RoadcraftThePoliceDriver’sHandbook

TheStationeryOfficeLondon

Authors:PennyMares,PhilipCoyne,BarbaraMacDonaldDesign:CarlGambleIllustration:NickMoxsomProjectmanagement:DrAmieBrown,ThePoliceFoundationTheCollegeofPolicinghasprovidedagenerousgranttowardsthecostofproducingthishandbook.ThePoliceFoundationwouldliketothanktheCollegeforitsfinancialsupport.

ThePoliceFoundationThePoliceFoundationisawhollyindependentcharitydedicatedtousinghigh-qualityevidencetoimprovepolicingforthebenefitofthepublic.ForfurtherdetailsofThePoliceFoundation’sworkandotherrelatedRoadcraftpublications,contact:ThePoliceFoundation,FirstFloor,ParkPlace,12LawnLane,LondonSW81UDTel:02075823744,Fax:02075870671Email:roadcraft@police-foundation.org.ukWebsite:www.roadcraft.co.ukTwitter:https://twitter.com/the_police_fdn(#Roadcraft#MCRoadcraft)CharityRegistrationNumber:278257

©ThePoliceFoundation2013

OtheressentialguidestosafedrivingandridingalsopublishedbyTheStationeryOfficeinclude:

MotorcycleRoadcraft–ThePoliceRider’sHandbook(2013)ISBN9780117081888

RoadcraftDVD–ThePoliceDriver’sCourseonAdvancedDriving(2005)ISBN9780113413089

Toorderorfindoutmoreabouttheseoranyotherdrivingtitles,pleaserefertothecontactdetailsprintedinsidethebackcoverofthisbook.

ApplicationsforreproductionshouldbemadeinwritingtoTheStationeryOfficeLimited,StCrispins,DukeStreet,NorwichNR31PD

Newedition2013Secondimpression2014

ISBN9780117081871

AcknowledgementsThiseditionofRoadcrafthasbeenapprovedbytheAssociationofChiefPoliceOfficersforEnglandandWales,andPoliceScotlandwhoaresatisfiedthatitreflectscurrentbestpracticeinpolicedriverinstructionandtakesintoaccounttherelevantviewsofcivilianexperts.

ThePoliceFoundationwouldliketothankthemanyindividualsandorganisationswhogavesofreelyoftheirtimeandexpertiseinthepreparationofthisneweditionofRoadcraft.ParticularthankstoDrLisaDorn,ReaderinDriverBehaviour,DrivingResearchGroup,CranfieldUniversity,forbackgroundresearchandcontributionstoChapter1,Becomingabetterdriver,andtoMalcolmJackson,SeniorDrivingInstructor,HertfordshireConstabulary,forhiscontributiontoChapter13,Emergencyresponse.SomesectionsofmaterialinChapters1and3areadaptedfromHumanAspectsofPoliceDrivingbykindpermissionofDrGordonSharpeandPoliceScotland.

ThisneweditionofRoadcraftwasproducedwiththestrategicoversightofaStandingAdvisoryBoardwithrepresentativesfrommajorpoliceandciviliandrivingorganisations,towhomwearemostgrateful.

StandingAdvisoryBoard

JohnGraham,Director,ThePoliceFoundation(Chair)

MichaelCleary,formerHeadofSpecialistTraining,ScottishPoliceCollegeJohnDale,OperationalLeadDrivingSchool,MetropolitanPolice

LisaDorn,ReaderinDriverBehaviour,DrivingResearchGroup,

CranfieldUniversityPaulHelbing,AssistantChiefDrivingExaminer,DrivingStandardsAgency(DSA)IanHolden,SeniorEducationAdvisor,DrivingStandardsAgency(DSA)PeterRodger,ChiefExaminerandHeadofDrivingStandards,InstituteofAdvancedMotorists(IAM)HelenSchofield,HeadofLearningStrategyandDevelopment,CollegeofPolicingBobSmalley,ChiefExaminer,RoyalSocietyforthePreventionofAccidents(RoSPA)AdvancedDriversandRidersItwasundertakenwiththededicatedhelpofaReflectivePractitionersgroupofseniorpolice,fire,ambulanceandcivilianinstructors,whosecontributiontothedetailededitorialandupdatingprocesshasbeeninvaluable.

ReflectivePractitioners

DarrenFaulds,Inspector,RoadPolicingDivision,PoliceScotland(Chair)ByronChandler,SeniorDrivingInstructor,GloucestershireConstabularyMichaelCollins,TrafficLawandCollisionInvestigationTrainer,WestYorkshirePoliceKevinDay,DriverTrainingManager,WestMidlandsFireService

KevinDell,DrivingCentreManager,Oxfordshire/BuckinghamshireFireRescueServicesAdyEllwood,MotorcycleTrainer,WestYorkshirePolice

ChrisGilbert,formerSergeantInstructor,MPMDSHendon

MalcolmJackson,SeniorDrivingInstructor,HertfordshireConstabularyGaryJane,SeniorDrivingInstructor,DevonandCornwallPolice

PaulMostyn,MetropolitanPoliceMotorcycleTaskingTeam/BikeSafe-LondonAndyReid,HeadofDriverTrainingandDevelopment,EastofEnglandAmbulanceServiceNHSTrustMervynTurner,HeadofDriverTraining,NorthWalesPolice

RichardWhitehouse,CarInstructor/SeniorMotorcycleInstructor,DevonandCornwallPoliceWearegratefultoIanShannon,formerACPOLeadforPoliceDriverTraining,ColmMcNelis,ACPODCC/ACCStaffOfficerandJulieFinegan,DriverTraining,DeputyCommissioner’sPortfolio,fortheirhelpandsupportwiththenewedition.WearealsoindebtedtomembersoftheEditorialandProjectManagementBoard.

EditorialandProjectManagementBoard

PennyMares,EducationalAuthorandEditor

AmieBrown,SeniorResearchandDevelopmentOfficer,ThePoliceFoundationDavidBryan,CommissioningEditor,TSO

EmilyEgleandLisaDaniels,ClientServiceManagers,TSO

ForewordRoadcraftistheofficialpolicedriver’shandbook,andiswidelyusedbytheotheremergencyservices.Thisneweditionhasbeenpreparedthroughcarefulconsultationwithseniorpolice,otheremergencyservicesandciviliandrivinginstructorsexperiencedinadvanceddrivertraining.Itincorporatesthebestandmostreliablepartsofpreviouseditionswiththelatestknowledgeinthisrapidlydevelopingfield.Whiledesignedtocomplementdrivertrainingandpractice,Roadcraftisavaluablelearning

aidforanyonewhowishestoraisetheirdrivingcompetencetoahigherlevel.Roadcraftisendorsedby:

ContentsAcknowledgementsForewordPrefacetotheneweditionAboutRoadcraft

Chapter1BecomingabetterdriverBecomingabetterdriverWhatmakesagooddriver?Competencesforpolicedrivers

YourvulnerabilityasadriverWhatarethecommonestcausesofcollisions?Whoismostlikelytobeinvolvedinacollision?CriticallearningfromexperienceDevelopawarenessofyourpersonalvulnerability

HumanfactorrisksforpolicedriversDistractionduetomulti-taskingDrivingstressOperationalstressorsTimepressureandthepurposeofyourjourney‘Noblecause’risk-taking‘Redmist’

HowwelearnTraining,practiceandfeedbackOverconfidenceaftertrainingSelf-assessmentwillhelpyoucontinuallyimproveBehonest

Checkyourunderstanding

Chapter2ThesystemofcarcontrolTheneedforasystemofcarcontrolIntegratingarangeofcompetences

Whatisthesystemofcarcontrol?HowthesystemworksTheimportanceofinformationMirrorsandsignals

ThesystemofcarcontrolInformationPositionSpeedGearAcceleration

UsethesystemflexiblyApplyingthesystemtoaleft-handturnApplyingthesystemtoaright-handturnApplyingthesystemtoaroundaboutRe-applyingthesystemtoleavetheroundaboutApplyingthesystemtoapotentialhazard

OverlappingbrakingandgearchanginginspecificcircumstancesBrake/gearoverlap–anexampleIncorrectuseofbrake/gearoverlap

Checkyourunderstanding

Chapter3Information,observationandanticipationProcessingcomplexinformationImprovingyourinformationprocessing

TipstoimproveinformationprocessingWhyobservationandanticipationareessentialforbetterdrivingWhatisahazard?

PlanningAnticipatehazardsPrioritisehazardsDecidewhattodo

ImprovingyourobservationScanningtheenvironmentLookingbutnotseeingPeripheralvisionZonesofvisibilityYourchoiceofspeedKeepyourdistance

HumanfactorsthataffectobservationandanticipationAlertnessTirednessOtherphysiologicalfactors

Checkyourunderstanding

Chapter4AnticipatinghazardsinthedrivingenvironmentNightdrivingYouYourvehicleYourlightsFollowingothervehiclesatnightInformationfromothervehicles’lightsDazzleReflectivestudsandmarkings

Cat’seyesOtherwaystoimproveobservationatnight

WeatherconditionsUsinglightsinbadweatherUsingauxiliarycontrolsandinstrumentsinbadweatherObservingwhenvisibilityislowMicroclimates

RoadsurfaceRoadsurfaceirregularitiesTheroadsurfaceinwinterDrivingthroughwater

RoadsignsandmarkingsLocalroadknowledgeMakingobservationlinksCheckyourunderstanding

Chapter5Acceleration,usinggears,brakingandsteeringDevelopingcompetenceatcontrollingyourvehicleThetyregriptrade-offVehiclebalanceandtyregripTechnologytohelpkeepcontrolofthevehicle

UsingtheacceleratorRetardersAccelerationandvehiclebalanceAccelerationandbalanceondifferenttypesofvehicleDevelopingyourcompetenceatusingtheacceleratorAccelerationsenseUsingtheacceleratoronbendsKeypointsFuel/powersourceaffectsaccelerationandenginebraking

UsingthegearsMovingofffromstationaryAccurateuseofthegearsKeypoints

AutomatictransmissionAutomatictransmissionmodesUsingthefeaturesofautomaticsystemsDevelopingyourcompetenceatusingautomaticsystemsRoadconditions

SlowingdownandstoppingReleasingtheaccelerator–enginebrakingUsingthebrakesNormalbraking(taperedbraking)Braking,tyregripandbalanceThesafestoppingdistanceruleOverallsafestoppingdistanceThetwo-secondruleBrakingforcornersandbendsBrakingasyouapproachahazardEmergencybrakingUsingtheparkingbrake

SteeringSteeringtechniqueSeatpositionHowtoholdthesteeringwheelPull–pushRotationalsteeringKeypoints

Checkyourunderstanding

Chapter6ManoeuvringatlowspeedsDevelopingyourcompetenceatlow-speedmanoeuvringUsingthesystemObservationPlanningSteering

ReversinginaconfinedspaceManoeuvringwithaguide

ParkingCheckyourunderstanding

Chapter7MaintainingvehiclestabilityControllingyourvehicle’sstabilityAttitudestovehiclesafetytechnology

AvoidingskiddingHowdoesaskidhappen?Howtominimisetheriskofskidding

RecognisingthecauseofaskidCause:drivingtoofastforthecircumstancesCause:harshaccelerationCause:excessiveorsuddenbrakingCause:coarsesteeringUndersteerandoversteer

HowactivesafetysystemsworkAnti-lockbrakingsystemsTractioncontrolsystemsElectronicstabilityprogrammesKeypoints

Correctingaskidinavehiclewithoutactivesafetyfeatures

AquaplaningCheckyourunderstanding

Chapter8Driver’ssignalsDevelopingyourcompetenceatusingsignalsThepurposeofsignalsKeypointsInterpretingsignalsgivenbyothers

TherangeofsignalsUsingtheindicatorsCancellingindicatorsignalsUsinghazardwarninglightsUsingbrakelightsUsingthehornFlashingyourheadlightsArmsignalsUsingcourtesysignalsRespondingtootherpeople’ssignals

Checkyourunderstanding

Chapter9PositioningDevelopingcompetenceatpositioningyourvehicleSafetypositionontheapproachtohazardsRoadsidehazardsImprovingtheviewintonearsideroadjunctionsFollowingpositionPositionforturningPositionatcrossroadsPositionforstoppingbehindothervehicles

Checkyourunderstanding

Chapter10CorneringDevelopingyourcompetenceatcorneringUsingthesystemtocornersafelyKeyprinciplesforsafecornering

CorneringforcesVehiclecharacteristicsRoadworthinessVehiclespecificationUndersteerandoversteer

CamberandsuperelevationSummaryoffactorsaffectingcornering

ThesystemofcarcontrolandthelimitpointHowtousethelimitpointtohelpyoucornerThedoubleapexbend

HowtousethesystemforcorneringInformationPositionSpeedGearAcceleration

Checkyourunderstanding

Chapter11OvertakingDevelopingyourcompetenceatovertakingsafelyThehazardsofovertakingKeysafetypointsStationaryvehiclesMovingvehicles

Howtoovertake

WhereyouareabletoovertakeimmediatelyInformation

WhereotherhazardsrequireyoutofollowbeforeyoucansafelyovertakeFollowingpositionOvertakingpositionOvertakingOvertakingvehiclesinalineoftrafficSummary

SpecialhazardsyoumustconsiderbeforeovertakingTherangeofhazardsThevehicleinfrontCyclistsThevehiclesbehindRoadlayoutandconditionsTheroadsurfaceOvertakingonasinglecarriagewayOvertakingonbendsSinglecarriagewayroadsmarkedwiththreelanesOvertakingonmulti-lanecarriageways

HelpingotherroaduserstoovertakeCheckyourunderstanding

Chapter12Drivingonmotorwaysandmulti-lanecarriagewaysDrivingonmulti-lanecarriagewaysHumanfactorsinmotorwaydriving

JoiningthemotorwayLayoutofthecarriagewayUsethesystemOvertaking

MotorwayjunctionsUsingthehardshoulder

LeavingthemotorwayBadweatherconditionsonfast-movingroadsFogRainSnow,sleetandiceHighwindsBrightsun

OtherhazardsDebrisLaneclosures

Additionalhazardsonfast-movingmulti-lanecarriagewaysCheckyourunderstanding

Chapter13EmergencyresponseWhatisanemergencyresponse?RiskassessmentRespondingtoanemergencyUseofemergencywarningequipmentSpeedlimitsApproachingtrafficlight-controlledjunctionsApproachingtrafficlight-controlledpedestriancrossingsContraveningkeepleft/rightsignsPositioningtoseeandbeseenApproachingandpassingvehiclesInterpretingotherdrivers’signalsStationaryvehiclesatornearanincidentRespondingonmulti-laneroads

ApproachingroundaboutsPassingonthenearsideofothervehiclesVehiclesrespondinginconvoyVulnerableroadusers

Checkyourunderstanding

AppendicesAreyoufittodrive?IAMSAFEchecklist

Isyourvehiclefittodrive?Roadworthiness/pre-drivingchecklistPOWDERchecklistInsidethevehiclechecklistTestingthebrakes

GoalsforDriverEducation

Bibliography

Index

PrefacetotheneweditionThisnewandfullyupdatededitionofRoadcraftistheresultofsustainedconsultationwithexpertsinthetheoryandpracticeofadvanceddriving.

ThelasteditionofRoadcraftwaspublishedin2007,fouryearsafterthefirstpublicationoftheEuropeanGoalsforDriverEducation(GDE).TheGDEframeworksetoutthecompetencesthatdrivertrainingintheUKandotherEUcountriesshouldfocusontoproducethesafestpossibledrivers.Itemphasisedhigherlevelcompetencessuchastakingaccountofhumanfactorsthatcanaffectdrivingbehaviourevenbeforethedrivergetsintoavehicle,managingpersonalriskfactors,anddevelopingaccurateself-assessmentsothateverydrivercontinuestoreflectonandimprovetheircompetencethroughouttheirdrivingcareer.

BothbeforeandsincethepublicationoftheGDEframework,Roadcrafthasspecificallysoughttoaddresshumanfactorsinpolicedriving.CentraltothisthemehasbeentheworkofpsychologistDrRobertWest(1997edition),occupationalphysicianDrGordonSharpe(2007edition)andpsychologistDrLisaDorn(2007and2013edition).Eachhascontributedarangeofinsightstoinformstudents’capacitytorecognise,manageandreducetherisksarisingfromthesehumanaspects.Andasunderstandingofthepsychologicalfactorsthatinfluencedrivingbehaviourcontinuestoevolve,newdevelopmentsinthisfieldwillinformfutureeditionsofRoadcraft.

Sincethelastedition,membersoftheNationalPoliceDrivingSchoolsConferenceworkingwiththeCollegeofPolicinghavedevelopedandcontinuetoupdatecompetence-basedstandardsforpolicedrivers,informedbothbyRoadcraftandtheGDEframework.TheneweditionofRoadcraftalignswithandprovidesthesupporting

resourcesfortheCollegeofPolicingDriverTrainingprogramme.

Asthisworkhasbeenongoing,theDrivingStandardsAgency(DSA)hasalsopublisheditsNationalDrivingStandard.DSA’sDrivingStandardisspecificallydesignedtocapturethekeyinsightsoftheGDEframework,withasimilaremphasisontheneedfornewdriverstocontinuetoreflectontheirskill,knowledgeandunderstandingastheyprogressthroughtheirdrivingcareer,andtakethenecessarystepstocloseanygaps.

Theopportunitytoalignstandardshasnotbeenlostonthoseinvolved.Workingmorecloselytogetherthaneverbeforehasenabledthoseundertakingdrivertraininginthepoliceandotheremergencyservicestobuildonthecompetenceslearnersacquiredasnewdrivers,anddevelopnewareasofcompetenceinordertoachievethehighstandardofdrivingrequiredintheemergencyservices.

Forthefirsttime,thisneweditionofRoadcraftincludesnewchaptersonmanoeuvringatlowspeedsandontechniquesforemergencyresponse.

TheseandotherchangesintheneweditionaredesignedtomakeRoadcraftmoreapplicabletothefullrangeofemergencyserviceswhouselargervehiclessuchasfireenginesandambulancesforemergencyresponse.ThisbroaderapproachwillalsobeofinteresttothewiderpublicandwillcontributetocreatingsafercommunitiesacrosstheUK.

AboutRoadcraft

HowcanRoadcrafthelpyoubecomeabetterdriver?

Roadcraftisthehandbookforpolicedriversundertakingpolicedrivertraining.InpolicetrainingRoadcraftiscombinedwithpracticalinstruction.Thiseditionisdesignedsothatitcanbeusedforself-studyeitherbeforeorduringacourse,andforreadyreferenceafterwards.

TheaimofRoadcraftistoimproveyourdrivingability.Yoursafetyandthatofotherroadusersdependsonyourawarenessofwhat’shappeningaroundyouandyourabilitytocontrolthepositionandspeedofyourvehiclerelativetoeverythingelseontheroad.Acollisionorevenanearmissisoftentheresultofalapseindrivingskill.Roadcraftaimstohelpyoubecomeabetterdriverbyincreasingyourawarenessofallthefactorsthataffectyourdriving–yourowncapabilities,thecharacteristicsofyourvehicle,andtheroadandtrafficconditions.

TheRoadcraftsystemofcarcontrolisamethodicalapproachtohazardswhichincreasesyoursafetybygivingyoumoretimetoreactincomplexsituations.

WhatvehiclesdoesRoadcraftcover?

YoucanapplytheprinciplesofRoadcrafttoanyvehicleyoudrive,whetheramoderncarorlargeroroldervehicles.

Thebasicdesignandthesupplementaryfeaturesbuiltintoavehicleallaffectitscapabilities.Asvehicledesignandsafetytechnologybecomemoreandmoresophisticated,itwouldbeimpossibleinabookofthissizetocovertherangeofvariationsin,forexample,

wheel-drive,transmission,adaptivesuspension,andactivesafetyfeatures.Youshouldalwaysgettoknowyourvehicle’scharacteristicsandadaptyourdrivingtothem,andhaveagoodgraspofthemanufacturer’sguidanceforeveryvehiclethatyoudrive.

WhatRoadcraftdoesnotinclude

RoadcraftassumesthatyouarethoroughlyfamiliarwiththecurrenteditionoftheHighwayCode.

Certaintechniquesthatrequireahighlevelofinstructiontoensuretheirsafety,suchasthoseusedinpursuitdrivingandotherspecialistsituations,arenotincluded.Yourinstructorwillintroduceyoutothesewhenappropriate.

UsingRoadcraftforself-study

ThesearethefeaturesthatwillhelpyoutogetthemostoutofRoadcraft,whetheryou’restudyingindependentlyorusingitaspartofformalinstruction:

•Themainlearningpointsarelistedatthestartofeachchapter.Theselistswillhelpyouchoosethechaptersorsectionsthatyouneedtoconcentrateon.

•Theself-assessmentquestionsinthetextaredesignedtohelpyoudevelopyourawarenessofthehumanfactors(e.g.personality,mood,stress)thatcouldaffectyourdrivingsafety,andhowtomanagethem.TheseandthepracticalquestionswillhelpyoutotransfertheadviceinRoadcrafttoyoureverydaydriving.

•Illustrationsanddiagramsareusedtoexplaincomplexideas.Readthemalongwiththetextastheyoftenexpandonthisorprovideadifferentlevelofinformation.

•Importantpointsarehighlightedinlightblueboxes.

•Thelearningpointsarerepeatedattheendofeachchaptertohelpyoucheckyourunderstanding.

Workingthroughthechapters

Chapters1and2arethefoundationsonwhichlaterchaptersbuildsoyoushouldideallyreadtheseinorderfirst.IfyouareusingRoadcraftaspartofadrivingcourse,yourinstructormaysuggestyoustudycertainsectionsofthebookinadifferentorder.

Personalrisks,practiceandself-assessment

JustreadingRoadcraftwillnotmakeyouabetterdriver.Awarenessofyourpersonalrisks,practiceandself-assessmentareanessentialpartofdevelopingcompetence.Whatmattersisnothowwellyoucanrecallwhat’sinthisbookbuthowwellyoucanapplywhatyouhavelearnttoyourdriving.

Aimtodevelopyourawarenessofthehumanfactorsthatcanaffectyourdrivingbehaviourevenbeforeyougetintoavehicle.Yourpersonality,stateofmind,attitudestootherroadusers,stressandoperationaldistractionscanallaffectyourperformance.Inordertoachievethehighestlevelsofdrivingcompetenceandsafety,Roadcraftencouragesyoutodevelopyourself-assessmentskills,sothatyoulearntorecogniseandsafelymanagethehumanfactorsthatcanputyouatrisk.

Manyofthepracticalcompetencesexplainedherearefairlysimpleinthemselves.Asophisticateddrivingabilitycomesfromapplyingthemconsistently.Allcompetencesdependonjudgementandthisonlycomeswithpractice.AimtoapplythetechniquesinRoadcraftsystematicallysothattheybecomeaneverydaypartofyourdriving.

YoucannotabsorballtheinformationinRoadcraftinonereading,so

wesuggestthatyoureadasection,selectatechnique,practiseit,assessyourprogress,andthenreferbacktoRoadcrafttorefinethetechniquefurther.

UsingRoadcraftforreference

Thecontentspagesatthefrontofthebooklistallthemainheadingsandaselectivelistofthemostusefulsub-headings.Crossreferencesthroughoutthebookwillhelpyoufindlinkedinformationinotherchapters.Thereisalsoacomprehensiveindexonpage264.

Learningisacontinualprocess

Beingagooddrivermeansthatyouneverstoplearning.Roadcraftoffersadviceontheprinciplesofbetterdrivingbutcannotbeadefinitiveguidetoalldrivingsituationsandtechniques.Vehiclesanddrivingconditionsareconstantlychanging,andyourdrivingcompetencesneedtokeeppacewiththischange,otherwisetheycouldbecomeoutdatedandevendangerous.Aimtoconstantlyreviewand,wherenecessary,adaptyourdrivingsothatyoumaintainhighstandardsandcontinuallyimproveyourperformance.Everytimeyoudrive,usethejourneyasanopportunitytodevelopyourdrivingability.

Chapter1

Becomingabetterdriver

Learningoutcomes

Thelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:

•explainthecompetencesrequiredforpolicedriving•identifythehumanfactorsthatmayincreaseyourvulnerabilityasa

driver

•explaintheGoalsforDriverEducationandhowthesecanhelpyoumanagerisksandassessyourowndriving

•showthatyougiveprioritytosafetyatalltimes•showthatyoucanrecogniseandmanagethehumanfactorsthat

mayaffectyourdecision-makinganddrivingperformance

•showthatyoucanhonestlyandcriticallyassessyourowndrivingbehaviourtoachievecontinuousimprovement.

BecomingabetterdriverThischapterisabouthowyoucanbecomeabetterdriver.Drivingshouldbeasafe,satisfyingandrewardingtask.Thischapterfocusesonthepersonalqualitiesthatareessentialforsafeandcompetentdriving.Understandingyourpersonalrisksandknowinghowto

increaseyoursafetywilllaythefoundationsforalong,enjoyableandrewardingdrivingcareer.

AcrosstheEuropeanUnion,drivertrainingatalllevelsnowencourageslearnerstoconsidertheeffectsofhumanfactors–personality,attitudes,stateofmindandemotions–ontheirdrivingabilities.Statisticsshowthatallthesefactorsstronglyinfluencehowsafeyouareontheroad.

Thisisbecauseyourpersonalcharacteristicsaffecthowyouapproachtechnicalskills,howyouuseyourvehicle,howyourespondtotrafficconditionsandtootherroadusers,andhowyoudealwiththedemandsofaparticularjourneyandthejobofdriving.ThischapterintroducesthemainEuropeanGoalsforDriverEducation(seepage9)andexplainshowthesecansupportyourawarenessofpersonalrisksandyourself-assessmentabilities.

Yourabilitytohonestlyself-assessyourowndrivingperformanceaccuratelyandlearnfromexperienceisthemostimportantskillofall.Withoutthisyoucannotbecomeabetterdriver.

Asself-assessmentissoimportant,eachchapterinRoadcraftincludesquestionstohelpyoucheckyourunderstandingofpolicedrivingcompetencesandassessyourowndrivingbehaviour.Questionsarehighlightedlikethisinacolouredpanelwithaself-assessmentsymbol.

Whatmakesagooddriver?Thequalitiesofasafeandcompetentdriverare:

•criticalandhonestself-awarenessandunderstandingofyourpersonalcharacteristics,attitudesandbehaviour,whicharenecessaryforsafedriving

•takingactiontokeepidentifiedriskstoaminimum•awarenessofyourownlimitationsandthoseofthevehicleandthe

road

•awarenessoftherisksinherentinparticularroadandtrafficsituations

•concentrationandgoodobservation•continuouslymatchingthevehicle’sdirectionandspeedtothe

changingconditions

•skilfuluseofvehiclecontrols.

Policeandotheremergencyservicesdriversmustbeseentobeexemplarydrivers.Yourattitudetowardsyourdrivingisnoticedbymembersofthepublicandinfluencesotherdrivers.Alwaysbeawarethatyouareseenasarolemodelandcaninfluencethebehaviourofotherdriversforthebetter.Ifotherdriversseeyouwithacourteousattitudeandanobviousconcernforsafety,they’remorelikelytobehaveinthesameway.

Competencesforpolicedrivers

Competenceistheabilitytodothejob–theknowledge,skillsandbehaviourrequiredforpolicedriving.

Therearethreecorecompetencesthatarethefoundationofalldriving.Policeandotheremergencyservicesdriversneedtodevelopthesecompetencestothehighestpossiblestandards:

•theknowledgeandskillstodrivesafely•anunderstandingoffactorsthatincreaseyourriskofacollision

•theabilitytoaccuratelyassessyourdrivingbehaviour.SeeAppendix,GoalsforDriverEducation,page259.

Asapolicedriver,yourworkinglifeischaracterisedbythenumberandvarietyofdifferenttasksthatyoumustcarryout,oftenwithinasingleshift.Adaythatstartswitharoutinepatrolmightendupatthesceneofamulti-vehiclecollisiononthemotorway,orinafastpursuit.Whateverthedrivingtask,youareexpectedtomaintainthehighestpossiblestandardofdrivingandtocompletethetaskinhandcalmlyandefficiently.

Aswellasthecorecompetencesabove,therearetask-specificcompetencesthatareparticularlyimportantfortheoperationalpolicedriver.Theseare:

•multi-tasking–beingabletocarryoutseveralcomplexdrivingtasksatthesametimeandwithequalaccuracyandefficiency(seepage13)

•alertness–beingvigilantandremainingfocusedsoastospotpotentialhazardsearlyandleavenothingtochance

•attentiondistribution–splittingyourattentionacrossallaspectsofadrivingtask

•situationalawareness–usingallyoursensestobuildupanaccuratementalpictureoftheoperationalenvironment

•anticipation–usingyourobservationalskillsanddrivingexperiencetospotactualandpotentialhazardsandpredicthowthesituationislikelytounfold

•planning–planningpreciselyandmakingrapidandaccuratedecisionsthroughoutthetask

•makingjudgements–judgingsituationsaccuratelyandtakingsafeandappropriateaction.

SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation,formoreonalertness,anticipationandplanning.

Situationalawarenessisessentialforpoliceandotheremergencyservicesdrivers.

Thisinvolvesgathering,interpretingandusinganyrelevantinformationtomakesenseofwhatisgoingonaroundyouandwhatislikelytohappennext,sothatyoucanmakeintelligentdecisionsandstayincontrol.

Developingthesemultipleandcomplexabilitiesbeginswithtrainingbutisaprocessofcontinuousimprovement.Itneedsconstantpracticeandaccurateself-assessmentthroughoutyourprofessionaldrivingcareer.

YourvulnerabilityasadriverMostdriversthinktheyarebothsaferandmoreskilfulthantheaveragedriver–butwecannotallberight.In2outof3collisions,humanerrorisacause.Drivingsafetyisnotanadd-onextra–itmustbebuiltintothewayyoudrive.

Whatarethecommonestcausesof

collisions?ThecommonestrecordedcausesofcollisionsintheUKare:

•Drivererrororreaction–thisisafactorin2outof3ofallcollisions.Thecommonesterrorsare:›failuretolookproperly›failuretojudgetheotherperson’spathorspeed›lossofcontrol.

•Actionbasedonpoorjudgement–thiscontributestojustoveraquarterofallcollisions.Themainfactorsare:›travellingtoofastfortheconditions›exceedingthespeedlimit›followingtooclose.

•Beingcareless,recklessorinahurryisthenextmostcommonfactor,contributingtoaround1in6collisions.

Whoismostlikelytobeinvolvedinacollision?Youngdrivers,especiallyyoungmaledrivers,areathigherriskofcrashingthanolderdrivers:

•1in6driversareaged17–24,butthisagegroupareinvolvedin1in4crashesonBritain’sroads.

•Youngdriversaremorelikelytobeinvolvedinacrashasaresultofexcessivespeed,lossofcontrolofthevehicle,orsuddenbraking.

Peoplewhodriveatworkaremorelikelytobeinvolvedinacrashthanthosewhodon’t:

•Betweenaquarterandathirdofallseriouscollisionsinvolvedsomeonewhowasatworkatthetime.

•Driversatworkinthe25–35agegroupareathigherriskofacollisionthanotheragegroups.

Ifyoufallintobothofthesecategories–drivingatworkandbeingayoungdriver–thisincreasesyourvulnerability.

Asapolicedriver,yourworkmayalsoputyouontheroadathigh-risktimesandduringhigh-risksituations.Whenonpatrolonweekendevenings,forexample,youareontheroadatthesametimeasyoung,recklessandintoxicateddriversandpedestrians.

Inaddition,forpoliceandotheremergencyservicesdrivers,drivinginanoperationalenvironmentinvolvesmulti-tasking.Thiscandistractattentionfromthedrivingtask.

Criticallearningfromexperience

Tobecomeabetterdriver,thefirststepistorecognisetheresistanceinourselvestoacceptingresponsibility.Thesecondstepistoaccepteverynearmissandcollisionasalearningopportunitytodecidehowyoucanavoidthesamemistakeinfuture.

Thehabitofdrivingtooclosetothevehicleinfront,ortailgating,showswhywetendnottorecogniseorchangeriskybehaviour.Thisisoneofthecommonestcausesofvehiclecollisions.Butbecauseriskyactionslikethisdon’talwaysendinacollision,theyquicklybecomebadhabitswhichincreasethechancesthatonedaythedriverwillcrash.

Mostdriversinvolvedinacrashdon’tacceptthattheycontributedtoit.Ifyouthinkthatyoudidn’tcauseacrash,youwillalsothinkthatyouhavenothingtolearnfromit.Yourdrivingbehaviourwillnotchange.

Youcanchoosetoreduceyourchancesofthistypeofcollision.Ifthedriverbehindistooclose,youcandecidetoincreaseyourownfollowingdistance.Thisallowsyouandthedriverbehindmoretimetobrake.Whydidyouhavetobrakesuddenly?Usinggoodobservationtoanticipatehazardsshouldhelpyoutoavoidsuddenbraking–thiswillalsoreduceyourriskfromatailgatingdriver.SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation.

Haveyoueverhadanearmiss?

yes no

Haveyoueverfeltthreatenedoralarmedbyanotherroaduser’sactions?

yes no

Whatdidyoulearnaboutyourownactionsfromthisexperience?

Developawarenessofyourpersonalvulnerability

Todevelopyourawarenessofrisksandyourabilitytohonestlyassessyourowndriving,itcanbehelpfultothinkaboutthedrivingtaskintermsoffourdifferentlevels.It’susefultothinkabouttheseseparatelyatthestartofthelearningprocessbutthegoaloflearningandpracticeistointegratethem.

Fourlevelsofthedrivingtask

ThefourlevelssetoutintheEuropeanGoalsforDriverEducation(GDE)are:

•humanfactorsthataffectyourdriving•thepurposeandcontextofyourjourney•trafficsituations•vehicleandvehiclecontrol.SeeAppendix,GoalsforDriverEducation,page259.

Whenyoufirstlearnedtodrive,youstartedwiththebasicskillsofvehiclecontrol.Withpractice,yougraduallycombinedsmallerskillelementsuntiltheybecameautomatic.Onceyoumasteredthebasiccontrolsandmanoeuvringskills,youwereabletoconcentrateontrafficsituations,learningtoanticipateandrespondtohazards.Eventuallyyoubuiltupandintegratedthesecomplexskillsandcompetencesuntilyouwereabletodrivesafelyintrafficandplanandmakejourneysindependently.

Butthemostimportantpointaboutthelearningprocessisthatwearenotablankcanvaswhenwelearntodrive.Webringtothetaskourpersonality,ourlifeexperiences,ourbeliefsabouttheworldandourownattitudestodrivingbasedonwhatwe’veseenaspedestriansorpassengers.Thesefactorsallhaveastronginfluenceonhowwelearntodrive,howwemakedecisionsontheroadandourchancesofbeinginvolvedinacrash.

Let’sconsiderthefourlevelsinmoredepth:

•Humanfactors–yourpersonalcharacteristicscanincreaseorreduceyourriskofacollisioncomparedtootherdrivers.Yourattitudetoyourownvulnerabilityandtootherroadusers,andyouremotions,moodandlevelsoftirednessorstressallaffectyourdrivingbehaviour.Learntorecognisepersonaltendenciesthatincreaseyourriskandfindwaystomanagethem.

•Thejourney–eachjourneyyoumakehasapurposeandinvolvesdecisionsandjudgements:whatpreparationisneeded,whichrouteisbest,whatdistractionsthereareandhowtominimisethem.Theabilitytodealwithoperationaldistractionsisvitalforpoliceandotheremergencyservicesdrivers.Assesstherisksofthejourneyandyourownfitnesstodrive.Takeaccountoftheseinthewayyoumanageeachjourney.

SeeAppendix,IAMSAFEchecklist,page254,tomakesureyouarefittodrive.

•Thetraffic–trainingwillincreaseyourhazardperceptionskillsandyourabilitytonegotiatesafelythroughtraffic.Itwilldevelopyourcompetenceatscanningtheroadandanticipatinghazards,andincreaseyourawarenessoftherisksthatdriversfaceintraffic.Situationalawarenessisessentialforalldrivers.Allowallyoursenses(sight,hearingandevensmell)toprovideyouwithinformationandbuildupanaccuratepictureofyourenvironment.

•Thevehicle–avitalpartofknowingyourownlimitationsasadriverisknowingexactlywhatthevehicleyouaredrivingcanandcannotdo.Taketimetofamiliariseyourselfwithavehiclebeforeyoudriveit.Checkthevehicleisfittodrive.Checkitscondition(e.g.lights,tyretreaddepth,brakes),itscapabilities,itssafetyfeatures,andhowtousethecontrolscorrectly.

SeeAppendix,POWDERchecklist,page256,tomakesureyourvehicleisfittodrive.

ThetablebelowshowshowyoucanusethesefourlevelsoftheGDEmatrixtoconsideryourpersonalrisksandassessyourdrivinginastructuredway. Potentialrisks Possibleself-assessment

questions

Humanfactors

Personaltendencies,motivesorattitudesthatmightaffectyourdriving.Risksmightincludearisk-takingorimpulsivepersonality,operationalstress,competitiveness,overconfidenceindrivingability,justifyingrisktakingforanoblecause,ordistractioncausedbydeeperstressessuchasfamilyorfinancialproblems.

Howeasyisittodetachyourselffromwiderproblemsorstresseswhenyougetintoavehicle?Doyoutendtoreacttoordisengagefromotherroadusers’aggressivebehaviour?Doyouknowhowoperationalstressaffectsyourdriving?

JourneyRiskscouldincludeanunfamiliarroute,timepressure,peerpressure,distractionduetomulti-tasking,‘redmist’orfatigue.

