eN ISSN 0079·9335

RLS

REGIONALLANGUAGESTUDIES...NEWFOUNDLAND

Number 22

1 March 2011

Memorial University of NewfoundlandDepartment of English Language and'Literature

St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada

Editor: William J. Kirwin

English Language Research CentreManagement Committee

Sandra ClarkePhilip HiscockRobert HollettGerard Van HeckJeff WebbFaith Balisch <ex officio)

One purpose of the English Language Research Centre when it was created in 1986 was toencourage and facilitate the continued investigation of the English language and cognate topics inNewfoundland. Part of the strategy was to undertake "publications based upon the data assembledin the Centre" and upon other research activities.

Regional Language Studies provides information on projects ongoing in the Centre andarticles and notes under the principal research headings of ELRC: the English language in itshistorical, regional, and social dimensions, place-names and cartographic history, family names, andediting of Newfoundland texts. Articles on non-English language topics in the Newfoundland andLabrador context arc also cncouraged: The journal publishes papers by academics, students, andothers on topics relating to Newfoundland languages. Back numbers of Regional Language Studiesmay be found at <htlp://collectiol1s.mlln.ca/cdm4/bro\Vse.php?CISOROOT-%Frlsn>.

Addresses:Regional Language StudiesDepartment of English

Language and LiteratureMemorial Univ. of NewfoundlandSt. John's, NewfoundlandCanada A[C 557

English Language Research CentreArts and Administmtion Building A 30[9Memorial Univ. of NewfoundlandElizabeth AvenueSt. John's, Newfoundland

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Submissions to Regional Language Studies

Please submit a typescript along with a disk (to be returned). Footnoting is not necessary.Identify your quotations and sources in parentheses following the material cited, and add Referencesat the end of your essay. Pronunciations may be indicated in IPA transcriptions.

Following your article or note, include information about your discipline: for example,Faculty of Education, Memorial University of Newfoundland, fomth-year student.

The editor will consult with you if stylistic changes seem in order.

eN ISSN 0079·9335

RLS

REGIONALLANGUAGESTUDIES...NEWFOUNDLAND

Number 21

1March 2011

Memorial University of NewfoundlandDepartment of English Language and Literature

St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada

Regional Language Studies

No. 22

1 March 2011

CONTENTS

"Date of this Entry"; Queries raised by the "1805 Conception Bay Plantations Book"Robert H. Cuff 1

''There's no place like Petty Harbour": Negation io a Post·insular Community·Jennifer Thorburn 8

The Genesis ofJames Cook's Australian Place·names

MISCELLANY

Barachois io Newfoundland and Labrador

BibliographyStudent Assistants

William J. Kirwin 18

William J. Kirwio25

2932

Regional'Language Studies, No. 22, I March 20 II0079-9335

"DATE OF THIS ENTRY"QUERIES RAISED BY THE"1805 CONCEPTION BAYPLANTATIONS BOOK"

Robert H. Cuff

ACADEMICS AND GENEALOGISTS WOULD

AGREE that the document which is oftenreferred to as the "Conception BayPlantations Book" is invaluable. A registerand description of hundreds of fishingrooms in the region in the early nineteenthcentury, the Plantations Book can tell us agreat deal about private property,settlement patterns, and family history(Handcock, Soe lange as there comes 106­I 13;Andrews9-1 1,29-33).Ihaverecentlyhad occasion to investigate the origins ofthis document and conclude that it wasprimarily gathered and compiled by adistrict surrogate judge in 1805 and 1806.

On 21 August 1804 GovernorErasmus Gower ordered that surrogatescompile a register offishing rooms in eachdistrict (Gower 359-61). It may be thatthere was a complete survey, as ordered.There survive similar registers forBonavista Bay «(Bland]), and Twillingate([Pearce]), and a map ofSt. John's roomsbased on Governor Gower's order mayhave been destroyed in the 1892 Great Fire(Howley 17).

There aretwo "original"versions ofthe Conception Bay book.I. In 1970 the Provincial Archiveobtained an original from the Registry ofDeeds and Companies. This version, ascompiled by the surrogate judge, I willrefer to as the ~'registJ:y" version. Governor

Gower had directed that a copy should besent to the Governor and originals held inthe various districts to assist in thesettlement ofdisputes.2. A holograph version, on microfilm"Return ofPossessions Held in ConceptionBay," is available at the Centre forNewfoundland Studies (CO 199.18, mf#570), Maritime History Archive, andProvincial Archives [the "CO 199"version]. Academics (such as Drs. E.R.Scary and Gordon Handcock) have mostoften employed this version, which is the'Governor's copy' referenced above.3. In 1937 Harry Maddick,Newfoundland's Registrar of Deeds andCompanies, arranged for a transcription''typed and compared from the originalunder my supervision" of the registryversion. This is now held in the Registry asMiscellaneous Volume 13 [the''typescript'' version].4. The Newfoundland and LabradorGenweb site includes a version which wastranscribed by genealogists from thetypescript [the "web version"].'

IThe web version<ht1p:/lwww rOQtsweb.com/""'Cannf/cbbrig prl 805intro.htm> incorporates correspondencepasted into the typescript at the suggestion ofNimshi Crewe. The Crewe papers at theProvincial Archive of Newfoundland andLabrador (MG 281) also contain files whichrefer to the "Return," which was given thename "the Plantations Book" by lawyer JohnG. Higgins. Nimshi Crewe (1901-1971) wasemployed in the Auditor General's office1934-1950, and was research officer at theArchives 1960-68. The Genweb transcribers

Regional Language SJ"dfu, No. 22. I March 20110079-933S

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I had some familiarity with the CO199 version, but the availability ofthe webversion facilitated quick comparison andultimately an entire read-through. Thisexercise suggested that the data containedtherein, important in its detail to bothacademics and genealogists, may not befully appreciated.

Consider the description of afisbing room owned by Charles GarlandofHarbour Grace (registry, typescript andweb versions, #951) from column #2[Name and Description of the Room orOther Erections, with Its ExactBoundaries]: "(Grove) [name ofthe r09m]Chas. Garland Esq. 150 yds. from N.E. toS.W. by the sea side, 296 yds. fromI-I.W.M. to the No. bounded on the N. bythe woods. 2 Stages, 3 Flakes, 4 Houses, 3Gardens, I Meadow." The nature ofGarland's claim: "Part purchased fromNicholas Fiott of Jersey Mercht. and partcut and cleared agreeable to Act.Wm.3Chap. 25 Sec.1." "Date of this Entry"(column #8) is 1111. These versionscontain a further notation in column #2:"- Purchased by me under the 1st Nov.1821, 1. Goup. [for J. Toop?] NicolasSurrogate."

Charles Garland (1130-1810), wasa third-generation Newfoundlander andprobably the most prominent resident ofHarbour Grace in 1805-06, having been ajustice of the peace since 1155, deputycustoms officer since 1192, and district

appear to have done a credible job, andperfonned a significant service. They were:Susan Snelgrove, Sue O'Neill, Fred Swed Jr.,Debbie Baleman, and Chris Jenkins.

judge of the surrogate court since 1199(Handcock "Garland"). Crewecites a letterto Garland from Governor Gower dated 23October 1806: "I have received your letter... informing me that a further expense ofseventy pounds has been incurred inobtaining a Survey and Register ofFishingRooms in Conception Bay." Garlandeithercompiled or directed the compilationof the registry version between 1804 and1806, and had many years experience ofdisputes over fishing rooms in the district.What then are we to make of the date"1111" under "Date of this Entry" for hisown property?

Consider three excerpts from E.R.Seary's Family Names of the Island ofNewfoundland: Butler, Dawe and Porter.Dr. Seary's quotations, in each instance,are from the CO 199 version:

.BUTLER . .. Early instances: James, ofPort de Grave, 1160, property "inpossession of the Family for 98 years orupwards," that is, before 1662 (CO199.18). (p. 12)DAWE ... Early instances: George, ofPort de Grave, 1155, "property inpossession ofthe Family" since 1595 (CO199.18). (p. 135)[webversion, entry #5 14]PORTER . .. Early instances: William, ofI-libbs Hole, 1171, property "in possessionofthe Family for 106 years," that is, since1671 (CO 199.18). (p. 421)[web version,entry #542]

These computations of possessionfeature in many Conception Bay familyhistories. In particular, the Dawe family'sarrival prior to 1610 and the founding of

John Guy's colony is often referenced, Itgets 1he "fun treatment" ofa fictionalizedreconstruction in Gerald Andrews'Heritage ofa Newfoundland Outport: TheStory of Port de Grave (9-11), Thetradition is also explored in folkloristMartin Lovelace's 1980 article "John Guymeets 1he Dawes: The investigation of anoral historical tradition,"

But what if the length ofpossession-osuch as "in possession of thefamily for 106 years," in 1he case ofWilIiamPorter--weremeasured from 1805or 1806, 1he inferred date of compilationof the register? That is, what if WilliamPorter's ancestor gained "possession" in1699 or 1700, ra1her than in 1671. Does1his assist us in conceiving how Garlandinterpreted the head "Date of1his Entry"?In William Porter's case [Entry #542]1he"Date of 1his Entry" is 1777, Considerother entries for 1he Porter family ofHibbsHole, abbreviated and reorganized into atable:

