address, or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet), it passes data in frame to net-layer protocol

– otherwise, adapter discards frame

• Type: indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)

• CRC: checked at receiver, if error is detected, the frame is simply dropped

Unreliable, connectionless service

• Connectionless: No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter.

• Unreliable: receiving adapter doesn’t send acks or nacks to sending adapter– stream of datagrams passed to network layer can

have gaps– gaps will be filled if app is using TCP– otherwise, app will see the gaps

10BaseT and 100BaseT• 10/100 Mbps rate; latter called “fast ethernet”• T stands for Twisted Pair• Nodes connect to a hub: “star topology”; 100

m max distance between nodes and hub

twisted pair

hub

HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters:

– bits coming from one link go out all other links– at the same rate– no frame buffering– no CSMA/CD at hub: adapters detect collisions– provides net management functionality

twisted pair

hub

Manchester encoding

• Used in 10BaseT• Each bit has a transition• Allows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to

synchronize to each other– no need for a centralized, global clock among

nodes!• Hey, this is physical-layer stuff!

Gbit Ethernet

• uses standard Ethernet frame format• allows for point-to-point links and shared

broadcast channels• in shared mode, CSMA/CD is used; short

distances between nodes required for efficiency• uses hubs, called here “Buffered Distributors”• Full-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links• 10 Gbps now !