Areyoufittodrive?Whatcanyoudotoreducetheriskofgeneraldistractions?Ofdistractionsfromoperationaltasks?

TrafficMaintainahighlevelofalertnessintraffic,scanningtheroadsoyoucananticipate

Whatarethetraffic,roadandweatherconditions?Howshouldyouadjustyour

whatislikelytohappennext.Riskscouldincludelossofconcentration,failuretolookproperlyorweatherconditions.

drivingfortheconditions?

VehicleAlwaysdrivewithinyourvehicle’scapabilities.Anunfamiliarvehicleincreasesyourrisk.

Isthevehiclefittodrive?Aretheseatandsteeringwheeladjustedforbestpositionandcomfort?Doyouknowhowitssafetyfeaturesbehave?

HumanfactorrisksforpolicedriversPoliceandotheremergencyservicesdrivershavetodealwithdemandinganddifficultsituationsinthecourseoftheirwork.Certainhumanfactorslinkedtothenatureofthejobcanputyouatrisk:

•distractionduetomulti-tasking•drivingstress•operationalstressors•timepressureandthepurposeofthejourney•‘noblecause’risk-taking•‘redmist’.

Distractionduetomulti-taskingOperationaldrivingrequiresnewpolicedriverstodealwithmultipletasks.Thedemandsonyourattentionfromtheradioandotherin-vehicletechnology,theoperationaltasksandevenpassengerscanbe

intrusive.Beawarethatyourvulnerabilityincreasesifyoufailtofocusontheprimarytaskofdrivingsafely.Evenminordistractionscanseverelyimpairyourabilitytoanticipatehazards.

DrivingstressAlldriversarevulnerabletodrivingstress,especiallypoliceandotheremergencyservicesdriverswhoregularlydealwithdifficultandhazardoussituations.Duringademandingordifficultdrivewherebrainprocessingisalreadystretchedtothelimit,operationalstressorscanoverloadthesystemandimpairyourdecisionsandjudgement.Trainingaimstoincreaseyourinformation-processingandproblem-solvingcapacity.Thisgivesyoumoretimetothinkandcompletethedrivingtaskefficiently,whichhelpsreducetheeffectsofdrivingstress.

Deeperstressescanalsoaffectyourdriving.Forexample,adrivermaybedealingwithheavydemandsintheirpersonallife.Familyproblems,financialdifficultiesorevenanewbabycanincreasechronicstressandfatigue,andimpairconcentrationanddrivingperformance.

Weeachresponddifferentlytostressfulsituationssowhatyoufindstressfulmaynotbestressfulforacolleague,andviceversa.Learntorecogniseyourpersonalstressors–thethingsyoufindstressfulthatcouldimpairyourdriving.

OperationalstressorsPolicedriversarealsoexposedtoseveraltypesofoperationalstress:

•theanticipatorystressoffacingadifficultordemandingtask(e.g.

anxietyaboutwhatyouwillfindonarrivalatanincident)

•the‘adrenalinerush’arisingfromasuddeneventsuchasanemergencycall-out–adegreeofarousalenhancesperformancebutbeyondthisoptimumlevelalertnessandconcentrationtendtofallaway

•stressrelatedtoaspectsofthetask–difficulttrafficorweatherconditions,navigationproblems,lackofadvancedetailaboutanincident,timepressureandthelengthoftimeyouspendexposedtorisk

•thestressofbeinginasituationinwhichyouorothersmaybeexposedtoextremehazards

•stressarisingfromrepeatedexposuretodistressingincidentsinthepast;aspectsofacurrentsituationmay‘prompt’recallofdistressingmemoriesandtheeffectmayimpaircurrentdecision-makingandjudgement

•preoccupationwithapreviouserrorofjudgement•stressfromotherworkfactors:workinglongshiftsornightshifts,

peerpressureordifficultworkingrelationshipscanaffectdrivingperformance.

Underpressure,indifficultanddemandingconditions,stressandtirednesscancausethereleaseofpowerfulnegativefeelings:

•impatience–throughadesiretogettotheincidentquickly

•intolerance–abeliefthattheimportanceofthetaskautomaticallygivesthepolicedriverpriorityoverotherroadusers

•impulsiveness–rushingdecisionsbecausetimeisshort•angerorfrustration–forexample,atotherroadusersgettinginyour

way

•personalisation–gettingintopersonalconflictwithanotherroad

user.

Learntorecognisewhenthesereactionsareaffectingyourjudgement.Youcanthenmakeaconsciousdecisiontodisengagefromthem.ThereismoreaboutdealingwithtirednessinChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation.

Practicalstepstocombatstress

Beawarethatstressiscumulative.Researchshowsthatrepeatedexposuretostresscanincreasethechancesofacollisionand,inmoreseverecases,susceptibilitytostress-relatedillness.Lookafteryourhealth–gettingregularexerciseandlearningtorelaxcanhelpreducechronicstress.

•Adjusttheseatandsteeringwheelsothatyouarenotphysicallytenseoruncomfortable.

•Usethetechniquesyoulearnintrainingandpractisethemcontinually–well-learnedtechniquesarelesslikelytobreakdownunderstressfulconditions.Thisisanadvantageofusingthesystemofcarcontrol(Chapter2).

•Maintainacalmprofessionalapproachtoyourdriving–

especiallyinanemergencysituation.

•Learntechniquestohelpyoufocusonyourdrivingandswitchoffotherproblemswhenyougetintoyourvehicle.

•Don’tdwellonpreviousstressfulexperiencesorearliererrorsofjudgement.

TimepressureandthepurposeofyourjourneyPoliceandotheremergencyservicesdriversaretrainedtorespondtourgentcallswithouttakingunduerisks.Butitisafactthatdriverswhofeeltheirjourneyisurgent,becauseoforganisationaltimepressureorthepurposeofthejourney,tendtorespondlesssafelytohazardsandtakemorerisks.Asenseofurgencydoesnotgivetherighttotakerisks.Noemergencyissogreatthatitjustifiesthepossibilityofinjuringorkillingsomeone.Itisbettertoarrivelaterthannotatall.

‘Noblecause’risk-takingNeverjustifyrisk-takingbytellingyourselfthattheriskisforanoblecause–tohelpsomeoneelse,ortocatchapersonsuspectedofacrime.

Ifyou’retemptedtotakerisksinanemergency,STOP.Thinkabouttheconsequencesforyourselfandotherpeopleifyoucrashandfailtoarrive.Youarenohelptothepeopleinneed.Ifyouinjureyourselforsomeoneelseonthewayyouwillhaveturnedanemergencyintotwoemergenciesandapossibletragedy.Andyouwillhavetolivewiththeconsequencesofwhatyouhavedone.

‘Redmist’

‘Redmist’meansyourattentionisnotonyourdrivingbutonsomespecificgoal;youhavebecomeemotionallyandphysiologicallycaughtupintheincident.

‘Redmist’isacolloquialtermusedtodescribethestateofmindofdriverswhobecomedeterminedtoachievesomeobjectiveonthejourney–catchingthevehicleinfront,orgettingtoanincidentintheshortestpossibletime.Fixedattentiononaparticulargoalcanleadtoblindnesstootherpotentialhazards,suchaspedestriansorothervehiclesatintersections.Thismeansadriverisatbestlessableandatworstnolongercapableofrealisticallyassessingdrivingrisks.

Youarethreetimesmorelikelytobeinvolvedinacrashwhenrespondingtoanemergency.

Thekeytopreventingthisstateofmindistoconcentrateonthedrivingtaskinhandratherthanontheincident.Youwillneedtodevelopyourownstrategyforachievingthis,buttherearesomestepsyoucantake:

•Don’tgetintoapersonalityconflictwithanotherroaduser.•Bedispassionateandconcentrateonyourdriving–useneutral,non-

aggressivelanguagetodescribeotherroadusers(toyourselfandothers).

•Don’ttryandimaginewhatyouwillfindattheincident–assessthesituationwhenyougetthere.

•Concentrateondriving–talkingyourselfthroughthehazardsyouidentifycanhelpyoutofocusonthedrivingtaskandkeepnegativeemotionsundercontrol.

HowwelearnYou’llfinditeasiertoimproveyourdrivingabilityandsafetyifyouunderstandhowwelearnandapplynewcompetences.Thebasicrequirementsaretraining,practiceandfeedback.

Training,practiceandfeedbackRoadcrafttrainingmirrorstheprocessbywhichyoulearnedthebasicdrivingskillstopassyourtest.Atfirst,manoeuvreslikechanginggearorturningroundintheroaddemandallyourattention.Butwhenyouhavemasteredthebasiccontrolsandskills,youcangivemoreofyourattentiontotheroadandtrafficconditions.Youwillimproveyourabilitytoanticipateandrespondtohazards,andlearntousethesystemofcarcontrolandotherroutinessothatyoucanrespondrapidly,safelyandflexiblytothedemandsofpolicedriving.

Drivertrainingcanaccelerateyourlearning,enablingyoutodevelopyourcriticalawarenessandcompetencesthatyoumightotherwiseneverpossess.Itcandrawyourattentiontoriskydrivingbehaviourandtopartsofataskorwaysofdoingthingsthatyouwereunawareof.Butpracticeistheonlywayinwhichnewcompetencesbecomeintegrated,automaticandreadilyavailablewhenyouneedthem.Practicewillsteadilydevelopyourcoredrivingcompetencesatalllevels.SeeAppendix,GoalsforDriverEducation,page259.

Todevelopthesecompetencestoahighstandard,youalsoneedcontinuousfeedbackontheeffectsofyouractions.Atfirstyouwillneedfeedbackfromyourinstructor,butrightfromtheoutsetyoushouldcriticallyreviewallyouractions.Youwillbeexpectedtocontinuouslyassessyourowndrivingbehaviourandperformance.Youraimistodevelopyourowninternalfeedback–yourabilitytoquestion,honestlyself-assessandmodifyyouractions–whenever

youdrive.

OverconfidenceaftertrainingOverconfidenceintheperiodaftertrainingisariskyoushouldbeawareof.Don’tunderestimatetheamountofpracticethatisrequiredtodevelopyourdrivingcompetencetothehighestpossiblestandard.Youwillencountermanynewtrafficandoperationalsituationsasapolicedriverandlackofexperienceindealingwiththesesituationsmeansthatyou’revulnerable.

Overconfidencecantakeyouintosituationsyoucan’thandleandwillincreaseyourriskofacrash.Driverscanoverestimatetheirabilitiesinvariousways:

•Inthefirstfewmonthsaftertraining,policeandotheremergencyservicesdriversareatriskfromtheaddeddistractionsofoperationaldriving.Radiocommunicationsandtheattentiondemandedbyoperationaltaskscanattimescreateattentionoverload.

•Lessexperienceddriverstendtobelievetheirhazardperceptionisbetterthanitactuallyis,whenmeasuredobjectively.

•Vehiclesafetytechnologyandequipmenthaveadvancedatsucha

rapidpacethattheycangivedriversafalsesenseofsecurity,leadingthemtotakemorerisks.Drivingavehiclethathasmanymoresafetyfeaturesthantheoneyoulearnedincanleadyoutotakerisksthatyouwouldnothavetakenbefore.

Thisiswhycriticalandhonestself-awarenessissoimportant.Itwillhelpyoutokeepyouractualdrivingabilityandyourperceivedabilityinbalance.

Self-assessmentwillhelpyoucontinuallyimprovePeoplewhodevelopahighlevelofabilityinanyfieldhavebetterthanaverageself-assessmentskills.Theyarecontinuallyreviewingtheirperformance,analysingtheirmistakes,andworkingouthowtheycanimprove.

Peoplewhoarenotverygoodatassessingthemselvesfinditdifficulttodevelopahigherlevelofcompetenceastheyfailtoreflectonwhattheycandotoimprove.

Self-assessmentisonlypossiblethroughreflectivepractice.Monitoryouractionsastheyareactuallyhappening,andreviewyourperformanceafteradrive.Askyourself:

•Whatismyaim?

•Whatwentwellandwhy?

•Whatwentlesswellandwhy?

•HowcouldIdobetternexttime?•HaveIbeenhonestwithmyself?

BehonestThefirstthingtofocusonwhenyoureviewadriveshouldbeyourownsafetyandthatofotherroadusers.Beinghonestwithyourselfaboutwhatdidn’tgosowellisvitalifyouwanttocontinuetoimprove.Forexample,youmightlookbackonadrivetoconsider:

•howyoucontrolledthevehicle•howyoumanagedtrafficsituations,andanticipatedandplannedfor

hazards

•whataspectsofthejourneyyoufoundchallenging•whatpersonalcharacteristicsaffectedyourdrivingbehaviour.SeeAppendix,GoalsforDriverEducation,page259.

Reviewingthingsthatwentwellandanalysingwhyyouhandledthemwellisalsoimportant.Itwillhelpyoutotransferyourcompetenceinoneparticularsituationtoothersituations.Thiswillbroadenyourabilitytomakeaccuratedecisionsandjudgements.

Butintheend,youwillonlybecomeabetterdriverifyouunderstand

yourownvulnerability,knowthelimitsofyourdrivingcapabilitiesandrecognisethehumanfactorsthataffectyoursafety.StudyingRoadcraftandpractisingcontinuallytodevelopyourdrivingabilitywillincreaseyoursatisfaction,enjoymentandsafetyontheroad.

CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explainthecompetencesrequiredforpolicedriving• identifythehumanfactorsthatmayincreaseyourvulnerabilityasadriver

• explaintheGoalsforDriverEducationandhowthesecanhelpyoumanagerisksandassessyourowndriving

• showthatyougiveprioritytosafetyatalltimes• showthatyoucanrecogniseandmanagethehumanfactorsthatmayaffectyourdecision-makinganddrivingperformance

• showthatyoucanhonestlyandcriticallyassessyourowndrivingbehaviourtoachievecontinuousimprovement.

Chapter2

Thesystemofcarcontrol

Learningoutcomes

Thelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:

•explainthesystemofcarcontrol•demonstratehowtoapplythesystemtoanyhazards.

TheneedforasystemofcarcontrolThischapterexplainsthesystemofcarcontrolusedinpolicedrivertraining.Itoutlinesthecompetencesthatwillenhanceyourabilitytomasterawiderangeoftrafficsituations.

Drivererrorisafeatureofnearlyallcollisionsontheroad.Thesystemofcarcontrolaimstopreventcollisionsbyprovidingasystematicapproachtohazards.Itisadecision-makingprocessthatenablesyoutoefficientlyassessandactoninformationthatiscontinuouslychangingasyoudrive.Usingthesystemgivesyoumoretimetoreact,whichisvitalincomplexanddemandingdrivingsituations.

Ifyouusethesystemconsistentlywiththeinformationprocessing,

observationandanticipationskillsdiscussedinChapter3,itwillhelpyouanticipatedangerscausedbyotherroadusersandavoidcollisions.Yourprogresswillbesteadyandunobtrusive–thesignofasafeandcompetentdriver.

IntegratingarangeofcompetencesAsyousawinChapter1,drivingtopolicestandardsrequiresmorethanjusttheabilitytocontrolyourvehicle.Itisessentialtodevelophonestself-assessmentofyourowncapabilities,understandingoftrafficsituationsand‘situationalawareness’–yourabilitytoreadtheroad.Manyhazardsthatdriversmeetareunpredictable.Thesystemgivesyouamethodicalwayofprocessinginformation,andapplyingobservationandanticipationsothatyourecogniseandnegotiatehazardssafely.SeeChapter1,Becomingabetterdriver.

Whatisthesystemofcarcontrol?Thesystemofcarcontrolincreasesyoursafetyinaconstantlychangingdrivingenvironmentbygivingyoutimetoreacttohazards.

Ahazardisanythingthatisanactualorpotentialdanger.

SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation,page47.

Thesystemofcarcontrolisawayofapproachingandnegotiatinghazardsthatismethodical,safeandleavesnothingtochance.Itinvolvescarefulobservation,earlyanticipationandplanning,andasystematicuseofthecontrolstomaintainyourvehicle’sstabilityinallsituations.SeealsoChapter5,page100,Automatictransmission.

Drivinghazardsfluctuate:theycomesinglyandinclusters,theyoverlapandchangeallthetime.Thesystemtakesaccountofthiscontinualfluxas:

•ithasacentrallyflexibleelement–you,thedriver•itdrawstogetheralllevelsofdrivingcompetenceintoalogical

sequenceofactionstohelpyoudealwithhazardsandrespondtonewonessafelyandefficiently.

HowthesystemworksThesystemofcarcontrolconsistsofprocessinginformationandfourphases–position,speed,gearandacceleration.Eachphasedevelopsoutoftheonebefore.

Processinginformationiscentraltothesystem–itrunsthroughandfeedsintoallthephases.Startbyaskingyourself:

•WhatinformationdoIneedtogatherabouttheroadconditions,thebehaviourofotherroadusersandactualandpotentialdangers?

•Whatdootherroadusersneedtoknowaboutmyintentions?

Thenworkthrougheachofthephasesinturn.Asroadconditionschange,you’llneedtoprocessnewinformationandthiswillmeanreenteringthesystematanappropriatepoint,thencontinuingthroughitinsequence.Ifanewhazardarises,re-applythesystemandconsiderallthephasesinsequence.

TheimportanceofinformationYourabilitytoprocesscomplexinformationisessentialtobecomingabetterdriver.

Processinginformationintroducesthesystemandcontinuesthroughout.RememberTUG–take,useandgiveinformation.SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation.

Youneedto:

•takeanduseinformationtoplanyourdriving•giveinformationwheneverotherroaduserscouldbenefitfromit.

Developyourcompetenceatassessingthecontinuousflowof

information.Thiscompetenceunderpinstheentiresystemandenablesyoutoadaptittochangesinroadcircumstances.

SeeChapter8,Driver’ssignals.

Mirrorsandsignals

ThesystemofcarcontrolThesystemofcarcontrolissetoutindetailhere.UsethisinformationinconjunctionwiththeotherchaptersinRoadcraftfora

completeunderstandingofthesystem.Whenandhowyoureadeachchapterdependsonyourownstudyplan.IfyouareusingRoadcraftaspartofacourse,askyourinstructorforadvice.

Information

Processinginformationrunsthroughoutallphasesofthesystem.

Takeinformation

Lookallroundyou.Scantothefrontandsides,includingyourblindspots.Useyourmirrorsatappropriatepointsinthesystem.

Obtaininformationthroughyourothersensesaswellasyoureyes.Soundssuchasahornorsirencanwarnyouofotherroadusers.Smellssuchasdieselorabonfirecanalertyoutohazardssuchasspillsorsmoke.SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation.

Useinformation

Useinformationtoplanhowtodealwiththehazardsyouidentify.Usethesystemtodecideonyournextaction.Ifnewhazardsarise,considerwhethertore-runthesystemfromanearlierphase.SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation,page48,Planning.

Giveinformation

Giveasignalifitcouldhelpotherroadusers,includingpedestriansandcyclists.Useindicators,thehornorflashyourlights.Giveyourwarningsignalingoodtime,formaximumbenefit.

Beawarethatthepositionofyourvehiclegivesvaluableinformation

tootherroadusers.SeeChapter8,Driver’ssignals.

Position

Positionyourselfsothatyoucannegotiatethehazard(s)safelyandsmoothly.SeeChapter9,Positioning.

Takeaccountofthesizeofyourvehicleandotherroadusers,includingpedestrians,cyclistsandchildren.

Speed

Adjustyourspeedasnecessary.Usetheacceleratororbraketogiveyouthecorrectspeedtocompletethemanoeuvresafely.Makegooduseofaccelerationsense.SeeChapter5,Acceleration,usinggears,brakingandsteering.

Useyouranticipationskillssothatyoumakealladjustmentsinspeedsmoothlyandsteadily.

Gear

Onceyouhavethecorrectspeedforthecircumstances,engagetheappropriategearforthatspeed.SeeChapter5,Acceleration,usinggears,brakingandsteering,page96.

Brake/gearoverlapcanbeusedinspecificcircumstances.Itmustalwaysbepartofaplannedapproachthatisthemostappropriateforthecircumstances.Pleaseturntopage37forafulldiscussion

ofthispoint.

Acceleration

Applythecorrectdegreeofaccelerationtonegotiateandleavethehazardsafely.

Takingaccountofyourspeed,otherroadusers,andtheroadandtrafficconditionsahead,chooseanappropriatepointtoacceleratesafelyandsmoothlyawayfromthehazard.Adjustaccelerationtothecircumstances.SeeChapter5,Acceleration,usinggears,brakingandsteering,page89.

Continuouslyassessinginformationrunsthrougheveryphaseofthesystem.

UsethesystemflexiblyThesystemworksifyouuseitintelligentlyandproactivelyandadaptittocircumstancesastheyarise:

•Considerallphasesofthesystemontheapproachtoeveryhazard,butyoumaynotneedtouseeveryphaseinaparticularsituation.

•Take,useandgiveinformationthroughouttoconstantlyre-assessyourplans.

•Bereadytoreturntoanearlierphaseofthesystemasnewhazardsarise.

Withpractice,thesystemwillbecomesecondnatureandformasoundbasisfordevelopingthefinerpointsofyourdrivingskill.It

willhelpyouprocessinformation,makedecisionsandplanyourapproachtohazardssothatyouareabletoavoid,orgiveyourselfplentyoftimetoreactto,potentialdangers.SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation,page42.

Applyingthesystem

Whenyoubeginusingthesystem,itmayhelptonameeachphaseoutloudasyouenterit.Afteryoupractiseusingthesystem,reviewyourperformance:

•Doyoutake,useandgiveinformationthroughoutallphases?Ifnot,whatcanyoudotoimprove?

•Whatcanyoudotoensureyouconsidereachphasesystematically?

•Doyouthinkaboutallaspectsofeachphase?

Whereyouhaveidentifiedproblemsinusingthesystem,workthroughthemonebyone,solvingthefirstbeforeyougoontothenext.

Also,thinkabouthumanfactorsthatmightcreatedifficultiesinusingthesystem,suchasworkpressure,stressortiredness.Ifyou’redistractedorpreoccupied,considergivingarunningcommentarytohelpyoutofocusonworkingthroughthesystemasyouapproacheachhazard.

Wenowlookathowyoucanapplythesystemtofourcommonhazards:aleft-handturn,aright-handturn,aroundabout,andapotentialhazard–inthiscase,childrenonthepavement.Beforeyoulookattheseexamples,makesureyouknowtheHighwayCodeadviceonroadjunctionsandroundabouts.

Applyingthesystemtoaleft-handturn

Information

Takeinformationandidentifyhazards.Whatcanyouseeinthejunction?Whatisthecurrenttrafficflow?Whathazardsarevisibleoranticipated?Useyourmirrorsthroughout.Scantothefront,sidesandrearandcheckyourblindspottoknowthepositionofotherroadusersandanticipatetheirintentions.Giveasignalatanypointwherethiscouldhelpotherroadusers,includingpedestriansandcyclists.

Knowwhatisgoingonallaroundyou,andletotherroadusersknowwhatyouintendtodo.Youmusttake,useandgiveinformationbeforeyouchangespeedordirection.

Applyingthesystemtoaright-handturn

Information

Takeinformationandidentifyhazards.Howfaraheadisthejunction?Whatcanyouseeinthejunction?Useyourmirrorsthroughout.Looktothefront,sidesandrearandcheckyourblindspottoknowthe

positionandanticipatetheintentionsofotherroadusers.Giveasignalatanypointwherethiscouldhelpotherroadusers,includingpedestriansandcyclists.

Applyingthesystemtoaroundabout

Information

Takeinformationandidentifyhazards.Useyourmirrorsthroughout.

Scantothefront,sidesandrear,andcheckyourblindspottoknowthepositionofotherroadusersandanticipatetheirintentions.

Decideearlywhichexittotakeandinwhichlanetoapproachtheroundabout.

Giveasignalwhenitcouldhelpotherroadusers.

Takeanearlyviewoftrafficontheroundaboutandtrafficapproachingitfromotherentrances.

Asyouapproachtheroundabout,bepreparedtostopbutlookforyouropportunitytogo.

Re-applyingthesystemtoleavetheroundabout

Information

Asyouleavetheroundabout,re-applythesystem.Plantheappropriatelaneforyourexit.Ifyouneedtomoveintotheleft-handlane,checkthatyournearsideroadspaceisclear.Useyournearside

mirrorandcheckyourblindspot.Signalleftifitcouldbenefitotherroadusers.

Applyingthesystemtoapotentialhazard

Information

Useyourmirrorsthroughout.Looktothefrontandsidestoknowthepositionofotherroadusersandanticipatetheirintentions.Givea

signalatanypointwherethiscouldhelpotherroadusers,includingpedestriansandcyclists.

OverlappingbrakingandgearchanginginspecificcircumstancesTheindividualphasesofthesystemofcarcontrolarealmostalwaysappliedseparately.Theprincipleisthatbrakesaretoslow,gearsaretogo.

Insomecircumstances,itmaybehelpfultooverlapbrakingwiththegearchangebybrakingnormallybutchangingthegeartowardstheendofbraking.

Ifyouusethistechnique,itmustbepartofaplannedapproachtoahazard.Beginapplyingthesystematthesametimeandinthesameplaceasyouwouldnormally.Thesystemisnotcompressed.

Whendriversfirstlearnthesystemofcarcontrol,theyseparatebrakingandgearchangingandtrynottooverlap.Theproblemwiththisapproachtotightturnsisthatifyoubrakesomedistancebeforetheturntoavoidanoverlap,youcanconfuseotherdriverswithunexpectedresults.Driversfollowingyoumaythinkyouarestoppingandbetemptedtoovertake.Approachingdriverspreparingtoturnintothesamejunctionmaythinkyouhaveslowedtoleavespaceforthemtoturnaheadofyou.

Situationswherebrake/gearoverlapmaybeappropriate:

Brake/gearoverlap–anexampleHereisanexampleofusingbrake/gearoverlapasaplannedapproachtoahazard,inordertomaintaincorrectspeed.

Ifyouturnleftintoasideroadthatispartofthewaydownahill,thevehiclewillstarttoacceleratewhenyoutakeyourfootoffthebrake.Instead,applythesystemasnormaluptoandincludingthespeedphase.

Incorrectuseofbrake/gearoverlapBrake/gearoverlaphasabadreputationbecauseitisfrequentlymisusedbydriverswhoapproachahazardtooquickly:

•Overlapthatisnotproperlyplannedresultsinlate,excessivebrakingandrushedgearchanges.

•Brakinglateandrushingagearchangecandestabiliseyourvehicleatexactlythepointwhereyouneedgreateststabilitytonegotiatethehazard.

Butappliedcarefullyincertaincircumstances,brake/gearoverlaptakeslesstime.

CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explainthesystemofcarcontrol

• demonstratehowtoapplythesystemtoanyhazards.

Chapter3Information,observationandanticipation

LearningoutcomesThelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:

•explainhowyourbrainprocessesinformationandhowyoucanimproveyourabilitytoprocesscomplexinformationwhendriving

•explainthethreemaintypesofhazardyouwillmeetontheroad•showhowtousetheinformationyougatherfromobservationto

planyourdrivingactions

•demonstrategoodobservationandanticipationskills•identifyhumanandphysiologicalfactorsthatcanaffectobservation

andanticipation,andshowhowyoumanagethese.

ProcessingcomplexinformationTodevelopyourdrivingtopoliceoperationalstandards,youwill

needtoexpandyourabilitytoprocesscomplexinformation.Practicewillhelpyoutodothis.

Thediagrambelowisasimplemodelthatexplainshowyourbrainprocessestheinformationthatyoureceivethroughyoursenseswhenyoudrive.Yourbrainusesthisinformationandpastexperiencetounderstandthesituationanddecidewhattodo.Itthencontinuallymonitorsand,ifnecessary,adjuststheactionasyoucarryitout:

Input

Visionisthemostimportantsensefordrivingbutyoushouldlearntouseallyoursensestobuildupthefullestpossiblepictureofyourself,yoursurroundingsandyoursituation.Yourbrainusesyourobservations–andinformationfromyourpreviousknowledgeandexperiencethatisstoredinyourlong-termmemory–tobuildupadetailedmentalmapor‘picture’ofyoursituation.

Decision-making

Yourbraincomparesthismentalpicturewithsituationsfromyourexperience,identifieswhatactionsyoutookinthepastandchoosesa

planofactionforthecurrentsituation.

Yourbrainassessesthesuitabilityoftheproposedplanbycomparingitwithactionsthatyouhavecarriedoutsafelyinsimilarcircumstancesbefore.Youuseseveraltypesofjudgement:

•anticipatinghoweventsarelikelytounfold•assessingtheproposedplanforrisk,notinghazardsandgrading

thembasedonpreviousexperience

•assessingyourspace,position,speedandgear.

Output

Takeaction–makeanappropriateresponse.

Feedback

Asyouputyourplanintoaction,yourbraintakesinnewinformationandcontinuouslychecksitsothatyoucanmodifyyouractionsatanytime.Developingthisabilitytoahighstandardtakesexperience,practice,alertnessandfullconcentration.

Theabilitytojudgeasituation,graderisksandanticipatehowthingsarelikelytounfoldisessentialtosafedriving,especiallyathighspeeds.

ImprovingyourinformationprocessingThehighlydemandingnatureofpolicedrivingmeansthatthebrain’sinformation-processingcapacitycanbecomeoverstretched,reducing

drivingperformanceandcompromisingsafety.Themainlimitationstohowmuchinformationwecanprocessatonetimeare:

•reactiontime•errorsofperception•attentionspan•memorystorage.

Ifyouunderstandthese,youcantakestepstoimproveyourinformation-processingability.

Reactiontime

Yourreactiontimeisthetimebetweengatheringnewinformationaboutahazardandrespondingtoit.

Reactiontime=decisiontime+responsetime

Mostdrivershaveasimilarresponsetimebuttheyvarygreatlyintheamountoftimetheyneedtodecidewhattodo.

Assituationsbecomemorecomplicated,youneedmoredecision

timeandsoyouroverallreactiontimeisalsolonger.Asapolicedriver,youmaybedealingwithsituationsrequiringmanycomplexdecisionsandjudgements–oftenunderpressureandathighspeed–whereadelayedreactioncanhavecatastrophicresults.Thesystemofcarcontrolgivesyouastructuredmethodforrapiddecision-making.Thisreducesdecisiontimeandgivesyoumoreoveralltimetoreactincomplexsituations.

Errorsofperception

Indemandingsituationslikehigh-speeddriving,itissometimespossibletomisinterprettheinformationthatyoureceivethroughyoursenses.Commonerrorsinperceptionare:

•Errorsofjudgement–forexample,lessexperienceddriversoftenperceiveabendasbeinglesssharpthanitactuallyissotheynegotiateittooquicklyandrisklossofcontroloracollision.SeeChapter10,Cornering.

•Habitandexpectancy–whenyoudriveregularlyonfamiliarroads,habitcanpreventyoufromspottingahazardthatyoudon’texpect,suchasavehicleemergingfromadisusedgarageforecourt.

•Regressioneffects–driverswhoswitchvehiclesregularlycan,whenunderalotofpressure,reverttopreviouslylearnedroutines–forexample,confusingthepositionofthecontrols.Doapre-drivingchecktomakesureyouknowwhereallthecontrolsareonanunfamiliarvehicle.SeeAppendix,Isyourvehiclefittodrive?,page255.

Attentionspan

Policedrivershavetoprocessinformationfromseveraldifferent

sourcesthroughdifferentsensesatthesametime:roadconditions,radiotraffic,navigation,themobiledataterminal,thenatureoftheoperation,andsoon.Processingcomplexinformationcanaffectyourperceptionandslowyourreactiontimes.Distractionssuchaspassengersortheradiomaydivertattentionfrommoreimportantinformation.Withtrainingandpractice,youcanlearntofiltercomplexinformationandconcentrateonthepriorities.

Memorystorage

Thebraincan’talwaysdealwithalltheinformationitreceives.Incomplexanddemandingsituations,yourbrainmaydiscardorforgetnewinformationbeforeitcanbestoredinyourshort-termmemory.And,underpressure,informationinyourlong-termmemorymaybedifficulttorecall.

Tipstoimproveinformationprocessing

•Regularlypractisedrivingtechniquesandmanoeuvressothatyoucandothemaccuratelyandefficiently.

•Sharpenyourobservationandperceptionanddevelopyoursituationalawareness.

•Usethesystemofcarcontrolwheneveryoudrivesothatyoumakedecisionsmethodicallyandquickly(Chapter2).

•Learntoholdontoimportantpiecesofinformationuntilyouneedthembyrepeatingthem,relatingthemtothingsyouknowwell,orusingothermemorytechniques.

Whyobservationandanticipation

areessentialforbetterdrivingTheabilitytoprocesscomplexinformationwillgiveyoumoretimetoanticipatehazardsaccuratelywhenunderpressure.Animportantgoalofpolicedrivertrainingistodevelopsophisticatedanticipationskills.

Anticipationistheabilitytoidentifyhazardsattheearliestpossibleopportunity.

Whatisahazard?Ahazardisanythingwhichisanactualorpotentialdanger.It’susefultothinkintermsofthreetypesofhazard:

•physicalfeatures(e.g.junctions,bends,roadsurface)•thepositionormovementofotherroadusers(e.g.drivers,cyclists,

pedestrians)

•weatherconditions(e.g.icyroad,poorvisibility).

Ahazardcanbeimmediateandobvious,suchasacarapproachingyouonthewrongsideoftheroad.Oritmightbesomethinglessobviousbutjustasdangerous–forexample,ablindbendcouldconcealanobstacleinyourpath.Failingtorecognisehazardoussituationsisamajorcauseofcollisions.

Observationisakeycomponentofanticipation.Carefulobservationallowsyoutospothazardsandgiveyourselfextratimetothink,anticipateandreact.Youcanthendealwithunfoldinghazardsbeforetheydevelopintodangeroussituations.

Sightisthemostimportantsenseforobservationwhendriving.Butalsomakefulluseofyourothersenses,suchas:

Goodanticipationinvolvesmorethanjustgoodobservation.Itmeans‘readingtheroad’andextractingthefullestmeaningfromyourobservations.

PlanningSaferdrivingdependsonsystematicallyusingtheinformationyougatherfromobservationtoplanyourdrivingactions:

•anticipatehazards•prioritise•decidewhattodo.

Generallythingsdon’tjusthappen.Thereisusuallyenoughtimetoanticipatehowahazardmightunfold.Goodplanningdependsonearlyobservationandearlyanticipationofrisk.

Thepurposeoftheplanistoputyou:

•inthecorrectposition

•atthecorrectspeed•withthecorrectgearengaged•atthecorrecttime

tonegotiatehazardssafelyandefficiently.

Assoonasconditionschange,anewdrivingplanisrequired;soeffectiveplanningisacontinualprocessofformingandre-formingplans.

Thediagramshowshowthekeystagesofplanningencourageyoutointerpretandactonyourobservations.

Anticipatehazards

Youcandevelopyourabilitytoanticipatehazardsthroughspecifictraininginhazardperception.Butyoucanalsolearntoanticipatethroughexperience,ifyouhonestlyassessyourownperformanceandthatofotherroaduserseachtimeyoudrive.

Young,inexperienceddriverstendtoreactveryquicklytosimplehazardsbutreactmoreslowlytocomplextraffichazards.Thisisbecausetheylackexperienceofthekindsofhazardouseventsthatcanleadtoacollision.Asthey’renotawareoftherisks,theyfailtoanticipatethem.Traineddriversspottheearlysignsofpossibletroubleandanticipatewhatmighthappen,sotheyreactearlyandappropriately.Theyareconstantlymonitoringrisksatasubconsciouslevelsothatthey’rereadytorespondquicklyifthesituationdevelops.

Observationandanticipationreinforceeachother.Onafamiliarroute,forexample,youmayknowfromexperiencewheretherearelikelytobehazards,evenifyourviewoftheroadisblockedbyvehicles.Anticipatinghazardsmeansthatyousearchtheroadforvisualclues.Fromthiscarefulobservation,yougathernewvisualcluesthatincreaseyourabilitytoanticipate.

Youcandevelopyourcompetenceatanticipatingtheactionsofotherdriversbycarefullyobservingtheirprogressandbehaviour,andtheirhead,handandeyemovements.Evencarefuldriverscanmakemistakes,solearningtoanticipateotherroadusers’intentionscangiveyouandthemanextrasafetymargin.

Anticipatinghazardsgivesyouextratime.Themoretimeyouhavetoreacttoahazard,themorelikelyitisthatyoucandealwithitsafely.

Onyournextjourney,giveyourselfarunningcommentaryasyoudrive:describewhathazardsyoucanobserveandhowyouplantodealwiththem.

Remembertoobserveotherdriversaswellastheirvehicles.

Askyourself‘Whatif…?’whenyouobserveahazard.Forexample:

‘Whatifthatdriverwaitingatthejunctionpulledoutwithoutlooking?’

‘Whatifthere’saparkedvehiclejustroundthisbend?’

Withpracticeyoushouldfindthatyouobservemorehazards,earlierandinmoredetail,andgainmoretimetoreact.

PrioritisehazardsWheretherearemultiplehazards,dealwiththeminorderofimportance.Thelevelofdangerassociatedwithparticularhazardsvarieswith:

•thehazarditself•howcloseitistoyou•roadlayout•whetherthehazardisstationaryormoving•howfastyouareapproachingit.

Thegreaterthedanger,thehigherthepriority,butbereadytore-adjustyourprioritiesasthesituationdevelops.

Practiseapplyingthethreestagesofplanningduringeveryjourneyuntilyoudoitautomatically,evenwhenyou’redrivingunderpressure.