II Claimant ances/ral possession dale ofentry Nature ofclaim539 Richard P. "for 106 years" 1774 By deed ofgift from Father540 Richard P. "for 106 years" 1805 Purchased from hisMother541 IUchard P. Ir "for 106 years" 1789 By deed of giftfrom Father (John)542 WllJiamP. "forl06years" 1777 By deed ofgift fromFaUler

For Scary's interpretation to hold itis necessary to accept that Porter ancestorstook possession offour parts ofa block ofshorespace with 152 yards frontage atHibbs Hole in 1668,1671,1683 and 1699in four equal 38-yard sections, Analternative is much simpler: a single Porter

ancestor was in possession of1he originall52-yard section for 106 years prior to1805 or 1806, If1he "Date of1his Entry" is1he date that 1he various Porters tookpersonal possession, Richard and Williamwere given plots by their father in 1774and 1777, Richard Jr, by his fa1her (John,possibly a brother of Richard Sr, andWilliam) in 1789,

In 1his light, it is much easier toreconcile 1he "Plantations Book" wi1hearlier sources 1hat list Conception Bayplanters by name (1675,1676,1708) butdo not include some families which 1heconventional interpretation suggests werealready long-time residents,

There are examples where plots arelisted as "cut and cleared" by 1he occupantand possessed (no indication ofancestors)for a number of years 1hat corresponds to"Date of1his Entry" e,g,:

# Claimant ancestral possession date ofentry Nature ofclaim510 Saml Dawc "Possessed 48 years" 1757 Cut andcleared ...

Now consider 1he two entries which notepossession for 160 years by Daweancestors at Ship Cove, Port de Grave:

II Claimant ancestral possess/on date ofeTll'Y Nature of

claim513 Isaac Dawe 160 years J773 Deed ofglft fromfather514 GeorgeD.Sr 160years 1755 byhlsMother'swill

Few entries anywhere else in 1heregister cite ancestral possession of anymore than 105 or 106 years (ofwhich there

4

are several, including· some Daweneighbours ofIsaac and George Sr).'

Tbree Earles at "Juglers Cove"(Bay Roberts) claim rooms "[P)ossessedby him and his ancestors for 120 years"and "[P)ossessed as above." The grandsonof John Garland, a planter of Mosquito[Bristols Hope) in 1675, Charles Garlandwould certainly have been alive to thepossibility that Conception Bay familiescould have been in possession of thefishing rooms for a century or more.

The purpose here is not to proclaimthat Dr. Seary was in error, nor to pointoutthat numerous genealogists have beenlabouring under a misapprehension-­although both could be true. It is just thattrying to make sense of the history ofsettlement and the origins of privateproperty in Newfoundland, rather thanfamily hislory, requires re-evaluation ofthis document. Meanwhile, with so many"Date[s] of this Entry" associated withwills and inheritance, genealogists couldtest the theory on a family-by-family basis.This is an instance where the availabilityof a transcription in an electronic format

2A date of 105 or 106 years prior to1805-06 could suggest that properties wereacquired or confinned in 1700 or so, after thedisruptive raid ofd'iberville in 1697, and afterthe passage of King William's Act in 1699.Commodores Norris (1698) and Leake (1699)both compiled infonnation concerningConception Bay fishing rooms. In August1701 Commodore John Graydon "settled" theplanters' rooms in St. John's, so perhapssomething similarwas "settled" in ConceptionBay after the passage ofKing William's Act.

encourages and materially assists such re­evaluation on both fronts.

A comparison of the ConceptionBay document with the "BonavistaRegister of Fishing Rooms, 1805-06,received IO Sep. 1806," and with the"Register of the Fishing Rooms inTwillingate and Places Adj acentBeginning 3 Janr 1806" is also instructive..In each document the heads ofenquiry aresimilar, but not identical, to those inGower's order. But, while Garlandreproduced the headings almost word forword, the others interpreted theirinstructions.

Gower: Fi,.~t. Name and Description ofthe Room 01' othe"Erect/OIU &c, wi/It its exact Boundaries

Registry version: Name and Description of theRoom or Other Erections, whh Its ExactBoundaries

BonaviJJbI: Name by which the room is usually knownEx/ent oflhe room, or other situation and how toascertaIn the boundary [two separate heads]

Twlllingate: Name and description of the Room and theboundaries

Gower: Second, In what Harbour Cove &c situatedRegistry: In what Harbour, Cove, etc., Situated

So..vista: Where situatedTwillln.ate: Situation in what harbour or cove

There is no ambiguity as to whenthe infonnation in the "BonavistaRegister" was gathered and by whom:1805 and 1806, by district surrogate judgeJolm Bland (Handcock "Bland"). Thisdocument was at some point obtained byNimshi Crewe, and was sold by Crewe tothe Gosling Library "some years ago" (ashe wrote in 1958). Bland's progressaround fourteen settlements of that Baycan be traced from the column "Date ofentry," ranging from 27 July 1805(Greenspond) to 28 August 1806 (Open

Hall). Bland registered 91 fishing rooms inBonavista Bay, and the greatest antiquityhe noted for any claim was 80 years, fortwo rooms at Ship Island, Greenspond.

The Twillingate "Register" wasprobably compiled in the first instance byAndrew Pearce (1770-1841), a native ofDorset who was local agent for variousWest Country merchants, and who hadbeen customs collector and justice of thepeace at Twillingate since 1798. That thephotocopy held at the Provincial Archiveswas taken from the original is clear fromlater notations, many of which (1816-19)were entered by Rev. John Leigh assurrogate. In the first instance, most entriesare for rooms on the Twillingate Islands,and were made in 1806. It is distinguishedfrom the others in having a surname indexat the front, and by the fact that theoriginal compiler skipped over severalpages, to begin a register for Moreton'sHarbour in 1807, and for Exploits BurntIslands in 1808. A few rooms were enteredfor Tizzard's Harbourin 1811 by skippingback to a blank page.

Considering individual entries inisolation may have obscured the meaningof the information compiled under "Dateof this Entry" in the Conception Bay"Plantations Book." The popularinteipretation, such as that concerning theDawes, has a long history of its own andwas publicized by Nimshi Crewe and J.R.Smallwood long before Seary's FamilyNames appeared. Perhaps the Dawe "oraltradition" dates from Crewe andSmallwood collecting antiques together atPort de Grave in the 1930s (Crewe #254).Smallwood's Handbook and Gazetteer

contains the first published reference to thedate 1595 and the Dawe tradition. "TheDawe family of Ships Cove ... trace theirhistory in Ship Cove back to 1595....There is a tradition that some ofti'e Daweswere out on the fishing grounds on the daythat John Guy's colonists arrived...."(Smallwood 108-109).

An investigation of the origins ofthe "Plantations Book" and comparisonwith the Bonavista and Twillingateregisters make it clear that the "PlantationsBook" was not compiled over a period ofdecades, but over the course oftwo years.Further, the compiler had his owninteipretation of "Date of this Entry."ConsiderGovemor Gower's original headsof inquiry:

Fifth, Name and Residence a/the Present OccupierSixth, Whether built sold or leased af the Time ofthis EntrySeventh, Dale ofthis Entry

Garland would appear to have associated''this Entryn with the "Present Occupier,"which led him to record the date at whichthatperson entered into hislher occupation.This is, at the very least, a possibleinteipretation of Gower's instruction,which associates "Whether built sold orleased" with ''this Entry."

Historians and genealogists shouldapplaud Charles Garland's inteipretationofhis instructions, for while it is of someinterest to use the column "Date ofentry"in the Bonavista document to trace JudgeBland's circuit, neither the Bonavista norTwillingate document contains anythinglike the wealth ofhistorical data found inthe "Plantations Book." Further, of thethree surviving registers, and despite the

6

fact that he had more than one thousandrooms to register, only Garland heededGovernor Gower's supplementaryinstruction to uinsert with each asparticular an account of the title or claimasserted thereto as you can obtain. . . ."(Gower 362-63).

Through our efforts to locate earlyfishing rooms, ships rooms, Yand otherproperties in St. John's, myselfand GeraldPenney have reviewed a variety ofdocumentation concerning the origins,nature, and practicality ofprivate propertym Newfoundland. This bears directly oncentral and ongoing debates inNewfoundland history, inclUding thelegality (or otherwise) of settlement, theconllict (orsymbiosis) between year-roundsettlement and the migratory fishery, andthe effectiveness (or neglect) of theadministration of justice. In this light areassessment of the Conception Bay"Plantations Book" could be mostinfonnative. In any case, we can agreewith the sentiment Nimshi Creweexpressed to Harry Maddick on 23December 1958: "For certain types ofhistorical research . . . that one day arebound to engage detailed attention, thesebooks are important indeed."

Robert Cuff is a Historian withGerald Penney Associates Limited

Archaeologists and Heritag~Consultants: gpaltd@nl.rogers.com.

REFERENCES

Andrews, Gerald W. Heritage of aNewfoundland Outport: The StoryofPort de Grave. 1997. Rev. ed.Carbonear: Nfld.: Gerald WilfredAndrews, 2006.

[Bland, John] "Bonavista Register ofFishing Rooms, 1805-06, received10 Sep. 1806." The ProvincialReference Library vault containsthe original. Call number 639.2R26 NR is a photocopy from theoriginal, including [power] below.

"Conception Bay Plantations Book," theweb version, located in TheNewfoundland and LabradorGenweb site:<http://www.rootsweb.com/-eannf/cbbrig prl805intro.htm>.

