UNIVERSITIES · RKILL i.i.il)l~S - BOSTOS - KCILS "Iil1il . LEmED JIJRISTS AND THEIR PROFIT FOR...

UNIVERSITIES AND SCHOOLING IN

MEDIEVAL SOCIETY

EDITED BY

WILLIAM J. COURTENAY

.bYD

JCRGEX MIETHKE

\\'ich rhe .Assistaiice of David B. Priest

RKILL i.i.il)l~S - BOSTOS - KCILS

"Iil1il

LEmED JIJRISTS AND THEIR PROFIT FOR SOCIE'IY- SOME ASPECTS O F T H E DEVELOPME'IT O F LEGAL

STUDIES Al' I T L L L N AW GERhlAN IJhWERSITIE.5 IN T H E LATE MIDDLE AGES

Helmiit G. Walthei

In 1936, rhc arcliives of rhe Bolo,miesc Denari family passed into the custody of thc Bihiioteca Comunale OS Imola. O f Odofredus: a

legal scholar of [hat iamily, no icill has bcen preserved among rhc records, ivhile that of .Albert, his son, is still exranr. Howeve- rhere are sorne rhirty chaners in which Odofrcdus occurs as p a r n to proper? dcal jns in and around Bologna. In 1Lay and August: 1260, ioi cwmple, Odofredus bought the cstate (sire oirh buildingj adjacenr to Iiis own house. T h e building thus purchased ontaincd his law schoois (.!cok), for which he had previously paid a rent. a fact in i w l l \iarraiited by d a c u m e n t a ~ e\idence.!

Earlicr scholars hrld that Odofredus's lirnilh beionged ro tlic nobil- i n of Bologna. hut in light OS rhe recorded e\idence> which includes rhe above-rnenrioned documenrs, this i-ie\v is no lonser renable. Rarher. Odofredus scerns to ha\:c been tlie firsr mcrnber of rhe Denan faniil:, to ariain the d i p i y o i a dorfar icgiu~n. T!icreforc, the scholar's own artirude toivards practicing Bologna's rrien:in nortrn is particularly rc~caliiig: lecrurc notcs reporting perriiienr rcniarks and reflcctions

.A. Pwuvasr. Lhiinizio di Od,$~do. I< pmigomir dciieji.mi,rbo GnndoM Odojed, rdi- :iom C r q o o :1/63-l;991. Cniversiri drgii Siudi di ßi>lopa. Lliicellanea i (Spnlcio.

: Tor Odofieilus's pui<:liasis rrlaunq ro Ihir laiv rchool\ iii ?da? 11'60. ice nor. /T ,xid 18 p p . !25lf>: iiii payrnczii of ;i rriit 3<1 i o ien ibc i 1248 foi lzrmuoi i u p ?,o +imr lcuir :pr>in donuni Od./;tdu. rcr i i i > I:$ ,,p. IO! . ior thc <iill o i Odolicdus'i

.A!bciiiis O<icJredi. scc LI . S ~ n i i and \ I . T.\nrinisi, Br rlerii nr in ,pnnarz i Ih>i,»iirnii ~ o d ; < ~ n ~iir<ulo .Y1 uiciir od ~,i«>iiiii>i .W: _' cdd. C. .&oicisi nnd C. l . . . 1' I . noic>qii. 1888-ll196i. a i i o l . 11. no. L {pp. 78-81;; aiid P*uo i i x i ino. 58) I>. 167 fi>i corircii<iiis. Odofrrdi i i l>ini,dl appean 2s hrir iif hir $~:I*.I~. C:J~,,X,:L !,hn.< :., 2rhz,s , ,~,,,,II,u. ,I,%. ,,~II & , , i , ~ ~ !+U>, +I I?/#. sr. BF.K,X,>S. " ß ~ > i i > ~ c \ c r Iril:lmi~i,ii~ I ' (-,rl!,,> i,. fi>,<ii#. aus 1,riic,i .!,:h. :<. B h . . 7 0 !~!lll~~, PI,. I:>! :'3:3. .,t I>!>. ?I(;!).. :k.xt i . ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ i t ~ ~ . .

LE4R"IED JGRISTS AW TIiElR PROFlT FOR SOCIETY 101

suggest that Odofredus made it quite plain that his chief ohjcctive was simply to p i n p r ~ f i t . ~

The backg~ound of the Denari family seems to have been veiy closely associated iuith the Bolognese popoio, which from 1228 onwards took sole responsibility for the running of the Commune. This is suggested by some scraps of information concerning Odofredus's father, Bonaccursius, which can be directiy related to what is known about rhe political activity of the elder son who rose to the rank of a legal schoiar. Cerrainiy, in Alay 1253. the Socielar ~0rImomrn of the popolo convened in Odofredus's home."Bedes, it was perfectiy normal for the master of a schoia for legal studies to sewe his home comrnunity as a representative or delepte on diplomatic missions and othenvise, thereby meeting expectations which the Commune would not be content to put on only those of its docforer kpm ~ h o were Bologna born and hred.

In the late nvelfth century, it had become a poinr of controveny whetlier or not jurists from outside of Bologna should be swom to the Commune; yet a sratute of 1217 settled the issuc in favor of ihe oarh. bloreover in 1215, it was ordained [hat even; jurist w a to be an ei oJitio-member of the c r e k a , a council of six hundred. For appoincmenrs of lrgal docton as delegatcs. rhe inner council of the Commune :cnnsiliuni ipcclaic el genernle) elected, from all l e s l docrors oi' ilii city. persons they deemed siiitable-such as Odofredus.'

' b i i i r r viei%,s. see X. T.U<,SSLI. Odoji.do. iiudio ifanb-@"<dito (1894/95, icpr.: T.wt.~rix*. .Sm!!< di Sbne qiuid i rn li (Padova. 196i), pp. 335-163, at 341K: ihis line rrill loiiiid iuppoii »ich J. Fn'ni~o. "Dic Enrrrcbung dn Jurisrenrtandes im I?. ,Jahrhundci.i. Z u r roziaicn Siclliiiig und polirirchcs Bedeurung grlelirier Jutirien in Bologiia und \~lodcna.' in: Fnviikunpm :ur nrurrm Ru,orrrili&f~sgrirhir L I Colopc- Vitnna. IWi:, pp. I l+t. 138: I~ui ivas icjecred Iby PADDV*NI. L'orini>:io. pp. i9f.: Tor iliv $i>riai i irisrurr 01' Rolu,q<i uppei clarr ar rhe iimc N. W.~\mnrszi;i. "Dir Ohinchichren Bolixm% und ilirc Rolle walircnd der i ~ s h i l d i i o ~ der Kornrnanc !I?. und 13Jahrhuridcri .' ,Euiop.iischc Hochschul~h6fien. :3 scr: Geiciiirliir. vol. 566. FianMun a. \ I . ei al.. 1993i. ai p. 181 (*irh i e k i d io ihe ju+rir.: The Fcnr i . 3 1 ~ ~ <,I' cerraiii parsagci in Odo1'iedur'r !eciurar ai a rocio-hiographkai rouicc has :ilready brrn noicd 1,) K. vos C v i c u i , Ces:rrrkiihrr d u rion~urkrn R d i < im .llituialtei. iol. V '1050. :icpr. Bad Hornhurx, iilbli, pp. 756R, and TAMASS~A. pp. +OGlF

' P.kuiii-.<Y#. Lkii6r;~a. 11. 211: \Icriing of ihe Soiierar Quoußi,mnmm m rra!i< damim 0 I I. \Lai l2i.Y. piinrcd in: Ciaidi dd!t .Swirt6 kl popii!o di ilo!ozsn. ed. i. Ci.iioesri. 1 Korne. IRlIil'. p. 2 9 9 oii Bonrcciiniur, -\. HESSE, "Gcrchichrc dcr Smdi Bolozna von 1 1 1 h :>i, 1>00." Hiilonrilrp .Sfudu>. 76. :l<)lO:. i>. 225: P.eovcui. . , , ]>I>. ?J. .il.'>lT. ,.\pp. 1 :tnd I\,'!.

T (71, dir i>c>liiii-s of iiic p : i r ~ t ~ i . ~ ~ I i i ~ > or docrors o l Lais ;i~id rlic Co:iirnimc: irr R<ii<>?ii:i. H. \ V * i i ~ ~ a . -'Dir :\i,i:iiiqc der Kcchirsii~diurnr iiiirl dic koiiiiiiiiiialc \\C!, ii:ilicn\ ihi i-l~ichiiiiii~~l:iliiir," iii: .$~it~„!,~ nnii .S:udiim, ;,TZ ru;lo!,r 1l;~ndri dcr i i~ i i im uiid

102

For the whole of his life: Odofredus remained a faithful cirizen of rhe Comrnune of Bolopa. His loyalty became not least apparcnt in a quarrel hetiveen srudents frorn outside of Bologna, and the Commune. Since rhc turn o i the thirteenth centiin, the fomer had demanded the nghi ro form unioersit&s. Wirh corporätion laiv in mind, bur also out of seif-inrerest arising from iheir capacily as scliool- masrers' the law reachers of Bologna urterly rejecrcd this claim. T o them, ihe only available option seerned to be to folloiv rhe Paris model and to form a corporarion themselves, elcctirig a iecfor from arnorig the teaching staR Tlie students chose ro run thc risk of Open confiict, and from 1204 onwards organized several ccsswnes to pur pressure on the Commune, a method thar proved successful in rhe end.'

The way Odofredus expounds his notion of a law wacher in his ciasses is npical, as is the fact thar in order ro lcgirimize ir. he rcfcrs to rhc letal side of rhe ivay thc rclatianship bcnrcen reachcrs and students in Bologna's law ichools had evolved. \ p o d Bolognese citizen, he was prepared in ihr end ra accepr the decision of his Commune ro gan r to rhe scholores rhc righr ro elecr rheir own rec- tor, and thus to form a uniucrsilai-in spite of Odofredus's own opin- ion thar this ler muniripalis was in disageemenr ii.irh the Bolognese rradirion of interprering clause 3.17.3 o i ihr: Code. Commcntiii on rhe nu/hen/icn "Habiii' 'posr C.-1.13.jj, Odofredus notcd rhar during rhe above-mcnrioned quarrel. Bologna's srudents lhad agrccd to riiin- quish thcir iigh! tu be tried I)!. a coiiri oT ihrir own cliooiiii:. 'i'his rernark acqiiircs sprcial si:nific;ince if ir is relared to n siariire uf I3 April i2.i4 iiiar h;<s comc 10 tiie anenrion uf bcholars oiily vc- rcrentl?: the inncr council af the Commune gantcd Co ihi. t<>~iceni-

Jas ~ioiaili~n itiar rhe: woiild cliangc ihr resiarioni re!ariii: ro ezile .li pii~iislimciir ior thosc coiivicied o l killing :i srildrrii.

. i t thc rinic Odotiedus. iicriii~ as a reprcscniari\-c "i Boloeiia's Li!\.

icaclirrs. ro~crlicr iiith his collea.gic Boiiaparrc. wiii,esscrl n mari-

-

,!;oirii .l/i:!:~/o/l~ii. \,>n:;iSi U. Forsch. 30. cd. J. Fniio. Siirn;iiinqc:i. 19iiOi. pp. / > , ,.. I(??. Lht ! i$ l l : : .\. P,%,. .'I ,,,acs,ri d?ii<> S<"<ii<> "<l!':l<r>vi,~ ~,n:,,;,,i$irx<iua C

!,c,liiii.o <i<,l < : i ) i i ? i a ~ l ~ b r> l l )~ i cs~ . ' i i l : fi/,%i~ iiiii.n<il~n!m r i i i / ~ , ~ r i , i ,/,d V// ' . . : in li ,iiijiii. . \ i t i dr! 2 ' C : ~ > i i i ~ ~ , ~ > . e<i. 0. C,\PI~*Y~ Boliiwi;i. :!>!%:I. s?. l i l 178. .,: 13;!r.: I , . ~ .~ , . ,~CC (>d8,frcdus ii, P.~,,ov.xx,. ~:~,~hi:,~. .+:P. 1.11. \ . r ~ i . C C ~

.\I><> P.,,>,,<.\V<> i,i~>?r.,pl,ic\l re?i,:rr. ! ,,,. ?:!W. ' 7Y.\i:riibir. --,\i!l::iv:v." ),I>. iiiil: oii ihc ci>iillii.i i n r r i h r roii,i,i.,r(oii aaius mir

%t,:<!,v>?! !,>:27<,7\:/,?!,.> .t:,,i < , I , $.,.7$,"2,?, .,1.,<r !?I14

L E ~ E D JURISTS .&\D THEIR PROFIT FOR SOCIETY 103

date by the podesti exiling five named convicts. Hoirever. Odofredus was also aware that a law teacher, sitting as a judge OS his pupiis, niav not easily expect to see his judgements esecuted, given the sociai standing of his students which might readily be much higher than his own $i uero i~hola% eri -U, conlra q m mnguler timet)."