DecidewhattodoThepurposeofyourplanistodecideonandadoptacourseofactionthatensuresthesafetyofyourselfandotherroadusersatalltimes,takingaccountof:

•whatyoucansee•whatyoucan’tsee•whatyoumightreasonablyexpecttohappen•whichhazardsrepresentthegreatestrisk•whattodoifthingsturnoutdifferentlyfromexpected(contingency

plans).

Ifyouplanyourdrivingyoushouldbeabletomakedecisionsinamethodicalwayatanypointandwithouthesitation.

Whileyouaredrivingyoushouldbecontinuouslyanticipating,prioritisinghazardsanddecidingwhattodo.Atfirstyoumightfinditdifficulttoconsciouslyworkthroughthesethreestagesallthetime,

butwithpracticethiswillbecomesecondnatureandproveaquickandreliableguidetoaction.

ImprovingyourobservationObservationandanticipationdependbothonvisualskills–howyouuseyoureyestoobservetheenvironment–andonmentalskillssuchasconcentrationandinformationprocessing.Thesevitalskillsareinterlinked.

ScanningtheenvironmentOurabilitytohandleinformationabouttheenvironmentislimitedsowetendtocopewiththisbyconcentratingononepartofitatatime.Butdriverswhorapidlyscanthewholeenvironmentlookingfordifferentkindsofhazardshaveamuchlowerriskofaccidentthandriverswhoconcentrateononearea.

Imagineyourfieldofviewasapicture–youcanseethewholepicturebutyoucanonlyconcentrateononepartofitatatime.Thisiswhyyouneedtodevelopthehabitofscanningrepeatedlyandregularly.

Learntouseyoureyesinascanningmotionthatsweepsthewholeenvironment–thefardistance,themiddledistance,theforeground,thesidesandrear–tobuildupapictureofwhatishappeningallaroundyou,asfarasyoucansee,ineverydirection.

Scanningisacontinuousprocess.Whenanewviewopensoutinfrontofyou,quicklyscanthenewscene.Byscanningthewholeoftheenvironment,you’llknowwheretheareasofriskare.Checkandre-checktheseriskareasinyourvisualsweeps.Avoidfixingonparticularriskareasbecausethisstopsyouplacingtheminthebroadercontext.Useallyourmirrors,andconsiderashouldercheckwhenit’snotsafetorelyonyourmirrorsalone–forexample,tocheckanyblindspotwhenreversing,movingofffromthekerb,

joiningamotorwayorleavingaroundabout.

LookingbutnotseeingWhatweseelargelydependsonwhatweexpecttosee.Haveyoueverhadanearmissbecauseyoulookedbutfailedtoseeacyclistormotorbike?WesawinChapter1thatmistakesofthistypearecommonbecausedriverstendtoseelargerobjectssuchascarsorlorriesbutcanmissroaduserssuchascyclistsormotorcyclists.Therearetworeasonsforthis:

•Whenweconcentratewedon’tjustlookataparticularpartofascene,welookforparticulartypesofobjectsinthatscene.Wemoreeasilydetectandreacttoobjectsthatweexpecttosee.

•Furtheraway,acycleormotorbikeisasmallpointinouroverallfieldofvision.Itremainsarelativelysmallobjectuntilitgetsquiteclose.Ifyoudon’tspotthedistantobject,itcanappeartoloomsuddenlyoutofnowhere.

Don’trelaxyourconcentrationwhendrivinginfamiliarsituationsoryoumaynotseetheunexpectedhazard.Giveasmuchattentiontoobservationandanticipationonroutesyouuseeverydayasonjourneysyouaremakingforthefirsttime.Andtakeextracarewhen

manoeuvringinfamiliarplacesatlowspeeds,suchasparkingupyourvehicleattheendofashift.SeealsoChapter6,Manoeuvringatlowspeeds.

PeripheralvisionPeripheralvisionistheareaofeyesightsurroundingthecentralareaofsharplydefinedvision.Theeye’sreceptorsinthisareaaredifferentfromthecentralreceptorsandareparticularlygoodatsensingmovement.Peripheralvision:

•givesyouyoursensebothofspeedandyourpositionontheroad•registersthemovementofotherroadusers•actsasacueforcentralvision,warningofareastoexaminemore

closely.

Learntoreacttoyourperipheralvisionaswellasyourcentralvision.

ZonesofvisibilityTheroadaroundyouismadeupofdifferentzonesofvisibility.Insomeareasyouwillhaveagoodviewandinothersyouwillonlybeabletoseewhatisdirectlyinfrontofyou.

YourchoiceofspeedSpeedaffectsyourperceptionandjudgement,soyourchoiceofspeedhasamajorimpactonyourabilitytoanticipatehazards.

Adjustyourspeedtohowwellyoucansee,thecomplexityofthesituationandthedistanceitwilltakeyoutostop.

At70mphyouwouldtypicallyneedtoallowasafestoppingdistanceofabout100metres.Thisisthedistancebetweenmotorwaymarkerposts.

Howspeedaffectsobservationandanticipation

Thefasteryougo,thefurtheraheadyouneedtolook.Thisisbecauseasyoudrivefaster,thenearestpointatwhichyoucanaccuratelyfocusmovesawayfromyou.Foregrounddetailbecomesblurredandobservationbecomesmoredifficultbecauseyouhavetoprocessalotmoreinformationinlesstime.Theonlywaytocopewiththisistoscanfurtherahead,beyondthepointwhereyoureyesnaturallycometorest,togiveyourselfmoretimetoassess,planandreact.

Athigherspeeds,youwilltravelfurtherbeforeyoucanreacttowhatyouhaveseenandyouneedtobuildthisintoyoursafestoppingdistance.

Rememberthesafestoppingdistancerule:

Alwaysdrivesoyoucanstopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.

•Drivingathigherspeedrequiresahighlevelofattentionandjudgement,whichyoucan’tsustainifyouaretired.Planregularrestperiodstohelpyoutostayalertandgetsomefreshair.Restforlongerwhentired.Seebelow,page64,Practicalstepstocombattiredness.

•Yourabilitytotakeinforegrounddetaildecreaseswithspeedandincreasesasyouslowdown.Inareasofhightrafficdensitysuchastowncentres,youmustslowdownsothatyouareabletotakeinasmuchforegroundinformationaspossible.

•Statutoryspeedlimitssetthemaximumpermissiblespeed,butthis

isnotthesamethingasasafespeed.Thesafespeedforaparticularstretchofroaddependsontheconditionsatthetime.Itisyourresponsibilitytoselectaspeedappropriatefortheconditionssothatyoumaximiseyourabilitytoobserveandanticipatehazards.

Knowyourlimitsandkeepwithinthespeedatwhichyoufeelsafeandcomfortable–resistthepressuresthatmightencourageyoutodrivefaster.

Speedandsafety

AcentralaimofRoadcraftistoequipyouwiththeattitudeandpracticalabilitiestousespeedsafely.Forthis,youneedtounderstandhowspeedaffectsyourperceptionandjudgementandtoalwaysstaywithinthelimitsofyourcompetence.

Accurateassessmentofyourowndrivingcompetenceisessential.If

youdon’tchooseasafespeedforthecircumstances,youwon’thaveenoughtimetoanticipatehazards.Driverswhodrivefastregardlessofthecircumstanceshaveacollisionriskthreetofivetimesgreaterthandriverswhodon’t.

Yoursafetyandthatofotherroadusersdependsonyourabilitytoaccuratelyassesswhatisasafespeed.Thisdependson:

•yourdrivingcapability•yourawarenessofhumanfactors,suchastiredness,stressorpeer

pressure,whichmayaffectyourcapabilityonanygivenjourney

•yourvehicle’scapabilities•theroadandweatherconditions.

At30mphaminormisjudgementmightbecorrectedbutat70mphthesamemistakecouldbedisastrous.

Underestimatingspeed

Welookedatsomecommonerrorsofperceptionearlierinthischapter.Itiseasytounderestimatethespeedatwhichyouaredriving.Thisisbecauseyourperceptionofspeeddependsonseveralfactors:

•thedifferenceindetailperceivedbyyourforwardandsidevision•engine,roadandwindnoise•theevennessoftheride•yourideaof‘normal’speed•theroad–itswidthandwhetheritisenclosedoropen

•yourheightofftheground.

Underestimatingyourspeedmeansyouwillhavelesstimetoobserveandanticipatehazards.Yourspeedperceptioncanbedistortedinmanysituations:

•Whenyoucomeoffamotorwayorotherfastroadontoaroadwherespeedsbelow30or40mphareappropriate,youwillfeelasifyouaretravellingmuchmoreslowlythanyoureallyare.Allowtimefornormalspeedperceptiontoreturn.

•Lowvisibilitycandistortyourperceptionofspeed,forexampleinfog,sleet,heavyrainanddarkness,soyoufindyourselfdrivingfasterthanyourealise.

•Ifyoudriveavehiclethatissmoother,quieterormorepowerfulthanyourusualvehicle,youmaynotrealisehowfastyou’retravellingbecauseyouuseroadnoise,enginenoiseandvibration,aswellassightandbalance,toassessyourspeed.

•Onwideopenroads,speedswillseemslowerthanonnarroworwindingroads.

Alwayskeepacheckonyourspeedometer.Takeparticularcarewhenyouleaveamotorwayorfastroad,especiallyatroundabouts.

Assessyourselfhonestly–doyoualwayskeeptothesafestoppingdistanceruleathigherspeeds?Thenexttimeyoumakeajourneyinvolvinghigherspeeds,monitorwhetheryoucanalwaysstopwithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.

KeepyourdistanceThecloseryouaretothevehicleinfrontthelessyouwillbeabletoseebeyondit,especiallyifit’savanorlorry.Inslow-movingtraffic,

it’sbettertodropbackslightlysothatyoucanseewhatishappeningtwoorthreevehiclesinfront.

Youparticularlyneedagoodviewoftheroadaheadonmotorwaysandotherfast-movingroads.Yourviewwilldependonthecurvatureandgradientofthecarriageway,thelanethatyouarein,thesizeandpositionofothervehiclesandtheheightofyourownvehicle.Allowingforthese,keepbackfarenoughfromthevehicleinfronttomaintainasafefollowingdistance.Don’tsitintheblindspotofothervehicles.

Haveyoueverhadanearmissorcollisionfromdrivingtooclose?•onafast-movingroad?•inslow-movingtraffic?

Howdidyoureacttothisexperience?Diditchangethewayyoudrive?

Alwayscheckthatnooneissittinginyourblindspotbeforeyouchangelanes.Makesureyouknowwheretheoffsideandnearsideblindspotsareonanyvehiclethatyoudrive.Ifyou’renotsure,getacolleaguetohelpyouworkthisoutbeforeyoumakeajourney.SeeChapter12,Drivingonmotorwaysandmulti-lanecarriageways.

HumanfactorsthataffectobservationandanticipationSafedrivingisaboutmorethanhandlingyourvehicleandtheimmediatetrafficsituation.WelookedathumanfactorsthatcanaffectpolicedriversinChapter1.

Herewelookatfactorsthatcanaffectalertness,observationandanticipation.

Asyourabilitytoanticipatehazardsincreases,yourdrivingbecomessmootherandyourfuelconsumptiongoesdown.

AlertnessToanticipatehazardsweneedtoremainalert–readytoidentifyandrespondtoconstantlychangingdrivingconditions.Alertnessdeterminestheamountofinformationyourbraincanprocess.Itdependsonmanythingsbuttendstodecreasewithtimespentonroutinetasks.Mostdrivingisroutineandplacesfewdemandsonourabilities.Alowlevelofstimulationmakesiteasytoloseconcentration,soyouneedtotakeactivestepstostayalert,especiallyonlongjourneysonmotorwaysorruralroads.

TirednessAlertnessisreducedifyoudriveattimeswhenyouwouldnormallybeasleep,orifyouhaven’thadenoughsleep,oryoursleephasbeendisturbed.Italsovarieswiththetimeofday:

•ourreactionstendtobeslightlyslowerinthemorningthanintheearlyevening

•thereisadipinalertnessafterthemiddaymeal•thegreatestriskoftiredness-relatedcollisionsisbetweenthehours

of11.00pmand6.00am.

Theriskoftirednessalsoincreaseswith:

•Irregularworkandshiftpatterns,whichdisruptthebody’sbiorhythmsor‘biologicalclock’.Thisequipsyourbodytoperformmosttasksbyday.Atnight,manybrainfunctionsarenormallydampeddowntoallowrecuperationandrenewalofthebody’sreserves.

•Disturbedsleeppatterns,whichcanreducethebrain’sabilitytoprocessinformationduringcomplexdrivingtasks.

•Thetotaltimespentatworkandnotjustthetimespentatthewheel.Ifyouaretiredfromotherdutiesbeforeyoustartajourney,you’remuchmoreatriskfromtirednessduringthejourney.Tirednessisaparticularproblemforemergencyservicesandotherprofessionaldriversbecausethedemandsofthejobmaymeanthattheyhavetodriveatthemarginsoftheirsafetylimit.

•Drivingforlongperiodsoftimeinmonotonousconditionssuchas:›inlow-densitytraffic›infog›atnight›onamotorway.

•Drivingforlongerthanaboutfourhours,whatevertheconditions.Fallingasleepatthewheelisthelikelycauseofupto1in5crashesonmajorroadsandmotorways.

Practicalstepstocombattiredness

Thedemandsofthejobandshiftworkmeanthatpolicedrivershavetolearntodealwithtiredness.Watchoutforthewarningsignssuchasblinking,yawningorlossofconcentrationandtakestepstomanagetirednesswellbeforeitbecomedangerous.

•Adjustyourseatsothatyourdrivingpositioniscomfortable.Badposturecausesmusculartiredness,whichinturncausesmentaltiredness.Thiscanbeaproblemduringemergencydrivingwhensomedriversbecomephysicallytense.Ifyoucan,trytorelaxyourpostureduringemergencydriving.

•Makesurethatyouhaveenoughventilationtostayalert.Usetheairconditioningifithelps.

•Takeregularbreaks–onceeverytwohoursisrecommended.Don’t

waituntilyoufeeldrowsy.Mostpeopleneedarestbreakofatleast15minutestorestorealertness.

•Haveacaffeinedrink(e.g.twocupsofcoffeeoranenergydrink).Caffeineneeds15minutestotakeeffectandwearsoffovertime.Ifyouhaveseveralcaffeinedrinksoveralongperiod,beawareeachdoseofcaffeinewillhavelesseffect.

•Onlongjourneysplanaseriesofrestbreaks,butrecognisethateachsuccessivebreakwillgivelessrecoverythantheonebefore.

•Physicalexercisehelpsyourecoverfromfatigue–abrisk10minutewalkcanenergiseyou.

Ifyouknowyouaretired,allowyourselfagreatersafetymargin–slowdownandbeawareyouneedmoretimetoreact.

Driversover45aremoreatriskofandrecoverlessquicklyfromtirednessthanyoungerdrivers.Ifyouregularlystartyourshiftfeelingtired,orsufferfromdisturbedsleep,thinkabouthowtomanagetheseproblemsastheywillaffectyourdriving.

OtherphysiologicalfactorsOtherthingsthatmayaffectyourconcentrationandreactiontimesare:

•minorillness(colds,viralinfections,hayfever,post-viralstates)•medication(especiallythosecausingdrowsiness)•residualbloodalcohol•lowbloodsugararisingfromhunger•cyclicalmoodswingscausedbyhormonechanges(thisappliesto

menaswellaswomen)

•lifestresssuchasbereavement.

Beawarethatanyofthesearelikelytoaffectyourconcentrationandalertness.Takeaccountofthem,slowdownandallowyourselfagreatersafetymargin.

AnticipatinghazardsThinkaboutthelasttimeyoumisjudgedahazard.Didthishappenbecauseyoufailedtoobservethehazard?Ordidyouseethepotentialhazardbutfailtoanticipatewhatwouldhappennext?

Didanyhumanfactorsaffectyourabilitytoobserveandanticipate?Forexample,tiredness,timepressure,lapseofconcentration?

Whatcanyoulearnfromthesituationtoimproveyouranticipationofhazardsinfuture?

CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explainhowyourbrainprocessesinformationandhowyoucanimproveyourabilitytoprocesscomplexinformationwhendriving

• explainthethreemaintypesofhazardyouwillmeetontheroad

• showhowtousetheinformationyougatherfromobservationtoplanyourdrivingactions

• showimprovedobservationandanticipationskills

• explainhumanandphysiologicalfactorsthatcanaffectobservationandanticipation,andshowhowyoumanagethese.

Chapter4Anticipatinghazardsinthedrivingenvironment

LearningoutcomesThelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:

•demonstrateawarenessofhazardsthatyoumaymeetatnight,inpoorweatherconditionsandontheroadsurface

•takeappropriatestepstoreduceoravoidpotentialdangersfromthesehazards

•showthatyoumakefulluseofroadsignsandmarkings,yourownlocalroadknowledgeandobservationlinkstoanticipatehazards.

NightdrivingItishardertoseeinanythinglessthanfulldaylightandsoyourvisiongivesyoulessinformation.Thissectiongivesadviceonwhatyoucandotomakethebestofwhatyoucanseeatnight.

YouAsthelightfades,thereislesscontrast,coloursfadeandedgesbecomeindistinct.Yourbodynaturallywantstoslowdownasnightdrawsonandyouaremorelikelytogrowtired.

Nightdrivingputsextrastrainonyoureyes.Evenaslighteyesightirregularitycancausestressandtiredness.Ifyoufindyouareunexpectedlytiredfromdriving,especiallyatnight,getyoureyestestedassoonaspossible.

YourvehicleMakesurethatallwindows,mirrors,andthelensesoflightsandindicatorsarecleantogiveyourselfthebestpossiblevisibility.Theslightestfilmofmoisture,greaseordirtonwindowsormirrorswillbreakuplightandincreaseglare,makingithardertoseewhatisgoingon.Checkyourlightsarecorrectlyalignedandadjustedforthevehicleload.Thebulbsshouldallworkandtheswitchingequipmentshouldfunctionproperly.Areyourwindscreenwashers,wipersanddemistersallworkingproperly?SeeAppendix,Isyourvehiclefittodrive?,page255.

YourlightsOnunlitroadsputyourheadlightsonmainbeamandonlydipthemforotherroadusers.

Usedippedheadlights:

•inbuilt-upareaswithstreetlights•insituationswhendippedheadlightsaremoreeffectivethanthe

mainbeam–forexample,whengoingroundaleft-handbendor

atahumpbridge

•inheavyrain,snowandfogwhenthesereflectglarefromyourheadlightsonfullbeam.

Dipyourheadlightstoavoiddazzlingoncomingdrivers,thedriverinfrontorotherroadusers.Whenyouovertakeanothervehicle,returntofullbeamwhenyouareparallelwithit.

Onlyusefoglightswhenvisibilityis100metresorless.

Alwaysdrivesothatyoucanstopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.Atnightthisisthearealitbyyourheadlightsunlessthereisfullstreetlighting.Eveninthebestconditionsyourabilitytoassessthespeedandpositionofoncomingvehiclesisreducedatnight,soallowanextrasafetymargin.

Ifyouusesatnavatnight,movetheequipmenttoapositionwhereitdoesn’tobstructyourvisioninthedark,anditsscreendoesn’tdazzleyou.Experimentwithdifferentmodesandfindawayofusingitthatcausesyouleastdistractionindarkness.

FollowingothervehiclesatnightWhenyoufollowanothervehicle,dipyourheadlightsandleavealongenoughgapsothatyourlightsdon’tdazzlethedriverinfront.Whenyouovertake,moveoutearlywithyourheadlightsstilldipped.Ifyouneedtowarntheotherdriverthatyou’rethere,flashyourlightsinsteadofusingthehorn.Returntofullbeamwhenyou’realongsidetheothervehicle.Ifyouareovertaken,dipyourheadlightswhentheovertakingvehicledrawsalongsideyouandkeepthemdippeduntilyoucanraisethemwithoutdazzlingtheotherdriver.

Informationfromothervehicles’lights

Youcangetagreatdealofusefulinformationfromthefrontandrearlightsofothervehicles;forexample,thesweepoftheheadlightsofvehiclesaheadapproachingabendcanindicatethesharpnessofthebend,andthebrakelightsofvehiclesinfrontcangiveyouanearlywarningtoreducespeed.

DazzleHeadlightsshiningdirectlyintoyoureyesmaydazzleyou.Thiscanhappenonsharpright-handbendsandsteepinclines,andwhenthelightsofoncomingvehiclesareundippedorbadlyadjusted.Theintensityofthelightbleachestheretinasofyoureyessothatyoucanseenothingforsomemoments.

Toavoiddazzle,looktowardsthenearsideedgeoftheroad.Thisenablesyoutokeepyourroadpositionbutdoesn’ttellyouwhatishappeningintheroadahead,soreduceyourspeed.Ifyouaredazzled,slowdownorstopifnecessaryuntilyoucanseeproperlyagain.

ReflectivestudsandmarkingsReflectivestudsandmarkingsareagoodsourceofinformationabout

roadlayoutatnight.TogetthemostoutofthemyouneedtobefamiliarwiththeHighwayCode.Roadsidemarkerpostsreflectyourheadlightsandshowyouthedirectionofacurvebeforeyoucanseewheretheactualroadgoes.

Cat’seyesCat’seyesindicatethetypeofwhitelinealongthecentreoftheroad.Generallythemorewhitepaintintheline,thegreaterthenumberofcat’seyes.Theyareparticularlyhelpfulwhenit’srainingatnightandtheglareofheadlightsmakesitdifficulttosee.

Otherwaystoimproveobservationatnight

•Keepyourspeeddownwhenyouleavebrightlylitareastoallowtimeforyoureyestoadjusttothelowerleveloflighting.

•Anylightinsidethevehiclewhichreflectsoffthewindowswilldistractyouandreduceyourabilitytosee.Interiorlights,torchesandsatnavscreenscancausereflections,solimittheiruse.

•Someglasseswithtintedorphotochromaticlensesmaybeunsuitablefornightdriving,socheckwithyouroptician.

Whenyoudriveatnight,thinkabouthowtoadaptyourdrivingtotakeaccountofthesefactors:

•Yourphysiologicalandmentalresponsestonight-timeconditions.Foreachjourneyaskyourselfwhetheryou’refullyphysicallyandmentallyalertfornight-timedriving.

•Theconditionofyourvehicle.Isitproperlyequippedandpreparedfornightdriving?

•Informationintheenvironment.Howdoyouadaptyourobservationandanticipationwhenyoumakeajourneyindarkness?

WeatherconditionsBadweatherisoftenblamedforcausingcollisionswhentherealcauseisinappropriatedriving.Carefulobservation,goodanticipation,thecorrectspeedandadequatebrakingdistancesarecrucialforsafedrivingindifficultweatherconditions.

Inextremeweatherconditions,askyourself:‘Ismyjourneyreallynecessary?’

Theweatheraffectshowfaryoucansee,andyourvehicle’sroadholding,soitiscentraltoyourobservation,anticipationanddrivingplan.Whenweatherconditionsreducevisibility,reduceyourspeedandregularlycheckyouractualspeedonthespeedometer.Youshouldalwaysbeabletostopwithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclear.Ifitisfoggy,followtheHighwayCodeadviceondrivinginfog.

Examplesofweatherconditionswhichreducevisibilityare:

•fogandmist

•heavyrain•snowandsleet•brightsunshine,especiallywhenitislowinthesky.Formoreondealingwiththeseweatherconditions,seeChapter12,Drivingonmotorwaysandmulti-lanecarriageways,page224.

UsinglightsinbadweatherChooseyourlightsaccordingtothecircumstances.

•Switchonyourdippedheadlightswhenvisibilityispoorindaylightorfadinglight.Usedippedheadlightsinfogorheavyrainindaylight,becausesidelightsarevirtuallyinvisible.

•Asageneralrule,useyourdippedheadlightswheneveryourwipersareinconstantuse.

•Whenthereisfogorfallingsnowatnight,foglightsoftengiveabetterviewthandippedheadlights.Usethemasanalternativetoortogetherwithdippedheadlightsifvisibilityis100metresorless.

•Switchoffyourfoglightswhenyouleavethefogsoyoudon’tdazzleotherdrivers.

•Don’tuseyourmainheadlightbeamwhenyouarebehindanothervehicleinfog–itmaydazzlethedriver,andwillcastashadowofthevehicleonthefogahead,disruptingthedriver’sview.

•Thebrightnessofrearfoglightscanmaskthebrakelights–allowmoredistancebetweenyouandthecarinfrontandaimtobrakegentlyyourself.

Usingauxiliarycontrolsand

instrumentsinbadweatherMakefulluseofyourwashersandwiperstokeepyourwindscreenandrearwindowasclearaspossible.Whenthereisapossibilityoffreezingfog,putfreeze-resistantscreenwashinthescreenwashreservoir.Infog,rainorsnow,regularlycheckyourspeedometerforyouractualspeed.Lowvisibilitydistortsyourperceptionofspeedsoyoucan’trelyonyoureyestojudgespeedaccurately.

ObservingwhenvisibilityislowWhenvisibilityislow,keeptoaslowsteadypaceandusetheedgeofthecarriageway,hazardlinesandcat’seyesasaguide,especiallywhenapproachingaroadjunctionorcorner.Staringintofeaturelessmisttirestheeyesveryquickly.Focusinsteadonwhatyoucansee:thevehicleinfront,theedgeoftheroadortheroadahead.Butavoidfixingyourfocusonthetaillightsofthevehicleinfrontbecausetheywilltendtodrawyoutowardsitandyoucouldcollideifthevehiclestoppedsuddenly.Bereadytouseyourhorntotellotherroadusersyouarethere.

Alwaysbepreparedforasuddenstopinthetrafficahead.Don’tfollowclosely,andonlyovertakeothertrafficwhenyoucanseethatitisabsolutelysafetodoso.Thisisseldompossibleinfogonatwo-wayroad.Atjunctionswhenvisibilityislow,winddownyourwindowandlistenforothervehicles,andconsiderusingyourhorn.

MicroclimatesLookoutforevidenceofmicroclimates.Thesecancausefrostandwetpatchestolingerinsomeareasaftertheyhavedisappearedelsewhere.Icecanlingerinlandscapefeaturessuchasvalleybottoms,shadedhillsidesandshadedslopes,orlargeareasofshadow

castbytreesorbuildings,andresultinsuddenlossoftraction.Bridgesurfacesareoftencolderthanthesurroundingroadsbecausetheyareexposedonallsides,andcanbeicywhentheirapproachroadsarenot.Patchyfogisparticularlydangerousandisacommoncauseofmultiplecollisions.

Roadsurface

Haveyoueverfailedtospotaproblemontheroadsurfacethataffectedyourtyregriporvehiclehandling?

Thetypeandconditionoftheroadsurfaceaffectstyregripandvehiclehandlingcharacteristics.Drivingcontroldependsontyregripforsteering,accelerationandbraking.Eventhebesttyresonahighperformancevehiclecanlosetractiononapoorroadsurface.Mostdriversdon’tpayenoughattentiontothis.

Alwayslookwellaheadtoidentifychangesintheroadsurface,andadjustthestrengthofyourbraking,accelerationandsteeringtoretainadequateroadholding.

Alwaysobservethecamberoftheroadonacurveorbend.SeeChapter10,Cornering,page170,Camberandsuperelevation.

Thesurfacesofmostroadsaregoodforroadholdingwhentheyarecleananddry.Snow,frost,ice,rain,oil,moistmuddypatches,wetleaves,dryloosedustorgravelcancausetyrestolosegrip,makingskidsmorelikely.Rainmayproduceaslipperyroadsurface,especiallyafteralongdryspell.Athazardssuchasroundaboutsorjunctions,tyredepositsanddieselspillagemaymakethesurfaceslipperyatexactlythepointwhereeffectivesteering,brakingandaccelerationareneededtonegotiatethehazardsafely.

RoadsurfaceirregularitiesLookoutforirregularitiessuchaspotholes,projectingmanholecovers,sunkengulliesandbitsofdebris,whichcandamagethetyresandsuspension.Ifyoucanalteryourroadpositioninplentyoftimetoavoidthemwithoutendangeringothertraffic,doso;ifnot,slowdowntoreduceshockandmaintainstabilityasyoupassoverthem.

TheroadsurfaceinwinterInwinter,theiceorfrostcoveringonroadsurfacesisnotalwaysuniform.Isolatedpatchesremainicedupwhenotherpartshavethawedout,andcertainslopesareespeciallysusceptibletothis.Beonthelookoutforiceorfrostpatches,whichyoucandetectbytheirappearance,bythebehaviourofothervehiclesandbythesudden

absenceoftyrenoise:tyrestravellingonicemakevirtuallynonoise.Adjustyourdrivingearlytoavoidskidding.SeeChapter7,Maintainingvehiclestability.

Surfacingmaterials

Gripcharacteristics

Problems

Tarmacorasphalt

Tarmacorasphaltsurfacesgiveagoodgripwhentheyaredressedwithstonesorchips.

Intime,theybecomepolishedandlosesomeoftheirskid-resistantproperties.

Anti-skidsurface High-gripanti-skidsurfacesaredesignedtogiveextragripontheapproachtofixedhazardssuchasroundabouts,trafficlightsandzebracrossings.

Whennewlylaid,loosegravelonsurfacecanreducegrip;patchescanbecomepolishedovertime.

ConcreteConcreteroadsurfacesoftenhaveroughenedribs,whichgiveagoodskid-resistantsurface.

Someholdwater,whichfreezesincoldweatherandcreatesaslipperysurfacewhichisnoteasilyseen.

CobblesBrickpavingorpaversonroadsin

Lowgripwhenwet. Rainincreasesthelikelihoodofskidding.

homezonesRoadpaint

Metalhazardsontheroadsurfacesuchastramlines,temporarymetalsheeting,inspectioncovers

Poorgripwhendustyorwet.

Rainincreasesthelikelihoodofskidding.

DrivingthroughwaterDrivingatspeedthroughwatercansharplydeflectthefrontwheelsandcauseyoutolosecontrol.SeeChapter7,Maintainingvehiclestability,Aquaplaning,page141.

Takeextracareatnight,whenitisdifficulttodistinguishbetweenawetroadsurfaceandfloodwater.Floodwatercangatherquicklywheretheroaddipsandatthesidesoftheroadinpoorlydrainedlowlyingareas.Dipsoftenoccurunderbridges.

Slowdownasyouapproachafloodedarea.Avoiddrivingthroughwaterwhereverpossible.Whenyouhavetodrivethroughwater,drivethroughtheshallowestpartbutlookoutforhiddenobstaclesorsubsidence.

Iftheroadisentirelysubmerged,stopthevehicleinasafeplaceand

cautiouslyfindouthowdeepthewateris.Thedepthofwaterthatyoucansafelydrivethroughdependsonhowhighyourvehiclestandsoffthegroundandwheretheelectricalcomponents,engine,airintakeandexhaustpipearepositioned.Forexample,submergingahotcatalyticconvertercouldcausedamage.

Refertothemanufacturer’shandbookforspecificadviceforyourvehicle.

Ifyoudecidetodriveon,followthestepsbelow:

•Inavehiclewithamanualgearbox–engagefirstgearandkeeptheenginerunningatjustaboveidlespeed(justenoughtopreventstalling).Inoldervehicles,drivingathigherrevscouldpreventwaterbeingdrawnintotheexhaustsystem.Inmanynewervehicles,theairintakeispositionedbelowthefrontbumpersoavoidhigherrevsasthiswouldcausewatertobesuckedintotheenginecausingexpensivedamage.

•Inavehiclewithautomatictransmission–refertothemanufacturer’shandbookforspecificadviceasthisvariesfromoneautomaticsystemtoanother.

•Drivethroughthewaterataslowevenspeed(aslowwalkingpace).•Gripthesteeringwheelmoretightlytomaintaindirectionasyou

drivethroughthewater.

•Whenyouleavethewater,continuedrivingslowlyandapplythefootbrakelightlyuntilthebrakesgrip.Repeatthisagainafterashortwhileuntilyou’reconfidentthatyourbrakesareworkingnormally.

Ifjustonewheelentersadeeppuddle(usuallythenearsidewheel),thatwheelwillslowrapidlycausingthevehicletoveerinthatdirection.Ifyoucan’tavoidthepuddle,preparebytighteningyourgriponthesteeringwheelandholdingitstraightuntilclear.

RoadsignsandmarkingsRoadsignsandmarkingswarnofapproachinghazardsandgiveinstructionsandinformationaboutroaduse.Useyourobservationskillstoreadtheroadandlinkthesignstothehazardsahead,especiallyatnight.

Makethebestpossibleuseofroadsignsandmarkings:

•Observe–activelysearchforroadsignsandmarkingsinyourobservationscans,andincorporatetheinformationtheygiveyouintoyourdrivingplanassoonaspossible.Manydriversfailtoseeandmakeuseofthem,andsolosevaluableinformation.

•Understand–beabletorecognisethemimmediately.YoushouldbefamiliarwiththecurrenteditionsoftheHighwayCodeandKnowyourTrafficSigns.

•React–reacttoasignormarkingbylookingaheadtowhatitreferstoandbuildingtheinformationintoyourdrivingplan.Wherethesignormarkingreferstoanunseenhazard,anticipatethehazard

andadaptyourplanaccordingly.

Unofficialroadsignssuchas‘MudonRoad’,‘CarBootSale’and‘ConcealedEntrance’canalsohelpyouanticipatetheroadconditionsahead.

WhenwasthelasttimeyoulookedatroadsignsinthemostrecentversionoftheHighwayCode?

Onyournextfewjourneys,checkwhetheryouknowthemeaningofeachsignorroadmarkingyoumeetandmatchthemtotheroadlayoutahead.

LocalroadknowledgeIncreasingyourlocalknowledgeoftheroadscanhelpyourdriving,butnevertakefamiliarroadsforgranted.Lossofattentionisamajorcauseofcollisionsanddriversareleastattentiveonroadstheyknowwell.

2outof3crasheshappenonroadsthatdriversarefamiliarwith.

Towndrivingputsheavydemandsonyourobservation,reactionsanddrivingskills,andyouneedtobealertatalltimes.Atcomplicatedjunctions,whereitisimportanttogetintothecorrectlane,localknowledgeisuseful.Butevenwhenyouknowthelayoutofmainroadjunctions,one-waystreets,roundaboutsandotherlocalfeatures,alwaysplanonthebasisofwhatyoucanactuallysee–notwhatusuallyhappens.

MakingobservationlinksObservationlinksarecluestophysicalfeaturesandthelikelybehaviourofotherroadusers.Aimtobuildupyourownstockofobservationlinks,whichwillhelpyoutoanticipateroadandtrafficconditionsasyouscantheenvironment.

Belowaresomeexamplesofobservationlinks.

Observationlinks

SomemoreobservationlinksWhenyousee… Lookoutfor…

Arailwaylinebesideroad

Roadwillinvariablygooverorunderit,oftenwithsharpturns.

Arowofparkedvehicles

Doorsopening,vehiclesmovingoff.

Pedestrianssteppingoutfrombehindvehicles.

Smallchildrenhiddenfromview.

AbusatastopPedestrianscrossingtheroadtoandfromthebus.

Busmovingoff,possiblyatanangle.

CyclistsInexperiencedcyclistdoingsomethingerratic.

Cyclistlookingovershoulderwiththeintentionofturningright.

Strongwindscausingwobble.

Youngcyclistdoingsomethingdangerous.

Practiseusingobservationlinks.Whatwouldyoulookoutforifyouobserved:

•apedestriancallingacab•acouriervan•signsforahypermarketorsuperstore•amotorwaysliproad•signswarningofroadworksandcontraflowaheadonamotorway•arowofbusesinfrontofashoppingcentre•newhedgeclippingsorgrasscuttingsonanarrowcountryroad•alargeleisurecomplex?

Canyouthinkofarecentoccasionwhereyoufailedtospotthesignificanceofsomethingyouobserved?

Couldyouusethisexperiencetoimproveyouranticipationskills?

CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyour

drivertrainingsothatyoucan:• demonstrateawarenessofhazardsthatyoumaymeetatnight,inpoorweatherconditionsandontheroadsurface

• takeappropriatestepstoreduceoravoidpotentialdangersfromthesehazards

• showthatyoumakefulluseofroadsignsandmarkings,yourownlocalroadknowledgeandobservationlinkstoanticipatehazards.

Chapter5Acceleration,usinggears,brakingandsteering

LearningoutcomesThelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:

•explainhowacceleration,brakingandsteeringaffecttyregripandvehiclebalance

•showthatyoucancontrolyourvehicleaccuratelyinarangeofsituations

•showgoodaccelerationsense,usingtheacceleratoraccuratelyandsmoothly

•showhowtousegearsaccurately,selectingthecorrectgearinarangeofcircumstancesandfordifferentpurposes,invehicleswithmanualorautomaticgearboxes

•explainthesafestoppingdistance•showhowtousethebrakesandenginebrakingtoslowthevehicle

appropriatelyandsafelyindifferentcircumstances

•demonstrateamethodofsteeringformaximumsafetyandcontrol

•explainthemainfactorsthatreducefuelconsumption.

Developingcompetenceatcontrollingyourvehicle

Drivingsmoothlycanreducefuelconsumptionbyabout15%andreduceswearandtear.

Theaimofthischapteristogiveyoucompletecontrolovermoving,stoppingandchangingthedirectionofyourvehicleatalltimes.Toachievethislevelofcompetence,youneedto:

•accuratelyassessyourcurrentdrivingbehaviourandthescopeforimprovingyourvehiclecontrolskills

•understandindetailhowtheaccelerator,gears,brakesandsteeringcontrolsworkandhowtomakebestuseofthem.

Amovingvehicleismoststablewhenitsweightisevenlydistributed,itsengineisjustpullingwithoutincreasingroadspeed,anditistravellinginastraightline.

Controlofyourvehicleandyourownandothers’safetydependsonthegripbetweenyourtyresandtheroad.