Crewe, Nimshi. The Crewe papers (MG281, The Rooms: ProvincialArchives Division [TRPADJ),1966. Box 10 #254 "Port deGrave," references the PlantationsBook, Dawe family tradition, andCrewe's trips to Port de Gravewith J.R. Smallwood. Box II # 276and #277 also concern thePlantations Book.

Gower, Erasmus. "Proclamation" and "Tothe Surrogates of the SeveralDistricts of Newfoundland" bothissued2 I August 1804. Letterbooksof the Colonial Secretary [1804]GN 2/1la/ff. 359-63. St. John's:TRPAD.

Graydon, John. "Planters Room in Port St.John's, settled by Capt JohnGraydon ... 25th Aug 1701."

Letterbooks of the ColonialSecretaIy [1750), GN 2/1/Avol. I, ff90-93. St. John's:TRPAD.

Handeock, W. Gordon. "Garland,Charles." Dictionary of CanadianBiography, 5. Toronto: UniversityofToronto Press, 1983,337-38.

----. "Bland, John." Dictionary ofCanadian Biography, 6. Toronto:University ofToronto Press, 1987,70-72.

Howley, James P. "The Origin of theTerm Fishing Room."Newfoundland Quarterly 2, 4(1903):17.

Lovelace, Martin. "John Guy meets theDawes: The investigation ofan oralhistorical tradition." CanadianFolklore canadien 2,1-2 (1980):44­53.

[pearce, Andrew.) "Register of FishingRooms in Twillingate and PlacesAdjacent Beginning 3 Jane 1806."Governor's Office "PlantationBooks" GN 1/13/4. St. John's:TRPAD,1806.

----. "Will of Andrew Pearce."Vol. 1[1841] ff. 371-74. St. John's:Registry ofWills, 1841.

[Power, Catherine P.] Register ofFishingRooms in Bonavista Bay 1805-06 .Glovertown, Nfld.: G1overtownLiterary Creations, [1991].

Seary, E.R. Family Names ofthe Island ofNewfoundland. 1977. Montreal:McGill-Queen's University Press,1998.

Smallwood, Joseph R., ed. Newfoundland1940; Hand Book, Gazetteer and

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Almanac: An annual ReferenceBook of Newfoundland 1940. St.John's: Long Bros., 1940.

8

"There's no place like Petty Harbour": Negation in a Post-insular Community

Jennifer Thorburn

1HE COMMUNITY OF PETrY HARBOUR, Newfoundland, is an ideal site for sociolinguisticresearch because it is a historic fishing village that is now urbanizing, with residentsbecoming less isolated and the community functioning more and more as a bedroomcommunity to the provincial capital St. John's (Van Her!< et a1.). This suggests that PettyHarbour is in what Wolfram labels a "post-insular language situation," Le., a situation "inwhich historically isolated language varieties emerge from this isolation through extendedcontact with speakers from other groups or because ofvarious kinds ofdemographic changessuch as population loss" (3). Recent research has examinedsalient features ofNewfoundlandEnglish (henceforth NE) in the community, namely interdental stopping (e.g., this thing asdis ting) and nonstandard verbal s-marking (e.g.,! loves it), and have found that both featuresare in decline, with women leading this change, and that this decline is "linked to salienceand degree ofcontrol" (Van Herk et a1. 92). However, less salient features ofthe English inthis community, such as negation, have yet to be examined.

The various ways in which sentences are negated have been discussed in depth bysyntacticians but have not been investigated as thoroughly from a sociolinguistic perspective.While there are some studies that examine multiple aspects of the negation system of aparticular speech community (e.g., Jespersen, Labov Inner City, Howe and Walker), mostresearchers tend to focus on a particular aspect ofnegation, such as negative concord (e.g.,Seright, Iyeiri, Palacios Martinez, Anderwald, Howe, Nevalainen), as in]didn't say nothingto nobody, or copula negation (e.g., Weldon, Walker), as in He isn't happy.

In NE, negation has been minimally investigated. Clarke notes that the negationpatterns found in NE are "similar to those found in other vernacular varieties ofEnglish"("Morphology and Syntax" 310), including negative concord. The present paper considerstwo ways in which sentences are negated: negative postposing and negative concord.

Negative postposing occurs when the negator is located inpost-verbal position (Labov"Negative Attraction"), as in (I):

I. a.b.

...and of course, they used to mix nothing with that (u: older woman).'There is no grammar where I come from (0: younger man).

'Quotations are attributed to speakers from the Petty Harbour corpus by listing theirspeaker code by their sex and age.

Regional Language Studies, No. 22, I March 20110079-933.5

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This type of negalion predates not-based constructions (e.g., We did not at/end the party),although not-negation is now more productive (Mazzon). Tottle argues that postposednegation, or no-negation, is a widespread phenomenon. In her data, postposing was morefrequent in "existential there-constructions with BE and sentences with stative HAVB" andless frequent with copula be and lexical verbs (Tottie 249). Howe and Walker also reportfinding negative postposing most frequently with be and have.

Negative concord, or multiple negation, shown in (2), is defined as "the use oftwoor more negative morphemes in a clause to convey a single negation" (Nevalainen 257).

2. He didn't want nothing to do with it. (d: younger woman)

This process has been discussed extensively in the literature (e.g., Jespersen, .Horn, Dahl,Tieken-Boon van Ostade et aI., Aoderwald) and is ofgreat interest when looking at English,since negative concord was an accepted negation strategy in Old and Middle English. It wasreplaced by the use of a single negator in the eighteenth century, based on prescriptivegrammars created for modem English (Baugh and Cable). It is now widely considered avernacular universal (Gramley and PUtzold, Chambers, Nevalainen).

Previous research on negative postposing and negative concord in Newfoundland

Although Clarke ("Morphology and Syntax" 310) states that negative concord is"commonplace" in NE, it is mentioned specifically in only three studies. Noseworthy (85-86)notes that there are three types of negative concord in Grand Bank: (i) verb + adverb, as inI don't never do that; (ii) verb + object, as in I haven't got neither axe; and (iii) adverb +object, as in I never seen nor ship or There was never no scar. He suggests that the use ofnegative concord is "a form ofredundancy to emphasize that a particular event did not occur"(86). Harris reports that the "use ofdouble or multiple negatives" (129) occurred in her dataat a similar rate to that reported in Grand Bank, although she does not expand on this point.Examples from her thesis show that both subject + verb and verb + object concord werefound. Finally, Harold Paddock's dialect survey ofCarbonear also documents the presenceof negative concord, typically ofthe verb + object variety.

Negative postposing has not been discussed in the existing literature on NE.

Methodology

Tokens were extracted and then coded for analysis in Goldvarb X for Mac (Sankoffet al.), a statistical program designed forthe analysis ofnatural language. Although this paperconfines itself to investigating negative postposing and negative concord, the analysisrequires the consideration of all major negation strategies: (i) subject negation, as inNobody's here, (il) verbal negation (reduced auxiliary + nol, as in Dave's not here, full

10

auxiliary + contracted nol, as in Dave isn 'I here, full auxiliary + nol, as in Dave is nol here,and ain 'I), (iii) negative poslposing, (iv) negative concord, and (v) use of negative adverbnever.

Tokens were coded for both social and linguistic variables. Two social variables -ageand sex - were used in this analysis. For the linguistic variables, the following factor groups'were considered, based primarily on Weldon and Walker:

1. Clause type: main, dependent2. Sentence type: declarative, imperative, negative inversion, interrogative (sub-coded as yes/no

questions, wh- questions, tag questions)3. Subject type: noun phrase (NP), pronoun, existential there or it, no overt subject4. Post-verbal constituent type: noun phrase (Nf), pronoun, adjective phrase (AdjP), adverb phrase

(AdvP), preposition phrase (PP), no overt post-verbal constituent5. Auxiliary/verb type: copula be, auxiliary be, auxiliary have, dummy auxiliary do, modal (can, could;

may. might, should, will, would), main verb6. Tense: present, past

As there were very few tokens of sentence types other than declarative, theinterrogative, imperative and inverted sentences were excluded from analysis. FollowingWeldon, negated quantifiers (3), adverbials (4), infinitivals (5), and sentence fragments (6)were also excluded.

3. There's nola /01 ofp/aces around here I'd want to live. (c: younger woman)4. Nol oj/en do people visit here.5. And my father told him nol 10 be so foolish, blowout the candles and go to bed. (e:

older woman)6. Oh, I'd say about sixteen, seventeen. Nol serious, now. (k: older woman)

Also excluded due to low Ns were negated commands (7), yes/no questions (8), wh­questions (9), and tag questions (10), as well as negative inversion (11), resulting in an,analysis ofonly declarative sentences.

7. Don'l be talking about ghost stories. (H: older man)8. You aren 'I going to let her do this, are you?9. How come she didn 'I serve us? (E: younger man)10. He was comical, wasn'l he? (u: older woman)11. Weredn'l many people had cars. (h: older man)'

'Although this is not negative inversion in the sense used in Labov (Inner City), featuringboth a negated verb and a negated subject~ word order has been inverted in a declarative sentenceand is. as such, classified as negative inversion in the present study" following the more generaldefinition of the tenn (Mazzon).