T o Odofredus ir was essential, however, tliat any discord exisung becween the studizm and the Commune of Bolo,pa stayed quiet, at least Sor the duration OS the struggle hetween the Commune and Emperor Frederick 11. This canfiict was finally setrled in Savor of the

* G. Roru, "'Uniienitas rchoiarium e comune." in: Sludu s mmona l>n 10 S h M dr i l 'uninsib di Bolognn. n.r I IBolo~na. 1956!, pp. li3-266, ai 191C: P. \V~rirnn, zur Dokroru,urdc dci Boio,qerer Le,$rren," in: /i.$pkce rkrrluoopni<ck Rrrhu~esch2h@, F~.si<l~oht/ Hrimui Coin;r z m 70. LIburlilog, iur Commuiie, Sondcrhrlt 17 ,hanklui i a. X<.. 1982!, pp. i i l- ,143, ai 432fi.: \ V * ~ i w s a . ' ' :h&n~e." yp. l58C o n rhc sarli- iog o l thc Bolognear juririr on corp<iiirion I ~ C O N , and rhe icjccOon of rhe srudcnr i~ntwrrilo!ei;: Oi>o~cz~r r , LItliiro iuppn Codtce I. L." 1532. ;Rcpr. ßolopa. 19681. ad. C.3 . l i .3 : .Sipoß i&x i i la ioquorui pri :rihe gtnrrolio r l nbiruro. !omrn :iz ,prri< drbelir i i o e.7mpi@n i*;rm iiinm: ii n1iq.i ,V"<<", oliqundprg~s,i"nm, ur ,U", iom~,om h v w <;C;- !aiii. rel i i niiqui <rrirrni nliquod ne;ro,~alionm. irl iunl mmafom <r prlliponz <r pritarri nnr quan uni~ori:a,mi ri rarpui. qvod par- ,U"< ii<"i< n hohme .i(ilOiPr. z:mm ,nmm d>rimur yiiod dr iun ,inoia,<r non porrunl <I*?,? ~NIOT<S. qrzio isii $uni disripirii donomm. :,ndt ipi doiiorri. qui r.~ncmf prdi i i ionm. oibe#i: diec~re r~,!or,-s. P! 8,o ,cnpsit jo.:7tonnes E ~ ~ i o ~ ~ ~ ~ s ~ CI .l::o;. E! 210 i io !~ , . q8~od *XI Pami~, . .i#?od do:ni;or< ciiqtini rcrioic< ,,I iion iiiioiara. 7i;orm ?er l q m miiniiipo;tm i ~ i i i i ~ i ;i:r!om ~ r h o i ~ r o z U . I)>. IlOrh.; Oooiri.i>is. Liiurn iu,,o D@ia lirm !. L.yriii l j i l l . i i [ r . ßr>login. 1 9 i l j . nd Coiiii. Omiirm. no. i: dii i i nimn. qua; ~ r o j i r ~ i i i iu"~ oiziii., wn, iwhirr ordmoni <iho/air~m i i bi61 ii.ihuio>r., iioboil ~qgnorinr Habnr rtioni aiior duoi iudi i i r xiiicr: rp>.<o(,um n prr<idm pro;;niir. E) h'irr cr,. quad cuir dzrm brmrr !n,o i<rn m»- 2sli,!m tirqur i ~ i j > i m fo. ?L . ; il>iU. ad 3 Iliud rno. r . i L p m pr?iprror<i = nu. Ei:: /:I ,;C no!o. qimd ,inoiam h i i i 11nbtni : ~ i i:tdiiti: ! io!rsln~n, rpuiopum i;r,iintur. qiioe ionsiiiueii 0, Tndrnii i m ~ n n - toi i i . !. . j rrad? coiina ri i io,i~m in Izi,rail 8 n n habrbnn! pnr i iquin rn ia i i ib i i i C! ~ ~ m i » o I i h , i ~ .ri,,ri.s. ."ui"iib,,i ;ro +\a,. c i T.,>iiiii., iJdo/tdo. 2 . 412: \ I . B ~ w m a r i Ronic. c;iIlcd n? ainiiiioii ro a dociimcni. SD Cuincnio i i l 20i)O o l I 5 April I?++. lir discoiered ii, ihc Stjiti. .%rcliii.er i i i Boloana. iihirh coiii;iiiis die riaturon rr~iiioiir rq+,morio 01 ilic C~rttsiii81rn iprrioL <r qmnoir oi ßoiogia i i i r l i r r q r d io ilii i i i iplcmcniii io~~ oC cxrummunicaiion ioi moiial a r i r i h on nui8- 1hi;il iiudczin. !d >io/ani noa bnbrnr iiic h t i h n Sr j t qu rn lo oindi<niui ?<nißiq: iiie.!c

i:,!~,;i!,."i ai>,:r~ioi,"i r;ii<;d Pr, ,<,>nv>:w loniin,r j"! ilaluium. rl,iod i> "iiii ,i,mm ,ri in>>>>" iomnzu- :;:\ 117 n!ii>!,. t:/iiuirir ,rniCir> ;iii:i:ca;!:oni oiimius mmibii <i&ro>ii hmia :ro :>ubiiioi

p,,.,,! .im <ir ii~imiu. O n I ~ C r c i e i ~ n t iniles ol ihe larer Baioqioc riaiutc~. SC,.

.\. (;ii iui.vi>. -Gli s r i i ? i l i i rr; i i i i i i :Ir! (.:oiiii,iiv <ii ßiil<iqizi iniomo 'ilo iiu<bo.' B>aiitr~i~o : I ! I I l ! 1 , . i!i-1:ii. m 1301: D< toun:,u p o ~ c ~ m ! o n ? ,#:iii;i;ii .: i i , :ni dir h<:>ii!n ,,in <. i#mi i i i ic : . Rti is i . PI>. ?i>jll'. -Odi>ir<iinr. irt:!i>il <z<?,.r i.,isiti, i r.d. i i i . ,>i G ;,.,:J :<-:,i,m, ,i! n,<~,t?:i,;i~. ioiiires iiirm n:~,g:.,vi ;;irv~! 7.1 r:,,i- , . , o3.:..r.i. .i..,pri>i<i,i .i,r,,~>;;i,,>,;. ,;.:i,.,: ."" :i",i,i,i>i /;>,,:;,!i;<. i,,. iii,i>

Commune fol!oiring tlie battie of Castelfranco in bIay 1249, w,hich rhc Staufian army, led by King Enzio, lost. Odofrcdus would have Bologna the sole place ar which the scienlia nuilia, thc study of fhe lihn iegaies established rhere by the famous Irnenus, u8as to he wught and studied leg i~rna te l~ . Yet to him rht. l ib i nosln, rhus defined. did nor reprrsent a disciptine of philosophen despising money. In fhe Digest itself. a clear line is draw~i between the recte phiiosophanles (pi) contemnunt peclininm (Papinian in D.50.5.8.4) and the shcdiosi iu*, gui salaG petebani, and to whom such fees had been granted by Emperor ;\ntoninus Pius (Ulpian in D.50.13.4). So far, Odofredus was in absolute agreemenr wich Accursius, Iiis rivai: jurists did not Count among such philosophers who shunned nches. Whocver embarked upon stud9ng this scwilin could be surc that in the future he would rnake a vciy- good living. Ir was Tor rhis reason that Pope Innocent I1 in 1130, at rhe Council of Clermont, forbade monis and regtdar canons to study rnedicine and iegei, a r p i n g that these were s&hm izcraiiiae.'

When Hononus III renewed this prohibition in 1219' the lese1 remained eacluded from rhe Courses of study aGailable ar Pans. Nor surprisingly, canon law could nor especr ro pass unnoticcd in this discussiori. Johannes Teuronicus, a Bolognese decretalist of rhe first half of the rhirtrenth century, althwgh khaving coined the plirasc [hat science was a diiine gilt and hence not avaiiable for sale, agreed wirh Grärian, who a cenrun; eariier pur fonvard the view that ro ask foi- a fcr in rerurn for leg! ad\ice 2nd aid was, iii moral ierrns. pri-ikd? right and proper!

: Oii ilir siiuuiion under Friednch LI.: iirsra~. 'Gcrchichie du Siadi Boloqa.' 39. IR9-?5? G. D, \.'ERGOVISI_ ia 71uniU di ßolop. i.impo. il P@a<o 19541i6:. T F ~ T ~ d . C. D O L ~ I S I . Spp!~t<>. I<)<J6,, pp. +Y-60: ROIII. "Cnivc~iias." pp. ?!i- ?>5: \ \ . u i i i ~ x . ".bißnzr. pp. l?Oli rrpci-inl!? on ihc rolr «C Odolrrdus :iiid his inrrii>rctarion of rhc Ibrqiiininq ioi B o l o ? ~ ~ and 01 siirn,ii> iini;io: foi i h r iclevaiii r r u s rcr ' i . ~ < s a ~ Vdg.;rdo. !ig>. 3lif.. 1,ui conpnic rhr iinpurrmi rnanurc+p< cor- icciions oii Odofrcdui ;idolir<io-tl<:iiniiii> K.iiiroioi~icr." in: . Owuio CIIPITASI. .S<n!i: dq l~ oilici boln,pn; Bi>laqii;i. !990i. pp. i 9 ?B. iti<lirioii oi Odofirdur ro Dis. I . I I : nari ~ r n m d o i b r r . ~ . .

/.r!o>i r<:. c i i . Fo. 6~3:: J: Fa:ru. "~~minzrn i i~ i ldung d<:i Boloqncrei Junsien iin I?. iind 13. .I;iliiliunden.' ii~: L;::;ri.,i!i r ioi;rti nri rrioii .Si/-.ii? Piriizia. 1982:. ?p. 2 ; i i . :ii ilii: Odi>lxrdiis iiiid :\cciirsiiir 01) rhc dcvelopii>ri~r oT cliurcl> icachinu .mid !I><- lpo~iiioii of rhi. C~ni>i>isis. src ripiciiily C;. Porr. - \ l a s r c i a ' ,r!lrirr arid .ii:<!ci,r io i l i e inc<li.~cial iiiiii.cisiiicr.' Sfi',<ulu>n. 7 :1!13-. pi>. 181-!98: G. Pari. . : . s a n R. L!. I l i c rncdii.i;il hc"i;qi o i . i liiirnaoirii< ide:~!: 'Scienii;~ iiiiiialn Dci csi. uiidc vcnO; iioii piiica;' Irndiiio. 1 1 ii'lji. p p 1% ?:i+. FKIII,. \'<-r;i>ii.i~!is!>iidddl~, P!> '9F.

~ (7:; ,!>C. 8motivc.s rhv ~i:x :?:tp.!i i>r~,Itiliti,>~~ of !?I<). ths, lbcs I < 3 t i l l S. K,-ITXF.X.

LEARNED JLRISTS km =IR PROFIT FOR SOCIETY 105

In devising and harmonizing their law counes, law schoois followed exactly rhe principlc that quality had its price. T h e study oT hoch laws, and parricularly that of the ieges, was naturally expensive: as the scn4ces of law reachers were by no means availabie for frce. Odofredus, calculaung the cost of a law coune, explained to his stu- denü rhat they would have to rnake provision lor annual expenses of 100 Lire. For ihe averape fix-year course, ~vhich was expected of an applicant for a posirion of i&z in an Italian commune, tfiis made a total o l 500 Lire, an immense sum of money. Sriil four yean after Odofredus's death, his son .Albert executed outstanding debrs of 36 Lire, being the share of two of his farher's srudenü in a total annual fec (callcd colieclaj of 400 Lire. Nberi, who worked as a reacher of the hges as asvell' continued bis farher's property deaiings o n the same scalc, as is tiow confimed by rhe cvidence of family records. Already before his Caiher's dcath, he had been giving out loans to students, disbursing far rnore rhan 1.000 Lire altogether?