Yourcontrolofthevehicleistotallydependentonthegripbetweenthetyresandtheroadsurface.Thepatchoftyreincontactwiththeroadonanaveragecarisaboutthesizeofahand.

Allnewtyreshavealabelwhichtellsyouaboutthetyre’swetgrip,fuelefficiencyandnoiseperformance.Checktyrepressuresregularlybecauseunder-inflatedtyrescanaffectstability.Lowtyrepressuresalsoincreaserollingresistanceandfuelconsumption.

Thetyregriptrade-offThereisalimitedamountoftyregripavailable.Thepatchoftyreincontactwiththeroadvarieswiththesizeofthevehicleandthewidthofthetyres.Onanaveragecarthecontactpatchisaboutthesamesizeasahand.Thisissharedbetweenaccelerating,brakingandsteeringforces.Ifmoretyregripisusedforbrakingoraccelerating,thereislessavailableforsteering,andviceversa.

Developyourawarenessoftyregrip

Analysewhatishappeningtoyourtyregripasyousteerroundacornerorbend.

Beawareofthetrade-offbetweenacceleratingorbrakingontheonehandandsteeringontheother.

Doyoufinishbrakingbeforeyougointoabend?

Doyouavoidacceleratingharshlywhiledrivingroundbends?

VehiclebalanceandtyregripTyregripisnotnecessarilythesameoneachwheel.Itvarieswiththesizeofthevehicleandtheloadonthewheel.Thisaffectshowthevehiclehandles.Braking,steeringandacceleratingalterthedistributionoftheloadbetweenthewheelsandsoaffectthevehicle’sbalance.

Braking,steeringandacceleratingalterthevehicle’sbalanceandtyregrip.

Brakingoracceleratingasyougoroundacornerleaveslesstyregripforsteering.Thisreducesyourcontroloverthepositioningofyourvehicle.Ifthereisn’tenoughtyregripforsteering,youmaylose

traction.Themoreslipperytheroadsurface,theearlierthishappens.Theexactoutcomedependsonthebalanceofthevehicle,whetherithasfront,rearorfourwheeldrive,andwhetheritisfittedwithsafetyfeaturessuchasanelectronicstabilityprogramme(ESP),tractioncontrolsystem(TCS)orananti-lockbrakingsystem(ABS).

TechnologytohelpkeepcontrolofthevehicleAllmodernvehiclesarenowfittedwithelectronicsafetyfeaturestohelpthedriverkeepcontrolofthevehiclewhenharshsteering,brakingoraccelerationmightresultinaskid.TheseincludeABS,TCSandESP.Thespecifictechnologyandhowitworksvariesfromonemanufacturertoanother.Thistechnologyisalsodevelopingfast,withincreasingsophistication.SeeChapter7,Maintainingvehiclestability,page137.

UsingtheacceleratorDepresstheaccelerator:

•toincreaseroadspeed•tomaintainroadspeed,forexamplewhencorneringorgoinguphill.

Releasetheaccelerator:

•toreduceenginespeedandslowthevehicledown.

Ifyouareinthecorrectgearforyourspeed,depressingtheacceleratorwillgiveyouaresponsiveincreaseinenginespeed.Ifyouareintoohighagear,theenginewillnotrespondbecausetheloadfromthewheelsistoogreat.Changingtoalowergearreduces

theloadandallowstheenginetospeedupandmovethevehiclefaster.

Ifyoureleasetheacceleratorpedalyougettheoppositeeffect–deceleration.Theenginespeedslowsdownandcylindercompressionslowsthevehicledown.Thelowerthegear,thegreatertheslowingeffectoftheengine,orenginebraking.Seepage104,Releasingtheaccelerator–enginebraking(inthischapter).

RetardersHeavyvehicles,includinglargeremergencyvehicles,arefittedwithretarders.Thesearedeviceswhichproduceadditionalenginebrakingtohelpslowthevehicle.Retardersreducewearonthebrakesandhelptomaintainasteadyspeedwhencontinuousbrakingisrequired–forexample,goingdownalonghill.

Wheneveryoufullyreleasetheaccelerator,theretarderappliesbrakingpowertothedrivewheels.Itmayrapidlyreducevehiclespeedandsocanaffectyourcontrolofthevehicle.Youcancontroltheretarderbycarefuluseoftheaccelerator.Someretardersmayoverheatifusedoverlongperiodsoftime,soconsiderusingalowergear.

Thereareseveraltypesofretarder.Alwaysstudythevehiclehandbooktounderstandfullyhowtheretarderoperatesoneachheavyvehicleyoudrive.

AccelerationandvehiclebalanceAccelerationaltersthedistributionofweightbetweenthewheelsofthevehicle.Whenavehicleaccelerates,theweightisliftedfromthefrontandpusheddownonthebackwheels.Duringdecelerationtheoppositehappens.Thisalterstherelativegripofthefrontandrear

tyres.

AccelerationandbalanceondifferenttypesofvehicleTheexacteffectofaccelerationonbalanceandtyregripdependsonthevehicle’ssize,powersource,drivingwheelsandconstruction.

•Largervehicleshavelessaccelerationcapabilitythancarsbutacceleration,balanceandtyregripwilldiffermarkedlydependingonwhetherthevehicleisfullyloadedorhasnoload.

•Electricvehicles–manyelectricvehicleswithlargermotorshavebriskeraccelerationthanvehicleswithasimilar-sizedinternalcombustionengine.Forprecisedetailsconsultyourvehiclehandbookormanufacturer.

•Frontwheeldrivevehicleslosegriportractionontheirdrivingwheelsbecauseaccelerationtransfersweight,andthereforegrip,fromfronttobackwheels.Thisreducestheirabilitytoaccelerate.Acceleratingtoosharplycancausewheelspin.Harshaccelerationoraslipperyroadsurfaceincreasestheriskofwheelspin,whichcanbeparticularlydangerouswhenpullingoutatajunction.Avoidacceleratingsharplyandinslipperyconditionsdepresstheacceleratorverygently.

•Rearwheeldrivevehiclesgainextragripontheirdrivingwheels,whichhelpsacceleration(butharshaccelerationwillcausethedrivingwheelstolosetraction).Atthesametimethefrontgripislightened.

•Fourwheeldrivevehiclesvaryinhowthepowerisdividedbetweenthefrontandbackwheels,andinthetypeofcentraldifferentialtheyhave.Thismeanstheeffectsofaccelerationvaryaccordingtothemodelbutgenerallyfourwheeldrivevehicleshavegoodgripwhenaccelerating.Forprecisedetailsconsultyourvehiclehandbookormanufacturer.

DevelopingyourcompetenceatusingtheacceleratorJerkyaccelerationisuncomfortableforpassengers,putsunnecessarystrainsonthevehicle,reducestyregripandincreasesfuelconsumption.Useaccurateandsmoothmovementstoreleaseordepresstheaccelerator.Remember–easeandsqueeze.

Accelerationcapabilityvarieswidelybetweenvehiclesanddependsonthefuelorpowersource,theengineoutput,itsefficiency,thepower-to-weightratioanditsload.Taketimetogettoknowtheaccelerationcapabilityofanyvehicleyoudrive.Thesafetyofmanymanoeuvres,particularlyovertaking,dependsonjudgingitwell.

Howyouusetheacceleratoraffectsyourownandotherroadusers’safety.Suddensharpmovementsoftheacceleratorreducetyregripandjeopardisesteeringcontrol.Thefasteryougothefurtheryouwilltravelbeforeyoucanreacttoahazard.Itwilltakeyoulongertostopand,ifyoucollide,theresultsoftheimpactwillbeworse.

Accelerationsense

Accelerationsenseistheabilitytovaryvehiclespeedinresponsetochangingroadortrafficconditionsbyaccurateuseoftheaccelerator,sothatyouusethebrakeslessornotatall.

Thisuseslessfuel,causeslesswearonthetyresandreducescarbonemissions.

Youneedaccelerationsenseineverydrivingsituation:movingoff,overtaking,complyingwithspeedlimits,followingothervehiclesandnegotiatinghazards.Accelerationsenserequiresobservation,anticipation,judgementofspeedanddistance,drivingexperienceandknowledgeofthevehicle’scapabilities.

Whenyoucomeupbehindanothervehicle,howoftendoyouneedtobraketomatchthespeedofthedriverinfront?Ifyouransweris‘always’or‘nearlyalways’,workatdevelopingyouraccelerationsense.

Drivealongaregularrouteusingaccelerationsenseratherthanbraking.Noticehowitimprovesyouranticipationandincreasesthesmoothnessofthedrive.

Accelerationsensehelpsyouavoidunnecessarybraking.Commonmistakesare:

•acceleratinghardawayfromajunctionandthenhavingtobrakesharplytoslowtothespeedofthevehiclesinfront

•acceleratingtomoveupbehindaslowermovingvehicleandthenhavingtobrakebeforeovertaking

•acceleratingtoovertakeandthenhavingtobrakesharplytomovebackintoaspace.

Usingtheacceleratoronbends

Amovingvehicleismoststablewhenitsweightisevenlydistributed,itsengineisjustpullingwithoutincreasingroadspeed,anditistravellinginastraightline.

Assoonasavehicleturnsintoabenditstartstoslowdownandlosestability,duetocorneringforces.Ifyoukeepthesamepressureontheacceleratorasyougointoandroundabend,youwillloseroadspeed.

Forsteeringcontrolandstability,youneedtokeepyourroadspeedconstantroundthebend.Dothisbygentlydepressingtheaccelerator.Youraimisnottoincreaseyourroadspeedbuttokeepitsteady.

Practicewillhelpyoujudgehowmuchtodepresstheacceleratorforasteadyspeed.

Usetheacceleratortomaintainaconstantspeedroundabend.Aconstantspeedkeepsyourweightevenlydistributedfrontandrear,andensuresmaximumtyregrip.

Ifyouacceleratetoincreaseroadspeedandalterdirectionatthesametime,theremaynotbeenoughtyregripavailableandyoumaylosesteeringcontrol.

Whenyouneedtosteerandincreasespeedtogether,usetheacceleratorgently.Takeextracarewhenacceleratinginslipperyconditionsoryoumaycausewheelspinandlossofsteeringcontrol.SeeChapter10,Cornering,page167,Corneringforces.

Acceleratingmovestheweightofthevehicleontotherearwheelsandoffthefrontwheels.Thisreducesthegripofthetyreswhicharesteeringthevehicle,soitmayundersteer.Ifthishappens,don’tmakethemistakeofapplyingmoresteering.

Asyoureducetheamountofsteering,starttoacceleratebutdothis

gentlyandsmoothlysothatyoumaintaintyregrip.Assteeringreduces,thetyregriptrade-offallowsmoregripforacceleration–butbewareofacceleratingtooearly.Theappropriatepointdependsonhowfaryoucansee,andtheconditionsontheroadsurface.

Followtheguidingsafetyprinciple–youmustalwaysbeabletostopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.Ifthatdistanceshortens,youmustslowtomatchit.

Keypoints

•Theharderyouaccelerate,thelesstyregripyouhaveforsteering.•Usetheacceleratorsmoothly–jerkinesscauseswheelspinand

wastesfuel.

•Useaccelerationsensetovaryyourroadspeedwithoutunnecessarybraking.

•Forsteeringcontrolandstability,usetheacceleratortomaintainasteadyspeedwhenyouenterabend.

Fuel/powersourceaffectsaccelerationandenginebrakingDiesel,petrol,liquefiedpetroleumgas(LPG)andelectricvehiclesdifferintheiraccelerationandenginebrakingcharacteristics.(Enginebrakingisdiscussedlaterinthischapter.)

Therangeoftechnologybuiltintonewvehiclestoimproveengineperformancemeansthatdifferentmakesandmodelswiththesametypeofpowersourcecanalsohavemarkedlydifferentaccelerationorenginebrakingcharacteristics.Consultyourvehiclehandbookforanexactspecificationandtaketimetobecomefamiliarwiththeaccelerationandenginebrakingcharacteristicsofanyvehicleyoudrive.

UsingthegearsThewayyouuseyourgearscanmakeormaryourdriving.Correctuseofthegearsdependsonaccuratelymatchingthegeartotheroadspeed,andusingtheclutchandacceleratorprecisely.

MovingofffromstationaryFromastandingstart,acceleratesmoothlyandgatherspeedbysteadilyworkingupthroughthegears.Youshouldonlyusemaximumaccelerationthroughthegearsifthereisapressingneed,andiftheroadsurfaceandotherconditionsaresafe.Over-acceleratinginlowgearsorremaininginagearbeyondthelimitsofitsbestperformancedamagestheengine,usesexcessivefuelandresultsinslowerprogress.Someenginescutoutormisfireifexcessivelyrevved.

AccurateuseofthegearsYourvehiclecanonlyincreasespeediftheenginecandeliverthepoweranditcanonlydothiseffectivelyifyouareinthecorrectgear.Aimto:

•beinthecorrectgearforeveryroadspeedandtrafficsituation•makeallgearchangessmoothly•engageachosengearwithoutgoingthroughanintermediategear

first

•knowtheapproximatemaximumroadspeedforeachgear•knowthemostefficientpointatwhichtochangeup.

Themaineffectofthegearsistotransformenginerevsintousablepower.

•Inalowgear,theengineisabletorevmorefreely,whichallowsthevehicletoacceleraterapidlyandtoclimbslopes.

•Inahighergear,lowerrevsdelivermorespeedbutlessabilitytoaccelerateortoclimbslopes.

•Intermediategearsallowprogressfromoneextremetotheother.•Alowergearalsorestrainsthevehicle’sspeedwhendescendinga

slope.

Thegreaterturningpoweroflowgearsalsoaffectstyregrip.Thegreatertheturningpower,themorelikelythatthetyreswilllosegrip.Thisiswhywheelspincanoccurwhenyouacceleratehardinfirstgear.

Itisadvisabletouseahighergearwhenmovingslowlyinslipperyconditionssuchasonsnow,iceormud.Whenmovingofffromastandstillonice,usefirstgearandsliptheclutchwithoutaccelerating.Youwillgaintractionandslowlypullforward.

Bottomgear

producesplentyofroadwheelturningpowerbutnotmuchspeed

Intermediategears

producevaryingcombinationsofwheelturningpowerandspeed

Topgear

producesplentyofspeedbutnotmuchwheelturningpower

Changingtoalowergearhelpswhen:

•travellingatlowspeeds•goinguphill•goingdownhill,becauseenginecompressionslowsthedescent•approachingahazard•onslipperyroads,whereyoushouldeaseofftheacceleratortolose

speedgently,soastoavoidskidding.

Highgearsaregoodfor:

•cruisingatspeed•certainslipperyconditionswherelowergearsmaycausewheelspin.

Thepurposeofyourjourneymayinfluencehowyouuseyourgears.Forexample,onroutinejourneysyourgoaliseconomicprogress.Foremergencyresponseandpursuityourgoalistomakerapidprogresssafely.

•Foreconomicprogress–changeupalittleearlier.Thisreducesfuelconsumptionandcarbonemissions.Infuture,allnewvehiclesintheEUwillbefittedwithagearshiftindicator(GSI)onthedashboard,toshowyouthemostfuel-efficientpointatwhichtochangegear.

•Forrapidprogress–accelerateuptotheengine’speakperformancepointandthenchangetoahighergear.Bearinmindthemanufacturer’speakengineperformancerecommendationsforyourvehicle.Thismaydifferfromthemaximumrevsobtainablefromtheengine.Donottaketherevsintothered.

Keypoints

•Developgoodcoordinationofhandandfootmovements.•Recognisewhentochangegearbythesoundoftheengine.•Choosethecorrectgearfortheroadspeed.•Changingupalittleearlyreducesfuelconsumption.Takenoteof

thegearshiftindicatoriffitted.

•Brakeingoodtimetoslowtothecorrectroadspeedasyouapproachahazard,andthenselecttheappropriategear.

•Matchenginespeedtoroadspeedwhenyouchangedown.

Areyoualwaysinthecorrectgear?

Whenyoufailtoselecttheappropriategear,askyourselfwhy.Areyoufocusingonotherthingsandnotyourdriving?

Doyoueverfindyourselfchanginggearhalfwayroundacorner?Again,askyourselfwhythishappens,andhowyoucanimproveyouruseofgears.

Don’tchangegearwhilecornering.Itdestabilisesthevehicleandrequiresyoutotakeonehandoffthesteeringwheel.

AutomatictransmissionAutomatictransmissiongearboxeschangethegearsautomaticallyaccordingtothespeedofthevehicle.AutomaticsystemsarebecomingmorepopularintheUK,especiallyinlargegoodsvehicles.Themainadvantageisthattheyfreethedrivertoconcentrateonothertasks.Thisisespeciallyusefulfortheemergencyservicesand

otherprofessionaldrivers.

Ifyoudrivedifferentautomaticvehicles,youmustbefamiliarwitheachindividualsystemandhowitworks.Youshouldbecompetentinusingallthefeaturessothatyoucanaccuratelymatchthecapacityofthesystemtothesituation.Thismayrequiretraining:somesystemsdomorethanothers,somehavemoreoptionsthanothers,andthemechanismsofeachsystemvaryagreatdeal.Forexample,therearewidedifferencesinmeansofgearselection.

Today,manycomputerisedautomaticsystemscanselectandchangegearfasterandmoreaccuratelythanahumanbeing.It’spossibletodriveautomaticvehicleswithprecisionandmakerapidprogresssafely,whennecessary,providedyou’refullyawarebothofyourownlimitationsandthevehicle’scapabilities.

Alwaysconsultthevehiclehandbooktounderstandthefeaturesofaparticularautomaticsystem.

AutomatictransmissionmodesThegearselectorinanautomaticvehicleisoftenintheformofaleverordialonthefloororonthesteeringwheelcolumn.Mostgearselectorshavesimilarmodes:

P–Park

R–Reverse

N–Neutral

D–Drive–automaticallyselectsallforwardgears

Manysystemsofferadditionalmodes,suchas:

SorSport–Thismodechangesgearathigherrevsthanthe

‘Drive’mode,givinggreateraccelerationandenginebraking.Itincreasesthevehicle’sperformancebutusesmorefuel.

EcoorEconomy–Thismodechangesgearatlowerrevsthan‘Drive’modeandisdesignedforgreaterfuelefficiencywhenhighperformanceisnotrequired.

Manual–Someautomaticshaveamanualcontroloptionthatyouselectusingapaddleorlever.Manufacturerstendtohavetheirownbrandnamesforthiscontrol–forexample,Tiptronic,MultitronicandGeartronic.

Thesefeaturesareusuallyonornexttothegearselectororsteeringwheel.

Usethemodethatbestsuitsyourjourneyandcircumstances.Forrapidjourneys,youmightchooseadifferentmodefromthatforroutinetasks,whereeconomymaybemoreimportant.

Bereadytochangemodeifnecessary–youdon’thavetodothewholejourneyinonemode.Butdon’tfiddlewiththegearboxrepeatedly.Asautomaticsystemsbecomemoresophisticatedtheyneedlessdriverinput.

Ifyouchoosetouseanenhancedmodesuchas‘Sport’,thiswillchangetheengine’sperformanceandwillaffectthewaythevehiclebehaves.Alwaysbepreparedforthechangewhenyoumakethischoice.

Somesystems‘learn’,sotheyadapttothewayyoudrivethevehicle.Rememberthisifyouchangethewayyoudriveduringajourney–forexample,becauseofachangeincircumstances.Thegearboxwilltaketimetoadapttomatchyourchangeofstyle.

Usingthefeaturesofautomaticsystems

Theadvicebelowisgeneral.Exactuseofthesefeaturesvariesfromonesystemtoanother.Youmustcheckthemanufacturer’sadviceforeachtypeofautomaticvehiclethatyoudrive.

Startingupandmovingoff–systemsvaryinwhattheyrequireyoutodobeforeyoucanstartthevehicle.Manysystemsrequireyoutoapplythefootbrakeinordertostarttheengine.SomesystemsallowtheenginetobestartedinPorN,othersonlyinthePposition.

Shiftlock–thisisasecuritybuttononthetransmissionleverthatallowsyoutoswitchthegearlevertoaparticularoptionandlockit–forexamplefromParktoDrivewhenyoumoveoff,orfromReversetoParkwhenyouhavefinishedyourjourney.

Kickdown–activatekickdownbypressingtheacceleratorfirmlytothefloor.Somesystemsrequireyoutodothisinarapidmovement.Kickdownoverridesthecurrentgearselectionandwillchangethegeardowntoprovideanadditionalburstofacceleration.Alwaysconsidercarefullybeforeyouusekickdown,andneveruseitinaconfinedsituation.

Shorterandlongerstops–commonadviceistousethefootbrakewhenyouneedtopauseorstopbriefly(e.g.fortrafficlights)butusetheparkingbrakewhenwaitingintrafficorstoppingforlonger.Mostsystemsadviseyounottochangeto‘Park’unlessstoppingtopark.Checktheadviceinthevehiclemanualassystemsvary.

Quitting–whenyoufinishyourjourney,applytheparkingbrakeandselectParkbeforeswitchingofftheengine.

DevelopingyourcompetenceatusingautomaticsystemsMakesureyoukeepthefootbrakedepressedwhenchangingbetweenP,R,NandD.Manysystemswillnotletyouchangemodeswithout

doingthis.ButalwaysusethefootbrakewhenyoufirstengageDrive,orpassthroughReverse.

Checkthatyouknowwhatanautomaticvehiclewilldo.Whenyoufirstdriveit,trythekickdownmechanismandgetthefeelofhowitbehaves,sothatyou’renotsurprisedbyhowitactslater.

Thesystemofcarcontrolstillapplieswhendrivinganautomatic.It’seasytobecomelax.Someautomaticdriversdriftintothehabitoflosingspeedlate,enteringbendswhilereducingspeedwhenitwouldhavebeenbettertodosoearlier.Makesurethere’salwaystimeforthecartomakeagearchangewhenonewillbeneeded,andthatpowerisappliedattherighttimetoensurestability.

Insomecircumstances,averyslightadjustmenttothepressureontheacceleratorpedalwillmakeadifferencetowhichgearthesystemchooses.Thiscanbehelpfulincontrollingthebalanceofthevehicleattimes,andtoprovideasmoothdrive.You’llfindthiseasiertoachieveifyouknowthevehiclewell.

Someautomaticgearboxestendtohuntbetweengearsatsomespeedsandinsomecircumstances.Ifyouexperiencethis,usethemanualoverridetoholdoneorothergear,ratherthanallowingconstantchanges.

RoadconditionsDrivingthoughwater–gentlybrakewithyourleftfootwhileapplyingpressurewithyourrightfoot,sothatyoumaintainagoodlevelofenginerevstoensurewaterdoesnotflowuptheexhaustpipe.

Descendingasteephill–someautomaticvehicleshavea‘hold’systemtomaintainalowroadspeedonalonghill,ratherthanusingthebrakes.Ifyourvehicledoesn’tdothisautomatically,useamanual

overridetoholdalowergear.Onalongdescent,ifyouneedtobrake,onlybrakeoccasionallyandsignificantly,notallthetime.Holdalowergearsothatyouneverallowyourspeedtorisetoohigh.

Movingoffonsnow,iceorwetgrass–insomeautomaticsyoucanmanuallyselectasettingformovingoffonslipperysurfaces,tohelpavoidwheelspin.Inautomaticswithoutthissetting,tryselectinglockedposition2or3whenmovingoffortravellingslowly,anduseverygentleacceleration.Thismaygiveyoumoregrip.

SlowingdownandstoppingYouneedtobeabletoslowdownorstopsmoothlyandwithyourvehiclefullyundercontrol.Anticipatetheneedtoslowdownorstopearlyandbrakeprogressively.Beingabletoaccuratelyestimatetherequiredbrakingdistanceatdifferentspeedsandindifferentconditionsiscentraltoskilfuldriving.Therearetwowaysofslowingdown(decelerating)orstopping:

•releasingoreasingofftheaccelerator•usingthebrakes.

Releasingtheaccelerator–enginebrakingWhenyoureleasetheaccelerator,theengineslowsandthroughenginecompressionexertsaslowingforceonthewheels.Thiscausestheenginetoactasabrake,reducingroadspeedsmoothlyandgraduallywithlittleweartothevehicle.

Thelossofroadspeedisgreaterwhenyoueaseofftheacceleratorinalowgear.Thisappliesequallytoautomaticgearboxes.

Releasingtheacceleratoronalargervehiclefittedwitharetarderwillactivatetheretarder.Thiswillapplyadditionalbrakingpower.Seepage90,Retarders(inthischapter).

Enginebrakingallowsyoutolosespeedinconditionswherenormalbrakingmightlockthewheels–forexample,onslipperyroads.Itisalsousefulonlongdescentsinhillycountry.

Innormaldriving,enginebrakingcanonlybeusedtoproducegradualvariationsinspeed.

UsingthebrakesUsethebrakesifyouneedtomakemorethanagradualadjustmenttoyourroadspeed.Formaximumcontrol,youshouldkeepbothhandsonthewheelwhileyoubrake,andplantoavoidbrakingonbendsandcorners.(Butnotethediscussiononbrake/gearoverlapinChapter2.)Youcanapplypressuretothefootbraketoachievetheslightestcheckor,attheotherextreme,untiljustbeforetheESPorABSintervenes.(Inanoldervehiclewithoutsafetydevices,youcanapplypressureuntiljustbeforethewheelslockup.Avoidlockingthewheelscompletelybecausethiswillcauseyoutolosesteeringcontrol.)Remembertomakeallowancesforextraloadsorchangesinroadsurface.

Checkthebrakeseverytimeyouuseyourvehicle,bothbeforeyoumoveoffandwhenthevehicleismoving.

Normalbraking(taperedbraking)

Brakingshouldnormallybeprogressiveandincreasedsteadily.Smoothbrakinguseslessfuel.

Braking,tyregripandbalanceBrakingmovestheweightofthevehicleforwardontothefrontwheels.Thismakesthesteeringheavierandatthesametimereducesthegripofthereartyres.Onabendthisreducesstabilityandcancauseaskid.Theharsherthebraking,thegreaterthedemandontyregripandthelessyourabilitytosteer.Inslipperyconditionsharshbrakingalmostinevitablyresultsinlossoftraction.

ThesafestoppingdistanceruleThisisoneoftheguidingprinciplesofRoadcraft.Byrelatingyourspeedtothedistancewithinwhichyoucanstop,youcanadoptasafespeedinanysituation.

Alwaysdrivesothatyoucanstopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.

Theimportanceofobservingthisruleforyourownandotherpeople’ssafetycannotbeoverstated.Itprovidesaguidetothespeedatwhichyoushouldcornerandthedistanceyoushouldkeepfromothervehiclesinallothertrafficconditions.Successfullyapplyingthisrulerequiresskill.Youneedtobeawareof:

•thebrakingcapabilitiesofyourvehicle

•thetypeandconditionoftheroadsurface–inslipperyorwetconditions,brakingdistancesincreasegreatly

•theeffectsofcornering,brakingandvehiclebalanceontyregrip.

Innarrowandsingletracklanes,allowtwicetheoverallstoppingdistancethatyoucanseetobecleartoallowroomforanyoncomingvehicletobraketoo.

OverallsafestoppingdistanceToworkouttheoverallsafestoppingdistance,addthinkingdistancetobrakingdistance.

Thinkingdistance+Brakingdistance=Stoppingdistance

Thinkingdistanceisthedistancetravelledinthetimebetweenfirstobservingtheneedforactionandacting.Thisiswhyattitude,observation,anticipationandinformation-processingabilitiesarevital.

Actualthinkingdistancevariesaccordingtothespeedofthevehicle,yourphysicalandmentalcondition,yourattentivenessandwhetherornotyouareexpectingsomethingtohappen.

Ittakesmuchlongertoreacttounexpectedeventsthantoexpectedones–youneedlessthinkingtimeifyouareanticipatingeventsandnotjustreactingtothem.

Somecommonmedicines(e.g.someantihistaminesforhayfever)canmakeyoudrowsyandslowyourthinkingandshouldbeusedwithcare.

Brakingdistanceisthedistanceneededforbraking.Actualbrakingdistancedependson:

•thevehicle’scapability,sizeandweight–larger,heaviervehiclestakelongertostop

•thegradientoftheroadandtheconditionoftheroadsurface–slipperysurfacesgreatlyincreasebrakingdistances.

Thetwo-secondruleTokeepasafedistancebetweenyouandthevehicleinfrontonfastroads,leaveagapofatleasttwoseconds.Butrememberyouroverallstoppingdistancedependsonyourspeedandtheconditionofthe

roadsurface.

Aneasywaytocounttwosecondsistosay:‘Onlyafoolbreaksthetwosecondrule’.

Youneedtoallowatleastdoublethisdistanceinwetweatherandevenmoreinicyconditions.Ifthevehiclebehindyouistooclose,dropbackfurtherfromthevehicleinfront.Thiswillallowyoutobrakemoregentlyinanemergencyandmaypreventyoubeingrammedfrombehind.

BrakingforcornersandbendsBrakingaffectsthebalance,stabilityandcorneringabilityofvehicles,soyouneedtoplanbrakingcarefullyforacornerorbend:

•plantoavoidbrakingoncornersbecauseitincreasesthedemandontyregrip;ifbrakingisnecessary,applythebrakesgentlyandsteadily

•brakeinplentyoftime•adjustbrakepressuretotheconditionorgripoftheroadsurface•onsteepwindingdescents,brakefirmlyonthestraightstretchesand

gentlyonthebends–remembertousealowgearatanearlystageinthedescent.

SeeChapter7,Maintainingvehiclestability,page137,Howactivesafetysystemswork.

BrakingasyouapproachahazardToapplythesystemofcarcontrol,consideryourroadspeedontheapproachtoahazardandslowdownifnecessary.Alwayscheckyourmirrorsbeforeyoureducespeedorchangedirection.Choosethebestroadpositionandthenreducespeedsafelyandsmoothlyusingenginebraking,brakingoracombinationofboth.

Whenandhowfirmlyyouapplythebrakesdependsonyourjudgementofspeedanddistance.Consider:

•yourinitialspeed•theroadsurface•weatherconditions•thespecificroadandtrafficconditions.

Sometimesbrakingmayneedtobefirmbutitshouldneverbeharsh.Harshbrakingusuallyresultsfrompoorobservation,anticipationandplanning.Aimtolosespeedsteadilyfromthefirstmomentuntilyouachievethecorrectspeedtonegotiatethehazard.Timingiscrucial:avoidbrakingsoearlythatyouhavetore-acceleratetoreachthehazard,orsolatethatyouhavetobrakeharshly.SeeChapter2,Thesystemofcarcontrol,page28.

EmergencybrakingThequickestandshortestwaytostoponadrystraightroadistobrakeashardasyoucan.

InavehiclefittedwithABS,depressthebrakeasfaraspossibleandkeepitthere.

TheABSrepeatedlyreleasesthebrakesjustbeforethewheelslockupandre-appliestheminapulsingaction,sothattheyneverfullylock.ABSonlyworksifyoumaintainfirmpressureonthebrakepedal.TheadvantageofABSisthatitgivesyousomesteeringcontrolduringemergencybraking–seeChapter7forafullexplanation.

ABSdoesn’thelpbraking–ithelpssteeringwhilebraking.

ManyvehiclesarefittedwithESP,whichincorporatesABS.InavehiclewithESP,depressthebrakeasfaraspossibleandkeepitthereuntilthevehiclehascometoahalt.

UsingtheparkingbrakeMethodsforapplying,lockingandreleasingtheparkingbrakevary,soalwayscheckandfollowthemanufacturer’sinstructions.

Ingeneral,onlyusetheparkingbrakewhenthevehicleisstationary.Newdriversareoftentaughttousetheparkingbrakeeverytimetheycometoastandstillonajourney.Withexperienceyoucanjudgewhetheryouneedtouseitforeveryshortstop.

Ifyou’restoppingatnight,considerreleasingthefootbrakeandapplyingtheparkingbraketoreduceglareforthedriverbehindyou.

SteeringAwell-maintainedvehicletravellingalongaflat,straightroadshouldholditspositionwithminimalsteering.Camber,crossfallorsidewindscanmovethevehicletoonesidebutasmallsteeringadjustmentwillkeepthevehicleonastraightcourse.Usuallyyouonlyneedtomakepositivesteeringadjustmentswhenyoualterpositionorturnthevehicle.Steeringcharacteristicsvarybetweenvehicles,somakesureyouarefamiliarwiththecharacteristicsofthevehiclesyoudrive.

SteeringtechniquePolicedrivingschoolshavedevelopedarangeofsteeringtechniquestosuitdifferentpolicingsituations.Themostwidelyadoptedisthepull–pushmethod,whichprovidessafeandefficientsteeringinawiderangeofcircumstances.

Yoursteeringmethodshouldbedeterminedbythecontrol,efficiencyandcomfortyouexperiencethroughoutthefullrangeofsteeringmovements.Thismayvaryaccordingto:

•thevehicleyou’redriving(thelightnessofitssteering,thediameterofthesteeringwheel,thecastoractionandthenumberofturnsfromlocktolock)

•howyousitinrelationtothesteeringwheel•yoursizeandshape.

SeatpositionGoodsteeringstartswithgettingyourbodyintherightpositioninrelationtothesteeringwheel.Adjustthesteeringwheelpositionandthepositionandangleofyourseatsothatyoucanreachthecontrolscomfortably.Anuncomfortablepositionwilltireyouandimpairyourdriving.

You’relikelytobeinagoodsittingpositionwhen:

•bothhandsareonthesteeringwheelandyourelbowsareslightlybent

•youcandepresstheclutchpedaltoitsfullextentandyourkneeisstillslightlybent.

Tosetyourseatposition,extendyourarmssothatyourwristssitontopofthesteeringwheelwhenyourarmsarestraight.Thenallowyourarmstodropsothatyourhandsareinacomfortablepositiononthewheelrim–betweententotwoandquartertothree,dependingonyoursteeringwheelindentations.

Howtoholdthesteeringwheel

•Holdthewheelsothatyourpalmsareontherim.Extendyourthumbsontherimsothatyourthumbnailsaretowardsyou.(Don’twrapyourthumbsroundthewheel.Ifyourvehiclehitsakerb,thesteeringwheelmayspinsharplyandinjureyourwrappedroundthumbs.)

•Holdthewheellightlybutbereadytotightenyourgripifnecessary.•Keepbothhandsonthewheelwhileyouaredrivingunlessyou

needtooperateacontrol.

Makechangesindirectionsmoothlyandgradually.Makesmallchangesindirectionbyturningthesteeringwheelwithoutalteringyourhandhold.Yourhandsshouldnotpassthetwelveo’clockposition.

Tomakelargerturns,usethepull–pushmethoddescribednext.

Pull–pushWiththepull–pushmethodneitherhandpassesthetwelveo’clockposition.Yourhandsremainlevelwitheachotheronthesteeringwheelexceptwhenyoumoveahandupfortheinitialpullorwhenyoumakesmallalterationsinposition.Onehandgripsandmakestheturn,theotherslidesrounditssideofthewheelreadytocontinuetheturn.Theadvantageofpull–pushisthatitkeepsbothhandsonthe

wheelandallowsanimmediateturnineitherdirectionatanypointduringsteering.

Theexplanationofthepull–pushmethodgivenbelowisforaleft-handturn.Foraright-handturnfollowthesamemethodstartingwiththerighthandat12o’clock.

Starttheturnwithapullandnotapushbecauseitgivesbettercontrol.Slidethelefthanduptoahigherpositiononthewheel,butnotpastthetwelveo’clockpoint.Thestartingpointwilldependonthesharpnessofthebendorturn.

Pullthewheeldownwiththelefthand.Asthelefthandpullsdown,slidetherighthanddown,allowingtherimtoslidethroughtherighthandfingers.Keeptherighthandlevelwiththelefthanduntilitnearsthebottomofthewheel.

Ifmoreturntotheleftisnecessary,startpushingupwiththerighthandandatthesametimeslidethelefthandupthewheel,keepingitlevelwiththeright.Repeatthesemovementsuntilyouachievesufficientturn.

Straightenthevehicleaftertheturnbyfeedingthewheelbackthroughthehandswithsimilarbutoppositemovementstothoseusedfortheturn.Don’tletthewheelspinbackonitsown.

Whenyousteerdoyoustartwithapullratherthanapush?Ifinthepastyouhavetendedtostartwithapush,practisepullingfirst.Noticehowitcontributestothesmoothnessandcontrolofyoursteering.

RotationalsteeringThistechniqueisalsoanoption.

Holdthewheelusingthestandardholddescribedonpage113.Thequarter-to-threepositionallowsthegreatestdegreeofturnwithouthavingtorepositionahand.

Mostalterationstodirection(uptoabout120degreesofsteering

wheelturn)canbemadebyturningthewheelwhilekeepingalightbutfixedhandhold.

Formoreacuteturns(requiringmorethanabout120degreesofsteeringwheelturn),repositionyourlowerhandat12o’clockandcontinuesmoothlypullingdownthewheel.Ifyoucanseethataturnisgoingtorequiremorethan120degreesofsteeringwheelturn,placeyourleadinghandatthetopofthewheelbeforestartingtheturn.

Ifevenmoreturnisrequired,placeyourotherhandnearthetopofthewheeltocontinuetheturningmotion.Straightenthewheelbyusingasimilarseriesofmovementsbutintheoppositedirection.Althoughtheself-centringactionofthewheelassiststhereturn,youmustkeepitundercontrol.

Movingyourhandspastthe12o’clockpositionplacesyourarmsacrossthewheel.Beawarethatthisincreasestheriskofinjurytohands,armsorfaceifthesteeringwheelairbaginflatesorexplodesinacollision.