II

In total, 879 tokens were taken from the Petty Harbour data. Tokens were distributedfairly evenlyacross cells, with the exception ofthe middle-aged participants, for whom it wasdifficult to fmd data. Fortunately, the tokens are fairly evenly distributed across participants.Another caveat is that there was one older man (Speaker H) who had significantly fewertokens (N=4I), which may have had an impact on the statistical analysis.

Negative postposingAs previously stated, negative poslposing is a traditional phenomenon that has

declined in use in many varieties ofEnglish (Mazzon). Goldvarb results, shown in Table I,indicate that both linguistic and social factors were significant in Petty Harbour.

Table 1. Factors cbosen as significant in tbe selection of negative postposing over otbernegation types.

Factor% N

WeigbtsAUXNERB TYPEMain verb 0.92 15.2 92Auxiliary be 0.81 4.3 23Copula be 0.7 19,8 247Modal 0.47 1.8 171do 0.2 0.3 332

RANGE 73SUBJECT TYPEExistential 0.93 40.0 120NP 0.47 3.0 67Pronoun 0.39 2.6 655Null subject 0.38 2.7 37

RANGE 55POST-VERBAL CONSTITUENTTYPEPronoun 0.72 8.3 133NP 0.7 19.1 282PP 0.21 1.3 78AdjP 0.1 0.8 123

AdvP KO 0.0 0RANGE 62

AGE

12

Old 0.69 13.4 320Middle 0.46 5.7 159Young 0.36 4.0 400

RANGE 33SEXMale 0.62 10.7 411Female 0.4 5.1 468

RANGE 25Not selected as significant: Clause type, tenseBold = favouring context

In this community, postposed negation is found primarily with copula and auxiliarybe, as well as main verbs. This was an expected result; postposing also occurs in sentenceswith existential subjects, which limit where negation can fall in the sentence, greatlyincreasing the chance of postposing, as illustrated in (Ib).

The type ofpost-verbal constituent that can carry postposed negation is also resIrieted.Object pronouns and NPs favour negative poslposing, an expected result given that mostnegative polarity items fall into these categories.

Both social variables - age and sex - were significant. Table I suggests older menfavour the use of poslposed negation. Cross tabulations, shown in Table 2, confrrm thisfmding.

Table 2. Cross tabulations for Petty Harbour compariog age aod sex for negativepostposiog.

Male Female Total% N % N % N

Old 23.4 141 5.6 179 13.4 320Middle 2.9 70 7.9 89 5.7 159Young 4.5 200 3.5 200 4.0 400

411 468 879

It seems that most of the age effect is a result ofthe older men's overwhelming useofposlposing. Since this is one ofthe groups in which an equal number oftokens per speakerwere not found, the percentage ofpostposed negation per speaker was also checked. Speakerh, for whom there are 100 tokens, uses pOSlposing 27.0% ofthe time, while speaker H, forwhom there are 41 tokens, uses this conslrnction in 14.6% ofhis data. Both individual ratesare higher than those ofother groups, supporting the conclusion that older men use negativeposlposjng more frequently than others, and that it is productive in their systems. Thissuggests that poslposed negation, a more traditional negative conslrnction, is being replaced

13

by newer meiliods of negation, and is gradually disappearing from Petty Harbour speech.This finding is in keeping with ilie results for ilie more salient variables analysed in thecommunity; older men were by far ilie most traditional speakers, wiili high rates ofinterdental stopping and nonstandard verbal s-marking (Van Herk et a!.). Furthermore, men,particularly aIder men, tend to be more nonstandard, inNewfoundland (Clarke "PhonologicalVariation") and oilier regions (Chambers).

Negative concord

When negative concord is compared to all other forms ofnegation, both linguistic andsocial variables are found to be significant, as can be seen in Table 3.'

Table 3. Factors chosen as significant in the selection of negative concord over othernegation types.

Factor% N

WeightsAUXNERBAL NEGATIONReduced auxiliary 0.79 J.J 88Contracted not 0.45 1.8 600Full auxiliary + not KO 0.0 0ain't KO 0.0 0

RANGE 34AUXNERB TYPEdo 0.77 2.4 332Modal 0.7 4.1 J71Auxiliary be 0.66 4.3 23Main verb 0.51 7.6 92Copula be 0.09 0.4 247

RANGE 68

'In analyses using Goldvarb, factors are given a factor weight between 0 and I. Factorweights closer to I favour the use of the variant, in this case negative postposing, while factorweights closer to 0 disfavour use ofthe variant. Favouring factor weights are balded in the tables.The range between these factor weights is another indication ofsignificance: greater ranges indicatemore significance and smaller ranges indicate less significance. Knock·outs (KOs) indicatecategories that could not be considered in the statistical analysis due to the distribution oftokens,or lack thereof. Linguistic and social variables were analysed separately.

14

POST-VERBAL CONSTITUENTTYPENPPPPronoun

RANGEAGEMiddleOldYoung

RANGENot selected as significant: Clause type, subject type, tense, sexBold = favouring context

0.550.490.3916

0.680.610.3434

5.05.14.5

53.81.2

28278133

159320400

Two ofthe linguistic variables were significant- type ofauxiliary/verbal negation and typeofpost-verbal constituent - which was expected since verb + object concord was seen in thedata set. Negative concord is favoured with a reduced auxiliary such as ion '( or can't, insentences such as the one shown in (2), but categorically disfavoured with copula be.

Of the two social variables, only age was significant, with older and middle-agedspeakers favouring the use ofnegative concord. As Table 3 shows, middle-aged participantswere slightly more likely to employ negative concord. Cross tabulations, shown in Table 4,reveal that the variant is used predominantly by middle-aged men in Petty Harbour. Theresults for age seem to have overshadowed any potential finding for speaker sex, despite thefact that men use this construction more than women overall (3.9% vs. 1.4%), due to themiddle-aged cohort.

Table 4. Cross tabulations for Petty Harbonr comparing age and sex for negativeconcord.

Male Female Total% N % N % N

Old 3.5 141 3.9 179 3.7 320Middle 10 70 1.1 89 5.0 159Young 2 200 0.5 200 2.5 400

411 468 879

15

DiscussionEven though negative postposing is an older fonn ofnegation, it is still productive in

Petty Harbour, at least in the speech ofoldermen, who frequently use this negation strategy.The decline ofthis negative construction indicates that postpnscd negation is a relic featurein Petty Harbour English. Negative concord also appears to be in decline, although it appearswith greatest frequency in the speech ofmiddle-aged men.

Residents ofPettyHarbouralso showsome instances ofweredn 'I, aphoneticvariationfound in some Newfoundland communities (Clarke "Morphology and Syntax").

12. a.b.

And the road weredn 'I plowed at that time. (h: older man)They weredn 'I nylon. (0: younger man)

The data suggest that older fonns ofnegation are being preserved in Petty Harbour,although the Ns were too low to make any finn statements about the nature ofweredn 'I inPetty Harbour. In conjunction with the findings from Van Herk et aI., these data show thatolder linguistic fonns are still employed in Petty Harbour, though these features are indecline.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Social Sciences and HumanitiesResearch Council ofCanada (Doctoral Fellowship) and the Institute ofSocial and EconomicResearch. Iwould also like to thank my supervisor, Gerard Van Herk, and my comprehensiveexamination committee. All errors are my own.

Jennifer Thorburn is a PhD candidatein the Department ofLinguistics,

Memorial University ofNewfoundland.

16

REFERENCES

Anderwald, Lieselotte. "Negative Concordin British English Dialects." InAspects of English negation, ed.Yoko Iyeiri. Philadelphia/Amsterdam: John Benjamins (2005),113-37.

Baugh, Albert C., and Thomas Cable. AHistory ofthe English Language. 5thed. London: Routledge, 2002.

Chambers, J.K. Sociolinguistic theory. 2ded. Maiden/Oxford: Blackwell, 2003.

Clarke, Sandra. "Phonological Variationand Recent Language Change in StJohn's English." In English Aroundthe World, ed. Jenny Cheshire.Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress (1991),108-122.

----. "Newfoundland English:Morphology and Syntax." In Ahandbook of varieties of English.Volume 2: Morphology and syntax,ed. Bernd Korlmann, Kate Burridge,Rajend Mesthrie, Edgar W.Schneider, and Clive Upton.BerlinlNew York: Mouton deGruyter(2004),303-318.

Colbourne, Bramwell Wade. "ASociolinguistic Study ofLong Island,Notre Dame Bay, Newfoundland."M.A. thesis, Memorial University ofNewfoundland, 1982.

Dahl, Osten. "Typology of SentenceNegation."Linguistics 17 (1979):79­106.

Gramley, Stephan and Kurt-Michalepatzold. A survey ofmodern English.London: Routledge, 1992.

Harris, Linda. "Two Island Dialects ofBonavista Bay, Newfoundland."M.A. thesis, Memorial University ofNewfoundland, 2006.

Hom, Laurence R. "Some Aspects ofNegation." In Universals ofHumanLanguage Volume I: Method &Theory, ed. Joseph H. Greenberg,Charles A. Ferguson, and Edith A.Moravcsik. Stanford: StanfordUniversity Press (1978), 127-210.

Howe, Darin M. ''Negation in AfricanAmerican Vernacular English." InAspects of English negation, ed.Yoko Iyeiri. Philadelphia/Amsterdam: John Benjamins (2005),173-203.

----, and James A. Walker.''Negation and the creole-originhypothesis." In The English historyof African American English, ed.Shana Poplack. Malden/Oxford:Blackwell (2000), 109-140.