It was more rhan a subtle hint iuhen Odofredus remarlied. in thr course of Iiis lecrure 011 the Code, [hat srudents were notorious debron who. althoogh wirhin% to acquirc knowlcdge, would hopc to a\:oid payrnent and. ivorse still: would evcn ask rlieir tcachen for loans. Odofrcdus \vould consider a laiv srudenr poor if he had less ihan 100 Lirc pcr year to spend. Periiaps tlir larnous reachri used such f i p r e s to flairer Iiis studens: ivho ppically bclonged ro tlie tipper class. arid inciiided appropriare rrrnarks in Iiis lecrures ro inipro\-c Iiis siudcnt's iviilingness to pay rheii Iees. l'lic implications oT a i-elarionship as would arise bcnvcrn a lo\%-born reacller and

P r p ~ Hocoiiorius Ill. und dar Studiuni der Liiiiic<liir." iii: F:~sIwh$ f i r ilorlin I&!@ ' T u l > ~ y ~ n . 1952 . pp. ; !4- I l i l : C L m ~ x ~ , ''D:,< G.~iicw,,; <op,.< C , haa~ctio Jus<iniana." l<lli~l. icpr. iii i ; < n s i n . 7i>r HLirny I//iirn> oad h~inr i i r dConoi, Laii in iht .\iidd/<

iwf. \.ariori>in 113. Loiido~i. 1982:. Si. X: or> il>r r;>iiniiiiii disiusiiin ~i Lnoiii-

' ~ \ ' ~ ~ ~ n ~ ~ ~ n ~ l ~ i l ~ l ~ ~ n ~ . " pp. 301.. ' Ol>orniot:s. Li~rciii 3i,pn i;orli<r al>i>vr in. ii. ad C.+.?S.i: .% irn rfi.vzf I n r r i j 6 0 : . . .

l.cd( l'ansio, ;ri Bai>nn8«m iriir:on: iibi «ro,uß:ini C !ihm, iii. ?261 : T.<uuri~ . Odolilidd. ]>I>. +lill'.: i:aiii>. ~ \ i i - m o ~ c i i ~ I ~ i i r l ~ ~ ~ ~ c , ' ~ pp. I O I i oii rhc iinanrkil :niis~.<ciioiir o i ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~ l ' r ~ ~ i ~ ~ ,IIKI .Ulxr:c~ witl, ,ttn~I~ms.: on cl~c , .~ / I e~ t6 t , S~VI<;&Y. ~ ; e ~ c h w i w , vol. 111.

23.~1:: ,.,>I. !.. 3rii11: l,a,,is~ r~~i~is,,l ti,c. ~cK,,~,,,I,~ 1269 ,3vcr I>>?! ili.l>i o i lila , i i i i i i i < l q l i > t .! Ikiiiirc niOdriiicdii.;. pii. 381li: ar :\ii>i.ri,>s Odofrehi: 11. ~ i i i . ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . SP,:~,. ,:,iio,;;~.,i:,: .iri!;.cn ,iana:, r,J8,i.icc c:.,idnin. I');".. i511i. ,iillii::ii. . ?'I0 :I! .t.~~t~l:xr<Ik,;~$iz?~> ,ol' -tuh\ !>?,!:wrs: l ' .~u,>v\x:. l.'or~h,:t~~. Sr.

! J I . I?:!!: , o i> .\iiii.ii- liii.iii<i;il orz~:oii;iii,ii,i ii!iii \iii<li.nrs

106 HELMW C. W A L ~ E R

aristocratic ~ u ~ i l s aie well iilusrrated by one of Odofredus's remarlis showing that ir was not the studenü who would salute tlieir teacher: ihey would wait for hirn to greet them firsr. At any ratr: he would always address his audience as Sipon'"

Whoever carne from ul~ra monles to study law ar Bolo,gna had to be aware thar 1Mng expenses would be high. Of coune, the major- ity of students from imperial temtones who carne to the river Reno studied the iaw of the church, as there was no dcmand for legists at horne, and as Bologna's schools laid rnost ernphasis on practicai skills rather than pure theory. Nevenheless, it seems fair to suggest rhar those studenü of canon law belonged ro an (aristocratic) upper class which uaditionally had access to rich benefices sufficient to sup- port a studenr at Bolopa. Even sorneone iuho would class as "pau- per" in Italy would have found it difficult to meer the cost irithout holding a canon. in some cathedral chapter or collegiate church. As Johannes Teutonicus, writing befare the middle of the thirteenrh century, had explained in his ordinaq gloss on Gratian's Decrerum: He who had to pore over books and ro swot at ihe glosscs should be rewarded adequately for his experrise in thc end."

'' Ono~neo~r . Lriarn iupm D@," I>&' rn;hoi.e, n. 6:. in fine Dis. .= D.?+.?.! I : LI dGo ~ o b k qvod in mno i~qarnli >n!cndo docnr oidinonr hme ,I Iqoiiln i;<ui iiinquom J":: rr,ma,dino,ie non trrdo kg"e. puia ,<h"inm non ,uni I",,> bognioi<r. quia :olu,ii riin <<d nai- iini iohm iura ülud: -3hrr rolunl omner, mnmdm ioicmt nrn>o'' ,fo. 1?2r!. rf' ad D.4.3.i $10: Poniitlr iwu de irholndvr qiri upr hnpiunl dorroies ri mmioium: iogor oiiquk iialnn, mrw rite titl oliqum ninroiaim. "1 iibi mulum prruniom fo. 16?\,); ad C.9.6.1: Toto du :idmur quod aiiqirk ncuruar peruninm X rrholßniiiii d M l j i r i r sunifioR~snm :T". 1 9 h : oi, ihi: oilici ridc. ihe piairicr o i law rencheri incieajiiig rhiii income hy lend- i i ig nioney io rheii nudci>ü, ad D.l.12.1: Col/<q< h i i o?pmmluni ionlm doriam. qiii niu~uoni p c ~ n i n m iiiioionbm. 111 oumo~ir ro.7, nam r r ;pio ioi< r i ~ p ~ ~ i i .ro. Y i r , ; ad D.3.?.?0: I);d< :r"¿,nnl iibi domin2 irhalßi~<. yuondo m3nni doiiornn iuum. q"od muiuri iai" iuo rnn- !irnr nom idiiolnrLs 1mebi1111 mmdoli. i i dot~oi d;co!: <:U i ~ l a i v e ~ d r ~ PTPTLI 1- ,.fo I M i : oii rhe dificrrnce in levcl. ad C.6.3.6: Emnl mvlii diri>pii/i, qui rian prmmiua dommum .,ui<ni in ioiulando. quio <.~pri!anl quod damMw inluiri mi. ro. l5v: ad Dis. vri.. Conri. O m n e m " S V . "ioluum" :,= iio. li: quondo iiholnii. es! in !wo m n ri uuil rribrre darron sub (1.ii2. »n iolu!olionr >,in roibii "ra:omdn ziio"; i i i ~ bmr dzoi. lamm non horioiei d w iomn iuum "rui dcbnrr: dcb17(( dicmc "illwh "iio Bonons doirnh". 6. Y\.!. Odoficdur :iiiioducer evin !bis se r i i o i i wirb hir coaoman. iom iof addicrr: "01 iz,pati."

T b r ccorioi:;ic 3rii i :r o i Lliiarnoniaiie irude:>ii i i i Bolo'in. Ono~nini-r i d I>.? 1 : 3 I . $2 l'o~niiiin! roir r.~prnminla ullromanin>ii. .Vorn ;nd,~ri, od <ni@nrm> iiir nd arg";. :c;~mi dvr: i < h o ! ~ n ~ ui:romi;~irnn:ii: iinhniu in 6bn i quu1;rt.r dtdz i.ohi.s C n,aiicu n i p i n n n ;i,;n!r; d2i r i i rmln i : ,iniioiii iq,,oli~n nviii s o l ~ i ~ i i ~ L nzazn;. io. ij;r-~On fiii~iicial ri,dos- iiirii:< :X 3 prcrrqiiiriii. Iiii- riudy li,i a "Cliinmoni~iiiir' i i ~ B<ilusiia. S<:H\VIXCEI. ''1)i.r Siii<ii.iit i i i <Irr ii,iii.nii.ii." in: G,riiiiii;,r der ii>i;o<;!n: in E,~><rnj~,~. i r > l I : : ! . I . cd. !\' I l icci. '\liiiiicii. 191)li. pli. 181 -?:X, csp. ?l(;!T.: P. l I < m a ~ , < . ' l ) i r Lcl>ri>r~ic: dci <jiodciiic.n.' il>id.. pii. ??5 254. cr!> ?3!111:: ih<- pircisr si><,:ii

LEIXXED JURIST5 T I E I R PROFE FOR SOCIETY 107

When in Octobcr 1264, Cies of Bmges, bfasrer Johannes de lnsula of Tournai, a canon, John of Ghent, and Blundus faced having ta Iwk for funding for their canon law coune at Bologna, they took out a loan nf 25 Lire from Aibertus Odnfredi, do&i l e p , ''pro n~ersa'k sumpriblcr er e x p k in studio Bononwüi'. Such was aU the mnre nec- essax-y because the new Statutes of both Bolognese miaerxiLaler, enacred in 1252, provided that law teachers were to receive their colbckze by 30 Kovember. W'orse still, Albert demanded of his debtors, as a con- dition, that thev renounce their benefit of d e r 9 and any privile~rs arising from the Habila clause.

The fint saiario compeienler, then a rather indistinct type of ernol- ument, were promised to law teachers both at the Univenity of Naples, newly founded by Frederick 11, and by the commune of Vercelli fnllowing a cesno from Padua. Tliis hardly aUeviated the bur- den nf tuition fees students had to bear, as rhese in& would pro- vide the doctores iuN iiith no more rhan a vev basic allowance. Of Course, sripends varied considerably: in fifteenA-cenrury Padua, for exampie, the IcGst section ailo\i~ed 1_000 ducais for ~ h e pr@essor ordi- naniii reaching tlie Code, but paid as little as 15 ducars for the lec- rurcr reading rhe Insritutions. For the sake oFcompanson, the canonisü allocared 300 ducars for rhe Deci-etalist xvhile the Second Sexrist rccei\.cd no more than 40 ducars. Baidus de Chaldis, receiiing a saian; of 1,000 H. rrom rhe coffers oi'the Visconri whcn he took up lhis second appointmeiir at Piivia in 1393. was rlie mosr highly-paid j~irisr of rhe lare middc ages.'?

-. . . . . .-

iraiisiirs oi rhc iair rncdi~v;il iiruaiion ar thc uniirrsii! ,>I Hridelhe~g is $ V ~ ~ in C:. F ~ c i i r . Diws poripn. nubiik. mo~>.~ir i Jinlir i-/<noi. .$~;:a~~~schichtiiihr ininruihm~rt8 ,i'>n fii?delbmgn Lii;iniii&be~>iiii <irr .Spaimiiio/:,~s i?<f38li-iijlii. Educacion and Swien in i i iv \fiddle hycr and Rrnairiaticc, 5 iLcidcn. 1995: on Gcrman riudrnir in Iral iai~ unkcrsiiier. \\.. &L.\LECW~~. ..D~YISC~C Siudeiiien sn Iiaii<:n.' in: h%mmunikolzo:i lind .\lnbiiiißi im I~fi~:iirial@r. ß<$rpa<ngm :o:brhcri d m ,Si>drn uii i drr .liii& Eeiiiropai ( 1 1 . ~ 14. jn>iihuiiderf) /Sigmarin:rii. 1493, pp. ii-1 13 :wich h i h : older riudies arr n a a iiplaced h y J . SCHILLTZ. j s i l s ~ n f i i d a R d . Du dmiir;,iint Re<hiinudmlm nn dn tinr- :S,J~< H o i o p 1265-1423. VerbCTcnri. d. Gercllrch. f. Cniieiiitaü U. iiirienichnlrr- ?ricliichrc. ? (Barrl. 20110i. Johnilecs Tcuroiiicui. Glorra oidnana ad C l 1 q.3 C. -.

t . S V . "iii.~l?~rn": Tonm <ii<o. quod $in< bboir porrviir i o n ~ m i i i u m non imoi~:m<io libror .,<C ;,7i,,i,ßndo i>i Pnir:qrii"is oii<gniio>,ihiir. ,unr ~ n r k ;nin,,"r j?i;.rnrn ;p>cking up 0" ihc .ir?iin>ri~r;irion o i Hucii.<ii> voii Pis;! in rhc Dciiirirurnmr ad I , , B'il>l. .Apoii. Var.. <:,i<i. \'at 1; i i ?280. iL. 128 r + Y':.

: On rlic cuiiii:ic: n i i l i .\ll>c;iiir Odohcdi. P . i n o i . ~ ~ i L';iiiiii;<i. S r . 32 'pp. 13?R : ~>. ivn~c: i i <l.iic o l :ii) S < > i iii r h i ii;irrirrs o( i 5 2 : '-1 pik: i ~ i i i c h i <intuii iiiiivrniiari il~~Iiiqni.\i.'' rcl. ». \ l i i r i : i . i i ~ : \I.ii.c~i. ' i-ii iiiiii;iii> <ii Pi,>ix;!rcor,o d ~ ~ l i Elisii C i liii: .<iili(.I>i ) ~ i ~ i ~ t u ~ I c l l ~ ~ Siiirli,~ <Si nt,lcq~;s >>CI iii:iiii,ririi,> I2 iIcUn Rni>l>iris C:<>U<ctir>ii.'.