Keypoints

•Holdthewheellightlybutbereadytotightenyourgripwhenyouneedmaximumsteeringcontrol.

•Keepbothhandsonthewheelwhencornering,brakingordrivingthroughdeepsurfacewater.

•Onslipperyroadssteerasdelicatelyaspossibletomaintaintyregrip.

•Accuratesteeringrequiresgoodobservation,anticipationandplanning.Ifthebrakesareappliedsharplyorifthespeedistoohigh,steeringcannotbeprecise.

CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explainhowacceleration,brakingandsteeringaffecttyregripandvehiclebalance

• showthatyoucancontrolyourvehicleaccuratelyinarangeofsituations

• showgoodaccelerationsense,usingtheacceleratoraccuratelyandsmoothly

• showhowtousegearsaccurately,selectingthecorrectgearinarangeofcircumstancesandfordifferentpurposes,invehicleswithmanualorautomaticgearboxes

• explainthesafestoppingdistance

• showhowtousethebrakesandenginebrakingtoslowthevehicleappropriatelyandsafelyindifferentcircumstances

• demonstrateamethodofsteeringformaximumsafetyandcontrol

• explainthemainfactorsthatreducefuelconsumption.

Chapter6

Manoeuvringatlowspeeds

Learningoutcomes

Thelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:

•explainhowtousethesystemofcarcontroltoperformlow-speedmanoeuvressuchasparkingandturninginaconfinedspace

•showgoodall-roundobservationthroughoutthemanoeuvre•useplanningtohelpyouperformlow-speedmanoeuvressafelyand

efficiently

•explainthebenefitsofusingaguide•showhowtoreversesafelyinalimitedspace•parkyourvehiclesafelyaccordingtotheneedsofyourjourney

withoutobstructingotherroadusers.

Developingyourcompetenceatlow-speedmanoeuvring

AcrosstheUK,oneofthemostcommonandcostlytypesofcollisionhappenswhendriversarereversinginconfinedspaces.

Evenwhenreversingcollisionsdon’tresultininjury,theycancausedamagetovehicles,equipmentandpremises.Mostofthesecollisionscanbeavoidedbytakingsimpleprecautions.

Peoplecommonlybelievethatdrivingatlowspeediseasyandhazard-free–butneitheristrue.Low-speedmanoeuvringcausesagreatdealofvehicledamageandhighrepaircoststofleets.Thisisaparticularproblemfordriversoflargervehicleswhomayneedtoperformcomplicatedmanoeuvrestoturnthevehiclesafely,andrequiremorespaceinwhichtoturn.

Themajorityofvehiclecollisionsoccurwhenreversingorundertakinglow-speedmanoeuvresinalltypesofvehicles,soyoushouldalways:

•avoidreversingyourvehicleunnecessarily•carryoutallmanoeuvresataslowwalkingspeed•avoidturninginnarrowroadswithparkedvehicles•considerusingjunctionsinwhichtoturn–ordrivetoaroundabout.

Ittakesconstantattentiontoperformlow-speedmanoeuvressafelyandwell.Youmustthinkthroughwhatyou’retryingtoachieveandcarryoutthemanoeuvrewithextremecare.

UsingthesystemUsethesystemofcarcontroltoplanandexecutelow-speedmanoeuvres,justasyouwouldanyotherdrivingactivity:

•gatherinformationthroughcarefulobservationthroughoutthemanoeuvre

•givesignalsifnecessary

•planyourroutethroughthemanoeuvre.

Considerthebestpositiontotakethroughoutthemanoeuvre,notjustatthestartandendpoints.Assesswheretogoforwardsandwheretoreverse,andselectthecorrectspeedandgear,sothat,ifyou’renotparking,youcanaccelerateawaytobestadvantage.

ObservationGoodobservationisvitalforsafety.Maintainall-roundobservationthroughoutthemanoeuvre.Takeinformationtogiveyourselfanoverallviewofwhatyouwanttoachieve,sothatyoucanplanthebestoptiontodoit,especiallyintightorawkwardsituations.Low-speedmanoeuvringrarelycausesseriousinjuriesbuttheydohappen.Eveninacaritispossibletolosesightofpeople–especiallychildren–ifyourobservationisnotthorough,especiallywhenreversing.

Don’trelyonyourmirrorstoprovideyourviewtotherearofthevehicle:lookbehindthroughtherearwindowifthevehiclehasone.

Ifyoucannotgetafullviewtotherear,getoutofyourvehicleandcheckforhazards.Ifthereisanappropriatepersonavailable,askthemtoactasaguidetohelpyourobservationtotherear.Ifpossible

useeithersomeonetrainedforthatroleoranotherdriver.Ifneitheroftheseisavailable,usesomeoneelseratherthanattemptthemanoeuvrewithouthelp.

Whenyou’rereversing,it’sstillimportanttolookforwardsoccasionallytocheckthatthereisnoactivityaroundyouthatcouldcompromisesafety.Beespeciallyawareoflowobjectssuchaspostsandwalls.

Planning

Whenyou’refacedwithanawkwardmanoeuvre,firstconsiderwhetheritisabsolutelynecessary.Isthereanalternativeroutethatyoucoulduse?

Ifyou’replanningacomplexmanoeuvrethatinvolvesseveralmovementsorshunts,considerotheroptions.Plananoverallpath,butbepreparedtotakemoreshuntsifyouneedto.Generallyonelongershuntisbetterthanseveralshorterones–butbeawarethatthismaymeanalongerreverseandthereforealongerperiodwithlimitedvisibility.

Checktoseewhetherthereareanyslopesasthesecanmakesomepartsofthemanoeuvreeasierorhardertocontrol.Plantostopandchangefromforwardtoreverse,orviceversa,onlevelareasifpossible.

Keepyourspeedlowthroughoutandthinkcarefullyaboutwhichwayroundtodothings.Plantokeepawkwardfeatures–lowbollards,forexample–whereyoucanseethemthroughoutthemanoeuvre.

Planyourmanoeuvreinawaythatbestsupportsitspurpose.Doyouneedtounloadontoahigherarea,orhaveyourvehiclefacingaparticulardirectionattheend?

SteeringManoeuvringinaconfinedspacesometimesrequiresrapidmovementsofthesteeringwheel.Thestandardpull–pushtechniquegenerallyprovideseffectivesteering,butoccasionallyotherhandholdsmaygivebettercontrol,especiallywhenreversing.Don’ttrytoturnthesteeringwheelwhilethevehicleisstationary.Thisdamagesthetyresandputsexcessivestrainonthesteeringlinkages.

Reversinghold

Holdthewheelnearthetopwithyourrighthandandlowdownwithyourlefthand.Ifyou’redrivingacarandyoufindthispositiondifficult,orneedtoimproveyourviewtotheleft,itmayhelptoputyourleftarmonthebackofyourseat.Lookinyourmirrorsandoveryourshoulderstogetaclearview.Iftheseatbeltrestrictsyourmovement,releaseitbutdon’tforgettoputitbackon.

Steeringinreverse

Itiseasiertomanoeuvreavehiclewhenreversingthanwhengoingforwards,becausethesteeredwheelsareattheback.Thismayseemcounter-intuitive,butonceyou’veachievedcompetenceitiseasiertobepreciseandtomakesteeringmovementsatslowspeedthiswayround.(Asyouincreasespeedinreverse,itbecomesincreasinglydifficulttosteeraccurately.)

Thismeansthatitisofteneasiertomanagetightturnsinreverse,providedyouhaveagoodenoughviewtodoso.There’satrade-offbetweenvisionandmanoeuvrability,particularlyforlargervehicleslikevansandtrucks.

Remembertoallowforoverhangs.Evenasmallvehiclewillhave

someoverhangfromthewheels,andinatightspacethiswillmovedifferentlywhensteering.Thetighterthesteeringlock,themorepronouncedthisis.

ReversinginaconfinedspaceReversingcanbedifficult,especiallyinaconfinedarea.Thefasteritisdone,theharderitistocontrolsoalwaysreverseslowly.

Beforeyoureverse:

•Ensureyourmirrorsarecleanandcorrectlyadjusted.•Scantheareaforsuitabilityandanyhazards/obstructions.Make

surethereissufficientspaceforyourvehicle.Ifyou’renotsure,

getoutofthevehicleandcheck.

•Plantoexecutethemanoeuvrewherethespaceisgreatestandvisibilityisatitsbest.Ensurethatyouhaveanunobstructedview.

•Ifyoucan,asksomeonetoguideyou.•Winddownyoursidewindowstoincreaseawarenessandaid

communicationwithyourguide.

•Checkyourmirrors.•Checkthe‘blindspots’(theareasyoucannotseeeasilyinthe

mirrors).

•Makesurethemanoeuvreislegal(e.g.itdoesn’tcontravenea‘Noentry’sign)andwon’tobstructothersmorethannecessary.

Whilemanoeuvring:

•Useallyourmirrorsandparkingaidstohelpyouwhilereversingbutlookallround,includingtothefront.Don’trelyonmirrors,reversingcamerasorsensorsalone.

•Ifpossible,useaguideforbothforwardandreversemovements.•Alwaystravelslowly,nofasterthanaslowwalkingspeed,andease

theclutchifnecessary.Inautomaticvehiclesyoucancheckthespeedbyusingthebrake.

•Continuetolookaroundyouforhazardsthroughoutthewholemanoeuvre.

•Beawarethatthefrontofyourvehiclewillswingoutasyouturnandcouldstrikenearbyobjects.Remembertolookforwardandscanallaroundforobstructions.

•Stopimmediatelyifyou’reuncertainofhazardsaroundyourvehicle,especiallypedestrians.Ifnecessarystopandgetoutof

yourvehicletocheckbehind.

•Ifyourreversinglightfails,useyourindicatororbrakelightstolighttheareabehindyouwhenitisdark.Becarefulnottomisleadotherroadusers.

Neverrelyonareversingalarmtocleartheareabehindyourvehicleofpedestriansandotherroadusers.

ManoeuvringwithaguideInconfinedspaces,considerusinganotherpersonasaguidewhencarryingoutforwardandreversemanoeuvres.Ifnecessary–inalargevehicle,forexample–usemorethanoneperson.

Explainclearlytoyourguidewhatmanoeuvreyouintendtocarryoutwiththevehicle,whichdirectionyouintendtotravelinandwhereyouwantthevehicletobewhenyou’vefinished.Useanagreedsystemofsignals/directions,includingasignalforstopping.

Yourguidewillneedtostandinasafepositionwithoutbeingintheway.Theymustbevisibletoyouatalltimes.Ifyoulosesightofyourguide,stopimmediatelyandonlymovewhentheyareinsightagainandhavesignalledyoutoproceed.

Aguideshouldwearvisibleclothing,suchasareflectivevest,andensurethatanysignalsareclearlyvisibletoyou.Ifit’sdark,theguidecoulduseatorchtobemorevisible.Considerwhetherportableradiosorsimilarcommunicationssystemswouldbehelpful.

ParkingParkyourvehiclesafely.Don’tleaveitwhereitmaycause

inconvenienceordangertoothers.Ensurethatotherroaduserscanseeyourvehicleeasily(i.e.notjustroundabendoroverthebrowofahill)andthatit’snotcausinganyobstruction.Makesurethatyouparklegally–notonyellow/redlines,etc.

Ifyouparkonahill,putthevehicleintoalowgearandconsiderturningyourwheelsintothekerb.(Bearinmindtherunlockfittedtoemergencyvehicles.)

Whenyou’replanninghowtopark,thinkaboutthepurposeofyourjourney.Ifyouneedtoaccessthebootforheavyorlargeitems,parkfacinginthedirectionthatbestallowsyoutodothissafely.

Unlessyourarrivalisurgent,it’sbesttoreverseintoend-onspacesbecause:

•thevehicleismoremanoeuvrableinreversemode•itissafertodriveforwardsoutofthespacethantoreverseout•thevehiclewillbeavailableforitsnextuseimmediately•itisslightlymorefuelefficienttodriveoutforwardsratherthan

reverseout.

Takecaretorespectanysignsthattellyoutoparkfacein.Buildingscouldhaveairintakesatexhaustpipeheight,ortheremaybehiddenhazardsthatcauseproblemswhenreversingin.

Nexttimeyoucompletealow-speedmanoeuvreinaconfinedspace,askyourselfthefollowingquestions:

•WasthemanoeuvrenecessaryorcouldIhaveavoideddoingit?

•HowcouldIhaveimprovedgoodall-roundobservationthroughoutthemanoeuvre?

•ShouldIhaveaskedforhelpwithobservationtothefrontandrear?Wouldthishavemadethemanoeuvresafer?

•DidIadoptaslowwalkingspeed,usingtheappropriategear?•DidItakefulladvantageofthegreatermanoeuvrabilityofthevehiclein

reverse?

•DidIacceleratesmoothlyandsafelyoutofthemanoeuvre?•Wasthemanoeuvrelegalandconductedinawaythatcausedminimum

disruptiontootherroadusers?

CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explainhowtousethesystemofcarcontroltoperformlow-speedmanoeuvressuchasparkingandturninginaconfinedspace

• showgoodall-roundobservationthroughoutthemanoeuvre

• useplanningtohelpyouperformlow-speedmanoeuvressafelyandefficiently

• explainthebenefitsofusingaguide

• showhowtoreversesafelyinalimitedspace

• parkyourvehiclesafelyaccordingtotheneedsofyourjourneywithoutobstructingotherroadusers.

Chapter7

Maintainingvehiclestability

Learningoutcomes

Thelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:

•explainwhyactivesafetyfeaturescaninterferewithdriverbehaviour

•explainhowtoavoidtheactionsthatreduceavehicle’sstabilityandtyregrip

•identifythecausesofskiddingandhowtominimisetherisk•describetheprinciplesofanti-lockbrakingsystems,tractioncontrol

systemsandelectronicstabilityprogrammes.

Controllingyourvehicle’sstabilityAvehicle’sstabilityisreducedwhenyoubrake,accelerateorsteerbecausetheseactionsproduceforcesthatalterthevehicle’sweightdistributionandbalance,andreducetyregrip.Avehiclemayskidwhenoneormoreofthetyreslosesnormalgripontheroad.Seepage87,Thetyregriptrade-off.

Newvehiclesarefittedwithagrowingrangeofactivesafetyfeaturestoincreasevehiclestability.Thesecondpartofthischapterbrieflyexplainstheprinciplesofanti-lockbrakingsystems(ABS),traction

controlsystems(TCS)andelectronicstabilityprogrammes(ESP).Theprinciplesofeachtypeofsystemaresimilarbuttherearesignificantdifferencesbetweenmanufacturersinhowtheirparticularsystemisactivatedandhowitbehaves.

Withrapidchangesintechnology,itisvitalthatyourefertothemanufacturer’shandbooktoknowwhichsafetyfeaturesarefittedtoyourvehicleandwhateffecttheywillhaveonthevehicle.Beawarethatmanypoliceandotheremergencyservicevehiclesmayhaveadifferentspecificationfromstandardmodels.

AttitudestovehiclesafetytechnologyResearchhasshownthatsafetysystemscangivesomedriversafalsesenseofsecurity,causingthemtobecomeover-dependentonthesefeaturesandtakemorerisksthantheywouldinavehiclewithoutthem.

Safetyfeaturescannotchangethelawsofphysics–theydon’tmakeavehicleperformbetterorincreaseadriver’sskill.Ifyou’reonthepointoflosingcontrolofthevehicle,youhavemisjudgedthesituation.Safetydevicescanhelpyoutoregaincontrol,butonlyifyouunderstandthespecificfeatureandknowhowtouseitcorrectly.

AvoidingskiddingAvoidingaskidbydrivingsafelyisfarbetterthanhavingtocorrectone.Knowyourownandyourvehicle’slimitsfortheroad,trafficandweatherconditions.Oftenitisn’tpoorroadorweatherconditionsthatcauseskidsbutthedriver’sresponsetothem.Skiddingiscausedbyexcessivespeed,coarsesteering,harshaccelerationorexcessiveorsuddenbraking,oracombinationofthese.Therealcauseofaskidmaythereforebethedriver.

Aimtocontrolyourvehiclesothatitdoesnotskid.Thisbecomesmoredifficultwhenroadorweatherconditionsdeteriorate.Butyoucanminimisetheriskbydrivingmoreslowlyandusingyourskillsofobservation,anticipationandplanning.

Howdoesaskidhappen?Askiddevelopswhenonetyreormorelosesnormalgripontheroad,causinganinvoluntarymovementofthevehicle.Thishappenswhenthegripoftyresontheroadbecomeslessthantheforceorforcesactingonthevehicle.

Theseforcesactonyourvehiclewheneveryouoperatethecontrols–thebrake,theaccelerator,theclutchorthesteeringwheel.Ifyoubrakeoracceleratewhilesteeringroundabendorcorner,twoforcesarecombined.Thereisonlylimitedtyregripavailablesoiftheseforcesbecometoopowerfultheybreakthegripofthetyresontheroad.Rememberthetyregriptrade-off.Thediagrambelowshowshoweachoftheseforcesaffectsthevehicle’sstabilityandreducestyregrip.

Neverdrivetothelimitsofthetyregripavailable–alwaysleaveasafetymargintoallowfortheunforeseen.

Ittakesmuchlessforcetobreakthegripofthetyresonaslipperyroadsurface.

Howtominimisetheriskofskidding

Checkyourvehicle

Theconditionofyourvehiclecanreduceorincreasetheriskofskidding:

•checktyretreadsandtyrepressureregularly•checkthevehicle’sbrakesbeforeyoudrive–defectivebrakesare

especiallydangerousonslipperysurfaces.

Avoidskiddinginthefirstplace–useobservation,anticipationandplanningtoadjustyourdrivingwhentheroadsurfacemaybeslippery.SeeAppendix,Isyourvehiclefittodrive?,page255.

Observe–weatherandroadconditionstowatchfor

Skiddingismorelikelyinbadweatherconditionsandonslipperyroadsurfaces.Watchoutfor:

•snow,ice,frost,heavyrain•wetmud,dampleavesoroil,whichcancreatesuddenslippery

patchesontheroadsurface•coldspotsinshadedareas,undertrees,onslopesorhills–watch

howothervehiclesbehaveinicyweather

•dryloosedustorgravel•ashowerorrainafteralongdryspell–accumulatedrubberdustand

oilmixedwithwatercancreateaveryslipperysurface

•wornroadsurfacesthathavebecomepolishedsmooth

•concrete–mayholdsurfacewaterandbecomeslippery,especiallyinfreezingconditions

•cobbledroads–thesebecomeveryslipperywhenwet•changesintheroadsurface(e.g.onbridges)andhowthisaffects

tyregrip.

Youareatgreaterriskfromthesehazardsatcornersandjunctionsbecauseyouaremorelikelytocombinebraking,acceleratingandsteeringinthesesituations.

Anticipateandplan–adjustyourdrivingtotheroadconditions

Useyourobservationskills–watchoutforandassesspoorweatherandroadconditionsaccuratelyandadjustyourspeedaccordingly:

•leaveplentyofroomformanoeuvre,reduceyourspeedandincreasethedistanceyouallowforstoppingtomatchtheroadconditions–onaslipperysurfaceavehiclecantakemanytimesthenormaldistancetostop

•uselowerrevsinslipperyconditionstoavoidwheelspin,especiallywhenmovingoff.Useahighergearwhentravellingatlowspeeds

•onaslipperysurfaceaimtobrake,steerandchangegearassmoothlyaspossible,sothatyoudon’tbreakthetyregrip

•usetheprinciplesofcornering(seeChapter10)tonegotiatecornerscarefullyinslipperyconditions.

Recognisingthecauseofaskid

Ifyourvehiclelosesstabilityandaskidbeginstodevelop,youneedtorecognisethecauseoftheskid.Thecommonestcausesofskiddingare:

•drivingtoofastforthecircumstances•harshacceleration•excessiveorsuddenbraking•coarsesteering.

Askidcanbecausedbytheseactionsindividuallyorincombination.

Speedinitselfdoesnotcauseskiddingasaconstantspeedexertsnochangeinthevehicle’sbalance.Butathigherspeeds,brakingorturningplacesamuchhigherdemandontyregrip.

Eachskidisuniqueandeveryvehiclerespondsdifferently.Howyouapplytheprinciplesandtechniquesoutlinedinthischapterwilldependentirelyonthecircumstancesandonthevehicleyouaredriving.

Cause:drivingtoofastforthecircumstancesAthigherspeedsyouneedmoretyregriptocornerorstop.Whensurfacegripislow,alteringspeedordirectioncanexceedtheavailablegrip,causingaskid.Thefasteryougothemorelikelythisbecomes.Thevehicle’sownweightorachangeinroadsurfacecanreducethegripofthefrontorbacktyres.Weightinthebootwillalterthevehicle’snormalbalanceandtyregrip.

Cause:harshaccelerationHarshaccelerationcancausethewheelstospin,evenatlowspeeds.

Cause:excessiveorsuddenbrakingInoldercarswithoutABS,excessivebrakingfortheroadconditionsmaycauseskiddingbecausethetyreslosetheirgrip.

Cause:coarsesteeringAmovingvehicleusesleasttyregripwhentravellinginastraightline.Assoonasyoustarttocorneryouplaceextrademandsonthetyregrip.Ifyousteertoosharplyforthespeedyouwillcausethevehicletoundersteeroroversteer.Thismaybreakthetyregripandthevehiclewillthengointoaskid.Aimtomakeyoursteeringassmoothaspossible.

Indifferentvehicles,youmayneedtonegotiatethesamecorneratdifferentspeeds.

UndersteerandoversteerUndersteeristhetendencyofavehicletoturnless,andoversteeristhetendencyofavehicletoturnmoreinresponsetoagiventurnofthesteeringwheel.Thiscanhappenevenatlowspeeds.

Thetendencytoundersteeroroversteerisacharacteristicofthevehicleitselfcoupledwiththedriverusingexcessspeedforthecircumstances.Mostfrontwheeldrivevehiclesundersteerandsomerearwheeldrivevehiclesoversteer.However,somemodernvehiclesaredesignedtocompensateforthesetendencies.Makesureyouknowthedifferentsteeringcharacteristicsofeachvehicleyoudriveandadaptyourdrivingoncornersandbends.

Inafrontwheeldrivecar,youwillincreaseundersteerifyou:

•enterthebendtoofast•applytoomuchpowerinthebend•steertoosharply.

Youcanreducethisundersteerbyreducingpowerand/orsteering.Butifyoureducepowertoomuchandtoosuddenly,youmayconverttheundersteertooversteer(‘lift-offoversteer’).Thisisbecauseweighttransferfromthereartothefrontincreasesgripatthefrontwheelsandreducesgripattherearwheels,allowingthereartolosetractionandslide.

Arearwheeldrivecarinitiallybehavesinthesameway,butifyouapplytoomuchpoweronaslipperysurfaceanyundersteermayconvertquitesuddenlytooversteer.

Fourwheeldrivecarsprovidebettertractionallroundforaccelerationandcornering,butnotforbraking.Whendriventoextremestheybehaveinasimilarwaytothefrontorrearwheeldrivemodelfromwhichtheyarederived.

Howactivesafetysystemswork

Ifyouactivateasafetydevice,youarelosingcontrolofthevehicle.SafetydevicesarenotareplacementforRoadcraftcompetences.

Manufacturersareconstantlyseekingtoimprovevehiclestabilitywithactivesafetyfeaturesthatcanhelpsafetyandstabilityduringbraking,accelerationorsteering.Theactivesafetysystemsexplainedbeloware:

•anti-lockbrakingsystems•tractioncontrolsystems•electronicstabilityprogrammes.

Ifanactivesafetysystemisfitted,youwillseeaniconlightuponthedashboardwhenyouturnontheignitionorstarttheengine.Ifmorethanonedeviceisfitted,theymaybedisplayedseparatelyor

combinedinasinglewarninglight.

Vehiclesfittedwithactivesafetydevicesbehavedifferentlyfromvehicleswithout.

Skidcontrolinavehiclefittedwithoneormoreactivesafetysystemswilldependontheexactfeaturesfitted.Differentsystemsinterveneatdifferentpointsandsomemodelshaveadeliberatelydelayedpointofintervention.Ifyoudrivedifferentvehicles,youmusttakenoteofthemanufacturer’sadvice,andguidanceinthedriver’svehiclehandbook,sothatyoufullyunderstandhoweachvehicleislikelytobehaveinextremecircumstances.

Ifyouactivateanyoftheseactivesafetysystems,youmaynotbedrivingwithinthesafelimitsofthevehicleortheroadconditions.

Anti-lockbrakingsystemsAlmostallmodernvehiclesarefittedwithABS.Thisisanelectronicsafetydevicethataddstotheconventionalhydraulicbrakingsystembygivingyousomeabilitytosteerduringharshoremergencybraking.

Thefootbrakeappliesthebrakestoallfourwheelsatonce,butABScontrolsthebrakingappliedtoindividualwheels.Itworksbysensingwhenawheelisslowingdownandabouttolockup.Whenthishappens,ABSreleasesthebrakeonthatwheelbeforeitlocksupfully.Itre-appliesthebrakeoncethewheelstartstorotateagain.

TheadvantageofABSisthatitallowsyoutosteerthevehicleunderfullbrakingpower,becauseitpreventsthewheelslockingup.

OnceyouactivateABS,youmustmaintainmaximumpressureonthe

brakepedalthroughout.ABSmayreduceorlengthenthestoppingdistanceofthevehiclecomparedwithconventionalbrakesondifferentroadsurfacesbutitallowsthedrivertoretainsomesteeringcontrol.

ABScannotincreasethegripofthetyresontheroad,norcanitfullypreventthepossibilityofthevehicleskidding.

WhenABSisactivated,youwillseeawarninglightonthedashboardandwillfeelthebrakepedalvibrateorjuddermomentarilyasthesystemmodulatesthebrakelinepressures.IfyoubecomeawarethattheABSiscuttingin,youshouldlearnfromthisandreduceyourspeedfortherestofthejourney.

Emergencybrakeassist

Newvehiclesnowhaveemergencybrakeassist(BAorEBA)aswellasABS.EBAincreasesbrakingpressureinanemergencysituation.Ifyouapplythebrakewithspeedandforce,EBAwillcutinandfullyapplythebrakesuntiltheABStakesovertopreventthewheelslockingup.

TractioncontrolsystemsWhenyouaccelerate,itispossibleforthepowertransmittedtothedrivingwheelstoexceedtheamountofavailabletyregrip.Thisismorelikelywhenmovingoffonicyorslipperyroads,onasteephilloracceleratingoutofacorner.Thismaycausethedrivenwheelstospin.Wheelspinreducesboththevehicle’sabilitytoaccelerateanditsstability.

Atractioncontrolsystemworksbycontrollingexcesswheelspinon

individualwheels.Itappliesindependentbrakingtothespinningwheel.Somesystemsmayalsolimitthewheelturningpoweroftheenginetoincreasetyregrip.

TCSallowsyoutomakemaximumuseoftyregrip,especiallyonslipperysurfacesorwherethefrictionoftheroadsurfaceisuneven.Anexampleiswhereonewheelcangripthenormalsurfacebuttheotherslipsoniceorsnow.

IfyouactivatetheTCS,you’llseeawarninglightonthedashboard.Iftractioncontrolcutsinwhenyoupullawayfromastandstill,reducepressureontheacceleratortoregaincontrolofthesteering.Notethatifyouswitchthesystemoff,thewarninglightwillremainconstanttoadviseyouthatyounolongerhaveitsassistance.

ElectronicstabilityprogrammesAnESPisanactivesafetysystemwhichincorporatesconventionalanti-lockbrakingandtractioncontrolsystems.Itisdesignedtohelpvehiclestabilitybydetectingwhenthevehicleisdriventothelimitofitsphysicalcapabilities.

ThereismorevariationbetweentypesofESPthanbetweentypesofABSorTCS.Yourvehicle’shandbookmayexplainwhatthemanufacturer’ssystemdoes.

Sensorsateachwheelworkincombinationwithasensorthatmonitorstherotationandpitchofthevehicle–calledayawsensor.Anothersensoronthesteeringassemblydetectsthedriver’sintendedpath.Ifthesesensorsdetectthatthevehicleisnotfollowingtheintendedpath,thesystemintervenes.Itappliesthebrakestoindividualwheelsinordertocorrectundersteeroroversteerandrealignthevehicle.Itisthereforecrucialthatyousteerinthedirectionyouwanttogo.

Mostsystemsinteractwiththeenginemanagementsystem,reducingorincreasingtheenginepowertothedrivenwheels.Somealsointeractwiththetransmissionsystem.

ESPdetectsyourintendedpathsoitiscrucialthatyousteerinthedirectionyouwanttogo.

Ifyoudriveavehiclebeyonditsphysicalcapabilities,ESPdoesnotguaranteethatthevehiclewillremainstableandundercontrol.Itcannotdefythelawsofphysics.

Keypoints

•Ifyoubraketoohard,ABSpreventsthewheelfromlockingup.•Ifyouacceleratetooharshly,tractioncontrolpreventsthewheel

fromexcessivespinning.

•Ifyousteertoosharply,ESPcanhelppreventtheresultingoversteerorundersteerfromdevelopingintoaskid.

•Neverrelyonactivesafetydevices.Alwaysdriveinsuchawaythattheyarenotnecessary.

Ifyouactivateasafetysystem,workoutwhyyoumisjudgedthesituation.Honestlyassessyourdrivingbehaviourandaskyourselfwhathumanfactorsmayhaveledtotheactivation.

Howcouldyouavoidrepeatingthismistakeinfuture?

Correctingaskidinavehicle

withoutactivesafetyfeaturesIfyoudriveanoldervehiclethat’snotfittedwithanyoftheactivesafetyfeaturesdiscussedinthischapter,theactionyoutaketocorrectaskidwilldependonwhethertheskidisarearwheel,frontwheelorfourwheelskid.Youneedtobeabletorecognisedifferenttypesofskidintheearlystagessothatyoucanrespondappropriatelyandregaintyregripassoonaspossible.Thesafestwaytogainexperienceisthroughskidtrainingfromaqualifiedinstructor.Correctingaskidshouldneverbepractisedonapublicroad.

Eachskidisuniqueandeveryvehiclerespondsdifferentlysotheactionyoutakewilldependonthecircumstancesandonthevehicleyouaredriving.

AquaplaningAquaplaningoccurswhereawedgeofwaterbuildsupbetweenthefronttyresandtheroadsurface,oftenbecauseofthinorworntyretread.Widertyresaremorelikelytoaquaplane,anditcanhappenwithbrandnewtyres,ifthetyretreadgroovesarenotabletodispersewaterquicklyenough.Whetheryoubrakeorsteer,thevehiclewillnotrespond.

Thesafestsolutionistoremovepressurefromtheaccelerator,allowingthevehicletolosespeedandthetyrestoregaintheirgrip.Don’tturnthesteeringwheelwhileaquaplaningbecausethevehiclewilllurchwhicheverwaythewheelsarepointingwhenthetyresregaingrip.

CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explainwhyactivesafetyfeaturescaninterferewithdriverbehaviour

• explainhowtoavoidtheactionsthatreduceavehicle’sstabilityandtyregrip

• identifythecausesofskiddingandhowtominimisetherisk

• describetheprinciplesofanti-lockbrakingsystems,tractioncontrolsystemsandelectronicstabilityprogrammes.

Chapter8Driver’ssignals

LearningoutcomesThelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:

•demonstrateappropriateuseofthefullrangeofsignalsavailabletoyouindifferentsituations

•showappropriateresponsestoandcautionininterpretingsignalsgivenbyothers

•showthatyoumakeactiveuseofcourtesysignals.

DevelopingyourcompetenceatusingsignalsUsingsignalsmayseemtobeabasiccompetence,butmanydriversdon’tusethefullrangeofavailablesignalsconsistentlyortobesteffect.Thischapterwillhelpyouimproveyourcompetenceatusingsignals.

Givinginformationtootherroadusersisakeypartofinformationprocessinginthesystemofcarcontrol.SeeChapter2,Thesystemofcarcontrol,page27,Theimportanceofinformation.

SeealsoChapter13,Emergencyresponse,forfurtherinformationaboutthesignalsavailabletoemergencyservicesinresponsesituations.

ThepurposeofsignalsSignalsinformotherroadusersofyourpresenceorintentions.Thinkbeforeyousignal.Indiscriminatesignallingisnothelpfultoanyone.

Giveasignalwheneveritcouldbenefitotherroadusers.

Ifyoudecideasignalisnecessary,signalclearlyandingoodtime.Alwaysmakesurethemeaningofyoursignalisclear.Sometimesasignalisnotinitselfenoughtomakeyourintentionsclearandotherroadusersmayuseyourpositionandspeedtointerpretwhatyoursignalsmean.Whennegotiatingaroundabout,forexample,yoursignalsmaybemisinterpretedifyouhaven’ttakenupthecorrectpositionforyourintendedexit.

Keypoints

•Considertheneedtogiveasignalontheapproachtoeveryhazard,andbeforeyouchangedirectionorspeed.

•Giveasignalwheneveritcouldbenefitotherroadusers.•Rememberthatsignallingdoesnotgiveyouanyspecialrightto

carryouttheactionsyouindicate.

•FollowtheHighwayCode–checkyourmirrorsbeforeyousignalormanoeuvre.

InterpretingsignalsgivenbyothersYoualsoneedtobecautiousabouthowyouinterpretthesignalsofotherroadusers.Forexample,doesavehicleflashingtheleft-handindicatormeanthatthedriverintendsto:

•parkthevehicle,possiblyimmediatelyafteraleft-handjunction?•turnintoaleft-handjunction?•carrystraighton,havingforgottentocancelthelastsignal?

TherangeofsignalsThesignalsavailabletoyouare:

•indicators

•hazardwarninglights•brakelights•headlights•positionofyourvehicle•hornsignals•armsignals•courtesysignals(forexample,raisingahandtothankanother

driver).

Selectthemosteffectivesignalforthejob.Youmustgiveyoursignalinplentyoftimeifitistobenefitotherroadusers.Beawarethatwhenyouchangethespeedorpositionofyourvehicleyouarealsogivinginformationtootherroadusers.Notethatheavygoodsvehicles(HGVs)initiallymovetotherightinordertoturnleft.

UsingtheindicatorsTheHighwayCodeadvisesyoutogiveasignalwhenanotherroadusercouldbenefit.Useobservationtoanticipatewhenasignalmaybeneeded.Thisencouragesyoutobeawareofotherroadusersatalltimes,especiallythosebehindyou.Italsoreducesunnecessaryhandmovementsandsignalclutter.

Ifindoubt,it’sbettertosignalthannottosignal.

Thepurposeofsignalsistowarnotherroadusersofyourpresenceand/oryourintentionandtogiveyouadequatetimetoachieveitspurpose.Signalsareinformativeanddonotgiverightofway.

Onesignalshouldnotcovertwomanoeuvres.

CancellingindicatorsignalsNevertakeanindicatorsignalasproofofanotherdriver’sintentionwhenyouarewaitingtoemergefromasideturning.Lookforsupportingevidencesuchasanobviousslowingdownorwheelsturningbeforeyoumoveout.

Indicatormechanismsdon’talwaysself-cancel,especiallywhenaturnisfollowedbyabendinthesamedirection.Takecaretocanceltheindicatormanuallyinsuchsituations–forexample,whenexitingfromaroundabout.

Howclearareyoursignalstootherroadusers?

•Doyoualwayssignalwhenanotherroadusercouldbenefit?•Doyousignalyourintentionsclearlyandingoodtime?•Wherepossible,doyouchooseapositionthathelpstomakeyourintentions

cleartootherroadusers?

UsinghazardwarninglightsConsiderusinghazardlightstoalertotherdriverstoyourpresencewhenyouhavestopped.Don’tusehazardlightswhenmovingexceptonunrestrictedmulti-lanecarriagewaysandmotorways.Hereyoucanusehazardlightsbrieflytowarnthevehiclesbehindyouthatthereisahold-upahead.

UsingbrakelightsUsebrakelightstoindicateeitherslowingdownoryourintentiontostop.Alwayscheckyourmirrorsbeforeusingyourbrakesunlessyouaredoinganemergencystop.

•Startbrakingwellinadvanceofananticipatedhazardtoalertthedriverbehindthatyoumeantoslowdownorstop,especiallyifthevehiclebehindistooclose.Avoid‘dabbing’thebrakes:ifyourbrakelightsflashonandoffbutyoudon’tslowdown,youwillconfusethedriversbehindyou.

•Rememberthatrearfoglightsarebrighterthanbrakelightsandmaymaskthemwhenyouareslowingdown.

UsingthehornOnlyusethehornwhenitisnecessarytowarnotherroadusersofyourpresence.Ifyouseethatanotherroaduserisnotawareofyourpresence,firstchooseanappropriatepositionandspeedsothatyoucanstopsafely.

Considerusingthehornontheapproachtohazardswheretheviewisverylimited,suchasablindsummitorbridgeonasingletrackroad.Neverusethehorntochallengeorrebukeotherroadusers.Adjustthelengthofthehornnoteaccordingtothecircumstances.

Asalastresort,itcouldbebeneficialtousethehorn:

•towarnanotherroaduserwhoisnotawareofyou(pedestriansandcyclists–especiallychildren–aremostatrisk)

•towarntheoccupantsofparkedvehiclesofyourpresence.

•whenyouapproachahazardwheretheviewisverylimited–forexample,ablindbendorasteephumpbridgeonasingletrackroad

FlashingyourheadlightsFlashyourheadlightswhenthehornwouldnotbeheard,andinplaceofthehornatnight.Youshouldflashyourheadlightsforonepurposeonly:toinformotherroadusersthatyouarethere–notasasignaltocomeon.Neverassumethatanotherdriverflashingtheirheadlightsisasignaltoproceed.