Hughes, Arthur and Peter Trudgill.English accents and dialects.London: Arnold, 1979.

Iyeiri, Yoko. "Multiple negation in MiddleEnglish verse." In Negation in theHistory of English, ed. IngridTieken-Boon van Ostade, GunnelTottie, and Wim van der Wurff. NewYorklBerlin: Mouton de Gruyter(1999),121-46.

Jespersen, Otto. "Negation in English andother languages." In Selectedwritings by Otto Jespersen. London:Allen & Unwin (1917), 2-151.

Labov, William. Language in the innercity. Studies in Black English

Vernacular. Philadelphia: UniversityofPennsylvania, 1972.

----. "Negative attraction andnegative concord." Language 48(1972):773-818.

Lanari, Catherine E. Penney. "Asociolinguistic study of the Burinregion of Newfoundland." M.A.thesis, Memorial University ofNewfoundland, 1994.

Mazzon, Gabriella. A history of Englishnegation. Harlow, England: PearsonLongman, 2004.

Nevalainen, Terttu. ''Negative concord asan English 'vernacular universal':Social history and linguistictypology." Journal of EnglishLinguistics 34 (2006):257-78.

Noseworthy, Ronald G. "A dialect surveyof Grand Bank, Newfoundland."M.A. thesis, Memorial University ofNewfoundland,1971.

Paddock, Harold. A Dialect Sw-vey ofCarbonear, Newfoundland.Publication of the American DialectSociety 68. Tuscaloosa, AL:University ofAlabama Press, 1981.

Palacios Martinez, Ignacio M. "Multiplenegation in modern English. Apreliminary corpus-based study."Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 104(2003):477-98.

Sankoff, David, Sali Tagliamonte, andEric Smith. "GoldvarbX:A VariableRule Application for Macintosh andWindows." Toronto: University ofToronto, Department ofLinguistics,2005.

17

Serigbt, Orin Dale. "Double negatives inStandard Modern English."American Speech 41 (1966):123-26.

Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid, GunnelTottie, and Wim van der Wurff, eds.Negation in the history ofEnglish.New York/Berlin: Mouton deGruyter, 1999.

Tottie, Gunnel. Negation in Englishspeech and writing. A study invariation. Quantitative Analyses ofLinguistic Structure 4. San Diego:Academic Press, 1991.

Van Herk, Gerard, Becky Childs, andJenniferThorburn. "Identitymarkingand affiliation in an urbanizingNewfoundland community." Papersfrom the 31st Annual Meeting oftheAtlantic Provinces LinguisticAssociation!Actes du 31e Colloqueannuel de l'Association deiinguistique des provincesatlantiques, ed. WladyslawCichocki.Fredericton, NB (2009):85-94.

Walker, James A. "The ain't constraint:Not-contraction in early AfricanAmerican English." LanguageVariation and Change 17 (2005):1­17.

Weldon, Tracey L. "Variability innegation in African AmericanVernacular English." LanguageVariation and Change 6 (1994):359­97.

18

Tbe Genesis of James Cook'sAustralian Place-names

William J. Kirwin

AFTER DUTIES IN CANADA UNDER

OFFICERS OF THE BRITISH NAVY, JamesCook saw service in Newfoundland in1762, surveying in Carbonear andPlacentia Bay. These experiences were thebeginning of two assignments in theisland, which led to the publication ofmajor charts long regarded as authoritativeby hydrographers and mariners.

The place-names on Cook'sNewfoundland charts became anestablished basis ofthe regional toponymy(Seary, Northern Peninsula 15-17). Thelog kept for the brig Grenville, available inmicrofilm format though notyetpublished,contains circumstantial remarks aboutplace-names attributed to Cook, and R.A.Skelton's article of 1954 offers a fmesurvey ofhis time in Newfoundland.

In 1767 Cook was ordered to explorein the Pacific Ocean in the vicinity ofwhatare now Australia and New Zealand. Onthese voyages be kept a detailed dailyjournal replete with place-names which heassigned to coastal features. Themeticulous edition of the Endeavourjournal by J.C. Beaglehole thus furnishesrich textual detail about naming practicesof the sort that were lacking in hisNewfoundland survey years.

Tracing origins is an importantexercise in the compilation ofplace-names

in many countries. Often scholars aresuccessful in discovering evidence aboutthe person who named a feature or themeaning of the elements in the name. Inother cases, continual digging andlinguistic reasoning only lead to a deadend. No defensible origin can be found.Consequently when minutely detailedjournals of explorers exist, like those ofLewis and Clark in the United States orJames Cook for coastal Australia, preciseimpositions of certain geographic namesare recorded by the writer in a textcomposed practically on the date when thefeature on land or sea was observed.Cook's journal for his coastal surveyappeared in a scholarly edition in 1955.This text serves as the basis for thefollowing remarks on forty-six names forwhich Cook stated or suggested hisreasons for his choices. The Beagleholeedition italicizes the place-names, whosespelling is followed exactly below.Sometimes a simple phrase "I named ... it... because" occurs, and elsewhere thephrasing might be "on which account 1called it. . . ." (Beaglehole 299). Aconnection with the chosen name in thetext might be at some remove, as whenCook mentions seeing the north side of abay "from the top mast head" (318 PointLookout).

For numerous names, Cook offeredno reason for his choice. As can beobserved in the identifications inBeaglehole's notes, they fall into twocategories: names of prominentcontemporary personages and naval

Regional Language Studiu, No. 22, I Mareh 20110079-9335

officers and a miscellaneous group.Named for renowned individuals are CapeBedford, Cape Byron, Cleveland Bay,Cape Cleveland (after the bay), CockburnsIsles, Cape Conway, Cape Cornwell (i.e.Cornwall), Cumberland Isles, Dunk Isle,Edgcumbe Bay, Forbes's Isles, FranklandIsles, Cape Gloucester, Cape Grafton,Cape Granville (Le. Grenville), HalifaxBay, Cape Hawke, Cape Hillsborough,Holburn Isle, Cape Howe, Port Jackson,Keppel Bay, Keppel Islands (after thebay), Morton bay, C. Morton (after thebay), New Castle Bay, Cape Palmerston,Rockingham Bay, Cape Sandwich, SrCharles Hardys Isles, Point Stephens, PortStephens (after the Point), Temple Bay,Cape Townshend, Wallice's(i.e. Wallis's)Isles, Cape Weymouth, Weymouth Bay(after the Cape), and York Isles Amongthe miscellaneous namings are Bolt head,Broad Sound, Iron Head, Peir (also Pier)head, Repulse Bay, Sanday (also Sandy)Cape, and others. (Page numbers for thefirst appearance of these names are givenin the Beaglehole Index, 657-84.)

In the following groups of names, Isuggest a label that describes Cook'sgrounds for his selecting a name. '

'The influential scholar George R.Stewart proposed a classification oftoponymswhich he adopted in his works on Americanplace-names. It was apparently based onsemantic analysis of the names, though hedescribed it as derived by "mechanism oforigin" (xxviiiMxxxii). Discussing specificnames in his compilation, he occasionallyreferred to original namers and the reasons for

19

L Association of a point on the map or ofa date on the calendar with the geographicfeature to be named

C. Capricorn At 9 oClock we wereabreast of the point ... I found this pointto lay directly under the tropick ofCapricorn and for that reason call'd it bythat Name. 326

Cape Sf George A point of landwhich I named Cape 8t George we havingdiscover'd it on that Saints day, bore West.... 302 [observed 24 April 1770]

Trinity Bay . .. a large but not verydeep Bay which I named Trinity Bay afterthe day on which it was discovered....343

Whitsunday's Passage This PassageI have named Whitsunday's Possage, as itwas discoverd on the Day the Churchcommemorates that Festival. ... 337

ii. Recognition of detail of nearbytopography

Broken Bay At sunset theNorthennost land in sight bore N 26° East,and some broken land that appear'd tofonn a Bay boare N 40° West distant 4Leagnes, this bay I named Broken Bay.... 313

iii. Recognition of supernaturalintervention in a crisis

Prov[i)dentialChannellThe openingwe came in by, which I have named

their choices.

20

Prov[iJdential Channell, bore ENE distant10 or 12 miles. 381 [A variant version:... for this seem'd to be the only Probablemeans which Providence had pointed outto us to save the ship.... 546]

iv. Place ofobservation notedPoint lookout On the north side of

this point the shore fonus a wide open Baywhich I have named Morton bay, in thebottom of which the land is so low that Icould but just see it from the top masthead. 318

v. Parallelism perceived between aresemblance in topography and a familyresemblance

Three Brothers . .. three remarkablelarge high hills lying continguous to eachother .. . bore NNW. As these hills boresome resemblence to each other we call'dthem the Three Brothers. ... 315

vi. Relation ofa feature to a nearby featurealready named

Cape Dromedary The shore underthe foot of this Mountain [Dromedary]forms a point which I have named CapeDromedary. ... 300

C. Morton This Land I named C.Morton it being the N Point of the Bay ofthe same name. 319

vii. Selecting a name to serve as a signal orsign to later observers

Point Donger We now saw thebreakers again within us ... [they] stretch

off East two Leagues from a point underwhich is a small Island.... I The point offwhich these shoals lay I have named Point:Donger.317-18 !