Though benveen law teachen and studenu many conilicü arose over the autonomy of student-mn miznxifatcs, and rernained in existente a t Bolopi until the earfier part of the thirteenth century, there is no evidence that there were also controvenies touching questions as to ivhich aspects of the law were taught. Right lrom the beginning, rhe legists pur very high emphasis on the developrnent of s M s that were relevant to the practicing lawyer. One of the reasons for thk was a process at the turn of the rwelfth century that earlier schol- a n caüed "il rniracolo Bolognese''. Forensic expenence helped Bolognese larvyers to develop a rnethod whereby the new texü of Justinian's Code and the Digest were analyzed in a systemaric way h a t made them direcdy applicabie lor pleading in Court. For the purposes of legal practice, this approach proved supenor, because the &ES were taughr by jurists who were pracricing lawqen ar the same time. This efiectiveness made Bolo.pa's rcientia norha highly attracri\,e. Not only did it become very popular ~ 4 t h those ltalian regons that appiied Roman d i d b uokare, but it also eclipsed and evenrually srifled alter- native approaches ro Roman law, a prominenr exarnple for this being southern France. Jurists who held dissenting opinions on fundarnen- tal questions ivere driven into moving to other communes. This had happencd, rar cuample, to llartinus Gosia in rhe "negi~ilar-controveny", and larcr ro Placenrinus, not a Bolognese b? ongin. At firnt at an) rate, legal rtzdia esrablished in oiher communes were not able ro compete scriously againsr ihe esalred position Bologa had enjoyed since rhc late rwelfth cenrum."

-.

ßuiiriin .Iledzmai Connn /nu: 5 19i5i. pp. i3-101, i r 9.3-li)i Rubiica I: Slaiunwii <, oidinoirni!il !. . .i quod ioilriv do»iinor~m d m@troion<m <igtiorrhr /ml rilio /um mnl i i i d r r r . :,P. 931: hoinni rompp~Ir.irri for I - & prof~sroir in r i'c:ceIli conriacr of I?'?ß: H. LSIIDALL, 7 h e Licnri l~a o/ Li<inl>c in llu .\liddic .!:G. 2nd c<l. (Oxiord. 1936': pp. 337-541, Zr 339: also P. Cursru. "Dir alirucn Lniuenirarriefomcn iziid ~ i i i e r r i r a r s ~ u i i d u u ~ e n der SIiiiiialiers." /iddhoy<r jd;r5in<!rm. i i . F . I? (19G8i. pp. :?-W. ar i 8 ! i i rp i in Ciii i iu. Yiriium und (;ririi>iiiafi im .Il#lki=ilk7. SchnRcn <Irr SIGI1. 29 Stiiirqnn, 1983. P)'. 1iO-196: B~uo,io. .5qia:. pp Ijo-15% Faim. -\rrrn<iciirbilduo:," pp. 4?R ili ihicc on ihc d~vclopnieoi o i inlntin li>i proCes- si>r,.: on ilir rimaiioii in Padur i i i ihe i5rh i c n c u q . .\. B - ~ i o ~ i . '-PioG.srori giunrii .i 1'10oia ni.1 ~rcn lo I\', Pio(ili bio-hihiii>yrnTici e c ~ i i c d i c . ' iu (>.imuiii. Soiidril>. >I1 1Vr::iikFiin i. 11.. 1986.. i q . pp. 46IT.: pa?n>rni oi B:i!diii i i i P - i ~ i i : 1;ndic dipii i8i,i,iio : ~ ~ i i ' i i > ~ ~ < ; ~ n :I, pnai,;. ~ d . R. \i*,<>,:<:~,, YOI. I : ! : ( i i . ~ ! ~ o t ~ P ~ , , : ~ . 100i). PP. .>Z'j, E:.

. ' LV.\~:~I~F.Z~. ...\!>iin<<,.'' p:t>s.. :\. B. L:OBB,,X. .~I ,~I>, .c :! $tt~d<c< P,n~.cr.'' Pm<

LEARhED JlJRlSTS -7) =IR PROFIT FOR SOCIETY 1 09

Dunng the early thirteenth centuiy, Bologna saw various c e s n m of Bolognese studenrs, and Emperor Frederick 11, the Commune's poliriol enemy, even threatened to dose down the law schools, their business to be taken over by his new foundation at Naples. This situation persuaded doctors and the Commune to join forces: as their point of reference, they took the year 1158 when the famous doctor Bulgarus, a jurist, ar Roncagiia had, in Fact, stood for an empemr- friendiy atutude; but this was remodeled, fabricating a "tradirion" of Bolognese laiv teaching that had been founded by him, and that had been in existcnce ever thereafter. More precisely, this tradition was supposed to be one of continuous favor of communal autonom?, and one that would not even shy away from open personal conflicr ivith emperors. It was this alliancc of sfudium and the Commune that devised a myth of conunuity around the Bolognese method, ciaim- ins that Bolo-gna was the only place at which the X&& nosha could flounsh legiumately. Certainly, rhis was the vieiv that Odofredus elo- quentiy and passionatelp imparted to his audience."

This is particularly conspicuous because Odofredus, in the Same way as his own teacher, Jacobus Balduini, became involvcd in con- siderablz methodologiral disputes with Accursius, a laiv teacher who had come to Bologna from Florence. Accursius succeeded in fur- nishins his Glma ordinaia on the Code's various divisions, to che tcachinc of \ihich the law coune was confined, with almost undis- piited autlioiin. Tlius. rhere was not much fricrion benveen Boiopa's two ''larv uiiivei-sities" arid rhe other Iniv schools iilra rnonles on the

niid Wrrmi. 33 1971:, pp. 28-66, esp. at W% Fnino. "Enistehung'; iii pan o i r r - iubrie \V. Srcirrx. Dir r!admli<riir .4uionom>i im mirvlnl!o/i~hm Colopn. Griir und \?erk <irr Zcitcn. 58 Bcril-FninMilrr a. SI.. 1981;. Ovcr rhe diikrcni cxplanationr of l l i i a c i e " iii ihe rirw Uoiogncic las. mcchods rincc S.IVIC>S ( ahov~ . ii. ?. 111. pp. 8iK. C. G . \Ion. "11 'mir i~olo ' Bolaqnc: la diflurionr d d ineiodo rcicnufico drila sriiola di Uo10p:~ iiei rccolo S i l , ' in: Siudi L .\Tmorir p n Li iioiio dr l l 'un i rn i~ 13 H2>!,pi,-o. ß.,. I .Bo!opa. 1956. pp. 161- i i l ; rhc haric pciipecrii-e :piain a m n r ici- r.iv<li': o i C. Zl. Rauniuc, is unruccersfiil, o+inr o/ .LIcdiaol ,jirnipmdm<r Pniin ntid Bdopn 850-1130 iN rw Havcn-London. 1988): iniiiuc":elv oppored E. Coaniz. '..\lle o"ei!c diI1;i scuala di Bolngia." and \I. Brr io~o. "Dcr Trxi eiUari den i ' cx i . llI><,r dir . i n R n r der ininelalicriichcn ,Juiirpnidriir." in: R?~i<in inrtra:ianoi.. r!i Diniic (:oiniiiii. 4 ,1993:. pp. i-49. 51-6% cC also P. \\niairn. "Die ik$r"rclir 1.i;cr;iiu: i ix i dir \ icihodr dr. Rrchüunrernchis der Glorsniorenzeii:' iu (unimunr.

1<J6<?. ou. !.;-8:i. , . X \V.airiiua. , .ai>~i i ic, ' ~pp. 1.52K.. 11. \V~i: iu~n. 'Das gerncsscnc Gecachrnia.

%ur ~ ~ ~ ~ l i i i r c l i - : i i ~ 3 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i i ~ ~ H3ndhal>u7:s d c i i '<:cjahiui>~ durch gelihiic Ji:nsie:i 4 8 . - l I i ~ ~ < ~ ! . , I , ~ , ~ . " i;,: ,llt,,~:,,,, .\I$. <,,I,/, ;"l,!,.j,!?",b,>l>k >"2 .~ . f i~ l</" l~r~ \i:s<:~ll:~"t~ d I Ui.riiii-Nrii Yiirii. i!'H?. pjl. L!?-?:i:i. a i ?>>K

one hand. and Italian realiry of justice on the other. By contrast, scholais at the relativeiy "young" laiv school of Orleans, arnong them Guido de Cumis, a former pupil ofJacobus Balduini, took a rather aggressive stance against the French law of the region, a tradition of loi couiumim. In France, it was the royal court in particular that benefited gcady from the "legistes", in both horne and foreign affairs. Ir was by no rncans an exacgeration, therefore, when in an Ordinance of 1312 King Philip IV praised Orleans for its ments regarding the d o r h n rguilntli EI rotioionk, descnbing it as a rernedy for the deficiencies of eariicr royal legislation and the customary laiv that p r o ~ d e d for a mare consistcnt adrninistration of justice throughout die realm." The test-transcending method, upon which the success of dus approach restcd, came to be revived in Italy through Cinus de Pistoja and Bartolus, his pupil, even though it <vas Balduini and Odofredus who had firnt formed the concept. Banolus and Baidus, who were regarded as weighn; authorities already dunng iheir liferirnes, drew thcir rep- ut;itions from their method of sohing laiv cases: although rhey fol- ioived the pnnciples of the Corpus Iuris, tliey would not stop at die level of rextual exegesis. Rather, it was the conilia that became the trademark of all lax< teachers o i high repute. Collections of these counsrls. arranxed by tlie authors rhemsel\-es or by their pupils. xhicvcd high litcray rank 2nd influcnce. In this they soon carnc to rurpars b! h r the body of le:al comrncntaries on thc books of ihe Code. a genre that had prcviously fcirmed thc basis of I?@ rraini,,a 1"

2'

C 0;i ihc uiigiiir and dciclopmciii o i riic iuv rc!><riil ai Oil iani. R. F ~ ~ s r n i . - i i c i > l r dr droii d'Orlr'ans au r i r i r i imc s i ic l i rr ion rayoiinemriir dvni i'Eiiropt n r d i r i . i ~ c . R Z ~ W n'hisiuin d r i j a iv i~ i s dr c;iorf n <I< 10 ~ i r n i r j u n d i q w . 13 (1992 . pp. ?i-?L i h c royal Oidoiiiiancc of 17. July IZI?. rl>;oiig-h whicii Philip I V ir:nii~icd ii ic Siiidium. iiiidcrrcoiri iiir irnpoiiam rolc o( Romaii la\r ior ihc rnonarcliy i inct Iirll;. b%i:en ~ ~ i i v r r r i t y sruiur <i:!i e i c n r i i ilic OrIC~i is i,<&diunr hy Clemciir V: ?!m>, :7p ii<il,iri o>i!~~rr,ronh. pißipiqu ndi>i< /<V,,? t1iom >o<ii<~a>ium 1<"/1111q"c ,U", sah" ?t,*i,i~li .,:Zn< ,.r.?;:$;„, p,<d;<,e. in bnr qcpa r q i r>ai1n <,UR," ~<queninn. pnrni,m od r/or:mon, .,?!;:int. ;.I rcrionk ,i"cmdam. pn q u a rn rouiu J"im~i6:rr repi hujw judiinn ronilroil. u6i . . C . ..:v;;::uourtr.r im oidi~io~iov~i pi<:rniconim tiiiinomi>i CI narfre yuar omni ioriiur:udini ~r.~~i i : : , : : r . ia.fi<r;n:ioi 1.1 ~ooii,sitrdo rii!" non riprr>no,r C.? ,!<a /ur"'! jiidiinndum. rci. Ii) . . \ I . F i i t - ~ ~ i z n . L., S:alul.f d j<ciir~e.s dii uni?rr.ri,?s,~ia>ic,>iri d~p:rpui~ h i / o n d o f i a n j w q u h , -.,,. . 4 V . Pani, 18q0 1491. :X I. nr. 37. pp. : i63?! . c l >I.-H. Jiiiits o i

I . .i.,,,„,; ,IC !i'iiiioirr de, i~i>;n.~iiiijm»(ni~j .:,, .II~Y~,: .I,?( I: i izi in3~g ,io,;inß,. I>.iiis. I ! . r i i i l i . l . i i l1. p. 171.