Useaheadlightflashindaylight:

•whenspeedmakesitlikelythatthehornwouldnotbeheard–forexample,onamotorwayorwhensignallingtoalorrydriverinanenclosedcab

•toalertotherdriverstoyourpresencewhenyouareapproachingfrombehind.

Useyourjudgementtodecidethedurationoftheflashandhowfarinadvanceyoushouldgiveit.Thisiscriticalandwilldependonyourspeed.Thepurposeofflashingyourheadlightsissolelytoinformtheotherdriverofyourpresence.Itdoesnotgiveyoutherighttoovertakeregardlessofthecircumstances.

Duringdarkness,flashyourheadlightstoinformotherroadusersofyourpresence,forexample:

•ontheapproachtoahillcrestornarrowhumpbridge•whentravellingalongnarrowwindingroads.

Don’tflashyourheadlightswhentheymightbemisunderstoodbyroadusersforwhomtheyarenotintended.

ArmsignalsIfyouneedtouseanarmsignal,followtheHighwayCodeadvice.Beawarethatmanydriversmaynotunderstandthemastheyarerarelyused.

UsingcourtesysingnalsCourtesysignalsencouragecooperativeuseoftheroadspaceandhelptopromoteroadsafety.Acknowledgingthecourtesyofotherroadusersencouragesgooddrivingandhelpsfosterpositiveattitudes.Usingacourtesysignaltodefuseapotentialconflictcanmakearealdifferencetoroadsafety.Usecourtesysignals:

•tothankanotherdriverforlettingyougofirst•toapologisewhenyouhaveunintentionallycausedinconvenienceto

anotherroaduser.

Useeitherhandtogiveacourtesysignalbutnotattheriskofyoursteeringcontrol.Youcansignalwithoutremovingyourhandfromthewheelbyraisingyourpalmornoddingyourhead.Oryoucanaskyourpassengertosignalforyou.Butmakesurethatyourcourtesysignalcannotbemistakenfora‘wavingon’signal.

•Doyouthinkyoutendtogivecourtesysignalsmoreorlessoftenthanotherdrivers?

Onyournextfewjourneys,makeaconsciousefforttogiveandacknowledgecourtesysignals.

•Howdoesthisaffectyourownstateofmind?•Howdoesitinfluencetheactionsofotherdrivers?

Respondingtootherpeople’ssignalsTreatwithcautionanysignalsotherthanthosegivenbyauthorisedofficials.Ifsomeonebeckonsyoutomoveforward–forexample,anarmsignalfromacyclistormotorcyclist–alwayscheckforyourselfwhetheritissafetodoso.Checkthatyou’refamiliarwiththerangeofarmsignalssetoutintheHighwayCode.

CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• demonstrateappropriateuseofthefullrangeofsignalsavailabletoyouindifferentsituations

• showappropriateresponsestoandcautionininterpretingsignalsgivenbyothers

• showthatyoumakeactiveuseofcourtesysignals.

Chapter9

Positioning

Learningoutcomes

Thelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:

•explainhowtopositionyourvehiclesafelyontheapproachtohazards

•showhowtopositionyourvehicletogetthebestviewintonearsidejunctions

•showhowtopositionyourvehicleappropriatelyforfollowingothervehicles,turningandstopping.

DevelopingcompetenceatpositioningyourvehicleForadviceonpositioningonthemotorway,seeChapter12,Drivingonmotorwaysandmulti-lanecarriageways.

Positioningisacrucialelementinthesystemofcarcontrol.SeeChapter2,Thesystemofcarcontrol,page29.

Theidealroadpositiondependsonmanythings:safety,observation,thesizeofthevehicle,trafficconditions,roadlayout,cornering,manoeuvrability,assistingtrafficflowandmakingyourintentions

clear.Alwaysconsidersafetybeforeanythingelse,andneversacrificesafetyforanyotheradvantage.

Putthecarinthebestpositionforyoutoseeandbeseen,withdueregardtosafety.

SafetypositionontheapproachtohazardsBycarefullychoosingyourpositionyoucanreducetheriskofhavingacollision.Beawareofhazardsonbothsidesofyourvehicle.Tothenearsidethereisariskofcomingintoconflictwithcyclistsandpedestrians(especiallychildren),andparkedvehiclesandtheiroccupants.Youalsoneedtobeawareofothervehiclespullingout

fromjunctions.Totheoffside,thereisariskofcomingintoconflictwithoncomingvehiclesinthecentreoftheroad.

Betweenthetwoextremesisazonethatisrelativelyfreeofhazards,butalwaysadaptyourpositionandspeedtotheactualcircumstances.

Thesystemofcarcontrolprovidesasafeandmethodicalapproachtohazards.Dangerscancomefromanywherebutyouwillgenerallyhavelesstimetoreacttohazardscomingfromthenearside.Onnarrowroadsandinone-waysystems,youneedtopayequalattentiontobothsidesoftheroad.

RoadsidehazardsCommonroadsidehazardstolookoutforare:

•pedestrians,especiallychildren,steppingoffthefootpath•parkedvehiclesandtheiroccupants•cyclists,especiallychildren•horses•runners–wherethereisnofootpath•concealedjunctions•surfacewaterorsprayfromkerbsidepuddles.

Ifyouidentifyhazardsonthenearside,takeapositionclosertothecentreoftheroad.Thishastwobenefits:

•itgivesyouabetterview•itprovidesmorespaceinwhichtotakeavoidingactionifyouneed

to.

Ifoncomingtrafficmakesitunsafetotakethisposition,oriftheroad

istoonarrow,reduceyourspeed.Thereisanimportanttrade-offbetweenyourspeedandtheclearancearoundyourvehicle.Thenarrowerthegap,theslowerthespeed.Bepreparedtostopifnecessary.

Keepasfarfromrowsofparkedvehiclesascircumstancesallow.Agoodruleofthumbistoleaveatleastenoughspaceforanopeningdoortothesideofanyparkedvehicles.Ifyoucan’tmoveout,slowdown.

Oneinthreechildrenhitbyacardoesnotlookfirst.

Getintothehabitofaskingyourself:‘CouldIstopintimeifachildranout?’

Cyclistsandmotorcyclists

Whendrivingintown,bealerttothebehaviourofcyclistsandmotorcyclists,especiallyifyou’redrivingalargevehiclewithlimitednearsidevisibility.Beawarethatcyclistsandmotorcyclistsmayattempttoovertakeonyournearsideorfilterthroughnarrowgapsinthetraffic.

ImprovingtheviewintonearsideroadjunctionsPositionyourselfsothatyoucanseeasmuchoftheroadaheadaspossibleandsothatotherroaduserscanseeyou.Youcanimproveyourviewintonearsideroadsbypositioningyourvehicletowardsthecentreoftheroad.Thisalsomakesyoumorevisibletovehiclespullingoutfromnearsidejunctions.Youmusttakeintoaccountanyvehiclesontheothersideoftheroad.Takeapositionthatminimisestheoveralldangerfrombothsidesoftheroad.

FollowingpositionInastreamoftraffic,alwayskeepasafedistancebehindthevehicleinfront.Followthetwo-secondrule.Leaveagapofatleasttwosecondsbetweenyouandthevehicleinfront,dependingonconditions.SeeChapter5,Acceleration,usinggears,brakingandsteering,page109,Thetwo-secondrule.

Keepingyourdistanceincreasesyoursafetybecause:

•youhaveagoodview,andcanincreaseitalongbothsidesbyslightchangesofposition–thisenablesyoutobefullyawareofwhatishappeningontheroadahead

•youcanstopyourvehiclesafelyifthedriverinfrontbrakesfirmly

withoutwarning

•youcanextendyourbrakingdistancesothatthedriverbehindhasmoretimetoreact,especiallyiftheyaredrivingtooclose

•youcanseewhenit’ssafetomoveintotheovertakingposition•inwetweather,yougetlesssprayfromthevehicleinfront.

Overtakingposition

Ifyouintendtoovertake,adjustyourposition.SeeChapter11,Overtaking,page195.

PositionforturningYourpositionforturningdependsontheothertraffic,theroadwidthandlayout,thesizeofyourvehicle,thepositionofanyobstaclesandtheeffectoftheseobstaclesontrafficbehaviour.Takeinformationontheapproachtohelpyoudecideonthebestposition.Generallythe

bestpositionontheapproachtoajunctionisinthemiddleoftheroadforaleftturnandtowardsthecentrelineforarightturn.

Ifyouintendtoturnrightandoncomingtrafficisencroachingonyoursideoftheroad,movebackinfromthecentreline.

Ifyouintendtoturnleftandthecornerhasasharpangle,isobscured,orpedestriansarepresent,approachthecornerfromfurtheroutthannormal.Movefurtheroutingoodtime.Avoid‘swannecking’–approachingclosetothenearsideandthenswingingouttotherightjustbeforeturningintothejunction.Thiscanmisleadotherdriversaboutyourintentions.

PositionatcrossroadsWhenturningrightatcrossroadsandtheoncomingvehicleisalsoturningright,thereisachoiceoftwopositions.Yourchoicewilldependontheroadlayoutandmarkings,andthepositionoftheothervehicle:

•passoffsidetooffside–thisgivesyouabetterview•passnearsidetonearsidewheretrafficconditions,thejunction

layoutorthepositionoftheothervehiclemakesoffsidetooffsideimpractical.

Takeextracareonanearsidetonearsidepassbecauseyourviewoftheroadisblockedbytheothervehicle.Lookcarefullyforoncomingtraffic.

PositionforstoppingbehindothervehiclesBeforeyoucometoastop,thinkaboutyournextmove.Positionyourvehiclesothatyoucancontinuewithminimuminconveniencetoyourselfandotherroadusers.Youshouldbeabletoseethereartyresofthevehicleinfrontandsomeemptytarmac.

Remember,think‘rubberandroad’or‘tyresandtarmac’.

Stoppingwellshortofthevehicleinfrontgivesyouseveraladvantages:

•agoodviewoftheroad•roomtomovearoundthevehicleaheadifitstallsorbreaksdown•ifyouarehitfrombehind,thevehicleaheadislesslikelytobe

affected

•thespaceinfrontofyouisasafehavenforabikeormotorcycle•ifyoubecomeawarethatavehicleapproachingbehindhasleft

brakingtoolate,youcanmoveforwardtoallowitextraspacetostopin

•facinguphill,ifthevehicleaheadstartstorollbacktowardsyou,youhavetimetowarnthedriver.

Anexampleofusingyourstoppingpositiontoincreasesafetyiswheretherearetrafficlightsatroadworksclosetoabend.Considerstoppingbeforeorontheapproachtothebendsothatdriverswhocomeupbehindcanseeyou.

CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explainhowtopositionyourvehiclesafelyontheapproachtohazards

• showhowtopositionyourvehicletogetthebestviewintonearsidejunctions

• showhowtopositionyourvehicleappropriatelyforfollowingothervehicles,turningandstopping.

Chapter10

Cornering

Learningoutcomes

Thelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:

•explaintheprinciplesofsafecornering•describetheforcesinvolvedincorneringandthefactorsthataffect

yourvehicle’sabilitytocorner

•showhowtousethelimitpointtoassessyourspeedforbendsandcorners

•showhowtopositionyourvehicleforthebestviewwhencornering•showhowtousethesystemofcarcontrolforcornering.

DevelopingyourcompetenceatcorneringCornering–drivingacarroundacorner,curveorbend–isoneofthemaindrivingactivities,anditisimportanttogetitright.Whenyoucorner,yourvehiclelosesstabilityandyouplaceextrademandsonthetyregripavailable.Thefasteryougoandthetighterthebend,thegreaterthesedemandsare.

Almosthalfofallfatalcollisionsfordriversunder30aretheresultofthedriverlosingcontrolonabendoracurve.

Thischapterexplainshowtoapplythesystemofcarcontroltocornering.Westartwithsomegeneralprinciplesandthenlookattheforcesinvolvedincornering,thefactorsaffectingyourvehicle’sabilitytocornersafely,andhowtousethesystemofcarcontrolinconjunctionwithlimitpointanalysistocornersafely.SeeChapter2,Thesystemofcarcontrol,page28.

UsingthesystemtocornersafelyCorneringispotentiallydangeroussoyoushouldusethesystemofcarcontroltohelpyoucarryoutthemanoeuvresafely.Eachphaseofthesystemisrelevantbutprocessinginformationisespeciallyimportant.Correctlyassessingtheseverityofthebendisessentialforsafety.

Keyprinciplesforsafecornering

•Makesurethatyourvehicleisinthecorrectpositionontheapproach.

•Travelatthecorrectspeedforthecornerorbend.•Selectthecorrectgearforthatspeed.•Usetheacceleratortomaintainaconstantspeedthroughthe

bend.

•Beabletostopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.

Applyingtheseprinciplestothevariationsinbend,visibility,traffic

conditions,roadsurfaceconditionsandotherfactorscallsforgoodjudgementandplanning.Beforelookinginmoredetailatusingthesystemofcarcontrolforcornering,thinkaboutthefactorsthataffectavehicle’sabilitytocornersafely.

CorneringforcesAmovingvehicleismoststablewhenitsweightisevenlydistributed,itsengineisjustpullingwithoutincreasingroadspeed,anditistravellinginastraightline.Itwillcontinuetotravelinastraightlineunlessyouapplysomeotherforcetoalteritsdirection.Whenyousteer,theturningforcetoalterdirectioncomesfromtheactionofthefronttyresontheroad.YousawinChapter5(page87)thatthisforcedependsontyregrip.Ifthefronttyregripisbroken,thecarwillcontinueinastraightline.Ontighterbends,athigherspeedsandinheaviervehicles,thedemandsontyregriparegreater.

Threeforcesreducestabilityand,ultimately,tyregrip:

•steering•accelerating•braking.

Themoreyoubrakeoraccelerate,thelesstyregripyouhavefor

steering.Thefasteryougointoacornerorbend,themoreyoureducestabilityandthemoretyregripyouneedtokeepyourposition.

Ifoneormoreoftheseforcescauseslossoftyregrip,thevehiclewillcontinueinastraightlineratherthanturning.Soinaleft-handbend,asyoulosetyregrip,yourvehicledriftstotherightofyourintendedpositionandinaright-handbenditdriftstotheleft.Thedesignofthevehiclewillreduceorincreasethiseffect.

Vehiclecharacteristics

Roadworthiness

Vehiclesvaryintheircapacitytocorner,andtheyonlycornerefficientlyiftheyarewellmaintained.Steering,suspension,shockabsorbers,tyres,tyrepressuresandtheloadingofthevehicleallaffectitsbalanceandtyregripwhencornering.Positionloadsevenlysotheydon’tupsetthebalanceofthevehicle.

Makesurethatyourvehicleandtyresareingoodconditionandthatyoukeepyourtyrepressuresattherecommendedlevels.

VehiclespecificationThespecificationsthataffectthehandlingcharacteristicsofavehicleinclude:

•thetypeofdrive–frontwheel,rearwheelorfourwheel•suspensionanddamping•thedriveratioandcentraldifferentialcharacteristicsonafourwheel

drivevehicle

•activevehiclesafetysystems•thetypeandsizeofvehicle,whethercommercialvehicleorcar•thevehicle’scentreofgravity.

UndersteerandoversteerUndersteeristhetendencyofavehicletoturnless,andoversteeristhetendencyofavehicletoturnmore,inresponsetoagiventurnofthesteeringwheel.Thetendencytoundersteeroroversteerisacharacteristicofthevehicleitselfanddependsmainlyonwhatsortofdrivethevehiclehas.Makesureyouknowthedifferentsteering

characteristicsofeachvehicleyoudriveandadaptyourdrivingoncornersandbends.SeeChapter7,Maintainingvehiclestability,page135,Understeerandoversteer.

CamberandsuperelevationRoadsurfacesusuallyslopetohelpdrainage.Thenormalslopefallsfromthecrownoftheroadtotheedgesandiscalledcrowncamber.

•Onaleft-handbendcamberincreasestheeffectofyoursteeringbecausetheroadslopesdowninthedirectionoftheturn.

•Onaright-handbendcamberreducestheeffectofsteeringbecausetheroadslopesawayfromthedirectionoftheturn.

Thisappliesifyoukeeptoyourownsideoftheroadbutifyoucrossoverthecrowntotheothersideoftheroad,thecamberwillhavetheoppositeeffectonyoursteering.

Inmanyplaces,especiallyatjunctions,theslopeacrosstheroadsurfacecanbeatanunexpectedangle.Whatevertheslope,ifitfallsinthedirectionofyourturnitwillincreasetheeffectofyoursteeringbutifitrisesinthedirectionofyourturnitwillreducetheeffectofyoursteering.Takethisintoaccountwhendecidingyourpositionandspeedforabend.

Superelevationiswherethewholewidthoftheroadisbankeduptowardstheoutsideedgeofthebend,makingtheslopefavourableforcorneringinbothdirections(similartobankingonaracetrack).

Pickoutoneortwosectionsoffamiliarroadwherecorneringistrickyandworkoutwhetherunexpectedcamberisafactor.

Analysehowyoutookthecornerandmakeanhonestassessmentofyour

driving.Didyoumakethecorrectdecisionaboutthebestpositionandspeedtoadoptforthebend,forexample?

SummaryoffactorsaffectingcorneringThefactorsthatdetermineyourvehicle’sabilitytocornerare:

•thespecificationandconditionofyourvehicle,includingthetyres•yourspeed•theamountofsteeringyouapply•theamountofaccelerationorbraking•theslopeacrosstheroadsurface–camberandsuperelevation•theroadsurfaceandhowtheweatherhasaffecteditsgrip.

ThesystemofcarcontrolandthelimitpointTodrivesafelyyoumustbeabletostopwithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad–thatis,thedistancebetweenyouandthelimitpoint.Thinkofthelimitpointasaperceptiontoolthatwillhelpyoutoaccuratelynegotiateacornerorbend.

Thesystemofcarcontrolhelpsyouplanhowtoapproachandnegotiatecornersandbends.Informationprocessingandthefourphasesofthesystem–position,speed,gearandacceleration–arethekeyfactorsthatyoumustconsiderwhencornering.

Asyouapproachabend,seekasmuchinformationaspossibleabouttheseverityofthebendusingalltheobservationalclues(weather,roadsurface,roadsigns,roadmarkings,thelinemadebylamppostsandtrees,thespeedandpositionofoncomingtraffic,theangleofheadlightsatnight,etc)thatareavailabletoyou.Themoreinformationyougatheraboutthebend,themoreaccuratelyyouwillbeabletojudgethebestpositionandspeedtonegotiateit.

Thelimitpointgivesyouasystematicwayofjudgingthecorrectspeedtousethroughthebend.

SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation,page48,Planning.

HowtousethelimitpointtohelpyoucornerThelimitpointisthefurthestpointtowhichyouhaveanuninterruptedviewoftheroadsurface.Thisiswheretheright-hand

edgeoftheroadappearstomeettheleft-handedgeinthedistance.Themoredistantthelimitpoint,thefasteryoucangobecauseyouhavemorespacetostopin.Thecloserthelimitpoint,thesloweryoumustgobecauseyouhavelessspacetostopin.

Onaleft-handbend,youshoulddriveasthoughthelimitpointiswheretheedgeoftheroadmeetsthecentralwhiteline(orthecentreoftheroadifthereisnowhiteline)sothatyoucanstopsafelyonyourownsideoftheroad.

Watchingthelimitpointenablesyoutomatchyourspeedtothespeedatwhichthispointappearstomove.Ifitismovingawayfromyou,youmayaccelerate.Ifitiscomingclosertoyouorstandingstill,youmustdecelerateorbrake.Evenwhenthebendisnotconstant,youcanstillmatchyourspeedtotheapparentmovementofthelimitpoint,becausethiswillvarywiththecurvatureofthebend.Accelerationsenseisusefulhere.

Usingthelimitpointtogetherwiththesystemhelpsyou:

•adjustyourspeedsoyoucanstopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad

•decidethecorrectspeedtoapproachandnegotiatethebend•selectthecorrectgearforthespeed•decidethepointatwhichtostartaccelerating.

Usingthelimitpoint

Readthediagramfromthebottomofthepageupwards.

Approachingthebend

Atfirstthelimitpoint appearstoremainstationary.Adjustyourspeedsoyoucanstopsafelywithintheremainingdistance.Asyouapproachthebend,takeinformationaboutthesharpnessofthebendandcarefullyassesstheappropriatespeedforcornering.

Justbeforeyouenterthebend

Justbeforeyouenterthebendthelimitpoint beginstomoveroundataconstantspeed.Adjustyourspeedtothespeedofthismovement.Younowhavethecorrectspeedtogoroundthebend.Selectthegeartomatchthisspeedbeforeenteringthebend.Usetheacceleratortomaintainaconstantspeedformaximumstabilitythroughthebend.

Goingthroughthebend

Asthebendstartstostraightenoutyourviewbeginstoopenup,andthelimitpoint startstomoveawaymorequickly.Youcanthenacceleratesteadilyasyoustraightenyoursteering.

Thelimitpointtechniqueisself-adjusting–asroadvisibilityandconditionsdeteriorateyouneedmoredistanceinwhichtostop,andsoyoumustreduceyourspeedtocompensate.

Usethelimitpointaswellasotherobservationlinks–getintothehabitoflookingacrossorbeyondthebendasyouapproachit.Youmayspotahazardjustafterthebend–forexample,awarningsignorachevronmarkerindicatingafurtherbend.Inthiscaseitwouldbeinappropriatetousethelimitpointalonetosetyourspeed.

Wherearoadisnotwideenoughfortwovehiclestopass,considerdoublingyourstoppingdistancetogiveanoncomingvehicleenoughspacetostopaswell.Onaleft-handbendonasingletrackroad,thelimitpointiswherethetwokerblinesmeet.

Practisematchingyourspeedtothemovementofthelimitpoint.

Trythisondifferenttypesofbend–fromverygradualtohairpin–andnotehowusingthelimitpointenablesyoutoadjusttothecharacteristicsofeachbend.Alwaysadjustyourspeedsothatyoucanstopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclear.

Makeaspecialpointofusingthelimitpointtosetyourspeedforbendsandcornersonroadsyouknowwell.Itisonfamiliarroutesthatyourattentionismostlikelytowander.

ThedoubleapexbendSomebendshavebeendeliberatelyengineeredwithatighteningcurveor‘doubleapex’.Thishasprovedacauseofseriouscrashesonleft-handbends,particularlyformotorcyclists.Inthistypeofbend,thecurvethatthedriverinitiallyseesontheapproachtothebendcontinuestotightensothefinalcurveismuchsharper.Ifyouplanforthewholebendonthebasisofthecurvethatyouseeinitially,youruntheriskofendingupinthepathofoncomingtraffic.

Carefulobservationandusingthesystemofcarcontroltomatchyour

speedtothelimitpointshouldhelpyoutoaccuratelynegotiatedeceptivebendsliketheonebelow.

Onanunfamiliarbend,bepreparedifnecessarytoadjustyoursteeringasyoutravelaroundthebend.

Howtousethesystemforcornering

Information

Ontheapproachtoacornerorbendyoushouldbeconstantlyscanningtheroadforinformation,especiallyabout:

•trafficinfrontandbehind•theroadsurfaceandtheeffectofweatherconditionsonit•thelimitpoint.

Wheneveryoucan,lookacrossthebendthroughgapsinhedgesorbetweenbuildingsformoreinformation.Usethecurvedlineofhedgerowsandlamppoststogiveyouinformationabouttheseverityofthebend.Lookforearlywarningofotherhazardsaswell.

Matchyourspeedtothespeedatwhichthelimitpointmovesawayfromyou,providedyoucanstopsafelywithinthedistancethatyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.

Position

Whenpositioningyourvehicleforcorneringyouneedtoconsider:

•safety•view•stability.

Safety

Positionyourselfsothatyouareleastlikelytocomeintoconflictwithotherroadusers–forexample,lookoutforpedestrianstoyournearsideandoncomingtraffictoyouroffside.Neversacrificesafetyforposition.

Gettingthebestview

Yourpositionwilldeterminehowmuchyoucanseewhenyouenterabend.Putthecarinthebestpositionforyoutosee,withdueregardtosafety.Thepositionthatgivesyoutheclearestviewisdifferentforaleft-handbendandright-handbend.

•Right-handbends–positionyourselftowardstheleftofyourroadspace,whereappropriate.Butwatchoutforpoorconditionofthenearsideroadsurface,blindjunctionsorexits,andadversecamber.

•Left-handbends–positionyourselftowardsthecentrelinesothatyougetanearlyviewroundthebend.Beforeyoutakethis

position,consider:

›approachingtrafficorotheroffsidedangerswhichneedagreatermarginofsafety

›whetheryourpositionmightmisleadothertrafficastoyourintentions

›whetherornotyouwillgainanyadvantageatlowspeedoronanopenbend.

Don’tpositionyourselfinawaythatcausesconcerntootherroadusers.Bepreparedtomodifyyourpositionforsafety

Speed

Whenyouareinthecorrectpositionforthebend,usethelimitpointtojudgethesafespeedtodriveroundthebend.Wherethebendisaconstantcurve,thelimitpointremainsataconstantdistancefromyou.Keepyourspeedconstant.Ifthecurvechanges,re-assessyourspeedandre-applythesystem.

Toassessthecorrectspeedforabend,alsoconsider:

•theseverityofthebend•theviewintothebend•yourvehicle’scharacteristics•roadandroadsurfaceconditions•trafficconditions•weatherconditions•roadwidth.

Rememberyouraimistobeabletostopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad,nottotakethebendasfastaspossible.

Gear

Whenyouhaveachievedthecorrectentryspeed,choosetheappropriategearforthatspeed.Selectthegearthatgivesyouthegreatestflexibilitytoleavethebendsafely.SeeChapter5,Acceleration,usinggears,brakingandsteering,page96,Usingthegears.

Acceleration

Wherethebendisaconstantcurve,thelimitpointremainsataconstantdistancefromyou.Applygentlepressuretotheacceleratortomaintainaconstantroadspeedthroughthecurve,ifyoucan.

Remember,ifthebendtightens,thelimitpointwillappeartomovecloser,soreduceyourspeedaccordinglytostaywithinasafestoppingdistance.

Iftherearenohazards,starttoacceleratewhenthelimitpointbeginstomoveawayandyoubegintostraightenyoursteering.

Asyoucontinuetostraightenyoursteering,increaseaccelerationtomatchthelimitpoint.Accelerateuntilyoureachthespeedlimitortheappropriatespeedforthecircumstances.

Safecornering

Thinkaboutyourdrivingbehaviouronmoreopenroads.Asyouplanyourapproachtocorners,whatisyourpriority?

•Doesthepurposeofyourjourneymakeadifferencetoyourdecision-making–forexample,ifyou’reundertimepressure?

•Whatotherhumanfactorsmightaffectyourdrivingdecisions?

•Howdoyouthinkaboutthecorrectspeedforthebend?Isyouraimtomaximisespeedortoachieveasafestoppingdistance?

•Doyoumakethebestpossibleuseofobservationlinkstohelpplanyourapproachtoacorner?

•Doyoupositionyourselftogetthebestpossibleviewwhencornering,withdueregardtosafety?

Nexttimeyoumeetasignificantcorneronanopenroad,askyourself:‘Whatifthereisapedestrianintheroadjustbeyondmylimitpoint?’Doesthisalteryourdriving?

CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explaintheprinciplesofsafecornering

• describetheforcesinvolvedincorneringandthefactorsthataffectyourvehicle’sabilitytocorner

• showhowtousethelimitpointtoassessyourspeedforbendsandcorners

• showhowtopositionyourvehicleforthebestviewwhencornering

• showhowtousethesystemofcarcontrolforcornering.

Chapter11

Overtaking

Learningoutcomes

Thelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:

•explaintherisksofovertaking•showhowtousethefollowingandovertakingpositionsafely•showhowtoassessandovertakedifferenttypesofhazardssafelyin

awiderangeofcircumstances

•explainhowtohelpotherdriverstoovertakeyou.

DevelopingyourcompetenceatovertakingsafelyOvertakingishazardousbecauseitmaybringyouintothepathofothervehicles.Itisacomplexmanoeuvreinwhichyouneedtoconsidertheprimaryhazardofthevehicle(s)youwanttoovertake,aswellasanumberofsecondaryhazardsastheprimaryhazardmovesamongstthem.Itrequiresyoutonegotiatedynamichazards(movingvehicles)aswellasfixedones(e.g.roadlayout).

Thissectiondescribesthegeneralprinciplesofusingthesystemofcarcontroltodothismanoeuvresafely.Trainingwillfurtherdevelop

yourabilitytoapplythesystemtodynamichazardsinpractice.

Thehazardsofovertaking

Overtakingisahigh-riskmanoeuvrebecauseyouarepotentiallyputtingyourvehicleintothepathofoncomingtraffic.Ifyouaretravellingathighspeedandcollidewithanoncomingvehicle,thespeedofimpactwillbethecombinedspeedofbothvehicles.

•Around1in20ofallcaroccupantskilledinacrasharekilledwhenthecarisovertaking.

•Manyovertakingdeathsareduetoheadoncollisionsonruralroads.

•Theriskofdeathinaheadoncollisionat60mphis90%.

Keysafetypoints

Wheneveryouconsiderovertaking,alwaysaskyourself:•DoIneedto?•Isitnecessaryorappropriateinthecircumstances?•Ismyvehiclecapableofovertaking?

•Don’tovertakeifyoucan’tseefarenoughaheadtobesureit’ssafe.

•Avoidcausingothervehicles(overtaken,followingoroncoming)toalterpositionorspeed.

•Beforestartingtoovertake,alwaysensureyoucanmovebacktothenearsideinplentyoftime.

•Alwaysbereadytoabandonovertakingifanewhazardcomesintoview.

•Don’tovertakeinsituationswhereyoumightcomeintoconflictwithotherroadusers.

•Whenpossible,avoidovertakingthreeabreasttoleaveyourselfamarginofsafety.

•Neverovertakeonthenearsideonmulti-lanecarriagewaysexceptinslow-movingqueuesoftrafficwhereoffsidequeuesaremovingmoreslowly.

•Neverusethehardshoulderforovertaking,evenwhereanactivetrafficmanagement(ATM)schemeisinforceandthehardshoulderisavailableasarunninglane.

Overtakingispotentiallydangerousandyouneedgoodjudgementifitistobesafe.Thiscomeswithexperienceandpracticebutevenexperienceddriversneedtobeextremelycautious.Alwaysbepatientandleaveamarginofsafetytoallowforerrors.Beforeyouovertake,assesswhetheryourvehicleiscapableoftheovertakingmanoeuvreyou’replanning.

Isyourvehiclecapableofovertaking?

Areyoufamiliarwiththevehicle’scapabilitiesandcharacteristics?Areyoudrivingahighperformanceorlargevehicle,forexample?

Areyousurethatthevehiclewillgiveyouenoughacceleration?

Canyouachievethenecessaryspeed?

Haveyouassessedyourvehicle’scapabilityinrelationtotheroaduseryou’reovertaking?Forexample,overtakingalongvehiclewillrequiremorecapabilitythanacyclist.

Haveyoutakenaccountoftheloadyou’recarrying?Haveyougotpassengers

orafullboot?

Rememberthatovertakingisyourdecisionandyoucanreconsideritatanypoint.Butbeawareifyoustarttoovertakeandtheninthelightofnewinformationyouabort,thevehiclebehindcouldmoveintoyourspace,leavingyoumarooned.Ifindoubt,holdback.

StationaryvehiclesWhenpassingstationaryvehicles,usethesystemtoapproachandassessthehazardandtopassitsafely.Takeaccountofthepositionandspeedofoncomingtraffic,thepositionandspeedoffollowingtrafficandthepresenceofpedestriansorotherroadsidehazards,especiallyonthenearside(seeChapter9,Positioning).Ifthesituationallows,leaveatleastadoor’swidthwhenpassingastationaryvehicle.

MovingvehiclesOvertakingamovingvehicleismorecomplicatedbecausethesituationischangingallthetime.Youneedtoconsiderthespeedandaccelerationcapabilitiesofyourownvehicle,thephysicalfeaturesoftheroadandtherelativespeedsofothervehicles.Youalsoneedagoodsenseofwhereyourownandothervehiclesareinrelationtogapsinthetraffic.

Alwaysfollowthebasicsafetyruleforovertaking.

Thebasicsafetyruleforovertaking

HowtoovertakeAvehicletobeovertakenisahazard,sousethesystemofcarcontroltodealwithitsafely.Youneedtoobserveandplancarefully,judgespeedanddistanceaccurately,andbealerttopossiblesecondaryhazards.Thoughtlessovertakingisdangerous.

Thefollowingpagesdescribetwoovertakingsituations:

•whereyouareabletoovertakeimmediately(approaching,overtakingandreturningtoyourownsideoftheroad)inonecontinuousmanoeuvre

•whereotherhazardsrequireyoutotakeupafollowingpositionbeforeyoucansafelyovertake.

Overtakingusuallyinvolvesmultiplehazards.Anyovertakingsituationcanchangerapidlyandbecomecomplicatedbyfurtherhazards(forexample,newoncomingvehicles,orslowervehiclesfurtheraheadonyoursideoftheroad).Whileyou’relearningtonegotiatethesecomplexhazards,youmayhavetoconsiderandapplythesystemmorethanonceinanovertakingmanoeuvre.Asyougainpracticeandconfidence,you’lllearntoviewthenumberofhazardsasonecomplexpicture,andtousefewerapplications.

Althoughthesamegeneralrulesapplywhenovertakinghazardsotherthanavehicle,alwaysassessthespecificcircumstances.Speedorthesoundofahorncanstartlehorses.Cyclists,especiallychildren,canbeerraticsoallowthemplentyofroom.Givemotorcyclesplentyofroomtoo.Ifyou’retooclose,yourslipstreamcoulddestabilisethem.

Thefollowingpagesoffergeneraladvicebutovertakingamovingvehicleinvolvescomplex,dynamichazards.Youneedaccurateobservation,planning,informationprocessingandjudgement,andovertakingtechniqueisbestlearnedunderguidanceinamovingvehicle.

WhereyouareabletoovertakeimmediatelyOnceyouhavecheckedthatalltheotherconditions(e.g.clearview

ahead,sufficientspace,absenceofoncomingtraffic,safereturngap)aresuitableforimmediateovertaking,andthereisnootherfactorwhichpreventsyou,workthroughthestagesofthesystemtopasstheslowervehicle(s)andreturntoyourownsideoftheroad.Useyourmirrorsandtheappropriatesignalsthroughout.

Information

Observetheroadaheadforotheractualandpotentialdangers–physicalfeatures,positionandmovementofotherroadusersandweather/roadconditions.

Identify:

•asafestretchofroadalongwhichyouhaveadequatevision•whatishappeningbehind•agapintowhichyoucansafelyreturn•therelativespeedofyourownvehicleandthevehicle(s)youintend

toovertake.

Considertheneedtogiveinformationtoanyotherroadusers.

Whereotherhazardsrequireyoutofollowbeforeyoucansafelyovertake

Followingposition

Whereyouaregainingonavehicleinfrontbutcanseeitisn’tpossibletoovertakeimmediately,reduceyourspeedsothatyoucanfollowatasafedistance.

Observeandassesstheroadandtrafficconditionsaheadforanopportunitytoovertakesafelyandwhenyouseeone,moveintoanovertakingposition.Askyourselfthequestionsbelow.

Doestheroadlayoutpresentahazard?

Isthereenoughroadwidthformetoovertake?

Whatisthespeedofthevehicle(s)tobeovertaken?

Is/arethedriver(s)aheadlikelytoovertake?

HaveItakenintoaccountthespeedandperformanceofmyownvehicle?

Whatisthelikelyresponseofthedriverandoccupantsofthevehicleinfront?

Whatisthespeedofoncomingvehicles?

Isthereapossibilityofasyetunseenvehiclesapproachingathighspeed?

Whatishappeningbehind?Areanyofthefollowingvehicleslikelytoovertakeme?

WhatdistancedoIneedtoovertakeandregainanearsidegapsafely?

Whatisanappropriatespeedtocompletetheovertake,takingaccountofthehazardsbeyondthevehicleI’movertaking?

Yourprioritieswillchangeasyougothroughthemanoeuvre.Continuetoobserve,planandprocessinformationsothatyoucanadjustyourhazardprioritiesastheovertakedevelops.Observewhatishappeninginthefardistance,themiddledistance,theimmediateforegroundandbehind.Dothisrepeatedly.Rememberthatgoodobservationaloneisnotenough.Yoursafetydependsoncorrectlyinterpretingwhatyousee.Seepage200forexamplesofsituations

wheredriversdonotcorrectlyinterpretwhattheysee.

Insomecases,youmightplantotakethefollowingpositionbutthenfindasyoucloseuponthevehicleinfrontthatyouhaveaclearviewoftheroadaheadandtherearenoadditionalhazards.Inthiscase,youcouldgostraighttotheovertakingposition.

Overtakingposition

Theovertakingpositionisgenerallycloserthanthefollowingpositionandminimisesthedistanceyouhavetotraveltoovertake.Italsoshowsthedriverinfrontthatyouwishtoovertake.Butsafetyisvital.

Positionyourvehicletogetthebestpossibleviewandopportunityby

movingintotheovertakingposition.Thisisgenerallyclosertothevehicleinfrontthanthefollowingpositionandyoushouldonlyuseitinreadinessforovertaking.Alwayshavedueregardtosafety.Ifahazard(e.g.anoncomingvehicle,aroadjunction)comesintoview,movebacktoanappropriatefollowingdistancefromthevehicleinfront.

Asyoumoveclosertothevehicleinfrontthedriverislikelytorealisethatyouwanttoovertake.Becarefulnottointimidatetheotherdriverortoappearaggressivebyfollowingtooclosely.Thisisdangerousandcounter-productive.Followingtoocloselymaycausetheotherdrivertospeedup,makingitmoredifficulttoovertake.