Islands ofDirection The passage orchannel . . . may always be found &known by the 3 high Islands within itwhich I have called the Islands ofdirection.because by their means a safe Passage may'be found even by strangers.... 544

Cape Flattery At Noon we were gotbetwixt the headland and the 3 High,Islands.... We now judged our selves to'be clear ofall dangerhaving as we thoughta clear open sea before us, but this wesoon found otherwise and oecasiond my :calling the headland above mentionedCape Flattery. 371 [An obsolete sense ofjlattery is 'deceipt.']

Mount Warning We now saw thebreakers again within us which we past atthe distance of 1 League, they ... stretchoff East two Leagues from a point underwhich is a small Island, there situation mayalways be found by the peaked mountainbefore mentioned ... and on this accountI have named [it] I Mount Warning. 317­18

viii. Assigning a name to honour a person

CumberlandIsles [The islands whichform this passage I named] CumberlandIsles in honour of his Roy' Highness theDuke ofCumberland. 337

Cape Sandwich . . . this point Inamed Cape Sandwich Honour y' Earl ofthat name. 340

Point Sutherland Last night Torby'[i.e. Forby] Sutherland seaman departed

this life and in the AM his body was burieda shore at the watering place whichoccasioned my calling the south point ofthis Bay after his name. [Point Sutherlandis not in the text.] 307

York Cape The Point of the Main... I have Named York Cape in honour ofHis late Royal Highness theDuke ofYorl<:.385

ix. Selecting a name to express someemotion

Hope Islands I have named themHope Islands because we were always inhopes ofbeing able to reach these Islands.347

Cape Tribulation . .. the north point[I named] Cape Tribulation because herebegun all our troubles. 343 [damage to theEndeavour and prolonged repairs]

x. Selecting a name which describes anevent or phenomenon

Botany Bay The great quantity ofNew Plants [Banks and Solander]collected in this place occasioned mygiveing it the name ofBotany Bay. 310

Break Sea Spit This Shoal I call'dBreak Sea Spit, because now we hadsmooth water whereas upon the wholeCoast to the south'" ofit we had allways ahigh sea or swell from y' SE. 321

Endeavour River I shall now give ashort de[s]cription of the harbour I orRiver we have been in [for extensiverepairs] which I have named after the ShipEndeavour River. 365-66

21

Point Hicks I have Named it PointHicks, because Leuit' [ZachlUY] Hicks wasthe first who discover'd this land. 299 [SeeBeaglehole's Note 1 for discussion ofgreat confusion on this statement.]

Indian Head [We passed] a blackbluf head or point of land on which anumber of the natives were assembledwhich occasioned my nameing it IndianHead. ... 320. [Indian was a tenn foraboriginals from 1770 to 1872 (AustralianNational Dictionary). James Cook knewthe usage also during his Newfoundlandsurveys between 1760 and 1767,translating the French sauvage for theLabrador Montagnais.]

Point Lookout I landed and wentupon the point which is pretty high, fromwhich I had a view ofthe sea-Coast whichtrended away NWBW 8 or 10 Leagues....Excepting Cape Flattery and the Point Iam now upon, which I have named PointLookout, the Mainland ... is low.... 372

Magnetical Head or MagneticalIsle... the East point I named Cape Clevelandand the West Magnelical head or Isle as ithad much the appearence ofan Island andthe Compass would not travis well whennear it. 338

Thirsty Sound This Inlet ... 1 havenamed Thirsty Sound by reason we couldfind no fresh water.... [thus the crewwould become thirsty] 332

xi. Recognition of appearance, similarity,or animals being present

BirdIsles . .. on these Isles we saw agood many Birds which occasioned mycalling them Bird Isles. 383

22

Broad Sound The western Inlet ...known in the Chart by the name ofBroadSound we had now all open. It is at least 9or 10 Leagues wide at the Entrance withseveral Islands laying in and before it. ...334

BustardBay [We saw] Bustardssuchas we have in England one of which wekilld that weigh'd 17\1, pounds whichoccasioned my giving this place the nameofBustard Bay. ... 325

Double Island Point The point setlast night bore SWBW•.•. I have named itDouble Island Point from its figure. . ..the Point it self is of such an unequalheight that it looks like two small Islandslaying under the land. 320

Mount Dromedary .. '. we were abreast of a pretty high mountain layingnear the shore which on account of itsfigure I named Mount Dromedary. 300

Eagle Island We found on this Islanda great number of birds the Most of themSea fowl, except Eagles.... After leavingEagle Island we stood sw directly for theShip.... 374

Point Hil/iek (i.e. hillock) ... thispoint I have named Point Hilliek onaccou[n]t of its I figure. The land of thisPoint is tolerable high and may be knownby a round hillick or rock that appears tobe detached from the Point. ... 339-40

Bay of Inlets Between this Cape[Palmerston] and C. Townshend lies theBay ofInlets, so named from the numberoflnlets Creeks &c' in it. 334

LizardIslandThe only Land-animalswe saw here were Lizards and theseseem'd to be pretty plenty which

occasioned my nameing the Island LizardIsland. 373

Long Nose The north point of thisbay on account of its figure I named LongNose.... 303

C. Manyfold . .. this point I named C.Manyfold from the number of high hillsover it. [spelled .Manifold in nextparagraph] 328

Pigeon house (hilltop) A remarkablepeaked hill laying inland the top ofwhichlook'd like a Pigeon house and occasioned.my giving it that name.... 301

Red point . .. northward of this is apoint which I calld Redpoint, some part ofthe land about it appeared of that colour.303

Sandy Cape . . . this poinU havenamed Sandy Cape on accou[n]t of two'very large white patches of Sand upon it..321

smooky Cape . . . the land, thenorthecmost part of which bore from us N13° West and a point or headland on whichwere fires that caused a great quantity ofsmook which occasioned my giving it thename ofsmooky Cape. ... 315

Cape Three points Some pritty highland which projected out in three bluffpoints and occasioned my calling it Cape,Three points . . . bore SW distant 5Leagues. 313

Point Upright . .. we were abreast ofa Point of land which on account of itsperpendicular clifts I call'd Point Upright.... 301

Cape Upstart . .. the western point ofland ... which I have named Cape Upstartbecause being surrounded with low I land,

it starts or riseth up singley at the firstmaking ofit. 337-38

Because of the conventionalrequirement to keep a ship's log, as soonas Cook named a coastal feature and fixedthe name on his charts (not examined forthis article), the name was available for hisnarrative of the ship's progress and thedescription of the coast.

Cook took leave of the eastern coaston 22 August 1770. "Having satisfied myselfofthe great Probabiility ofa Passage,thro' which I intend going with the Ship,and therefore may land no more upon thisEastern coast ofNew Holland, and on theWestern side I can make no new discoverythe honour ofwhich belongs to the DutchNavigators; but the Eastern Coast from theLatitude of38° South down to this place Iam confident was never seen or viseted byany European before us. . . ." 387 Hisvessel Endeavour reached England on 13July 1771.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Australian National Dictionary; ADictionary oj Australianisms onHistorical Principles. Ed. W.S.Ramson. Melbourne: OxfordUniversity Press, 1988.

Beagleho1e, J.C., ed. The Voyage oj theEndeavour 1768-1771. Vol. 1 ofTheJournals oJCaptain James Cook onhis Voyages ojDiscovery. 4 vols.Cambridge: Published for the

23

Hakluyt Society at the UniversityPress, 1955.

Brown, Harrison. Admirals, AdventurersandAble Seamen: Forgotten storiesabout places on our BritishColumbia coast and how they gottheir names. Vancouver: KeystonePress, [1957]. (Cook, 7-9).

Cobeldick, Trevor M. Cook Voyage PlaceNames oJNew Zealand. Wellington:Paerangi Books, 2001.

Cook, James. "An Observation of anEclipse of the Sun at the Island ofNew-found-land,August5, 1766, byMr. James Cook. ..." PhilosophicalTransactions oJthe Royal Society 57(1767):215-16.

Cordingly, David, ed. Captain JamesCook as a Seaman, Navigator andSurveyor. London: NationalMaritime Museum, 1988.

David, Andrew. The Charts & CoastalViews oJCaptain Cook's Voyages. 2vols. London: Hakluyt Society inassociation with the AustralianAcademy of the Humanities,1988,1992.

----. "Further Light on JamesCook's Survey of Newfoundland."International Hydrographic Review1,2(2000):6-12.

----. "James Cook's 1762 Surveyof St John's Harbour and AdjacentParts of Newfonndland." TerraeIncognitae 30 (1998):63-71.

Fitzgerald, L. "Point Hicks to Cape Howe:Cook's Landfall--19 April 1770."Victorian Historical Magazine 42(Aug. 1971):579-90.

24

Harley, Brian J.S. The Legacy of JamesCook: The story of the Bay ofIslands. Comer Brook: HarkimEnterprises Limited, 1999. (CaptainJames Cook, 12-32).

Hildebrand;J.R. "Columbus ofthe Pacific;Captain James Cook, foremostBritish navigator, expanded the greatsea.... " National Geographic 51,1(1927):57-132.

Hunter, A.C. "Newfoundland's Debt toCaptain Cook." NewfoundlandQuarterly 67, 4 (1970):30-31.

Knight, T.M. "Cook the Cartographer."Cartography 7, 3 (1971):110-18.

James Cook, surveyor ofNewfoundland:being a collection of charts of thecoasts of Newfoundland andLabradore, &. Drawnjrom originalsurveys taken by James Cook. SanFrancisco: David Magee, 1965.