I:y>cci.iilv iai i i la i io i i LI, ii>c p n c i i i i i i ic Oili:ins jurhis :c:.irdiiig coniinoii i.ii\ .i!,ii :I \ ,vii;. li.iIc 1:. \I. \ l r i i~ :a~. 1;::,0h, :i%!.,!%;>r 6~4 :ii!iciii ill. 1,cidc:i. l i I i 9 I?)' .I : :8. .V ?;I?. !lI>31?~: B. I',~x.\~>~sI. .'[..V ~ct~m1.1 d i < l v i c : ~ ~ ~ ~ , V I > ' < ? O C ~ ~ I I ~ Y . , dcl

This new. "consiliarist" type of logisucs soon came to be iiailed throughout the West as a unique and perfect tool Tor solving such legal problems as were raised by rcal life. Ir was only at that poinr in time that logistics was established as an academic subject at the new foundations norrh of the Nps, and east of the Rhine river, a fact that has received but litde attention by modern scholan. Legal historians have used rhis phenomenon for tbe purposes of periodis- ation, looking at rhe development of jurisprudence. However, this case seems to be clearly oventated, since there is hut little ebidence ro suggest a turning poinr if the matter is considered from the poiiit of ~ i c w of social history. Evcn in Italy, rhe requirements set for the judex of a commune remained unaltered right up to rhe end OE thr middle ages: successful applicants would have spenr five oor six years at universicy, reading the main divisions of the Corpus Iuris: and >vould own a copy of the Code, along ivith -4zo's handbook, and copies of rhe D&estum Vehu and the fnstitutions."

In rhe Tield oi' canon laiv, the situarion was narurally different. Right from thc hcginning, it was de\:eloped and elaborated by papal decrerals and, oi' coune. by thr collections of nm,ellne thar under- rook to sysremarize the papal law. Apart Liom Gregoq I X s Liber Extra and Bonifacc VIII's Liber Scxrus. the Clrmeiitines and rhc Exrra~aqants. bcing rlic four official codifications published b? the

~ - -~ !>ri>iirir> $i,ridico.' in: F.\RWISI. l d i SYI .\lto'ion~ C>unCim 11. Rurnc, 198;'. pp. 'ilii-981. csp. 969% S<:e also X Ho&\-. "Dic jimii~irclie 1,irrratur der Kornrnrii- i : i io i r i i ic i i . Ins Cornmune. 1 (19G9), pp. 8.1-129, ar 86R. iO'2R I r ir cnlighiening (i>r ik pin<crs oi irnporing da< uirnmonianc meihnd. tiiar Banolus himslF in hir czi.m,iis iii Oie irctuic sysrcrn in Ferneja. c ic i i rRii 1355. rriii supponcd liirnrelf I>? ilic i i i i i i n l erporiri<iri of rhr Gioosn iirdirrono o i c c u r r i i i i npnnded oiily pi ?=in zi<!dz:iori:o>z. a.liil i ar rhe rninr time in hir piililirhed <.~omrnrri:aiio h<: clioic dir ricii

iil!i.inioiii;iiie cnanq?miiii i r i ih priihlrmr o( ilir !%I<. l l i c Biiil,iii,n;o oC ihr laic i l r i ? .iii<l I i i l i renriitirr ii:ur reirs riinply oi? ihc vr i i i rn i:xigrrii B~riolus. iioi on h i i :iicilio<is ar -i iiiiiii.isiv icaclicr. On ihnr F. LLaariui. -'-Lcciiirnr pcr ri;iin addi- ix~iiiin> iicl \[si 317 drlla Bihlioic<:a Capitolaie di Luccti: (?iidlr» at. firrrh. ow lrnirnirnirni .I!iii. r<. ßibl. h i 1987:. pi>. 463-4iG: on ihr pii>i>lcinniir. J. llirinrr, Dir rnlrtri- ~i i ;~ . i i : ih rn ~I~i;rriidol~~~~ md dar i>rrbio<hm l l o i l Schnken der Hisro"rchcii Kollezs. Vor-

0 r «ii-ial-1,irioi-icai relc\anc<:: H. \III.LF.T cii. . L1 c>o!ioiirrs OLI <m!zm dt >(E,a/. . i> l..'.i:,,(>i. ,!U .\.I!I' .GI, .?iV ,&I<. :ilode:ia. ICiW: \JILLEI/P. \I<)ii*iv, ''CIC~~CI i i l i l i i .>i;iii..' :ii: I>o;;;r E!i!<iio nrid .$lote B~i ld~~a,~, cd. \V. K~ iz i iaao Orhrd. 19iib:. I,$>. I . i i nc l~ . i i ?~r~ l iiaili i i iz i<ouiirrncno loi ibitisir H. G. \\\LTIIEH. ''.\'r~I>i>

papal curia in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, there wert also "semi-official", aurhonzed collections of papal decretals.

The dralters of rnosr decretals were canonisü ihernselves, and not a few of them would have spent a fair arnounr of time in academic teaching. This close connection hetween law-makng and law-teaching pmided that the canon law Course could be continuously updated, although this did not rnean that the Sext and the Clementines were to hecomc pan of the regular rnorning or afternoon schedule, a Fact that has bcen established by recent research on lecture organization in I*. The irnportance of decretistics as a discipline only increased in coniunctian Mith the ~roblems nised hv ihe Great Western Schism. and the ensuing discussions on the role of a General Council. Sorne reporü by students reveal, however, h a t the lecture on the Decretum was only a cursory one, as opposed to the lecture on the decretals. Prosdocirno Conti. a teacher ar Padua in chargc of delivenng rhe rnorning lecture on rhe decretals, also cenainly taught procedural law in 1423, as pan of his lecture on Book Two of the Liber Exlrn: a fact known frorn some of Xicholas Cusanus's lecture notes. Reading ordinane, Conti received a salan of 300 ducaü. as rhe university roiuli sh0,u.'"

.L? far as procedural la\v was concerned, rhe parocmia, " l e p l a rine cnnonibur pomm cnlel. ianonüla iine iqibbiü nihil", was of rnuch more si~nificance than in an? other discipline. Gerrnan Iäir siudenrs, for instai~ce. who up to rhe fifteenrh ceniun we:e rnostly clerics, ivere likcly to atrnbutr oiily srcondav importance ro rhe srudy of rhe k$a.

-- 'P 0x1 i l ie developnirr.:. ;<C. K. \V. Soan. '-Die ksnuniriirchc Liierarur.'' in:

llii~id6urß d t i Q>iellri> iinO Liiiiiilui d t i neiiinn ruropdiiikrn P~i.ßlirilirqriihichl~, ed. H. Coixc. \."I. 1: .lli!irbiitr i l ! O i i - I j O O J ; !>tunich. 193:. pp. 365-382 ar 3 i 6 L Y. I~m.\i-. '-!U$ Commu::~ und I u i Pioprium aus dci Sicht des kiaisirchen kaiio- iiirchen Rcchir." in: .Y!34il:rn :uni ~ o n : i r . h Rnhi in Europn vol. 1. 'B~dnpea. 19W. pp. :33H 3611 canriii Ian ii I z o in :iir m&ng'i; oli ihr .iarc or rrrcaick P. LLVD;.. Z v u r Fonch3in:en zu Qi:cilrn iuici S<:xiiii. Ererbiiirii. urd Zuiiuniisprr~peLrivv~>'~ :ilßlli. ih: I ~ s m c . h;i>iants i iad Drl.r~mlr!. ßri:mi.<- ::ii (;,c:,.l;!:iiu dn Qor!"ir dii i~nonl«hnz R,l.lzo. ßil,liniiiciz d i . 2 I I . IUiI;. . I * I . C . 33iui.: 0 8 , t l i c T<:rrori." "p. 6911 : i i i i l i ial>ie 111 an<! I>. H;i inl>lr. I\ i\iili i i ; ~ < ! i i ~ : i ! ? ~ , i : ~ ~ ~ pi::,, <>F 1 r ~ r ; ~ ~ ~ i . 1?00-1509. oc tl!;ii:i UI t l i i l ii ',?'Jiiin .ai:il ii;~. Li2,i I.:rirn ;?:XI r>rdinn& ~ind ri:..?iirdzi>n"(: oii ,ii.i;,~~ in :,lrn,ini

and that might bc a generous interpretation. Being involved in the procedural side of the canon law, however, it was such lawyers in particular who would require at least some elementary knowledge of Roman l a ~ . ' ~ In recent umes, schoiaß have snidied both the manuscnpt tradition and the function of the so-called LW k , in some detail. Thcse cases disclose both the method, and the contents, which canonists learned in the kges employed in order to introduce the average canon Izw student, perhaps also the occasiond canonüta .in-

p k x among their colieagues, the small-iime canonisr, to the kgei of the Corpvr I u G Ciailü aUeged in the Glossa orduiaG." This approach tumed out to meet Mith immense acceptance, and thus was applied to the older Giassa o7dinnG on the Decretum, and to the new one on the Clementines, too. This happened at Pans, a school at ivhich a prohibition had heen placed upon the reading of the l e p by Pope Honorius 111 in 1219. Therefore, gaining access to legist knowledge hy indircct means, such as C- ieern, was ali the more wanted. Interestingly enough, in the late thirteenth century, the Statutes of rhe decreiist faculty ruled that admissions to the Lturn decreti was ronditional upon h a ~ i n g taken: in aliqua shdio gcnmb, a three-year coiirse on the kger before."

Perhaps again at Pans. before the close of the thirieenth centuy a companion \:olume on the procedural Ordo j u d i h n i ü appearcd. It cxplained tlie contents of the i e ~ e ~ which the Oido'r learned aurhor, ilic Balognese canonisr Tancrcd, had cited in his popular book. The

:uic: Paornociiio Couii. pp. 303-306; icaching ncuilty in rrid lzir: \ . hciisiu<. D i r kinoiiirrirrlien \iiiz~icl:i>uiigen der Nikolaus von Kucs in Cod. Cur. 220 als \liinr.l,:ili einer \'i>iieruiiq ieii>er Paduaner I.ehicn Proidocimur d r Comiribur." .l!i!lci!. >,nd K*rrcihm~$be~!ro~< 6~7 C~~~nu-G~se/k~/uJ, ? CIYU2':. pp. 67-84.

'' r. \ l ~ x z a i c ~ ~ n . "Dir Paiornic 'Lcgiaa rinc canonii>ur priiun, ialei. cdrionisia . C I i i h i S i i n , 3 196i:, pp. ? i j - 2 8 2 5. K i m ~ n . Some coi>sidcrxrioiir oii the iolc of irrulvr lai. and inrrirutioiir in ihc i i iaon o l canon . .. ;.in 19j3'. iii: l i r i 7 - r ~ ~ . . S ~ d i u rrin (/ir iih!op @mrdiael <ono>i lau f ldcnhoi . 1990!. Sr. X: P. L\u*i:. -Die .*Tange der \'eii>rrirung der Wariirchen kanonirclirn Rcchu i n ? Dcu1rcli1;irid im I?. J;ili;hundcn iind irn exren Drirrel drs 13. Jaiiriiunder:<' I 9 8 6 i:i: L~\v.+i-. h'oiio8io. pp. 41 1'-456*. 483'f S<:r also riic conrnhiiiion iof

. COCKTKSAS i i i 11:ii ~o1u:ni.. '; 18. B E R T R ~ I ;ind \I . OIYSCTFE. ..Casus legllrn si<r ii>Hi:~+.: ;noiiac!iomn>.

l . i - ~ i i i ~ ~ l i i Hi1t;niiiicl itir K~iionisicli iiii rpnreirn \liiir.I.~iirr.' T!j&,nrj: :ooi Rii l is - d . .jl 1983'. pp. 31 i - 3133.

Ri i? ia . \~ i lDiv~r i i -E. "Czrus I< :p i i i . pp>. 3YIA :an il i i . GIoi5;r oidiii~fia o i i1:r l.~!>~.i- Exs;o. pp. E!'% rhc Glorsa ox1i:iari;i oli l ie fiirc.rrun ai>d o!iiir Ci~n:nz!iin,.

i?!i ,iaii:ii- <>1 ,iic : : ~ < - ~ , i ~ ~ ~ : , t i , : nli th<. niuaiioli ;I>C C:.,< oi LI,C i i r i i

new iuork of reference fiü in weU mith the ensemhle of texts that, as rar as their function is concerned, on thc whole seem to have bren used for those iecmres on procedural law, which the decretist faculty of Pans prescrihed for canonist freshmen. It is not surpris- ing that in Germany there is evidence for a nocahle manuscnpt tradition for such means of aid during the fourteenrh and fifteenth ccnturics. This confirms the sug-gcstion that even at the new universities founded within the Empire since the fourteenrh century, canonisrics retained a position in junstic studies, as against legistics, which was tantarnount to a rn~nopo ly .~

At the Law Univenicy of Praguc, u n d this institution was dosed down in the Hussite revolt, legistics had been of no irnportance at all. At Heidelberg, the situation was hardiy any different; with reference to the regulations for the canon law Course, the register oF the law faculty notes: ' & u h iuni d&it in k t i s et eiset uhk proplPi mulia et expedwü, qmd ad miniii u n u dorto~ uel iicenliatlü leperet omni die in iure cllili".