OvertakingFromtheovertakingpositioncontinueobservinguntilyouseeanopportunitytoovertake.

Positionyourvehiclesothatyouhaveaclearpathbeyondthevehicle

youwishtopass,withoutaccelerating.

Fromthisposition:

•makesurethereisasafegapaheadofthevehicleyouovertake•inassessingthesafegap,considertheeffectontheroaduseryou

pullinfrontof

•ifyouseethemanoeuvrewouldnotbesafe,returntothefollowingorovertakingpositionasappropriate

•ifthemanoeuvrecanbecompletedsafely,acceleratepast.

Asyouacceleratepast,reconsiderthehazardsaheadoftheovertakenvehicle.Thismayincludeothervehiclesyouwanttoovertake,orphysicalfeaturessuchasjunctionsorbends.

OvertakingvehiclesinalineoftrafficOvertakinginalineoftrafficismoredifficultbecauseittakesmoretime.Youalsohavetotakeintoaccountthepossibleactionsofmoredrivers,bothinfrontandbehind.Driversinfrontmaynotbeawarethatyouarethereorintendtoovertake;driversbehindmighttrytoovertakeyou.Alwayssignalyourintentionsclearlytootherroadusers.

Beforeyouovertake,identifyacleargapbetweenthevehiclesinfrontwhichyoucanentersafely.Thisgapmaygetsmallerbeforeyouarrive,sochooseonethatislargeenoughtoallowforthis.Don’tovertakeifyouwillhavetoforceyourvehicleintoagap.

Considermovingoutontotheothersideoftheroadtogiveyourselfaclearerviewoftheroadahead.Holdthispositionifyoucanseethattheroadaheadisclear,andifyoucanidentifyaclearreturngapandhaveenoughtimetoreachit.Allowforthepossibilitythatthedriverfollowingyoumightmoveupintothegapthatyouhavejustleft.Whenyoureachthefirstreturngapyoumaynotneedtoenterit.Ifit’ssafe,holdyourpositionwhileyoudecidewhetheryoucanovertakemorevehicles.

Whereaqueuehasformedbecauseofanobstructionintheroadahead,nevertrytojumpthequeue.Itannoysotherroadusersandcanbedangerous.

Applythesystem.Ifthereismorethanonevehicle,youmaywishtoconsideraseriesofovertakesasonemanoeuvre.Whileyoumaybeabletoplantheseasonemanoeuvre,re-appraiseeachoneseparatelyasyouapproachthevehicle.

Fromthepointofacceleratingpastthepreviousvehicleintheline,considerwhethertocontinueortoreturntoasafepositioninthelineyourself.Eachofthesedecisionsisaseparateapplicationofthesystem.

Don’tbetemptedtoincreaseyourspeedforeachovertakeinalineoftraffic.

SummaryThediagrambelowsummarisestheprinciplesofovertakingoneormoremovinghazards.

Isthereasafeopportunitytoovertake?

SpecialhazardsyoumustconsiderbeforeovertakingWehaveworkedthroughtwomethodsforovertakingsystematicallyinstraightforwardconditions.Butinpractice,therearemanyhazards

toovertakinginmosteverydayroadandtrafficsituations.Theillustrationsbelowshowsomecommonovertakingcollisions.

Thedriverofthebluecardoesn’trealisethatthemotorcyclistcanonlyseetheslow-movingvanandmaypulloutontothemainroad.

Thedriverofthebluecardoesn’tanticipatethattheredcarmayturnwithoutwarningintothesideroad.

Thedriverofthebluecardoesn’trealisethedriverofthegreencarislookingonlytohisrightandmaypullout.

Thedriverofthebluecarthinksthevanisindicatingtoovertakethecarahead,butthevanisturningright.

Thedriverofthebluecardoesn’tanticipatethatthetractormayturnwithoutwarningintoanentranceorgateway.

TherangeofhazardsBeforeovertaking,considerthefullrangeofpossiblehazardsthateachsituationpresents.Forexample:

•thevehicleinfront•thevehiclesbehind•pedestrians

•pedalcyclistsandmotorcyclists•oncomingvehiclesnotyetinview•theroadlayoutandconditions•roadsurface•overtakingonasinglecarriageway•right-handbends•left-handbends•overtakingonadualcarriageway.

Youwillalsoneedtonoteanyrelevantroadsigns,markingsandspeedlimitsbeforeattemptingtoovertake.

Someofthesehazardsarediscussedinmoredepthbelow.

ThevehicleinfrontAssesswhatsortofhazardthevehicleinfrontpresents.

•Hasthedriverofthevehiclenoticedyou?•Canyoupredictfromearlierbehaviourwhetherthedriver’s

responseislikelytobeaggressive?

•Doesthesizeortheloadofthevehiclepreventthedriverfromseeingyouorpreventyoufromseeingtheroadaheadclearly?

•Doesthevehiclehaveleft-handdrive(e.g.aforeignlorry)?

Signalyourintentiontoovertaketothedriverinfront.Yourroadpositionandfollowingdistancehelpyoutodothis,buttakecarenottoappearaggressive.Thiscanbecounter-productiveandprovokeanaggressiveresponseintheotherdriver,whomightspeedupasyou

trytoovertake.Ifthedriverinfrontappearstobeobstructive,considerwhetheritisworthovertakingatall.Ifyoudecidetogoahead,thinkabouthowmuchextraspeedandspaceyouneedtoallow.

Ifthedriverinfronthasnotnoticedyou,considerusingyourheadlightstosignalthatyouarethere.

Takeextracarebeforeovertakingalongvehicleorvehicleswithwideorhighloads.Assesstheroadaheadverycarefullyforanypossibledangers.Ifyoucan,takeviewstobothsidesofthevehicleandmakesureyouhaveplentyofspacetoovertakeandreturnsafelytoyourownside.

CyclistsAlthoughpedalcyclesdon’ttakeupmuchroadspace,theyhaveatinytyrecontactareaandmayhavelimitedtyregrip.Theyareinherentlyunstable–theygetblownaroundbothbyweatherandpassingtrafficandaresusceptibletohazardsontheroadsurfacesuchaspotholes.Theyalsohavelimitedbrakingcapacity.Cyclistshavelittlephysicalprotection,usuallyhavenomirrors,maybewearingearphonesandmaybeuntrainedinridingsafety.

Whenyouovertakeapedalcycle:

•allowthecyclistspacetomanoeuvre•onlyovertakeontheoffsideexceptincomplextrafficsystems–and

thenonlyonthenearsidewithcare

•don’tovertakeacyclethenturninacrossitspath–thecyclehaslimitedbrakingcapabilityandthisisinconsiderateinanycase.Judgethecyclist’sspeedwithcare–it’seasytounderestimatethis.

Attrafficlightswithadvancedstoplinesforcycles,youmayneedtoovertakeshortlyafterstartingoff.Thecyclistmaybeinthecentreoftheroadandmayweaveastheypickupspeed,sobepreparedtogivethemadditionalspace.

ThevehiclesbehindAssesswhetherthevehiclesbehindposearisk.Notetheirspeed,positionandprogress,andjudgewhetheranyofthemmaywanttoovertakeyou.Lookoutparticularlyformotorcycles.Beawarethatotherfollowingvehiclescouldovertakethevehiclefollowingyou.Decidewhetheryouneedtosignal.Useyourmirrorstomonitorthesituationbehindyou,especiallybeforechangingyourspeedorposition.Ifyoupulloutforalook,thevehiclebehindmaymoveintoyourspace.

Roadlayoutandconditions

Whenyouplantoovertake,lookforpossiblehazardsinthelayoutoftheroadahead.Watchoutfornearsideobstructionsorjunctions,includingpathways,tracks,entrancesandfarmgates.Vehicles,pedestriansoranimalscouldemergefromthesecausingthevehicle(s)infrontofyoutoveertowardsthecentreoftheroad.Lookforright-handjunctionsandentrancesconcealingvehiclesorotherhazardsthatcouldmoveoutintoyourpath.

Lookforlay-bysonbothsidesoftheroadandwatchoutforvehiclespullingoutofthem.Driverspullingoutofalay-byontheothersideoftheroadmaynotseeyoubecausetheyarewatchingwhatishappeningbehindratherthaninfrontofthem.

Assessthewidthoftheroadandlookoutforanyfeatureswhichcouldobscureyourviewsuchasvegetation,bends,hiddendips,hillcrestsandhumpbridges.Theremaybefast-movingvehiclesapproachingyouonthesectionsofroadyoucan’tsee.Followthebasicruleforovertaking:

•Identifyagapintowhichyoucanreturnandthepointalongtheroadatwhichyouwillbeabletoenterit.

•Judgewhetheryouwillbeabletoreachthatpointbeforeanyoncomingvehicle,seenorunseen,couldcomeintoconflictwithyou.

Makesureyouhaveobservedthewholestretchofroadnecessarytocompletethemanoeuvre,andknowthatitdoesnotincludeanyotherhazards.Lookespeciallyforhazardswhichmightcausethevehiclesyou’reovertakingtoaltertheirposition.Makefulluseofroadsignsandroadmarkings,especiallythosegivinginstructionsorwarningyouofhazardsahead.

TheroadsurfaceBeforeyouovertake,observetheconditionoftheroadsurfaceforanythingthatcouldthrowyourvehicleoffcourseoraffectyourvisibility(e.g.loosegravel).Watchoutforsurfacewater,whichcouldcauseacurtainofsprayatacriticalmoment.Beawarethatbadweathercanaffecthowyourvehicleholdstheroadandhowwellyoucanseetheroad.SeeChapter4,Anticipatinghazardsinthedrivingenvironment,page72.

OvertakingonasinglecarriagewayThisisperhapsthemosthazardousformofovertakingbecauseyouputyourvehicleinthepathofanyoncomingvehicles–soplanthismanoeuvrewithgreatcare.Rememberyoucanalwaysreconsideryourdecisionandholdback.

Youneedtobeabletojudgethespeedanddistanceofoncomingvehiclesaccuratelytoassesswhetheryoucanreachthereturngapbeforetheydo.Thiscanbeextremelydifficult,especiallyonlongstraightroads.Thesizeandtypeoftheoncomingvehiclecangiveyoucluesaboutitspossiblespeed.

Aswellaslookingforvehicles,trainyourselftolookspecificallyformotorcyclists,cyclists,pedestriansandhorsesbeforeyouovertake.Driversoftenfailtospottheunexpected.SeeChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation,page54,Lookingbutnotseeing.

OvertakingonbendsIncertaincircumstances,itispossibletogetagoodclearviewoftheroadontheothersideofthebendbeforeyouenterit.Ifyou’resure

therearenootherhazards,positionyourselftoovertakebeforetheroadstraightensout.Butovertakingonbendsispotentiallydangerousandyoushouldalwaysensurethatyouhavetheavailableviewtodothissafely.

SinglecarriagewayroadsmarkedwiththreelanesSinglecarriagewayroadsmarkedwiththreelanesarepotentiallyvery

dangerousastrafficinbothdirectionssharesthecentrelaneforovertaking.Nevertrytoovertakeifthereisthepossibilityofanoncomingvehiclemovingintothecentrelane.Avoidovertakingwhenyouwouldmakeathirdlineofmovingvehiclesunlessyouaresureitisabsolutelysafetodoso.

Overtakingonmulti-lanecarriagewaysOnmulti-lanecarriagewaysitcanbemoredifficulttojudgethespeedoftrafficapproachingfrombehind.

Beforeovertakingchecktheintentionsofdriversinthenearside

lanes.Ifavehicleisclosingupontheoneinfront,thedrivermaypulloutwithoutsignallingoronlysignalafterthevehiclestartstomoveout.Watchthedistancebetweenthewheelsofthevehicleandthelanemarkings.Ifthegapnarrows,thevehiclecouldbemovingout.Followthekeyprinciples:

•Onlyovertakeonthenearsideiftrafficinalllanesismovinginqueues.

•NeverusethehardshoulderforovertakingevenwhereanATMschemeisinforceandthehardshoulderisavailableasarunninglane.

•Takeparticularcarewhenplanningtoovertakelargevehiclesatroundaboutexitsandonleft-handbends.

SeeChapter12,Drivingonmotorwaysandmulti-lanecarriageways.

Helpingotherroadusersto

overtakeHelpingotherroaduserstoovertakeeasestensionsandcontributestoacooperativedrivingculturethatincreasessafety.Useyourmirrorsandbealerttotheintentionsofdriversbehindyou.Ifanotherdriverorriderisovertakingyou,trytomakeiteasierbyleavingenoughdistancebetweenyouandthevehicleinfronttogivethemasafereturngap,butdon’tsuddenlyreducespeedtoachievethis.

Beawarethatotherdriversmaytrytoovertakeyouwhenyoukeeptothelegalspeedlimit.Thisisquitelikelywhenyouslowdowntoenterorasyouareabouttoleavealowerspeedlimitarea.

OvertakingsafelyWhathumanfactorrisksshouldyouconsider?Askyourself:

•Whathumanfactorsmightaffectmyabilitytoaccuratelyperceivehazardsbeforeovertaking?

•Howmighthumanfactorsinterferewithmyabilitytoovertakesafely(forexample,‘redmist’,‘noblecause’risk-taking,thrill-seekingtendencies)?

•Doesthespecificpurposeofthejourneyaffectmydecisionstoovertake?Shouldit?

CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explaintherisksofovertaking

• showhowtousethefollowingandovertakingpositionsafely

• showhowtoassessandovertakedifferenttypesofhazardssafelyinawiderangeofcircumstances

• explainhowtohelpotherdriverstoovertakeyou.

Chapter12Drivingonmotorwaysandmulti-lanecarriageways

LearningoutcomesThelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:

•explainthehumanfactorrisksinmotorwaydrivingandshowhowyoumanagethese

•showthatyoucanjoinandleaveamotorwayormulti-lanecarriagewaycorrectly

•showthatyoucanusetheappropriatelanefortrafficconditions•showthatyoucansafelyadaptyourpositionandspeedfor

overtaking,motorwayjunctionsandotherhazards,includingweatherconditions

•demonstratecorrectuseofthehardshoulder.

Drivingonmulti-lanecarriageways

Safedrivingonmotorwaysandotherfast-movingmulti-lanecarriagewaysdependsondevelopingyourawarenessoftheextrahazardsthatariseontheseroadsandrigorouslyapplyingthedrivingcompetencesandmethodsexplainedinRoadcrafttothem.

Despitethehighspeedandvolumeofmotorwaytraffic,therearefewercrashesonmotorwaysforeachmiletravelledthanonotherroads.Butmotorwaycrashesaremorelikelytobefatalbecauseofthehighspeedsinvolved.1in50motorwaycrashesarefatal,comparedtoaround1in70collisionsonotherroads.

However,otherfast-movingmulti-laneroadssuchasdualcarriagewayscombinetrafficmovingatequallyhighspeedwithadditionalhazardssuchasjunctionstotherightandleft,roundabouts,slow-movingvehiclesandtheabsenceofahardshoulder(seepage229).

Muchofthischapterappliestoallmulti-lanecarriageways,butmotorwayshavespecificfeaturesthatyou’llneedtotakeintoaccount:

•sliproadsforenteringandleavingthemotorway(notalwayspresentonothermulti-lanecarriageways)

•dangerscreatedbythepresenceofthehardshoulder•legalrestrictionsonwhichtypesofvehiclecanusemotorways,and

thelanerestrictionsandspeedlimitsforeachtype.

Ittakestimetodevelopaccuracyinassessingspeedsandstoppingdistancesinafast-movingdrivingenvironment.Alwaysdrivewellwithinyourowncompetenceandaimtosteadilydevelopyourexperiencesothatyouarecomfortableandconfidentwithinyourexistingspeedrangebeforemovingontohigherspeeds.Planhowyouaregoingtoaddressthefast-movingtrafficconditionsbeforeyoustartyourjourney.Alwaystakeintoaccountthesizeandlimitationsofyourvehicle.

Rememberhigherspeedsonfast-movingroadsburnmorefuel.Speedsof50–60mphandsmoothaccelerationandbrakingreducefuelconsumption.

HumanfactorsinmotorwaydrivingThenatureofmotorwaydrivingincreasesanumberofhumanfactorrisks:

•tirednessorboredomonlongjourneys,resultinginpoorconcentration

•frustrationarisingoutofstop–startprogressindensetraffic•complacencyinlow-densitytrafficmakingdriverslessalertto

possiblehazards

•thebehaviourofdriversleavingorjoiningthemotorwayfromservicestationsorsliproads.

Stopattheearliestopportunityifyoufindyourselfunabletomaintainthehighlevelofconcentrationneededtodrivesafelyathighspeed.

Askyourselfwhetheryourphysicalstateanddegreeofalertnessisoptimalformotorwaydrivingbeforeyousetoff.

Haveyoueverfoundyourconcentrationflaggingonamotorwayjourney?Whatdoyoudotoincreaseyouralertness?

Isyourapproachalwayseffective?Howcouldyoumanageyourfatiguebetter?

Howdofeelingsofstressaffectyourmotorwaydriving?Thinkaboutwhetheryourbraincandealwiththedistractionfromstressaswellasdrivesafely.

Howmightdealingwithdifficultordemandingmotorwaysituationsincreaseyourmentalworkload?

Whatcanyoudotoreducetheriskoferrorsandincreaseyoursafetyinthesesituations?

SeeChapter1,Becomingabetterdriver,andChapter3,Information,observationandanticipation.

Joiningthemotorway

LayoutofthecarriagewayHereweusethenumberingsystemusedbythepoliceandotheremergencyservicestorefertothelanesonmotorwaysandothermulti-lanecarriageways.

Thenearsidelaneislane1,thenextislane2andsoon.Onathree-lanemotorway,lane1isthelanenexttothehardshoulderandlane3isthelanenexttothecentralreservation.Thehardshoulderisnotcountedasacarriagewaylane(seepage222).

Joiningthemotorwayatasliproadorwheremotorwaysmergeispotentiallyhazardousandyoushouldusethesystemofcarcontroltoapproachandjoin.Sliproadsaredesignedtogivedriversthetimeandspacetomergesmoothlywithtrafficonthemaincarriageway

withoutcausingotherdriverstoalterpositionorspeed.Theyareoftenraised,sotakeadvantageofthehighviewpointtoobservethetrafficflowandtoplanyourapproach.

Driversonthemotorwayhavepriorityandmaynotbeabletomoveovertoallowyoutoenterlane1,butlookingearly,planningandusingyouraccelerationsensewillassistyouinmergingsafely.Onlypoorplanningorexceptionallyheavytrafficshouldcauseyoutostopinthesliproad.

Sliproadshaveoneormorelanes.Ifyou’retravellingintheoutsidelaneofthesliproad,considerhowyourspeedandpositionwillaffectvehiclesintheinsidelane.Ifyouovertakeavehicleonyournearsidejustbeforeyoujointhemotorwayyoucouldblockitspathontothemotorway.Youriskcollidingwithitifyoucannotmovestraightintolane2ofthemotorway.

UsethesystemAsyouenterthemotorway,processinformationaboutthetrafficonthesliproadandmotorwaysothatyouareinthecorrectposition,atthecorrectspeedandinthecorrectgeartoaccelerateontothe

motorwaysmoothlyandsafely.

Signalling

Wellbeforeyouenterlane1,decidewhetheryouneedtosignaltoletmotoristsonthemotorwayknowthatyouintendtojointhetrafficflow.

Beforeyoujointhemotorway,checkoveryourshouldertomakesurethereisnothinginyourblindspot.

Acceleration

Allowyourselftimetoadjusttothehighermotorwayspeedandtogaugethespeedsofothervehicles.

Observation

Becauseofthespeedsinvolved,itisvitaltoextendyourobservation:

•lookaheadandbehindyourightuptotheroadhorizons•scanahead,tothesidesandtotherearfrequentlyandthoroughly•useyourmirrorsregularly–youshouldalwaysknowwhatis

happeningbehindyou

•beawareofyourownandotherdrivers’blindspotsandbepreparedtomoveyourbodyandaltervehiclepositiontoobservewhatishappeninginthoseareas

•monitorwhatishappeningtoyourvehicle–regularlycheckthattheinstrumentsaregivingnormalreadingsandlistentothesoundofyourengineandtothenoiseofthetyresontheroadsurface

•checkyourspeedregularly–itisveryeasytoincreasespeed

withoutrealising.

Onyournextmotorwayjourney,practiseextendingyourobservation.

Makeapointofscanningasfarastheroadhorizon,frontandback.Useyourmirrorsfrequently.Regularlyscantothesidesaswell.

Aimtogiveyourselfthelongestpossibletimeinwhichtoreact.Activescanninghelpsenhanceyourlevelofawareness,whichinturnincreasesyouroverallsafety.

Adaptingtohigherspeeds

At70mphyoutravel31metres(aboutthreecoachlengths)persecond.Togiveyourselfasmuchtimetoreactaspossible:

•extendyourobservationsinalldirectionsandtotheroadhorizons•anticipateearlyandmaintainasafefollowingdistance–ingood

weatherthetwo-secondruleisagoodguidebutinbadweatheryoumustallowamuchgreaterdistance

•useallcontrolssmoothly,particularlysteering,whentravellingathighspeed

•giveotherdriversenoughtimetoseeyoursignalsbeforemakingamanoeuvre

•onlyuseaheadlightflashifit’snecessarytoalertotherroaduserstoyourpresence.

Lanediscipline

Youneedgoodlanedisciplineforsafemotorwaydriving.Therearenosloworfastlanes.Overtakeonlytotheright,exceptwhentrafficismovinginqueuesandthequeueonyourrightismovingmore

slowlythanyouare.

Donotovertakebyusingalanetoyourleft.

OvertakingBeforeyouovertakewatchoutfor:

•slowervehiclesmovingoutinfrontofyou•fastervehiclescomingupbehindyou.

Applythesystemofcarcontroltoovertakesafelyonmotorwaysandothermulti-lanecarriageways,payingspecialattentiontotaking,usingandgivinginformation.

Takinginformation

Scanregularlysothatyouarecontinuallyawareofwhatthesurroundingtrafficisdoing.Youshouldknowwhichvehiclesareclosinguponothervehiclesinfront,andwhichvehiclesaremovingupbehind.Constantlymonitoropportunitiestoovertakeandmatchyourspeedofapproachtocoincidewithanopportunity.Makeallowancesfortheadditionalhazardspresentedbylaneclosuresandmotorwayjunctions.

Lookforearlywarningsthatotherdriversintendtoovertake:

•relativespeeds•headmovements•bodymovements•vehiclemovementfromthecentreofthelanetowardsthewhitelane

markers.

You’relikelytoseeallthesebeforethedriversignals:manydriversonlysignalastheystarttochangelanes.

Overamotorwayjourneyofreasonablelength(say20miles),practisespottingthesewarningsignstopredictwhenotherdriversareabouttochangelanes.

Usethisanticipationtohelpyourplanning.

Thinkcarefullybeforeovertakingonleft-handbendswheretherearemainlyheavyorlargegoodsvehiclesinlanes1and2.Acarmaybehiddenbetweentheheavygoodsvehiclesandbeabouttopulloutintolane3.Makesureyoucanstopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclear.Don’tattempttoovertakeunlessyouaresureyoucanseeallthevehiclesinlane2.

Justbeforeyouovertake,carefullycheckthepositionandspeedofthevehiclesbehind.Forexample,beforeyoumoveintolane2toovertakeavehicleinlane1,checktherearenofast-closingvehiclesmovingbackintolane2fromlane3.

Moveyourheadtoincreaseyourvieweithersideofyourblindspot.Re-checkthepositionandspeedofvehiclestothefrontandthenconsidertheinformationthatyouneedtogivetothesurroundingtraffic.

Givinginformation

Avoidsittingintheblindspotofavehicleyouaretryingtoovertake.Ifyoufindthatyouareunabletoovertake,dropbackslightlysothatyouarevisibletothedriver.

Consideralertingotherdriverstoyourpresenceespeciallyifyouaretravellingatspeed.Ifyoudecideaheadlightflashwouldbehelpful,giveitinplentyoftimefortheotherdrivertoreact.Giveasingleflash:decideonthelengthofflashaccordingtoyourspeedandtheresponseofotherdrivers.Takecarenottoappearaggressivetootherdrivers,andavoiddazzlingoncomingdrivers.Beawarethatflashingheadlightscouldbemisinterpretedbyotherdriversasaninvitationtomoveoutinfrontofyou.

Indicatorsignals

Considerindicatingbeforechanginglanes.Lettheindicatorflashlongenoughforotherdriverstoseeandreacttoit.

Whenyouhavepassedthevehicleorvehiclesinfront,returntotheappropriatelanewhenyouseeanopportunity.Butdon’tkeepweavinginandout.

Leavingyourselfroomtomanoeuvre

Ifyouaretravellinginlane2andtrafficinyourlaneaheadhascometoastandstill,considerextendingyourdistancefromthestationaryvehicleahead.Iftrafficisflowingfreelyinlane1thereisaparticulardangerfromleft-hand-drivelorriesapproachingfrombehindandpullingintolane2toovertakethelorryahead.

Beingovertaken

Anticipatewhatthedriversbehindyouintendtodobytheirlanepositionandtheirspeedofapproach.Thiswillhelpyoutoavoidpotentiallydangeroussituations.Astheothervehicleovertakesyou,beawarethatyouareintheovertakingdriver’sblindspot.

MotorwayjunctionsAtjunctionsandserviceareas,you’relikelytomeetvariationsintrafficspeedandmorevehicleschanginglanes.Watchfordriverswhoonlychangelanesforanexitatthelastminute.Whenyouseeamotorwayexit,anticipateasliproadaheadandthepossibilityoftrafficjoiningthemotorway.

Ifyou’reonthemaincarriageway,checkyourmirrorsearlyandallowtraffictojointhemotorwaybymakingslightadjustmentstoyourspeedorchanginglane.Vehiclesonthemotorwayhaverightofwaysodon’tdothisifitwouldforceotherdriverstochangetheirspeedorposition.

UsingthehardshoulderThehardshoulderformspartofamotorwayandisintendedforemergencyuseonly.ItmustonlybeusedinaccordancewiththeHighwayCodeandforpolicedrivers,PracticeAdviceonthePolicingofRoads(ACPO/NPIA,2007).Stoppingonthehardshoulderisdangerousbothfortheoccupantsofthestationaryvehicleandforothermotorwayusersbecausethereisahighriskofcollision.Ifyouneedtotravelonthehardshoulder,forexamplewhenanactivetrafficmanagement(ATM)schemeisinplaceorinanemergency,watchoutforstationaryvehiclesorotherhazardsalreadyonthehardshoulder.Neverusethehardshoulderforovertakingunlessassignedtoanemergencyincident.

Whenyoumoveontothehardshoulder,beawarethattheroadsurfacemaycontainloosegravelandotherdebris,whichcouldreducetheavailablegripforstopping.

Whenyouleavethehardshoulder,carefullyobservethetrafficapproachingfrombehind.Dependingonthevolumeoftraffic,chooseanappropriatemomenttomoveoffandbuildupvehiclespeedonthehardshoulderbeforeyoumoveontolane1ofthecarriageway.

LeavingthemotorwayPlanyourexit.Makesureyouknowyourexitjunctionwellinadvance.Assesstheroadandtrafficconditionsasyouapproachthejunctionandusetheinformationprovidedbyroadsignsandmarkings.

Thediagramshowsatypicalsequenceofinformationgivenatmotorwayexits.Notethatsomenewermotorwayshavesignsat1/3mileand2/3milesoalwaysreaddistancemarkersignscarefully.

Asyouapproachyourexitjunction,lookfortheadvancedirectionsignsandusethesystemofcarcontroltoplanandcarryoutyourexit.Ifthemotorwayisbusy,considerjoininglane1earlierratherthanlater.Ifasignalisnecessary,alwaysallowplentyoftimeforotherdriverstoreact.Indicateatthe300yardmarker.

Avoidbrakingonthemaincarriagewayifpossible.Plantoloseunwantedspeedintheexitroad–whichactsasadecelerationlane.Butbeawarethatotherroadusersmaynotdothisandmaystartto

slowdownbeforereachingtheexitroad.Onbusymotorwayswatchoutforvehiclesleavingthemotorwayatthelastminutefromlanes2or3andcuttingacrossyourpath.

Drivingathighspeedaffectsyourperceptionofspeedwhenyouleavethemotorway:

•checkyourspeedometerregularlytohelpyouadjusttotheslowerspeedsofordinaryroads

•planforthepointatwhichyouwillmeettwo-waytraffic•bereadyforacutebendsattheendofmotorwayexitroads•watchoutforoilorotherdepositswhichcanmaketheseareasexceptionally

slippery.

Badweatherconditionsonfast-movingroadsChapter4explainedhowweatherconditionsaffectyourabilitytoobserveandanticipate.Thissectionlooksatplanningforbadweatherconditionsathigherspeeds.SeeChapter4,Anticipatinghazardsinthedrivingenvironment,page72,Weatherconditions.

Badweatherreducesvisibilityandtyregripsoismoredangerousathighspeedbecauseyouneedamuchgreateroverallsafestoppingdistance.

Youshouldalwaysbeabletostopsafelyinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.

Whenyoucan’tseeclearly,reduceyourspeedandconsiderusingheadlightsandfoglights.Youmustusethemifvisibilitydropsbelow100metres.Thegapbetweenmotorwaymarkerpostsisabout100metressousethesetoassesshowfaryoucansee.Bearinmindthatfoglightscanmaskyourbrakelightsanddazzlethedriverbehindsoswitchthemoffassoonasvisibilityimproves.

FogFogreducesyourperceptionofspeedduetothelackofvisualreferencepoints.Inpoorvisibility,somedriversmayreducetheirfollowingdistanceinordertokeepthevehiclelightsaheadinview.Beawarealsothatnotallvehicleswillbedisplayingtheappropriatelights.

Adjustyourspeedtoensurethatyoucanstopwithintherangeofvisibility.Thedenserthefog,thesloweryourspeed.Drivinginfog

canbeverytiringandstressful.Ifyoustarttofeeltired,takeabreakatthenextavailablerestarea.

RainHighspeedincreasestheriskcreatedbyrainandstandingwaterlyingontheroadsurface.Thisisbecauseyourvehicle’styreshavetodisplacewatermorequickly.Iftheyareunabletodothis,awedgeofwaterwillformbetweenthetyresandtheroad,resultinginaquaplaning.Duringsuchconditions,remainvigilanttothepossibilityofunexpectedsectionsofdeepwaterandadjustyourspeedontheapproach.SeeChapter7,Maintainingvehiclestability,page141,Aquaplaning,forfurtheradvice.

Afteralong,hot,dryspelladepositoftyreandotherdustbuildsupontheroadsurface.Thesedepositscreateaslipperysurfaceespeciallyduringandafterrain.Avoidheavybraking,steeringoracceleratingoryoucouldlosetyregrip.

Snow,sleetandiceSnowandsleetreducevisibilityandtyregrip.Atspeed,spraythrownupbythewheelsofthevehicleinfrontreducesvisibilityfurther,andwhenrutsdevelopinthesnowitmaybedifficulttosteer.Inheavysnowconsiderwhetheryourjourneyisreallynecessary.

Reducespeedandincreasefollowingdistancesinicyconditions,especiallyiftheroadsurfaceisnotgritted.

HighwindsSectionsofcarriagewaythatareraisedabovethesurroundingcountrysideareaffectedbyhighwinds.Bepreparedforparticularly

stronggustsofwindasyouleaveacutting,enteroremergefromunderabridge,crossavalleyorgointoopencountry.Takeparticularcareonviaductsandbridges.

BrightsunBrightsunlowintheskycancauseseriousdazzle,especiallyoneast/westsectionsofroad:useyourvisorstoreducedazzle.Ifthesunisshininginyourmirrors,adjustthemtogiveyouthebestvisibilitywithminimumglare.Ifyouaredazzledbybrightsun,otherdriversmaybetoo,soallowforthiswhenovertaking.

Otherhazards

DebrisRegularlyscantheroadsurfacefordebriswhichmayhavefallenfromvehicles.Thiscandamagetyresandcauseothervehiclestosuddenlyalterposition.

LaneclosuresRoadworksarearegularfeatureofmotorwayjourneys.Contraflowsystemsarenotdangerousinthemselvesbutbecomedangerouswhendriversignoreadvancewarnings.Allroadworksaresignedonapproachandyoushouldknowthesequenceofsigns.Keeptothemandatoryspeedlimitsthroughroadworks,evenwhenconditionsseemtobesuitableforahigherspeed.

Mergingwithothertrafficrequiresjudgementandcourtesy.Itissensibleforvehiclesfromeachlanetomergealternately.Butthesesituationsoftencreateconflictandresultincollisions.Allowareasonablefollowinggapandnevercloseuptopreventothervehiclesmerging.

Matrixsignsandsignalswarnoflaneclosuresorotherchangesin

drivingconditionsahead.Youmaynotimmediatelybeabletoseetheneedtoslowdownorchangelanesbutdon’tassumethesignisamistake.Theincidentmaybesomedistancefurtheralongthemotorway.

Additionalhazardsonfast-movingmulti-lanecarriagewaysOnmulti-lanecarriagewaysyouneedtowatchoutforarangeofadditionalhazardsthatarenotpresentonmotorways:

•slow-movingtraffic•trafficlights•roundabouts•right-handjunctions•crossroads•trafficmovingintotheright-handlanetoturnright•trafficenteringthecarriagewayfromthecentralreservation•trafficcrossingthecarriageway•pedestrianscrossingthecarriageway•entrancesandexitsotherthanroadjunctions(toservices,petrol

stations,restaurants,pubs)

•left-handjunctionswithonlyashort(orno)sliproad•publicfootpathcrossingthecarriageway–indicatedbyanoverlap

inthecentralreservationsafetybarrier.

CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• explainthehumanfactorrisksinmotorwaydrivingandshowhowyoumanagethese

• showthatyoucanjoinandleaveamotorwayormulti-lanecarriagewaycorrectly

• showthatyoucanusetheappropriatelanefortrafficconditions

• showthatyoucansafelyadaptyourpositionandspeedforovertaking,motorwayjunctionsandotherhazards,includingweatherconditions

• demonstratecorrectuseofthehardshoulder.

Chapter13

Emergencyresponse

Learningoutcomes

Thelearninginthischapter,alongwithdrivertraining,shouldenableyouto:

•listtheexemptionsinlawavailabletoemergencyresponsedriversandexplaintheirimplicationsforyourdrivingplan

•explaintheimportanceofgoingthroughaprocessofriskassessmentbeforeandduringanemergencycall

•demonstratethecorrectuseofyourvehicle’semergencywarningequipment

•demonstrategoodpracticeinemergencyresponsedrivingacrossarangeoftrafficsituations.

Whatisanemergencyresponse?Forthepurposesofthismanual,policeofficersaredeemedtobein‘emergencyresponse’whentheyareusinganyoftheexemptionsaffordedtothembytherelevantlegislation,and/orusingemergencywarningequipmenttofacilitateprogress.

Therearethreeexemptionsinlawavailabletodriversofemergencyresponsevehicles.Inappropriatecircumstances,driversmay:

1.exceedaspeedlimit

2.contravenearedtrafficlight,includingatpedestriancrossings

3.contraveneakeepleft/rightsign.

Useofanyoftheseexemptionsmustbesafeandproportionatetotheprevailingcircumstances.Beawarethatsomemotoristsover-reactwhentheyencounteremergencyresponsevehicles–forexample,bystoppingtheirvehicleinanunsuitableplacesuchasnexttotrafficislands,onblindhillcrests,ontheapexofbendsoroppositeanoncomingvehiclethathasalsostopped.

RiskassessmentBeforeyoubeginyourresponsetoanemergencycall,youshouldgothroughaprocessofriskassessment.

Herearesomeofthequestionsyouneedtoaskyourself:

Doesthesituationnecessitateanemergencyresponse?

Whathumanfactorsmightincreasemyriskonresponse(e.g.stress,operationaldistractions,peerpressure)?HowdoImanagetheseeffectively?

Ismyvehiclesuitable?

AmIjustifiedinmakinguseoftrafficlawexemptions?

HowfarwillIhavetotravel?

Areotherunitscloser?

DoIneedtouselightsandsirens?

Whatspeedissafeandproportionateforthecircumstances,includingtraffic,timeofday,lightingandweather?

Anemergencycallisanever-changingenvironmentsocontinuewiththisprocessofriskassessmentthroughouttheresponse.

Whileincidentsaregradedinlinewithnationalrequirements,assetoutintheNationalCallHandlingStandards,driversrespondingtocallsareresponsibleforassessingtheresponserequired.Youmustdecideiftheuseoflegalexemptionsand/orthevehicle’semergencyequipmentiswarrantedandyoumaybecalledupontojustifyyouractionsatalaterstage.

Respondingtoanemergency

UseofemergencywarningequipmentTheemergencywarningequipmentisprimarilyusedto:

•provideadvancewarningtootherroadusers•helpyourprogressthroughtraffic•protectofficersatthesceneofincidents•helpinstoppingmotorists,byidentifyingyourvehicleasapolice

vehicle.

Mostdriversseeingorhearingthewarningofanapproachingemergencyservicevehiclewilltrytogivewaytoyoubuttheuseofwarningequipmentdoesnotgiveyouprotectionorrightofway.Youmaytakeadvantageifotherroadusersandpedestriansgivewaytoyou–butonlyifitissafetodoso.Bearinmindthatunwarranteduseofemergencywarningequipmentcanundermineitsvalue.

Neverassumethatyourwarningwillbeseenorheardbyotherroadusers.