Lee, Jack. "I have named it the Bay ofIslands." Auckland: Hodder &Stoughton, 1983.

Little, C.H. "Captain Cook in Canada."Canadian Geographical Journal 64,6 (1962):188-97.

Pippis [i.e. Kippis], A. "Newfoundland'sFirst Marine Surveyor."Newfoundland Quarterly 60, 2(1961):11.

Pullen, Hugh Francis. "James Cook inNorth America, 1758~7 & 1778."Commonwealth Journal 13, I(1970):27-33.

Robson, John. "James Cook'sContribution to the Mapping ofNewfoundland lU)d Newfoundland'sContribution to the Career of JamesCook." Association of Canadian

Map Libraries andArchives Bulletin124 (Fall 2005):3-13.

Seary, E.R. "The Contribution of JamesCook to the Toponymy ofNewfoundland." Onomastica 59-60;(1981):45-46.

----. Place Names of the AvalonPeninsula of the Island ofNewfoundland. Toronto: UniversityofToronto Press, 1971.

----. Place Names ofthe NorthernPeninsula. 1959-1960. A New ed.Ed. Robert Hollett and William J..Kirwin. Sl. John's: Institute ofSocialand Economic Research, 2000.

Skelton, RA. "Captain James Cook as !' i

Hydrographer." Mariner 'sMirror 40(1954):92-119.

----. Captain James Cook-afterTwo Hundred Years. London:Published by thc Trustees of the .British Museum, 1969,

Stewart, George R. American Place,Names; A Concise and SelectiveDictionary for the ContinenialUnitedStates ofAmerica. New York:Oxford University Press, 1970.

Verner, Coolie. "Cook and theCartography ofthe North Pacific: Anexhibitionofmaps for the conferenceon Captain James Cook and histimes, April 1978." Burnaby, BritishColumbia: Library Simon FraserUniversity, 1978.

Whiteley, William H. "James Cook andBritish Policy in the NewfoundlandFisheries, 1763-7." CanadianHistoricalReview 54 (1973):245-72.

----. "James Cook, Hugh Palliserand the Newfoundland Fishery."

Newfoundland Quarterly 69, 2(l972):IM2,

----. "James Cook in Newfound­land, 1762-1767." St. John's:Newfoundland Historical Society,1975,

MISCELLANY

William J. Kirwin

Barachols in Newfoundland andLabrador

A BARACHOIS IS A GEOGRAPHIC FEATUREformed at the mouth of a stream andcomposed of a gravel bank separating apond from the salt water outside. Adescription from a slightly differentviewpoint can be found in the Gazetteer ofCanada; Newfoundland: "Barachols.Saltwater pond or small bay, usually

25

obstructed by a barrier of gravel, sand ormud" (xii).' About seventy toponymsreferring to these ponds are found alongthe south and west coasts ofNewfoundland.

After the flTSt appearance of thenames for these features in documents,chartmakers have recorded the toponymsdown to the present. Some ofthe evidenceis primary, apparently obtained fromfishermen in the coves, and sometimes it isbased on an earlier available chart ordocument, thus establishing a traditionaldescent, a genealogy.

In Newfoundland there are at presentseventy-one identified places withbarachois and variants in its designation;some names fonn a "cluster," based on abasic place-name. For instance theGazetteer includes Big Barachois andadjacent Barachois River and BarachoisRock northwest ofPort aux Basques. Twoprincipal orthographic variants ofthe formare found in records ofplace-names on theIsland. The earliest reference to a

lTechnical infonTIation about barachois in theCanadian context can be found in Glossary ofGeneric Terms in Canada's GeographicalNames 11-12, 15. See also Dictionary ofCanadian/sms and Geonames barachois andbarasway for examples of the toponym inotherCanadianprovinces. The Newfoundlanddetails are in Dict/onary of NewfoundlandEnglish barachois and barasway. Saint-Pierreand Miquelon toponyms are not treated in tinssurvey,

Regional Language Studies, No. 22, 1March 20110079·9335

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barachois so far noted occurs in the 1662northern French document, "Extrait duRegistre (establi) al'admiraulte de SainctMalo" 18 avril 1662: La Rade du grandbane compris Ie barachoua soixantehommes cy ('the beach of the grand bankincluding the barachoua [is suitable for]sixty men here'; grand bank here isprobably a feature, not a settlement).' Thefishing stations noted in thiscommunication were located on thewestern shore ofPlacentia Bay, that is, onthe Burin Peninsula. The other variant, inLittle Bay Barrysway, appears a hundredyears later in James Cook's log of theschooner Grenville on 9 August, 1765.'This phonetic rendering ofthe word likelywas based on the speech of men familiarwith the vicinity of the settlement ofPlacentia where this geographic featurewas located. (The -way pronunciationoccurs in other Newfoundland place­names besides barasway, as in the placesFranyols, Bay d'Espolr, and GrandolsHarbour [Grandsway 1770] and in thevessel type shalloway [DNE 465]. It is anobsolete pronunciation of French -olsnoted in the eighteenth century and inQuebec speakers4

) In the charts recording

'1662 Extrait; La Morandiere citesthis as follows: "La rade du Grand Banecompris Ie Barachoa pour 60 hommes," vol.I, p. 424. The form barachois is recordedsince c 1680 DepOt de la Marine 128/2/6.

'''Log and Journal."

'Baraehois [barafwel S.m. Petitport, anse,lieu de refuge. Ex.: Anerer dansIe barachois (Glossaire 93).

certain names in Basque on the Island'swest coast, two similar names wererecorded, presumably of the sametopographic feature. Denis de Rotis (1674)has a name interpreted as Batracto or asbarracto. The former is the reading ofHarrisse (316, no. 35), and the second isthat ofGeorge RF. Prowse (E.R. Seary'srecords). In another manuscript chartPierre Detcheverry (1689) has the westcoast name Barrachoa (Harrisse 325),similar to that ofthe St.-Malo document.

The search for the etymology ofFrench barachois has so far produced nostrong evidence. The first documentcontaining the word was written in St­Malo, Brittany, though Breton dictionarieshave nothing remotely similar. Perhaps theTr'sor de la langue franyalse, underbarachols, summarily expresses thepresent scholarly view: IIOrig. incertaine"(1975). In recent decades the spellings ofthe toponyms have favored barachols(about 54%) and barasway (about.46%»).~

al\?ng with minor orthographic variants.The 1983 Newfoundland Gazetteer ratioof barasway to barachois is 41 to 22.

A number of oral reports' ofbarachois and barasway were collected inthe project to survey Placentia Bay,Newfoundland, place-names between 1990and 1993 ("Placentia Bay Names Data'Base"). Interviewers with tape recorders .spread large maps ofrelevant areas beforeinformants, who identified places andnames that were familiar in their ownusage. These were later transcribed alongwith coordinates and other information ina data base. For the barachois names thetotals are misleading, because a single

informant might use the identicalpronunciation for several different place­names, The dominant pronunciation foundin the data !Jase is barasway (roughly 42instances), and among the minor variantsis baraswah (4). It is clear that thespeakers in this sample have not adoptedthe un-English consonant sequence -shw­ofFrench barachois,

APPENDIXBarachois toponyms in the island ofNewfoundland may be found in theNewfoundland Gazelleer. Clusters areindicated by indenting the names after thefirst entry.

Barachois Brook (LocalService District)Barachois Brook

Barachois PondsBarachois BrookBarachois du BarreBarachois HeadBarachois PointBarachois Pond

Barachois Pond Provineial ParkBarachoix (Locality)Barasway

Barasway (Inlet)Barasway (Cove)Barasway BayBarasway de Cerf(Cove)

Barasway IslandBarasway de Plate (Vacated or SeasonalSettlement)Barasway HarbourBarasway IslandBarasway PointBarasway PointBarasway Point

Barasway PondBarasway Brook

The Barasway (Cove)The Barasway (Barasway)The Barasway (Cove)The Barasway (Cove)The Barasway (Cove)The Barasway (Inlet)The Barasway (Cove)The Barasway (Cove)The Barasway (Cove)The Barasway (Cove)Big Barachois

Barachois RiverBarachois Rock

Big BarachoisBig Barachois River

Big BaraswayBig BaraswayBig BaraswayBottom BaraswayCape Barachois (pond)Cowlest BaraswayFortune BaraswayFrenchman's Cove BaraswayGarnish BaraswayGreat Barasway (Barasway)

Great Barasway (Set.)L'Anse-au-Loup BaraswayLittle Barachois

Little Barachois RiverLittle BarachoisLittle Barachois BrookLittle Barachois River

Little Barasway (Set.)Little Barasway

Little Barasway BrookLittle BaraswayLittle BaraswayLittle Barasway

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Lower Barasway RiverMurray BaraswayNortheast BaraswayPeltry BaraswayRocky Barachois

Rocky Barachois BightRyle Barrisway (Cove)

Ryle Barrisway BrookSimmonds Barasway

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many aspects of the research of theEnglish Language Research Centre arebasedon the extensive collections made byE.R. Searyand his assistants between 1950and 1980. I am grateful to Joan Ritcey,Queen Elizabeth II Libraries, for hergenerous advice; to Peter Pope,Archaeology, for sending me theinformation in the 1662 "Extrait"; and toHeather Ross, Natural Resources Canada,for instructions about searching forNewfoundland barachois names

REFERENCES

Aulestia, Gorka. Basque-EnglishDictionary. Reno: University ofNevada Press, 1989.