While tlie University of Heidelberg showed but litde interest in questions rclating CO the application of Roman law to matten political, the Palatine court took a different view. For the purposes of dcposing King- Wenzel and electing Ruprecht king of the Romans in his sread, Ruprecht's clerk in August 1400 calicd upon appro- pnate legist draftsmanship. rhereby successfullp tackiing the relehjant prohlems. Such new skills of jurisprudenrial reasoning i%ere rare in rourtcentli-century Gerrnany, as rhere were not man? doi:ore~ ulnuque iimi ax-ailable at that time. The court of the Count Palatinate was tlierefore Sorrunate to be able ro draiv on Job Vener. one of those in. expcrts, and to employ him as "leamed coun~elioi'. '~ Ii'ith respect ro botli tliis funccion, and his ahility to put legisucs to good practi-

crniui) 1or il ie continuing ~ffcci of "Supn iprruiom'~ o f 1219. Ki.-xra; 'Papst Honoriiar.' pp. 99f. (in ieieience io ilie Or<li>iinaii<:r of Philip n'. iofJuly 1312 (oi (1ric:xis. jce aboie n. 15). :' lii-.aiah\i/D~?'ism "Casus I r pm. " pp. 331% !:i'ancicd'r O r d o ludiciatiu<':.

1:". 33liK :addiiioiis <o manurciprr ' P. I . --Die Juriricnuniversirar iii Piag ,,11i2-1119:. veriarsun-s- und

~ozial~eichir l i r l ich l i r i i ic l i ic i ." in: < n u h itnd .S!iidium. pp. 439 -186: H. G. \ V . U ~ X . I > c i $c~l i~i ini~,Jir i rr dr poiiischei Rarqcbci Di r Riy \~F ,>L~ IS 1io11." in: ßu h'inn L n i i m i ~ l ,," . t ~ i i i ~ i ~ i ~ . ~ l i ~ ~ ~ u ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ \icdiaevaiis. ?I1 ß l i Y . 9 . ih i - i87. 480 :legal riudics iii Hc id i l l l >c i~ ai;d (.i>~iiv,i.: I I. C,. \ \VIWFR. .-DZS prr>i,l,.~, rirr iiiiiaiiq~icheli ~~~~h~~ i:, dci riironc iinii I3:.:x,s dcr iiiii>i>.iisi-hci: >liii<-1:iliir~:' ; i i ;c . , : Ihr lnr . Tors~.hiin:. 2:i 1996i. pp. ! I!!. :ii ?!I: roll i4']<,1> \r.iic:r iii iiir drp~>~i i io i> i>i \\'i,ii~i.!

LEWXED JLRISTS ~ 3 % THEIR PROFIT FOR SOCIETY 115

cal use, Vener became the vanguard of a movement at Rupert's Court that meant an influx of both metbods and people suited to iacWe political issues in a scholarly fashion." This proccss, which lasted until the late fifteenth century, has been studied intensively by Petcr Moraw and his pupils. Moraw himself produced a prosopo- yaphical analysis of the different phases that markcd the influx of "learned caunsellors" in the royal administration. In addition to this study, Ingrid Männl surveyed jurisu s e ~ n g at the courts of Gennan territorial 10rds.~~ Ir has to be said, of coune, that not ail of these "learncd counsellon" had a law background. However, counsellon ivhose qualification consisted solely of their noble birth increasingiy bad to compete ivith those whose competence arose from academic training. In the closing part of this paper, an öttempt will be made to elucidate some aspecü of the "profit for society" that couid be expccted of jurists who were politically dependent.

Righr from the statt, tbe Cniversirj of Cologne Set up nvo chain for full-time profcsson reading rhe iegs ordino<e, and also a post for J BCL ivho w a ~ to deliver the lecture on the Institutions. In rhis. Colope , a rnunicipal foundation, was different from all its prccunors rlirou~hout 1Iiddle Europe. Furthermore, the Esamination Decrees 2nd Re&wlarions provided Tor nvo separate lax Courses: canonisucs

:' R r ~ d e i r ivhi, kno<i G e m n n ;iie adviscd ihai ilir oioccrr hcre r e k r r i d io is Liioiin ai ' \ - r n i i r s c i ~ i c l ~ a h l i ~ l ~ u n ~ ' ~ . -' P. \IuR\\Y. '~Gcll: l~ne Jiirisicn iin Dir:ia der deuirclien Kuniae dcr rpiiien

Zliir<-lalicir !2:3-li93i." in: Die iluiie der]ttiulm bn <in EniiIPnmx dri madmoi 5tooI~s. i.d R. Scmrs. !Bcrlin. 198G!, pp. i i - 147 ; I. kLLy11, "Dic sclehnen Junrien in iii.ii dcii ircilcii 'I'cnironcn ihn rpdwn \ i i r i c l~ l i c i . " phii. Dirr. Gielkn, 198i: re$onai icsc>l<\ < > l ' c l x still iinpiihlishcd iroik i r i ih<, ; ir i ir lcr of l i i rn i i l : "Die gr lc l i i ic i i ]u"rrrn i m Dici i r r d c i Tcrr i ror in l l i r i rer i im Soidiii i ind Surdorrcii drs Reicher von 1250 iiir 1 1 1 0 iii: (;<iriirir <m Roch. ;irr .b:;oi. ir~id li~ri~ri,q~grr<iiiiS>r aiadmliihn ßirrn ,Irs lf bis 16. , j o i ~ ~ h u ~ ~ d c ~ r , ~ . W. R. C:. S~:W\.IS<;F.S. <ofschr. J.' Huhr. F o r ~ ~ i ~ ~ , ~ ~ ~ , Bcihcli 1;) i l r i l i n . 1991i. pp. ?G!)-290. .<r!<l G c l r h n c Junrien i i i i Dici;ri dcr di.uircheii 'I'<;-riiriii.~lhcrrcii an, ßrispicl io i i K u r n ~ i i i v r I250 1+&0!." in: Rt:hi und i.'$i$sun,$ ,,J, /;hrrfon,~ rom .II>~teioii~.r :irr .Van<;iil. vol. 1 Goi i ingrn. li198:, pp. 1135-198: i e v t l x ,.wi ,nS lFricd6cli 111. P ,J. HE)\;><;. &&?T ini<lnch lil ii f fO- l fgs^ !Ho i : Ri@nirix : z > P ~ /"iii,,P. :l ir>li. Foisiliiil~scii iiii Kair r i - i ind P ~ p r r ~ r s c h s h i c . ßriii<.Sii m J. F lliili,ii<-r. Reqeiin Iinprni ii Ci i l i i~ i : i - - \ \ r i~~avaLr~~z~~. I!?!li': <uaiin.ir.icrl in Hiisir.. (;.Ii.iivrc ,jiiriurii im L)icnsi dr i i i,mirrl,-drii isclim Koriigi. d<.i 15. Jalirhiiiidriir." : X /l;,rht ,vod l i ~ , I " r ~ ~ ~ , ~ , PI,. 167-18 k l ~ ~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ p ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~ l ~ i c ~ l l ~ anaI?~.cd lbv D . \ \ ' ~ L L o ~ ~ ~ v s . I);$, jiii<rii;<lii. Siiidiuin iii Hi.i<ii.Il,~:r~ i i i x l <Iic [.r,.i-iiiWicli dry Jii"iir?iSaSi?l~:ir u i i i

, ! >,,t> .,, . 1% 14'36:' i i ~ : .Semj~rr . .;<h,i,~xde~! j o i ~ x R~~prt~i t l -h '~;r i .~-L~~;;nsi : , t t l l~ ide ib~r f i ;;$/,' !',:tri, vc,I. 1 1 l r ~ l i ~ ~ . 1 1 c i ~ l ~ 1 1 x r ~ - S ~ ~ ~ ~ Y ~ ~ ~ k - ' l ' ~ ~ k ! ~ ~ . I%&.->.. ?J. $ 5 . I ' , 11<71.1.. I,!,. i'5-2,>;

and legstics. When the new univeniry opened its garcs, the Cologne Ciry Council had already made arrangements for a papal privilege an behaü of twenry secular pnests, g r a n ~ g dispensaaon from tiononus 111's prohibition of 1219 ro study Roman laiv. This did not mean that tbe annual number of students registenng ~ 4 t h the Uoiversity of Cologne (twenty-eight to thirry) was considerably different, in absolute rerms, from rhat of, say, Heidelberg (thirteen to fifteen), whcre ciid law was not taught. The nurnbers of those matriculating hardiy rase ar aU before the clase of the fifteenth centuv, but this does noi necessarily justify an interpretation along the lines of a "move toward crisis", as Rainer Chnstoph Schwinges concluded in 1986. Rarher, the fact [hat these figures rernained stabie at a fairly high level should be set against rhree adverse iactors: first, the number of places within the Empire at which law could be studied increased. Second, thc job marltet Tor jurisü grew only ve? slowly. Third, rhe usual source of funding, covering both ruition fees and mainrenance, uras an ecclesiastical benefice, and the number of suit- ahle beneficcs was limited. The srudy of civil laiv, therefore, being a «ienLia lucra1ica, had a framework o i reference ~ u i gen&, on u-hich it was dcpendenr."

Yct the Cologne solution, prokiding hvo law Courses, did nor induce orher universiries in the core territories of the Empire ro follow the euamplc. . I r Erfirr, where a second attempt ar founding a univer- si- ihaa siicceeded owing to rhe Schism. ir i<,as nor reasoriable to sei up a separate civii law Course. as thcre was insufficient demand. Ei-e11 rhough the Eriurr laiv racul~y artracred clerk nor onl" from Franconia and the Germaii biidands, bur also from the northern German cities and roivns of rhe Hanseatic League, it iook unril 1429 bcfore Erfurr conferred the degree uf do&r uiiurgue iuni. arid until 1447 for tliat of ducior iegunz.

This parricuiar case is one ii.hicli clearly dernonsirates thai proso- pograpliical data must be complemenred iviih rhc resulis of detailed crisc siudies. if die number of siudenrs pcr faculty was fair#)- Ion-:

~ -

'- R. L. Sc~iviscrs. Ukuüinr C.niinii,äuhülouiha J r n i i . z i n i 15. j<;i>i"rni,<iii,. .Shdim i:,:;o::<c,.!+irhtc .AI$tn R,,iche.r Sxutt~z:t. 1986. pp. 469fl..: contr;:? vicw itfi

i\.iiisf~. ..Der ~~ I? : l l r r r jt,risr.'' pp. li8E. crurnpaiiaiii 01' Cologir u i d Hcidcibcig : , i i , ilii. r<,1i Hridclbeig juiiris -cc alro P. \Io~iii , . 'Hrideibcrs: Lnnrisirii; Hui iiiiii Sindi i:ii =urpl>ciidrn \Lii:r!aiici.' tii: So<di*ri>i ;o»z r:adturhiit BijI:l>l~i:~~m a a %?T;!,.:, .l/:::,ir:ll%~ :md jd,r,~"dhcn .\;.,,:,,i! G,IIL~x>~cx>. 1518:i . )>I). 5~32 ,~nd \\ )B,LOLLTZT.

.:)h8ra&<l>8,\ Studic~z~~".

LtAtL'IED P R I S T S .AND THEIR PROFIT FOR S O C I E R 117

law faculties clearly had fewer students than arts faculties. The Erfuri case in question is Hciniich Rubenow, a legist, one of the rnost im- portant municipal politicians of the fifteenrh ceniury. Having Zone up to Rostock in ihe fint instance, he received a doctoral degree frorn Erfurt, and, iii the end, became primiir planiabr, mdor et&>id&r, as he descnbcd himseif, of a university at Greifsiuald where he had risen frorn the position of tlie rown juiisr (gnd&! to that of m a y o ~ . ~ '

Since the uni\-ersities of Prague had been established by Emperor Chäries IV, lounders of univeisities anywhere in rhe Empire laced rhe problem of Fitting thc law Course, and rhe teachers in its charge? into an administrauve smcture which, wich regard to both faculy organizacion and university consutuuon, mainly followcd the rnodel of the Paris arts faculty, headed by a reibr. Prague, Tor instance, after overcoming the inirial difficulties 2nd rnaking proper study possible, had to lixr ~ 4 t h a "Three-Faculq-Lniveniq" and a "Laiv Uiiiversity" co-existing. At Cologne, the university was di~ided iiito different buism. and hence rhere was no inregral arrs faculq: thus. rlic u n i q of the univenity itself could be maintained. Ccrrainly, rhis made elections to the office of recbr slightly precarious, but rhe pnn- ciplc that eveq- one of the four faculties should eiecr a rerfor in rurn was nor infnngcd. Hoivevsr, persons holding nothing bur the de,qec oi' master of arri had no prospect n i gettin: elected. ~vliile ihe facr rhar lor jurists. r!ie degree of bachelor Lias sufficient_ reveais mucli a l~out ihcir standirie in sociey.'"