Sirens

Assesswhenandwheretoactivateyouremergencyequipment.Innormalcircumstancesyoushouldactivateyouremergencylightsbeforeusingyoursirens.

Thinkcarefullybeforeactivatingyoursirensifyou’reclosetootherroadusers,particularlycyclists,pedestriansoranimals.

Ifinthelightofyourriskassessmentyoudecidenottouseyouremergencywarningequipment(‘silentapproach’),takeextracarebecauseotherroadusersmaybelessawareofyourvehicle’spresence.

Whenusingsirensitisoftennotnoisebutachangeinnoisethatgetsareaction.It’sappropriatetousealongtonebetweenhazards.Butchangingtoashorttoneontheapproachtoahazardislikelytomaximisethebenefitofthewarning.

Useadifferenttonetootheremergencyvehicleswhendrivinginconvoyorfollowinganotheremergencyvehicle.Thepublicmayseeonevehiclebuttheymaynotexpectasecondorthird.

Considerswitchingoffthesoundsysteminstationarytraffic.Thisoftentakesthetensionoutofthesituationandgivesotherstimetoconsiderwhattheymightdotohelp.

Headlampflashers

Theautomaticheadlampflashersonmostemergencyvehiclesuseanalternatingflashpattern.Thismakesitmorelikelythatthevehiclewillbeseenbutalsoincreasesthepossibilityofdazzlingotherroadusers.

Automaticheadlampflashersmustnotbeusedduringthehoursof

darkness.

Bluelights

Somevehicleshavebothrotatingandstrobelightsintherooflightbar.Strobelightsareparticularlyeffectiveonmulti-laneroadssuchasmotorways,butonlyshowtothefrontorrear.Ifyou’rerespondingonroadswithjunctions,makeyourselfmoreconspicuousbyusingtherotatingbluelightsand/orintersectionlights.

SpeedlimitsPolicedriverscanusestatutoryexemptionsfromspeedlimitsbutyoumustbeabletostopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclearonyourownsideoftheroad.Duringanemergencyresponse,nevercompromisesafetyinordertosavetime.Itisfarbettertoarrivelaterthannotatall.

Keepinmindthatmembersofthepublicwillobserveyouifyouexceedthespeedlimitoruseaninappropriatespeed.Inappropriatespeedormisuseofexemptionsislikelytoresultinnegativepublicperceptionsofresponsedriving.

Thefollowingscenarioshowswhyyoualwaysneedtocorrectlyassesstheappropriatespeed.Thepolicevehicleisapproachingat30mphtherearofaparkedlorrywhichis9metreslong.Asthepolicecarpassestherearofthelorry,apedestrianstepsoutfrominfrontofthelorrydirectlyintothepathofthepolicevehicle.

Approachingtrafficlight-controlledjunctionsWhenyoupassredsignals,youshouldtreatthemasSTOPand/orGIVEWAYsigns.Donotproceeduntilyouaresurethatthewayisclear,thatnootherroaduserwillbeendangeredandthatnootherdriverwillbeforcedtochangespeedorcoursetoavoidacollision.

Whenyouapproachtrafficlights,gatherinformationabouttheroadlayoutandconsiderthemovementsofotherroadusers–boththoseyoucanseeandthoseyoucan’t.

Yourriskassessmentmustincludenotonlytheredphasebutalsothegreenphase.Thisisimportant.Yourspeedofapproachmustenableyoutostopifnecessary–forexample,ifthetrafficlightsignalschangefromgreentored,orifanotheremergencyvehiclegoingtothesameincidentisusingtheirexemptionandenteringthejunctionthrougharedlight.

Ontheapproachtotrafficlights,takeapositiontoensurethebestview.Selecttheleastobstructedpath,withdueregardtosafetyandmakingyourselfasvisibleaspossibletootherroadusers.

Assessthepositionandmovementofalltrafficontheapproach.Whenitissafetodoso,moveforwardataspeedthatwillallowyoutomaintaingoodobservationandtheabilitytostop.Lookoutespeciallyforthepresenceofcyclistsormotorcyclistswhoare

vulnerableanddifficulttoseeamongstothervehicles.

Ifyourentryspeedintothejunctionistoohighothermotoristsmayover-reactandbrakesharply.Thiscouldresultina‘shunt’typecollision.

Policedriversexercisingtheexemptiontopassaredtrafficlightmustavoidcausingamemberofthepublictocontravenetheredlight.

Ifvehiclesareoccupyingalltheentrylanesatthestoplineonyourapproachtoasetofredlights,consideroneofthefollowingoptions:

Certaintrafficlightjunctionsaretoodangeroustocrosswhilstthelightsarered.Thesearenormallywhereviewsarerestricted,onmulti-lanecarriagewaysorwherethespeedofcrosstrafficishigh.

Approachingtrafficlight-controlledpedestriancrossingsTheadviceonapproachingtrafficlight-controlledjunctionsalsoappliestopedestriancrossings.Asyouapproach,gatherinformation

abouttheroadlayoutandthepresenceandmovementofpedestrians.

Yourspeedofapproachshouldallowyoutostopsafelywithinthedistanceyoucanseetobeclear.Pedestriansmaybehiddenbyanyvehicleontheapproach.Whenapedestrianhasmovedontothecrossing,youmustgivewaytothem.

Contraveningkeepleft/rightsignsIfyouexercisetheexemptiontocontravenekeepleft/rightsigns,youwillbeinanunexpectedpositionsoyouneedtobeawareofadditionalhazards.

Forexample,wherethereisacentralrefugeforpedestrians,theymaybelookingintheotherdirectionastheycrosstheroadandmaystepintothepathoftheemergencyresponsevehicle.

PositioningtoseeandbeseenDuringdaylightthebestvisualwarningequipmenttouseontheapproachtootherroadusersistheflashingheadlamp/whiteLEDunits.Togetthegreatestadvantage,positionyourvehicletomakethemostoftheselights.

Whereitissafetodoso,positionyourvehicleearlytowardstheoffside.Thiscanhelpyoutogetearlyviewsanditalsoallowsoncomingdriversanddriversaheadofyoutospotyouearlier.

Bepreparedtosurrenderthispositionifanoncomingdriverdoesnotreactappropriately.

Thepositionshownbelowalsogivesabetterviewoftheroadandotherdangersahead.Thedriverofthevehicledirectlyaheadoftheemergencyresponsevehiclewillbeawarethatitisattemptingtoovertakeratherthanrequiringthemtostop.

Approachingandpassingvehicles

Vehiclesahead

Whenapproachingtraffictravellinginthesamedirection,travelataspeedandfollowingpositionthatallowsyoutorespondtoheavyorsuddenbrakingbythevehiclesahead.

Seekevidencethatthedriversaheadareawareofyourpresencebeforeyouattempttopassthem.Lookforthenearsideindicatoroperatingorvehiclemovementintothenearsideoroffside.Observethedriver’sheadandbodymovements.Neverassumethatotherdrivershaveseenand/orheardyourvehicle.

Oncomingvehicles

Whenthedriverofanoncomingvehiclehasgivenwaytoyourapproachingvehicle,alwaysremainvigilantforotheroncomingvehiclessuddenlypullingoutfrombehindtheleadvehicle.Yourspeedshouldallowyoutimetostopshouldanoncomingvehiclesuddenlypresentitselfinyourvehicle’spath.

Thisisespeciallyimportantiftheleadvehicleislarge–forexample,alargegoodsvehicle,vanorbus.

Overtakingslow-movingvehiclesacrossjunctions

Whenmovingpastslow-movingorstationaryvehicles,beawareoftheadditionalhazardspresentedbyroadjunctionsandadjustyourspeedaccordingly.

Nearsidejunctions

Offsidejunctions

Anydriverturningleftfromanoffsidejunctionwillemergeintothepathofthepolicevehicle.Ontheapproachtooffsidejunctionswithlimitedornoview,takeupapositionthatallowsyoutostoporregainthecorrectsideoftheroad.Neverassumethatthedriverofthe

vehiclewaitingtoemergewilllooktotheleftpriortoenteringtheroad.

Interpretingotherdrivers’signalsItiscommonformotoriststoflashtheirheadlightstosignaltootherstheirintentiontogivewayinallkindsofdrivingsituations.

Inthescenarioopposite,therearethreedriverswhomayperceivethatthedriverofthebluecarissignallingtothemhisintentiontogiveway:

•thedriveroftheredvehiclewaitingtoemergefromtheminorroad•thedriveroftheblackvehiclewaitingtoturnright•thepolicedriver.

Insituationssuchasthis,takeextracareandreduceyourspeeduntilyou’vesafelynegotiatedthehazard.

StationaryvehiclesatornearanincidentPolicedriversapproachingascenemaybecomedistractedsearchingfortheexactlocationoftheincident.Thismaymeanthattheirattentionisdrawnawayfromtheroadimmediatelyaheadsoincreasingrisk.

DriverswhohavebeenstationaryforsometimemaytrytodoaU-turnorleavetheirvehicle.Pedestriansmayalsobewalkingbetweenthestationaryvehicles.

Respondingonmulti-laneroadsOnmulti-laneroadsequippedwithcentralreservations,suchasdualcarriagewaysandmotorways,yourpositioningwillvaryaccordingtothevolumeandspeedofvehiclesahead.

Inverycongestedconditionswherevehiclesareeitherstationaryortravellingatlowspeed,itisbestpracticeforpolicedriverstostraddlelanemarkingstoallowthetrafficaheadtospreadleftandright.Thisisoftenreferredtoas‘partingofthewaves’.

Beawarethatsomeofthedriversaheadmaynotreactasexpected.Yourapproachspeedmustenableyoutoreacttoanyvehiclecrossingyourpath.

Wheretrafficisfree-flowing,travelintheouterlaneandallowvehiclesaheadtomoveintothenearsidelanes–butwithoutplacingdriversunderunduepressuretodoso.Lookoutforvehiclesinlanesonthenearsideaheadsuddenlymovingintotheouterlane.

Approachingroundabouts

Aroundaboutisaone-waysystemforwhichthereisnoexemption.

Approachroundaboutsinthesamemannerasyouwouldredtrafficlights.Choosealowapproachandentryspeedsoasnottocausedriversontheroundabouttoover-reactorbrakehard.

Iftherearevehiclesoccupyingalltheapproachlanestotheroundabout,usethesameproceduresasforatrafficlightjunction.Considerthefollowingoptionstominimisetheriskofdriversaheadenteringtheroundaboutintothepathofothervehicles.

Options

•Turnoffalltheemergencyequipmentandholdback.•Straddlethelanemarkingstocausea‘partingofthewaves’.•Subjecttoviewandsafety,usetheopposingcarriageway.Bearin

mindthatdriversexitingtheroundaboutmayhavealateviewofyourvehicle.

PassingonthenearsideofothervehiclesOtherdriversmayfindithardtovisuallylocateapolicevehiclethatistravellingalongthenearsideofstationaryormovingvehicles.Thenaturalresponseofadriverhearingasirenistomovetothenearsidetohelptheemergencyvehicle’sprogress.Beawareofthisasyouformulateyourdrivingplan.Driveataspeedthatenablesyoutostopyourvehiclesafelyifthevehicleaheadmovestothenearside.

Anticipatebycarefullyobservingotherdrivers.Forexample,watchforhandmovementsonthesteeringwheel,indicators,brakelightsandmovementofthewheels.Thesecluescanprovideearlywarningofpotentialmovementtothenearside.

VehiclesrespondinginconvoyTwoormorevehiclestravellingtogetherinresponsemodeismorehazardousthanasinglevehicle.Thepublicsometimesonlyreacttotheleadvehicle,andonceithaspassedmayresumetheirjourneyintothepathofthesecondvehicle.

Dependingonthecircumstances,youmayneedtoextendthereactionarygapbetweenthetwoemergencyvehicles,bothtoreducethepressureontheemergencyvehicledriversandtoallowmembersofthepublictimetorealisethatthereismorethanoneemergencyvehicleapproaching.Alternatively,youmaychoosetoclosethegaptoreducetheriskoftrafficpullingoutbetweenthetwoemergencyvehicles.

Ifthevehicleshavetoremaintogether,forexamplewhenescortinganambulance,makesurethevehiclesareusingadifferentsirensound.

Evenifyou’renotdrivinginconvoy,alwaysbeawareofthepossiblepresenceofotheremergencyvehiclesattendingthesameoradifferentincident.

Vulnerableroadusers

Cyclists

Cyclistsareveryhardtoseeandmayalsoreactunexpectedlywhenavehicleonanemergencycallisapproaching.Thenaturalreactionofacyclistonhearingthesirensistolookovertheirshouldertowardstheemergencyvehicle.Thiscancausewobblingandinstability.Makesureyouleaveanappropriatesafetymarginwhenpassingcyclists.

Motorcyclists

Lookoutformotorcyclists.Ridershaverestrictedperipheralvisioncausedbythewearingofcrashhelmets.

Beawarethatsuddenheavybrakingonamotorcycleishazardousfortherider.Itmaycausethemotorcyclisttolosecontroloftheirmachine,especiallyonwetorslipperyroadsurfaces.

Alsobeawarethatcyclistsandmotorcycliststravelalongboththenearsideandoffsideofslow-movingorstationarytraffic,andlookoutforthem.

Pedestrians

Wherepedestriansarepresent,driveataspeedthatenablesyoutostopifapedestrianstepsintotheroad.Olderpeopleandchildrenfinditespeciallydifficulttojudgethespeedanddistanceofapproachingvehicles.

Inbadweather,pedestrianstendtohurry,walkingorrunningonslipperysurfaces.Hoods,umbrellasandtheuseofpersonalaudioequipmentmayhampertheirawarenessofyourpresence.

Horsesandotheranimals

Horsesareeasilystartledbynoise,movementorbrightcoloursandmayrearuporbolt,riskinginjurytotheriderorhorse.Ifthereisahorseontheroad,promptlydeactivatealltheemergencyequipmentandreduceyourspeed.Waitforanopportunitytopasssafely.Adoptaslowspeedandapositionasfarawayfromtheanimalaspossible.

Donotspeeduporre-activatetheemergencyresponseequipmentuntilyouhaveachievedasafedistancefromtheanimal.

Beawareofthepossiblepresenceofotheranimals,particularlyinruralareasandwhereanimalsarebeingtransportedinlivestockvehicles.Lookoutforhazardwarningsignsdepictinganimalsandmakeuseofthisinformationinyourdrivingplan.

CheckyourunderstandingYoushouldnowbeabletoapplylearningfromthischapterinyourdrivertrainingsothatyoucan:• listtheexemptionsinlawavailabletoemergencyresponsedriversandexplaintheirimplicationsforyourdrivingplan

• explaintheimportanceofgoingthroughaprocessofriskassessmentbeforeandduringanemergencycall

• demonstratethecorrectuseofyourvehicle’semergencywarning

equipment• demonstrategoodpracticeinemergencyresponsedrivingacrossarangeoftrafficsituations.

AppendicesAreyoufittodrive?

•IAMSAFEchecklist

Isyourvehiclefittodrive?

•Roadworthiness/pre-drivingchecklist•POWDERchecklist

•Insidethevehiclechecklist•Testingthebrakes

GoalsforDriverEducation

Areyoufittodrive?Evenbeforeyougetinavehicle,youshouldalwaysassesswhetheryou’refittodrive.

IAMSAFEchecklist

Doaself-checkusingtheIAMSAFE*checklist.Askyourselfthesequestions:• Illness–DoIhaveanillnessorsymptomsthatmightaffectmyabilitytodrive?

• Attitude–HowdoIfeelaboutthisjourney?AmIfullyfocusedonthedrivingtask?WhathumanfactorsdoIneedtotakeaccountof?

• Medication–AmItakinganymedicationthatmightaffectmyperformance?

• Sleep–AmIsufferingfromlackofsleep/fatigue?

• Alcohol–HaveIhadadrink?AmIstillaffectedbyalcohol?

• Food–AmIhungryorthirsty?Couldlowbloodsugarordehydrationaffectmyjudgement?

• Emotion–AmIangry,depressed,orstressed?Couldthisleadmetotakerisks?

*Therearemanyversionsofthischecklist.Usetheoneyoufindmostuseful.

Isyourvehiclefittodrive?

Roadworthiness/pre-drivingchecklistBeforeyoustarttodriveavehicleforthefirsttimeeachday,youshouldensurethatitisroadworthy.Alwayscarryoutthefollowingpre-drivingchecks.

Identifythetypeofvehicleyouaregoingtodrive:• front/rear/fourwheeldrive

• fueltype:petrol/diesel

• gearboxtype(manual/automatic)/positionofgearselector

• safetyfeatures–anti-lockbrakingsystem(ABS)/electronicstability/tractioncontrol/adaptivesuspensionsystems

• parkingbrakeoperation

• positionofcontrolsandauxiliaries

• windowglass–mirrorsandlensesareclean

• securityofcarrieditems–rearseat/bootspace

• fireextinguisherpresentandindate.

POWDERchecklistPetrol Ensurethatyouhavesufficientfuelforyourjourney.

Oil Oillevel.Secureoilfillercapanddipstick.

Water Radiatorwaterlevelincludingcoolant/anti-freezemixture.Includewasherfluidlevels(frontandrear).

Damage Visualexaminationofexteriorlookingforinsecureitemsand/ordamage.

Electrics Verifyoperationofelectricalsystems.

•Lights–mandatoryrunninglights(mainanddippedbeam)•Brakeandreversinglights

•Indicatorsandhazardwarninglights•Numberplatelight(rear)

•Highintensitylights•Emergencywarninglights(blue,headlightflash,rearred)•Interior–instrumentwarninglights•Audiblewarningsystems(horn/two-tonehorns)•Windscreenwipers(front/rear)

Rubber Wheels–wheelnutssecuredtocorrecttorquesetting.Tyres–treaddepth/freefromcuts,bulges,tears/pressure/compatibility.

InsidethevehiclechecklistSwitchontheignition.Notethewarninglights.Starttheengine.

•Aftersystemsbecomeoperational,checkyourinstruments•Ifanycheckscouldnotbecompletedbeforeignitionorstartup,dothemnow•Carryoutastaticbrakecheck(seebelow)•Adjusttheseat/headrestraint/steeringwheel•Adjustthemirrors–insideandout•Doavisualinspectionofallgaugesandwarninglights

•Checktheseatbeltisnotfrayed,twisted,lockswhentugged,fastensandreleasesfreely.

Assoonaspossibleaftermovingoffandinasafeplace,carryoutamovingbraketest(seebelow).

Checkgaugesandwarninglightsatintervalsduringallsubsequentjourneystakingactionifnecessary.

TestingthebrakesCheckthebrakesbothbeforeyoumoveoffandwhenthevehicleismoving.

Thestationarytest

Checkthatthebrakepedalmovesfreelyandgivesafirmpositivepressurethatcanbemaintainedfor3to4seconds.Physicallycheckthattheparkingbrakesecuresthevehicle.

Themovingtest

Thepurposeofthemovingbraketestisto:

•checkthatthevehiclepullsupinastraightlineunderprogressivebraking•learnhowmuchtopressthebrakepedalinthatparticularvehicle•identifyanyunexpectedproblems.

Brakesarethemostimportantpartofthevehicleandamovingbraketestisvitalwhenyoumoveoffinanunfamiliarvehiclethatyoumayneedtodriveindemandingconditionsathigherspeeds.

Testthefootbrakeassoonaspossibleaftermovingoff.Alwaysconsiderthesafetyandconvenienceofotherroadusersbeforeyoudoamovingtest:•Checktheroadisclearbehindyou.•Declutch(toavoidenginebrakinginterferingwiththetest).•Grippingthewheellightly,brakegraduallyandprogressively,not

harshly.

•Feelforanythingunusual(e.g.atendencytopulltooneside,anyvibrationorpulsingthroughthebrakepedal)andlistenforanythingunusual(e.g.noisefromthebrakescouldmeantheyarebinding).

•Releasethepedalbeforeyoureachastandstilltocheckthatthebrakesreleasefullyandarenotbinding.

GoalsforDriverEducationThisEuropeanframework(the‘GDEmatrix’)setsoutthecompetencesthatdrivertrainingshouldfocusontoproducethesafestpossibledrivers.

BibliographyThisisaselective,annotatedlistofthesourcesdrawnontocompiletheadviceandstatisticalinformationinthiseditionofRoadcraft,andinparticulartheinformationpresentedinChapter1.

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Clarke,D.D.,Ward,P.,Bartle,C.andTruman,W.(2009)Work-relatedroadtrafficcollisionsintheUK,AccidentAnalysis&Prevention,41(2),345–351.Ananalysisofover2000instancesofwork-relatedroadcollisions.

CollegeofPolicing(2013)DriverTrainingLearningProgramme:NationalCurriculum.ThenationaldrivertrainingstandardsdocumentscanbeaccessedbypoliceofficerswithapnnemailaddressthroughtheNCALTManagedLearningEnvironment(www.ncalt.com/)inthesection‘PersonalandPublicSafety’.

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DepartmentforTransport(2012)ReportedRoadCasualtiesGreatBritain2011AnnualReport,www.gov.ukAnnuallypublisheddetailedstatisticsaboutthecircumstancesofpersonalinjuryaccidents,includingthetypesofvehiclesinvolved,theresultingcasualtiesandfactorsthatmaycontributetoaccidents.Mostofthestatisticsarebasedoninformationaboutaccidentsreportedtothepolicebutothersourcesarealsousedtoprovideawidercontext.

Dorn,L.(2005)‘Professionaldrivertraininganddriverstress:Effectsonsimulateddrivingperformance’inG.Underwood(ed.),TrafficandTransportPsychology,Elsevier:Amsterdam.Astudyoftheperformanceoftwogroupsofpolicedriverstrainedtodifferentlevels,insimulatedconditionsunderstress,inordertoinformthecontentofprofessionaldrivertraining.

DrivingStandardsAgency(2013)NationalStandardforDrivingCars(categoryB).TheDrivingStandardsAgency(DSA)updatesthestandard,firstpublishedin2010,onaregularbasis.ThestandardsetsoutwhatDSAbelievesisneededtobeasafeandresponsiblecardriver.Signuponthegovernmentwebsitetokeepuptodatewithnewversionsbyemail.

Dykes,R.(2001)ReducingAt-WorkRoadTrafficIncidents,ReportoftheWork-relatedRoadSafetyTaskGroup,HealthandSafetyCommission.Thisstudysetsouttheevidenceonandrecommendationsforreducingwork-relatedaccidentsontheroad,includingforoccupationaldrivers.

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Gregersen,N.P.(1996)Youngdrivers’overestimationoftheirownskill–anexperimentontherelationbetweentrainingstrategyandskill,AccidentAnalysis&Prevention,28(2),243–250.Astudytocomparetrainingstrategies,whichshowedthatyoungdriverstrainedinmanoeuvringskillsonlytendedtooverestimatetheiractualdrivingskillwhenobjectively

tested,comparedtodriverstrainedinawarenessoftheirlimitations.

Hatakka,M.,Keskinen,E.,Gregersen,N.P.,Glad,A.andHernetkoski,K.(2002)Fromcontrolofthevehicletopersonalself-control;broadeningtheperspectivestodrivereducation,TransportationResearchPartF:TrafficPsychologyandBehaviour,5(3),201–215.The‘GoalsforDriverEducation’frameworkhasitsoriginsinFinnishresearchintoevidence-basedapproachestodrivereducation.Theframeworkwaspublishedinternationallyforthefirsttimeinthispaper.

Lajunen,T.andSummala,H.(1995)Drivingexperience,personality,andskillandsafety-motivedimensionsindrivers’self-assessments,PersonalityandIndividualDifferences,19(3),307–318.Astudyaimedatmeasuringskillandsafetyaspectsindrivers’self-assessmentoftheirdrivingabilities.

Lancaster,R.andWard,R.(2002)Thecontributionofindividualfactorstodrivingbehaviour:implicationsformanagingwork-relatedroadsafety,ResearchReport20,HealthandSafetyExecutive.Reportofaliteraturereviewaimedatidentifyingtheindividualdifferencesthatareassociatedwithdrivingbehaviourandroadtrafficaccidents.Coversage,gender,ethnicity,education,personality,riskperception,socialdeviance,previousaccidentinvolvement,experience,stress,lifeevents,fatigueandphysiology.

Lee,C.,andAbdel-Aty,M.(2008)Presenceofpassengers:Doesitincreaseorreducedriver’scrashpotential?,AccidentAnalysis&Prevention,40(5),1703–1712.ThefindingsinthisUSstudyprovideinsightintohowthepresenceofpassengershasanimpactondriverbehaviourandtrafficsafetyinvariousconditions.

MacKillop,D.(2012)SingleVehicleAccidentonRuralLeft-handBends,personalcommunication.The‘doubleapexbend’illustrationandcaptiononpages177–178areadaptedfromthispaperwithkindpermissionoftheauthor.

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EconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,EuropeanConferenceofMinistersofTransport.Thisreportputsforwardpolicy-oriented,research-basedrecommendationsforimplementingcounter-measurestoaddressyoungdriverrisk.Italsoprovidesageneraloverviewoftheproblem,andthefactorsbehindit.

Payne,J.W.,Bettman,J.R.andJohnson,E.J.(1988)Adaptivestrategyselectionindecisionmaking,JournalofExperimentalPsychology:Learning,Memory,andCognition,14(3),534–552.Examinestheadaptivestrategiesthatpeopleusewhenrequiredtosolveproblemsundertimepressure.

Peräaho,M.,Keskinen,E.andHatakkaM.(2003)DriverCompetenceinaHierarchicalPerspective;ImplicationsforDriverEducation,UniversityofTurku,TrafficResearch.AdetaileddescriptionoftheGDEframeworkasatheoreticalbasisfordrivereducation,explainingeachstructuralelement,itscontentanditsimplicationsfordrivereducation.

RoSPA(2011)RoadSafetyInformation:InappropriateSpeed.Shortbriefingpapersummarisingkeystudiesandsourcesofdataonthepartplayedbyinappropriatespeedincrashstatisticsandcallingforaco-ordinatedspeedmanagementstrategy.

Sharp,G.(1997)HumanAspectsofPoliceDriving,ScottishPoliceCollege.Intendedasareferencecompaniontothe1997editionofRoadcraft,thisbookreviewsthecircumstanceswhichinfluencedecision-andjudgement-makingprocessesduringademandingdrive,andotheraspectsofhowthemindandbodyreactinthecomplexdrivingenvironment.

Stern,E.(1999)Reactionstocongestionundertimepressure,TransportationResearchPartC:EmergingTechnologies,7(2–3),75–90.Experimentalstudytodevelopunderstandingofhowpeoplemakechoices,useinformationandapplydecisionmakingruleswhendrivingintrafficcongestion.

Stutts,J.C.,Wilkins,J.W.,ScottOsberg,J.andVaughn,B.V.(2003)

Driverriskfactorsforsleep-relatedcrashes,AccidentAnalysis&Prevention,35(3),321–331.Acase-controlstudybasedonapopulationinCarolina,USA,toexaminedriverriskfactorsforsleep-relatedmotorvehiclecrashes.

Winston,C.,Maheshri,V.andMannering,F.L.(2006)Anexplorationoftheoffsethypothesisusingdisaggregatedata:Thecaseofairbagsandantilockbrakes,JournalofRiskandUncertainty,32(2),83–99.AUSstudytoanalysetheeffectsofairbagsandantilockbrakesonautomobilesafetyfoundthatsafety-consciousdriversaremorelikelytoacquireairbagsandantilockbrakesbutthesesafetydevicesdonothaveasignificanteffectoncollisionsorinjuries,suggestingdriverstradeoffenhancedsafetyforspeediertrips.

IndexABS(anti-lockbrakingsystems)89,111,138acceleration29,92–3

insystemofcarcontrol29onbends93–5,168,182onmotorways216ontoroundabouts34–5potentialhazards36andskidding135andvehiclebalance90–2andvehiclepowersource96whenovertaking192whenturning32–3

accelerationsense92accelerator89–90,92activesafetysystems137–40alertness4,12,63animals,ontheroad251anti-lockbrakingsystems(ABS)89,111,138anti-skidsurfaces77anticipation4,46–51

ofbeingovertaken218humanfactorsaffecting62–5tominimiseskidding133seealsoplanning

aquaplaning141armsignals150asphalt77attentiondistribution4

attentionspan45automatictransmission100–3BA(emergencybrakeassist)138

bendsaccelerationon93–5,168,182brakingon110,168doubleapex177–8effectsofcamberon170gearselectionfor182overtakingon205–6positioningforbestview180–1speedon181–2steeringon94,168seealsocornering

biorhythms63blindspots61,216bluelights235brake/gearoverlap37–9brakelights148brakes,defective132

brakingapproachinghazards110automatictransmissionand102onbends110,168emergency111engine90,96,104normal105andskidding135andtyregrip106unnecessary93whilechanginggear37–9

brakingdistance108buses83

caffeinedrinks64camber170carelessdriving6cat’seyes71clutch,slipping98cobbles77collisions6–9

prevention24whenovertaking200whenreversing120

competences,core4–5concentration213concreteroadsurfaces77contraflowsystems228convoy,emergencyvehiclesin249–50cornering166–83

brakingand110forces167–8

gearchangingwhile99limitpointand172–7usingsystemofcarcontrol179–82andvehiclebalance88–9seealsobends

courtesysignals151crossroads,positioningat161crowncamber170–1cyclists83,157,190,202,250

dazzle70,228debris228deceleration90,91decision-making43decisiontime44–5dippedheadlights69,73distance,keepingyour8–9,61–2,158distractions,operational12,13doubleapexbends177–8drivererror6drivingskills3drivingstress13–15dualcarriagewaysseemulti-lanecarriageways

EBA(emergencybrakeassist)138electricvehicles91electronicstabilityprogrammes(ESP)89,111,139–40emergencybrakeassist(EBA)138emergencybraking111emergencyresponse232–51

approachingandpassingvehicles242–4approachingtrafficlights236–40

contraveningkeepleft/rightsigns240definition232interpretingdrivers’signals244–5onmulti-laneroads246–7positioning241riskassessment233risk-takingin16–17speedlimitexemptions236warningequipment234–5

enginebraking90,96,104ESP(electronicstabilityprogrammes)89,111,139–40EuropeanGoalsforDriverEducation2,9,259exercise,physical64eyesight43,68

fallingasleepatthewheel64feedback17–18,43floods78–9fog72,225foglights69,73,224

rear148followingposition8–9,61–2,158,193–4fourwheeldrivevehicles92,136frontwheeldrivevehicles91,136–7

GDE(EuropeanGoalsforDriverEducation)2,9,259

gearchangingwhenmovingoff97whilebraking37–9whilecornering99

gearselection29,96–9approachingpotentialhazards36approachingroundabouts34forbends182forovertaking192forturning32–3insystemofcarcontrol29

gearboxes,automatic100–3glasses(spectacles)71GoalsforDriverEducation(GDE)2,9,259

habit45hardshoulder187,222hazardwarninglights147hazards25–6

anticipation36,50–1,65brakingonapproachto110definition47–8positiononapproachto36,155–63prioritising51responseto52roadsignsindicating79–80roadsurfaces78roadside155–6whenovertaking186,200–6

headlampflashers235,241headlights69

flashing149–50

high-sidedvehicles227highspeeddriving217highwinds226–7hills,descending103,104horn148–9horses251humanfactorrisks10,12,13–16,31,62–5,213hunting,ofautomatictransmission103

IAMSAFEchecklist254ice76,97–8,103,226indicators146–7information26,42–6

approachingpotentialhazards36approachingroundabouts34–5improvingprocessingof44–6insystemofcarcontrol28onmotorways217–21take,useandgive(TUG)27,28–9whencornering179whenovertaking191,218–20whenturning32–3seealsoanticipation;observation;signals

insidethevehiclechecklist257journeys,purposeof11–12,16judgement,errorsof45

junctionsmotorway221,223nearside157trafficlight-controlled236–9

keepleft/rightsigns240‘keepingyourdistance’8–9,61–2,158kickdown102

laneclosures228lanediscipline217lay-bys203left-handbends181left-handturns32,159,160

lightsinbadweather73insidevehicles71ofothervehicles70usingatnight68–9

limitpoint172–7,181lines(roadmarkings)71,79–81loadedvehicles91localroadknowledge81low-speedmanoeuvring120–7lowvisibility74

manoeuvring,low-speed120–7memory46mentalmaps43microclimates74mirrors27,28motorcyclists157,190,250

motorwaysexitjunctions223hardshoulder187,222humanfactorrisks213joining214–17junctions221lanediscipline217usingsystemofcarcontrolon215–17seealsomulti-lanecarriageways

movingoff97,102multi-lanecarriageways

badweatherconditions224–8debrison228emergencyresponseon246–7hazardsonnonmotorways212,229laneclosures228overtakingon208,217–21seealsomotorways

multi-tasking4,7,13

nearside154–5hazards155–6passingon,inemergency248roadjunctions157,243

nightdriving68–72‘noblecause’risk-taking16

observation46–8humanfactorsaffecting62–5lookingbutnotseeing54–5inlow-speedmanoeuvring121–2makinglinks82–3

tominimiseskidding132–3onmotorways216atnight71–2peripheralvision56roadsignsandmarkings80scanningtheenvironment52–4zonesofvisibility57seealsoanticipation

observe,understand,react(OUR)80offside154–5

roadjunctions244operationalstress14–15OUR(observe,understand,react)80overallsafestoppingdistance107–8overconfidence18–19overhangs,vehicle123–4oversteer135–6,169–70overtaking186–209

afterfollowing193–6basicsafetyrule189onbends205–6cyclists202followingposition193–4hazards186,200–6helpingotherroaduserstoovertake209onmotorwaysandmulti-lanecarriageways208,217–21movingvehicles188–9overtakingmanoeuvre196overtakingposition195–6onsinglecarriageways205–7stationaryvehicles188vehiclecapabilityfor188

vehiclesinalineoftraffic197–8whenabletoovertakeimmediately190–2

parkedvehicles83,156parking126–7parkingbrake102,111‘partingofthewaves’239,246pedestriancrossings,trafficlight-controlled240pedestrians251perception,errorsof45peripheralvision56planning5,48–52

low-speedmanoeuvring122,126seealsoanticipation

position29,154–63approachinghazards36,155–63approachingroundabouts34–5cornering179–80atcrossroads161inemergencyresponse241insystemofcarcontrol29followingposition8–9,61–2,158,193–4forovertaking192forstoppingbehindothervehicles162–3forturning32–3,159–60

posture64POWDERchecklist256pull–pushmethodofsteering114–15

queuejumping197

railwaylines83rain226

reactiontime44–5rearwheeldrivevehicles91,136–7recklessdriving6‘redmist’16–17reflectivepractice20reflectivestudsandmarkings71regressioneffects45responsetime44–5restbreaks64retarders90,104reversing120–3,124–5right-handbends180right-handturns33,159roadjunctions157roadmarkings71,79–81roadsigns79–81roadsurfaces75–8,204

seealsoslipperyroadsurfaces;wetroadsurfacesroadworks228roadworthinessseevehiclespecificationandroadworthinessroadworthiness/pre-drivingchecklist255rotationalsteering116roundabouts34–5,247–8

scanning52–55safestoppingdistance106–8safetytechnology,vehicle130seatposition64,112self-assessment20shiftlock102shiftwork63–4signalling,onmotorways215,220

signals27,29,144–51ofothers145,151,244–5purpose144types146

singlecarriageways,overtakingon205–7singletrackroads177sirens234–5situationalawareness4,5,11,24skidtraining141skidding131–6

causes131–2,134–6correcting141minimisingriskof132–3

sleep63,65sleet226sliproads214–15slipperyroadsurfaces76,97–8,103,132–3,226slow-movingvehicles243slowingdown104–5

seealsobrakingsnow97–8,103,226spectacles71speed29

approachingpotentialhazards36approachingroundabouts34insystemofcarcontrol29onbends181–2choiceof58–9andsafety59–60skiddingcausedbyexcessive134underestimating60–1whenovertaking192

whenturning32–3seealsoacceleration;braking

speedlimits59,209statutoryexemptions236

stability,vehicle130stationaryvehicles

atornearincidents245overtaking188,243seealsoparkedvehicles

steering112–17onbends94,168low-speedmanoeuvring123pull–pushmethod114–15rotationaltechnique116–17andskidding135techniques112

steeringwheel112–13stopping104–5,162–3

seealsobrakingstoppingdistance106–8,177stress13–15sundazzle228superelevation170–1‘swannecking’160systemofcarcontrol25–39

tailgating8–9taperedbraking105tarmac77TCS(tractioncontrolsystems)89,139testingthebrakes258thinkingdistance107

timepressure16tiredness63–5tractioncontrolsystems(TCS)89,139

trafficemergencyresponsein242–4hazardperceptionin11–12overtakingin197–8safedistancein158

trafficlight-controlledjunctions236–9trafficlight-controlledpedestriancrossings240TUG(take,useandgive)27,28–9turning32–3,159–60two-secondrule109tyregrip75–8,86–9

brakingand106corneringand94,167–8tractioncontrolsystemsand139tyreconditionand132anduseofgears97seealsoaquaplaning;skidding

understeer94,135–6,169–70urgency,riskand16

vehiclebalanceaccelerationand90–2brakingand106tyregripand88–9

vehiclespecificationandroadworthiness11–12andcornering169drivers’attitudestosafetytechnology130andnightdriving68andovertaking188andriskofskidding132stabilityfeatures130

ventilation64

visibilitylow74zonesof57

vision(eyesight)68visualinformation43

water,drivingthrough78–9,103weatherconditions72–4,132–3,224–8wetroadsurfaces103,132–3,141,226wheelspin91,97,139winds226–7windscreen,inbadweather73work,drivingat7,63

youngdrivers7

zoneofrelativesafety154–5zonesofvisibility57

NOTES