A Dictionary of Canadianisms onHistorical Principles. Ed. Walter S.·Avis and others. Toronto: W.J. GageLimited, 1967.

Dictionary of Newfoundland English.(DNE) (1982) Ed. G.M. Story, W.J.Kirwin and J.D.A. Widdowson. 2d

ed. Toronto: University of TorontoPress, 1990.

Gazetteer of Canada; Newfoundland. 2d~. O~wa: Energy, Mines andResources Canada, 1983.

Glossaire du Parler franr;ais au Canada.Quebec: L'Action Sociale (limitee),1930.

Glossary ofGeneric Terms in Canada'sGeographical Names. "TerminologyBulletin 176." ~wa: Departmentof the Secretary of State ofCanadR,.1987.

"Log and journal of Captain James Cook·during his survey of Newfoundland1764-1767." Microfilm 625,Memorial University, QueenElizabeth II Libraries.

La Morandil:re, Ch. de. Histoire de 10peche franr;aise de la morue dansI 'Amerique septentrionale (de larevolution a nos jours). 3 tomes.Paris: G.-P. Maisonneuve et Larose;1962-1966.

Massignon, Genevieve. Les Parlers.franr;ais d'Acadie; Enquetelinguistique. 2 tomes. Paris: LibrairieC. Klincksieck, [1962].

"Placentia Bay Names Data Base." Place­names collected in field researchdirected by Robert Hollett, English.Language Research Centre,.Memorial University ofNewfoundland between 1990 and1993.

Tresor de la langue franr;aise"Dictionnaire de la langue du XIX etduXX sieele (1789-1960), [directedby] Paul Imbs and others. 16 tomes.Paris: Editions du centre national de.

la recherche scientifique,1971·1994.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Newfoundland and Labrador English ando1her Languages on the Web

GREAT AMOUNTS OF INFORMATION aboutall topics of Newfoundland language arcavailable on 1he web, 1hrough its searchengines. But 1he printed (and spoken)material 1here is highly variable. Somesites are aU1horitative; theDNE's site, andindeed the entire Newfoundland HeritageWeb Site, along with the many works onthe Memorial University Digital ArchiveInitiative, spring to mind as decidedly lessvernacular than the vast majority of sites.The Internet is, after all, a virtual locus ofself-publishing. Difficulties withvernacular sites arise when evaluating theaccuracy, authority, objectivity, andthoroughness of the reports ofNewfoundland and Labrador words andusage. The province has its cultural-­including linguistic--patriots andsentimentalists, its activists and zealots;not always does such affiliation lend itselfto a 1horough scholarly treatment. Thetrustwor1hiness of a web posting must beweighed up; aids to creatinglexicographical trust are 1he inclusion ofthe writer's name and affiliations and thewillinguess to provide specific referencesand links to sources.

Certain non-scholarly pitfalls arefound over and over again. A commonlyheld beliefabout vernacular culture is thatone's own form actually represents 1heentire universe of regional forms; thus awriter often overlooks or even dismisses

30

the possibility of variation. Unlike old­fashioned "letters to the editor,"anonymous posting seems to encourageenthusiastic declarations and loadedreasoning. Scholars who enter terms intoonline search engines will receive manythousands of responses in return.Determining which are of value can bedifficult. Anyone can publish on theInternet because there is no reviewprocess. For example, peer-reviewedscholarly articles exist alongside poorlyresearched works of opinion andassumption. The writers' own

.pronunciation, usage, definition orexplanation ofexpressions (which can bevery valuable when stated as such) canoften be stumbling blocks to a clearunderstanding ofactual coverage or usage.Their personal opinions and earnestarguments about Newfoundland usage cancloud the waters. Often they are primarilyoffering advice and proscriptions aboutexpressions they are somewhat or highlyoffended by. Such reports can take theform ofsweeping assertions about originsand etymologies ofsurnames, genealogies,place-names, ethnic groups (extinct andextant), based on second- and third-handreports from the "oldpeople" or vague oralhistory. Sometimes what is proposed as alocal term is actually merely technicalvocabulary or even a widely known,common but informal term.

Unless a query retrieves extensivetexts, the postings usually do not quotelanguage as actually used, in identifiedspeech, quotation, fiction, news article, orarchived recording.

Web information on Newfoundlandlanguage may not inspire much trust if,along with the views supplied, there is notan indication of some monitoring orreviewing or an opportunity to edit oremend the posting.

Philip Hiscock and William J. Kirwin

Recent publications

An efficient way to locate printedworks related to Newfoundland andLabrador language studies is to consult theresources in lhe Queen Elizabeth IIwebsite: <http://www.library.mun.caJ>

For books search "catalogue" bykeywords: linguis$

languageSdialect$

after you have changed the "all libraries"setting to "Centre for NewfoundlandStudies," so that only the Newfoundlandand Labrador material comes up.

For articles, on the same page(<http://www.Jibrary.mun.ca/) click"Article Indexes," then under "P," the"PAB (Newfoundland PeriodicalArticle Bibliography)" and search bykeywords: linguis$

languageSdialectS

Combine these terms with any otherkeywords (map$, wordS, names$,surnames$, place names$, etc.) joined by"and" to find Newfoundland and Labradorarticles.

With assistance of J. Ritcey.

Works that havecome to our notice

Andersen, August, William Kalleo, andBeatrice Watts, eds. LabradorU/lnnalsigutet: An Inuktitut-EnglishDictionary of Northern LabradorDialect. Nain: Torngasok CulturalCentre, 2007.

Bulgin, James, Nicole Elford, LindsayHarding, Bridget Henley, SuzannePower, and Crystal Walters. "So veryreally variable: Social Patterning ofIntensifier Use by NewfoundlandersOnline." Linguistica Atlantica 29(2008):101-115.

Clarke, Sandra. "A Bibliography ofWritings on Newfoundland English."http://www.mun.ca/linguistics/research/l anguage/NL_Engl ish_bibliography.pdf. 2010. Weh. 18February 2011.

----. ''New dialect fonnation in aCanadian aboriginal community: Notso different after all?" VariationistApproaches to Indigenous MinorityLanguages. Ed. James N. Stanfordand D. Preston. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2009.109-128.

----.Newfoundland andLabradorEnglish. Edinburgh: EdinburghUniversity Press, 2010. 212 p.

----and Philip Hiscock. "IIip-hopin a Post-insular Community:

31

Hybridity, local language andauthenticity in an onlineNewfoundland rap group." Journalof English Linguistics 37, 3(2009):241-61.

Dorais, Louis-Jacques. The Language ofthe Inuit; Syntax, Semantics, and theSociety in the Arctic. Montreal:McGill-Queen's University Press,2010.396 p.

Gold, Elaine and Janice McAlpine, cds.Canadian English: A LinguisticReader. Kingston, Ont.: Queen'sUniversity, Strathy Language Unit,"Occasional Papers No.6, 2010241 p. <http://www.queensu.ca/strathv/apps/OP6.pdt>.2010. Web.18 February 2011.

Hornsby, Stephen J. Surveyors ofEmpire;Samuel Holland, J.F. W DesBarres, and the Making of TheAtlantic Neptune. Montreal:McGill-Queen's University Press,2011. 304 p.

The Kelligrews Soiree. Conception BaySouth, Nfld.: Town of ConceptionBay South, 2010. 32 p. Glossary28-30.

McGrath, Robin. All in Together: Rhymes,Ditties and Jingles ofNewfoundland and Labrador. St.John's: BoulderPublications, 2009.261 p.

32

Mi'sel Joe. An Aboriginal Chief'sJourney. Compo and ed. Raoul R.Andersen and John K. Crellin. St.John's: Flanker Press Ltd., 2009.172p.

Old-Time Songs and Poetry ofNewfoundland; Songs of/he Peoplefrom the Days ofour Forefathersby Gerald S. Doyle. A FacsimileReprint of the 1940 Edition [thesecond edition]; With a newintroduction by Anna KearneyGuigne. St. John's: Folklore andLanguage Publications; MemorialUniversity ofNewfoundland, 2008.[82]p.

Oxford English Dictionary Online: link toHistorical Thesaurus.

STUDENT ASSISTANTS

Names of Memorial University studentswho have helped in projects ofthe EnglishLanguage Research Centre were presentedin RLS...Newfoundland 18, p. 31.

Further names can be added to thatlist. Alicia Colbert and Amanda Saunderscarried out the field research collectingplace-names in Placentia Bay,Newfoundland, directed by Robert Hollettbetween 1990 and 1993. Trevor Porter andPerry Pond collected Trinity Bay place­names, resulting in Porter's 1999 M.A.thesis.

Student assistants who have workedin ELRC since February 2010 includeAuditee Ameen, Brent Augustus,Catherine Burgess, Joelle Carey, ManjotGill, Melanie Hurley, Rebecca Kalombo,Rebecca Lewis, Matthew Lidstone,Meaghan Malone, Jane Manuel, AlisonMcEvoy, Nicole Penney, Paul Pigott,Suzanne Power, Renee Sanson, BrandiSnow, Kevin Terry, and Lisa Wilson. Allstudents worked for the Dictionary ofNewfoundland English Word-FileDigitization Project, except for MeaghanMalone, who worked for the OnlineDialect Atlas of Newfoundland andLabrador English (DANL).

ftPrfnUnlServtce,