:' Ciiuir: E. KLLI\LID+II, C,.niim$ilm a(il~di2 Ef lo~dmu. L .bnbiid 1ibn dit G<~chlihlr dsr L>i&rr<irn< im l l i m i i r l ~ n 1 3 9 2 ~ i j 2 1 , i.01. 1. Eiiuiiri Thcologircl>c Siu&ci>. I : l.cip7.i~. I~ifii . . I>!>. "Xi on ln<c tculcy; Srwi\.iua~s. (i i i ir inuirrbrininn pp. 93-1a.i 0x1 iicqiiciic):: K. \ \ e i ~ m . "Grlchnc iii Cr~rrilrch~lr. iiirchr und Vi.nialtuii$ iioii. deui,rlier Si:idte.' in: (;<i<brn im Rnili. pp. 137-432 iunimaiiiing ilic eailici relcicni uork o i rlic: i iutl~or: \ V i i i ~ \ \ , t i r . jt>ris:en ;h Trank:.:< Fianörli la* irudrnih in Eiiun!; H. G . I V i i i - i z n . 'Dic Gwii<iuiig dci L-niieriiiai Rorrork 1119-1430 ir:i

Rahnieti dci rparniirieldiciiichcn Knivcniriolandsciaft:' in: .lirrklmbur: und snri hrhham. cdr. H . B E I D L ~ \VIEDEN xnd T. SCHIIIDT. \ 'erdH d. Hiriar. Kommiss C \Ir<-Wciil>ur~, 10 Rorroik. 199;, pp. 107-)?G. ai I i0K o n Rubitioiii. " l'i.i$: \i<iahiv. -~u~neiiii i t iveni~,<': \louair. "Dir ri?ii.rmiwr I'ng "n \ i i~cIdtr<

iii: flii ii>t;rntior P.<.. Sciriircil d r i Siidcrcri<iruiicl>rn Uademie der \Grwnrchaitcn i i i i r i Küiiric. 7 \ii>,iich. 1906:. pp. 9-131; Ku[": E. \~ELTHFN. ß~ d t t r .>i~n5::~!. K<jli>ci K:ii irrsir;~ir~oil: ir i~ie. i Coiopnc-lticnna. 1!~8R:: G. R. TE\%=. Dir ßvnir: .I,, n;,inn . I ~ r~~ !m- i ;iii. i 3 Coi<~m<:-\\i.im~v.Vicrrr~r. 1991 : K. C. Crm<~ii!,~r!. Vi>i:i.!i-i. X; iiiiscl>~oqi.:;. Soiidr.il>d. Y8 \i?:i;.irinqc;i. Ii,'??. p!>. !%I:. ;:;;T. ii;K i>ii <.li.iiii>:i i>r ,I,<. Ti.<-ioi i>l CoIoq,<.

LEARYED &rnis'ts AW THE~R PROPST FOR SOCIEN 119

In rlic Same way as other jurists striling for a high reputation, Peter of Andlau ohtained his lax* doctorate irom an ltalian university. Since the fourrccnrh cenrury, it had been Italian legists and canonists in particular who advanced the theory that nobiliry sprang from thc d i p i q of doctor. Bartolus proved rhe theory right, having been raised to nobiiiry by Emperor Charies IV in 3355: to him, twenty years of law teaching equaled the rank of a Count palatine.32

T h c notion of the Doctor of Laiu-ciiil, canon or hoth-as an aristocrar by virtue of qualification, office: and performance, becamc increasingly popular with "learned counsellors" at the courrs of Gcrman princes. Involved in diplomatic missions: they could hardly do without a doctoral degree, for the purposes of negotiation, if their Counterparts were noblemen rather rhan rlieir social peers. T h c "learned counsellor" Xlanin Mair is a y i c a i example: holding the d e g e e of iicnilialui, he had worked, as counsel and arrorney ofrhe City Council of h'urembrrg, iiirh g e a t succcss. In rhis capacity, ivlair represcnred rhe council ar the royal courr, atrempring a jiidicial sei- tlernent o f ihe so-calied First Xlargraxian \Var (lii9-1453). Haxing done a good joh rhe council oKered him, in 1452: a granr of 100 A. to pay the See required Tor a doctoral degrce. However, Mair post- poned confement until 1465, when tliis social advancement seems to have become indispensable in the liglir of the highly distinguished rote. hotli from a legal and a polirical perspective, lie had noiz, come ro piay mediaror hcnveen Imperial Esiates. The fact that Iie received his docrorate from Heidelberg, a German universii) aiid hence nor rlic rnost prestigious place for the purpose, sccms not ro have been an impcdimenr. Yet there are difTerent exarnples. too. In 1452, in rhe Course OS a dispute over thc procedurai sidc of a quarre1 be- txi-ecn Llargrave hlbrccht Achilrs oT Brandenburg--4nsbach on ilie oiic hand, and the Imperial City of iiurembcrg on rlic orher, thc Former deemed ro improvc his position b\; srressing the lo\i sociai rank of the royal counsellor Urich Ricderer, DCL. This ccrrainly demon- srrared that no iheories conccrning rlic equarion of iiohiliry and

\ \ ' i i i ~ r n . 'Gclciiiies Rcciir.' pp. i9L; See also I. Bncwc\arsrn, "Uc p"G- Ikmii doiioium. Cl>er Grlclinri>riand und Doktonvurdc irn spare!, \iiriciaiici." if;~:on~iiiir joi;ihii<li. 106 ii986): p p 293-132: on rhc priiilc@iiy ior ßarioiur by Clr~iicr IY in \I;i: 135.5 ii> Siccia. src n<iiv U>e inidicr of 0. CAV..VL~R. S. Drcsxnmi;. J. I i i n i i i s i ~ . . I C r , ~ ~ ~ , n i S,,p$. &iioIa ,io .h)<nJiv68oi "'rroii nri hui,n>rir arid C O O ~ o: .i,-.,r'' Siiidier i i> C:i,inl,;>>;iiivc I.i.qni H i r i u n .Ri.ikr.lcy. 19!i-1. r. ip pp. 8 - 2 6 , ai ld ihr <riiiia! rrm.iikr EI><. ar>iiioi iii: iu, (:~inz~~:~>i,.. '>i .!!!4ii

doctorare could do away with the realiry that aristocrats and leamed counsellors were no sociai peer~.'~

Ir is a hpor of univeßity privileges that to territorial lords and municipal councils aiike, the chief objective of founding Schools was rais- ing rhe general level of education in their dominions rarher than merely hreeding a class of dcvored clerh for the purposes of their administrauons. Reccnt reseanh on rhese topics has shorvn thar for- rnuiaries of foundation charten of universiries, both papal and secular, are, despite being a war, sufficiendp telling. However, modern critics should he careful ro avoid trying to expiain these phenomena with concepts of iheir own day. The alleged rnorivauons of founden have been doubted because the level of expenscs incurred in, and of benefiui dratvn from, founding universities seem to defy the prin- ciples o l sober cost-benefir-anaiysis, especially if law Courses are considered. Ycr ir would probably be anachronistic 10 den? rhat in dic late middle ages. accountancy did matter when univenities ivere cstablished, especially with regard ro ihe "wave" of foundarions in rhe Empire from 1386 onwards. The condirions for neiu foundarions had improved as a consequence of tht. Schism thar produced com- peting popes and allc@ances, and thus rhc Schism might hc looked ar as h a ~ i n g initiated rhe very quick risc of rhe nuinbcr of universities in the Empire. Ir is only against rhis background rhar those thrce processes came inro cffect in the ticld of the schools which had aiready heen going on elsei~liere. as lloraw and his pupils ha\:e shoivn: rhe spread of rhe wrirtcn record. rlie growing irnportance of diplomacy in politics, aiid the increasing ccndency to rackle prob- lcms frorn a scliolzrly penpecti\~e.j4

" On Uanin \fair ;c> lrnrncd coiinreiloi. R. H,LVSLY, ''Maien Uair Ein ~eiehncr Kai iii iuiidichem uiid rrirdriiclicin Diciiri i i ~ der iwriicn Hälfte dcs 15. Jlis.," plii!. n i r r Kc! !9<11': sumrnaziicd 1%. C. \ V . a r ~ ~ n . -Iiaiicnisrhi.r gc!ehrirs Rcclii iin Siiiiibcr< <ic? i j . J:iiiihundciu.' iii: Rech! und i>gaiiiine, pp. 2 1 '??Y. ~ r p . 218L. 222. 126: C. Kr:ui~. l?ni/: R d m i !in. lfl)+iJC21. CrLhrm Ra1 im Emrr &%Gei Fnrinih ili. \l~iii>iiciincr Hi$r<iiisrlic Foricli. 'l \I;iiiiilirin. 1991, ar pp. :34:3ll'.

'' O n iiiii\ririi)- I"undsiir>ns 2nd ihcir moii,.nio:is. F.. S c r i ~ : ~ ~ n i . -\Ioiise lind Piol>l<:nc deu:iclii.i U i i i v r i i i i ~ r r ~ i i i n ~ i ~ n ~ e e ~ dcr 13. J;ilirliunderrs." iii: ,i>id PrciOkmr r!4.ri!r:Air Oii;nii~i.~@~sd~r4.~m d r i Jh,!rn> .\k,zl<irii. cd. P. B . \ c i ~ iii,i>hiiiii-iri Foiriliii!i:rii. I Ncndcii>. I'iYo. !>I>. l i i l :

LEAWEO JtiRISTS .%\W %€IR PROFIT FOR S O C I E N 121

.k rar as srudenrs of subjecs other than tlie arts wcre concerned, canonries formed thc chief source of funding. Thercfore, as Moraw poinred out' the agglomeration of coUegiate churches in an area is the most imponant indicator ;is to whethcr a newly founded univer- sin; ~vould prove a success or a failure-a fact that seerns to operate on all geographical dircctions of economic and cuitural dcveloprnent: from west to east in the sarne way as from south to north. As of iate. Ingrid bfännl; Klaus Wnedt and Dievnar Wiiloweir have pro- duccd prosopographical rnonographs on the origins and careen of la\v studcnts i iho held such canonries. .At the ünivenity of Jena, schoiars are currently srudying law students and teachers at the Cniversin; of Erfurr, and counsellors and their counsels to the City Council of Yurcmberg. This studv is intended to correlate the social nerworks of ivhich rhcse jurists were pair, the qualifications they obrained ar the Sciiools. and the ivay they used the larter on the job. It is clear [hat quanritauve data concerning the role of late medieval junsrs in sacien; rnust be cornplernented wich qualitative infomation."

"Learned counseliors" certainly form a Special group among laiu 5r;iduates. Thanks ro tlic quanrirative analyses of bLoraw and his fol- ioi~ers on the one hand: and to the receni case studies aild biogra- pliies of prominent pcrsonages such as doctors iilartin Mair and L-lrich Riederer, oii the orher. much is now known and undcrstood concerning the political actixities of such junsts. There is a unique iource for the srudy of their rnentaiity: Since the middle of the hfteenrh centu?' co~iriiia and decisions by thc legal advisers to the City Council of Huremberg had been entered into "Reg?sters of Counsels" i"Ratschlagbücher"). The entries show certain Patterns of a r p m e n t from which we can discil that particular way of thinking ivhich crcated strilcrures of a new .-'imperial consciousness". In the

F. REsRu~.H. Dtuliine Ln i~or i lo~ i~ i l$un)m con Pieq bir Koh. Die inirnhonm dcr Snjivi und d* ii;et< und Ciionren ihn lmii ikt i ihue m ipoim>&hblidun Tm'~kirinor, Beihcfic zum Archiv Lur tiiiliurperchichic, 31 Colope-1Veimai-Vicnna. 1992); we airo rhe conrnhurion o i h x ~ o ~ x in ihir volume: on ihe airercd riruarion akei ihe Giear Schism 3s 2 decisive turniiii: poinr ioi iaic mcdicd unixnir\ himding, S e , P. Claa*w. n i e Kuiic Schule in Kniiau und das curopzische tinivcvsiisrssystern um 1+00_" 387: Cludim r:<m 1.7. ,jnhihundnr. IiiüchnJ Enih .Ilnirhm, {Llunich. 19941, pp. 521-539.

'' Tor i i ic i c l s~ rn r liieiniuic. scc rl>oie nn. 24, 25. nnd 26. O n the nurnbri o i cndo~rcd co1lc*nie porriiioiir ar i n indicnroi of re@msl <:ducariond leveli, rcc: \ I<~A\v / \~ I I . I .FT . 'Cii"~) in ihq: Siaw.'~ anti P. .Lloiui~,. "Sirukniicn der deuischcii K?rchc im spaLc:$.,, \li,<"k,l,cr," i,,: Rc#<,o~<" znd A7rrhc ;"J .l<,Zlda/l", Ord inu \liliiaicr. (:i>licw,iii;i I'~>riiiicii~ia. 9 'il>orn. 1983. pp. i 2 3 .

122 HELMLT C.. WALTIIER

fifreentli ceniury those junsts, who rrom thr ~ o i n t of view of both backgiound and rraining formed a reasonably homogenous p u p ; workcd roiuards turning thc Empire inro a "cornmunity of shared liability and joinr defence", as part of die process whereby the Empire rook on fearures of a modern state. It was no less due to the con- tinual acuvity of these junsts in prcparing solurians ro poLtical confiicü that made this "imperial consciousness" take efecr in pracrice.'5

Initial inquiries have shown that the Nuremherg Council preferrcd consultants wlio had a hackground in civil and canon iaw as taughr at Padua. In light of the close tiading relarions between Xuremberg and Venice, it was normal for the sons of Nurernberg patricians ro go up ro the "local" university of the "sernürimd'. Law, as promi- nently iauglit at Padua, constitured a vaiiety of its own, called Bartolümo and Baidirmo. This set of doctrines was transformed so as ro better seme Kuremberg and its position wirhin the Empire. How and through ii-hich clidnncls this happened is apparenr from the cosdy coxrilia, ivhich rhe Suremberg Council requested from Paduan jurisrs: seeking assisrance in conflicts [hat wcrr: of special significance from ihe poinr of ~ ie iv of imperial laiv. T h e method employed hy Paduan jurists. utiiizing Banolus's doctrines not only in gcncral terms, hut also ivith regard to the s~ecial situation of hcir Nurernbero ctients. ., was an efecrive one. Cnder the influence of thr: schools of Padua, Gcrman rorisiilranrs sewing rhe Nuremherg Council consciously adopred Paduan iines of a r p m c n t and adjusted them so as to fit sioiarions arising in the Imperial enxironment. Thus, step b! step, almost in the manner of a mosaic, a ?pe of law ernerged rhar rnay bc reasonably called "Imperial constiiurional law", something earlier

"' 0 i i ihr Suicmbcig hwk. oi Coiiniin; H. G. \ Y u r ~ ~ a . "Die Rcrrptiun Padua- n r r RechrriVacnirhsi? diirch die \uSnahme Pzduanei Koi><ien in dic Sunibcr- ger Raiscl~ia~bYc1ic< in. Consilia im .spoirn .ll>i&ialin. Zum h i r i o i r k o iuriogrueri ,,nti <-~iirn~~,~u-;. cd. I. B ~ c h ~ c h n ~ m r n iSipar ingen. 1995!, pl>. 20i-'224. and \ V . a i . i ~ s n . 'Irelirriirrhcr grlrliirer Recht"; ErTiirr Juiirir: rhe f i i rr ruixcy by K. GRIIISCH, "Die Suziaik.iirjcren und T:ii~kciirSeldcr dcr Erfunri Rrchurrudenien und i ~ n i \ ~ ~ r s i n i r j u r x s r i i i im Spririnirrclalier." i i>: Dir Rsrprzon du ,qeLchilm Rii,5rr itii

'Rqiiiim fiii:iii,iiai»''. rd. 1. RAOIIG*R.IHE* 2nd P. JOHAYEX ,in press). On rhe 7cfor:n 01' ilic E~npirc ss --1.riiiuiigs- iixid V~nridigui igs~cmcin~h~It" zi rhr rum of thr iiiili renruv. E. l r ix , i i~s , "Kaiser. Rcicli und deuirche Nation aiii .Aurying des I i. ,Jihriiiiiiiii-ns '' i i i : .lnin,:i tind DL<iono>i<;r,,>iiirn, drulriher .\ii<ianr6lUin8 im . t /~~l~ioil~.

Eiir~ns. Saziiiiii.s. 6 Sipnnngl.n. I9RV. pf>. 145-?!h. :if 146. H. Roocii\lh"i. ' ' X i ~ i \Ivi,ra!iiai ip.!! i i~ii ic!. i! irr l ic1~~~ i.clciinci Rtiie.' HLiioniihr <ioih$. 231 1981 :. pi>. L!li:ilii i i ivi i i . i ! i i i i n d .ni,:iiciieü 01' piohirni ioliins:.

LEARNED JUXISTS &W THElR PROFIT FOR S O C I E N 123

scliolars had aiways searched for, though in vain, in rracts concerning Imperial refom?'

'The influence of Paduan jurisprudence on Nurernberg com'lin was not due solely to the preference of Padua among Nuremberg men wishing to study law, and to the Fact rhat the Nuremberg Council employed jurists, from both home and abroad, who had graduated or taken a doctorate, frorn Padua. T h e use OS Paduan junsts as a reseive o l consdtants who would be called upon in delicate conflicts, points to a n e m r k of relationships between the political elite of Kuremberg on the one hand, and those ivho knew and spread the civil and canon law on the ather. This example, taken from actual practice, of the process known as the "reception of Roman law" clearly s u ~ e s t s n u o tendencies: first, the Nuremberg Council increasingly followed the ways ro justice proposed by its legal consdtants. From the middle of the fifteenth century onwards, in-court-settle- rncnü o l poiitical conflicts, and vanous *es OS judicial proceedings before the Imperial court, became charactenstic of Suremberg Imperial politics. Second, the dependence of the iocal oligarchy upon die counsels of jurists had a downside as weil: jurisrs ivcre forrnally excluded from political decision-making ivithin ihe council, a sirua- tion thar culrninated in 1454 when rnemben of locai patrician Sam- ilies xvcre banned from taking a seat in the City Council if they ivere la \cers holding a doctorate. At thc end of rhe fifieenrh centuy, rhe Nurembcrg Councii empioyed up Co five full-time leg,ai consultants at rhc same rime, without whom i r believed it could nor asscrt rhe priviiegcd position of an Imperial ciry."

In the Course of numerous political conRicts, the Kurernherg Council hardly evcr succeedcd in persuading the ernperor to pass judgcment againsr a poiierhl magnate, even if rlie emperor was only expecred to acr as an arbirer. Nuremberg's chief encmy during the so-caUed First Liargm~ian War, .Ubrecht r\chilles, was ablr to cxploir his privileges as an Imperial pnnce ro pur pressure on Emperor Frcderick 111. in borh procedural arid poliricai rerrns. However. even he had Co yield ro ongoing consritutional change in tlie Empire, a changc [hat i v ~ s ro hi-ing forrh strucrures of rhe eariy modern Stare. Bcing ~uhje t r iuiisellors if he iiished ro a o i d procedurai disadv:uiragcs.

LE%RNED JURISTS A\D THEIR PROFIT FOR SOCIEN 125

agree with Bartolus that no sensible political order could ever e i s t ivithaut jurists."

The prominent position oF conternporan/ Paduan jurisprudence, as featured in the earlier Xuremberg "Registers oF Counsels," confinns the opinions scholars held concerning the way Roman law was received in late medieval Germany. Even though in recent yean it has been pointed out that the whole issue is a reception of Lawyers rather than of the law itself, the Kurcmberg "Registers oF Counsels" show that this vierv is far too indiscriminate. The Kuremberg Council did not merely conuact any random law graduate as consultant, but clcariy prelerred either jurists trained at Padua, or those who Tot- lowed the lines of thought suggested by Paduan junspmdence. The doctrine of the Emperor's limited authoiiry and power, as advanced by Nuremberg consultants in order to stren+en the City's legal position, can be undentood oniy in the iight oT the spccificaliy Paduan reception of Bartolus's teaching." It was especially council gzdici and consultants who, in ihe Course oF their work as artorneys, devcloped a good deal of thcorerical werk in re-dehning the empire. Perhaps this Fact derenes more artention from scholars rhan it has received iii rrcent controversies conccrning the nature of imperial rcform,

- "I H. G. \V,u-mra. ',Die \lacht der Grlehwmkcii. Cbei die \i<:i)haikeii des

r.iiiHurser poliiiscliei Tiicoiieii 3clciirrei Juiisren der .j~~armiirelalcen,~' iii: Pohiiini 71,000ig8i ond Ike RuIiIim q' Power ikc . r i idL .ixcs :<;<iriiiiaen. 1998:-Cornpirc Burrolui ad. C.Y.7.14 ovrr riie occc\rin. oC i miiilu i d adiocrrer I n piinßm porlm Cadiu Comaoilo&. Venicc. 1395. Co. j l r i , who s e ü rnrdicvd lair).cn along ride iuNpen~i: on hii fuirhei riaining in ci\.ii aiid canonical icqal iheoq. \\'NTHFR, "Gelelinrr Rrchr.' pp. X - i i i Braiinichwiis rcvoli (';Schichi": of a pioreir ~ o u p of iniiii plildi in Fcbnia? 1488. rhc Cirrr o C scvenq-tiv,: iead arid rwon> demaiidr ivai Tor ihf: al>oiiiioii of tiic 'Dokton". Thi Bnuiischivcig ryiidic and Leipaig lao- )er. D<. Joheiii>cr Se<:l>urg. acied ar ref>iewi,tau\.e oC il>e hared rown coiincil. iiitii ihe end oi iiic "scliiclir" in 1191. ii>c omrc 01' ryndic iciurned immrdiarely \<iili ihc sppoirimcni oC rhc lhaiined jutisr Coniad of Noiihcim. Tor ilic hacksround, ire \V. Eitnarcwr. 'Di r Brariiirchivcigci Scliichr von 1488, 1:iii SridikonHiki nli Excn- pe! zu \ l ißvi is i und Ehr@ in den risdrischrn F~liiungifainiiir~~." in: I t m i n n n Bol<, <iiIdiiiin-hnnrivher .luioi iui BrouwMx"? 1488-1988 il'uhirigrn. 1991'. pp. 109-13% On tlic aiiccicriis~rcli eiiier rpätmii- iiialliilirhrnJiiiisren. D s i Trsizincnr dcr <(o<ioi iqnmjjr>iianiici S~cliiirg,'' iii: Philßiu@e " k fi,l!ur4b,<."s<haj. .s,""i<.n L", L,$<,"~u. ""d G<S,<I~~< ,leg .\14,,,4ai!"s, Fe.r!s<hng &,I '<oikz.n,onn. Cuiiirisen. 198;. p". '>8i-305.

" 1:ur z iurnrnai, tl>r ioidcr incnr<-li ,in ilic rcr<:jirioii ui'laii. rcr \V. SE~ILET. Z i i r K-2ei>iiui> dcs roiiii«-i>cn tiiid kanoiiisc11t.n Rcchn iii Dcurrchlriid i,aii dcii ., .. inl.iiiqcn liis ruic Br:lliii der iiiilicn \ji.iiicii: Cl><-rlilick. Diikinrrioiisiirnd ui><l ~iq~.biiiirc." ii:: hl.rhr ro,d l>c!>.i~i4~ic. pl>. 115-lhli. l:or ( ! X X : ~ r ~ ~ : n l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ <<uxic>n: \ v . i ~ i i i i . ~ . .Ili?li<::>i~~l~i.\ ~cI~.II : :cs Rc</II." P,>. T?ilI:

126 HELMUT G. WALTHER'

whether or not this is then addressed as "modelled condensation" (“gestaltete Verdictung") or a novel "cornmunity 01 shared obliga- tion and liabiiry".

!%'hoever might feel disappointed at rhe theoretical purport of the so-calied "imperial reform tracts" of the fiftcenth century, may take cornfort frorn undenaKng an analysis of the argumentative practice of learned jurisü, though this may wel! be a tedious rask. Those matters thar Nuremberg counseiion of the fifteenth century considered ivonhy o l record, in order to preseme the City's liberties and irs political options within rhe empire, should not be neglected by historians of the twentieth century. In this respect, the fifteen vol- umes of the Nuremberg "Register of Counsels" 01 the fifteenth ccn- tu? are a treasure that is still waiting ro be fully explored.'?

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