Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor

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7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ritual-dynamics-in-the-eastern-mediterranean-case-studies-in-ancient-greece 1/26 Originalveröffentlichung  in:  W.V.  Harris  (ed.),  Rethinking  th e  Mediterranean,  Oxford  2005, S. 141-166 6 Ritual Dynamics  in  the  Eastern  Mediterranean:  Case  Studies  in  Ancient  Greece and  Asia  Minor  Angelos Chaniotis  1.  MEDITERRANEAN  RITUALS 1 One  of  the  many  monuments  the  Athenians  proudly  showed  their youth  and  the  visitors  to  their  city  was  the  ship  with  which  Theseus was  believed to  have  sailed  to  Crete.  In  the  course  of  the  centuries  the  ship's  wooden  parts  rotted,  and  the  Athenians  had  to  replace  them, providing ancient philosophers  with  an  unsolved puzzled:  did  Theseus' ship  remain  the  same  even  though its  rotten  components  were  continually  being  replaced? 2  I cannot  help  thinking  about  this  puzzle when  I  am  confronted with diachronic studies on  'the'  Mediterranean.  Can  the  Medi terranean be  a  somehow  distinctive object  of  historical  and  cultural study,  given  the  continual change  of  its  living  (and  therefore, ephemeral) components (human  populations and  their cultures,  animals,  and  plants)?  Or  is  the  Mediterranean as a  historical  and  cultural entity  just  a  construct of  the  collect - ive  imagination of  scholars  who  contribute  to  journals, books,  or  Conferences  that  have  the  name  'Mediterranean'  in  their  title?  1  The  views  expressed here  stem  from  the  project  'Ritual  and  Communi- cation in  the  Greek  cities and  in  Rome', which  is  part of  the  interdisciplinary  projects 'Ritualdynamik  in  traditionellen und  modernen  Gesellschaften'  funded by  the  Ministry  of  Science  of  Baden-Württemberg  (1999-2000)  and  'Ritualdynamik: Soziokulturelle Prozesse  in  historischer und  kulturvergle ichender Perspektive' funded  by  the  German  Research  Council (2002-5); references to  my  own  preliminary studies  on  relevant  subjects  are, unfortu- nately,  unavoidable.  I  have  profited  greatly  from  theoretical discussions  with  my  colleagues  in  this  project.  2  Plu.  Theseus 23.  

Transcript of Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor

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7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ritual-dynamics-in-the-eastern-mediterranean-case-studies-in-ancient-greece 1/26

Originalveröffentlichung in : W.V. Harris (ed.), Rethinking  the Mediterranean,  Oxford  2005, 

S. 141-166 

Ritual Dynam i c s in  the Eastern Mediterranean: Case Studies in  Anc ien t 

Greece and Asia Mino r 

Angelos Chaniotis 

1.  M E D I T E R R A N E A N   R I T U A L S 1 

One  o f  th e  m a n y m o n u m e n t s  th e A t h e n i a n s  p r o u d l y   s h o w e d  

their  y o u t h  a n d  t h e  v i s i t o r s  t o  t he i r c i t y w a s  t h e  s h i p  w i t h w h i c h  

Theseus w a s  b e l i e v e d  t o  h a v e sa i l ed   t o C r e t e .  I n   t h e c o u r s e   o f 

the c e n t u r i e s  t h e  s h i p ' s  w o o d e n  pa r t s  r o t t e d ,  a n d  t h e A t h e n i a n s 

had  t o  r e p l a c e  t h e m ,  p r o v i d i n g a n c i e n t p h i l o s o p h e r s  w i t h an unso lved  p u z z l e d :  d i d  T h e s e u s '  s h i p   r em a i n  t h e  s am e  e v e n  

though  i ts  r o t t e n   c o m p o n e n t s w e r e c o n t i n u a l l y  b e i n g   r e p l a c e d ? 2 

I  c a n n o t h e l p   t h i n k i n g  a b o u t  t h i s  p u z z l e  w h e n I  a m   c o n f r o n t e d 

with d i a c h r o n i c s t u d i e s  o n  ' t h e ' Me d i t e r r a n e a n .  C a n   th e  M e d i

terranean b e a  s o m e h o w  d i s t i n c t i v e o b j e c t o f h i s t o r i c a l  a n d 

cultural  s t u d y ,  g i v e n   t h e c o n t i n u a l  c h a n g e  o f its  l i v i n g   ( a n d 

therefore,  e p h e m e r a l )  c o m p o n e n t s  ( h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s  a n d  

their  c u l t u r e s ,  a n im a l s ,  a n d p l an t s ) ?  O r is  t h e Me d i t e r r a n e a n 

as a h i s t o r i c a l  a n d c u l t u r a l e n t i t y  j u s t a  c o n s t r u c t  o f  t h e co l l e c t -

ive  i m a g i n a t i o n  o f s c h o l a r s   w h o  c o n t r i b u t e  to  j o u r n a l s , b o o k s , 

or Con f e r e n c e s   t h a t  h a v e   t h e  n a m e  ' M e d i t e r r a n e a n '   i n  t h e i r t i t le?  

1  T h e  v i ew s e x p r e s s ed here s t em   f r om  the pro j e c t  ' R i t u a l and  C o m m u n i -

cation  in  th e G r e e k  cit ies and  in  R om e ' , wh i c h  is  par t o f th e  i n terd i sc ip l inary 

projects  ' R i t u a l d y n am i k  in  t r ad i t i one l l en u n d mod e r n e n  Gese l l s cha f t en '  

funded  b y th e M i n i s t r y o f Sc i ence  o f B a d e n -W ü r t t em b e r g  ( 1 9 99 - 2 000 ) a n d 

'Ritualdynamik: Soz i oku l t u r e l l e Proze s s e  in  h i s tor i s cher u n d ku l t u r v e rg l e

ichender Pe r s p ek t i v e '  f u n d e d b y th e G e r m a n Resea r ch C o u n c i l  ( 2 0 02 - 5 ) ; 

references to m y  o w n  p r e l im i n a r y s tud ies o n  re l evan t  sub jec t s are , u n f o r t u -

nately, una v o i d a b l e .  I ha v e pro f i t ed  great ly  f r om  theoret ica l d i scuss ions w i t h  

my co l l eagues  in  th is pro j ec t . 2 P l u . Theseus 23 . 

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142 Ritual Dynamics

T h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e u n i t y o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n s h o u l d b e a s k e d

not o n l y ' v e r t i c a l l y ' ( w i t h r e g a r d t o d i a c h r o n i c d e v e l o p m e n t s ) ;

it m u s t b e a s k e d ' h o r i z o n t a l l y ' as w e l l . C a n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n

in i ts e n t i r e t y b e a m e a n i n g f u l a n d d i s t i n c t i v e o b j e c t o f s t u d y i nany g i v e n p e r i o d o f t h e a n t i q u i t y , g i v e n t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f

cultures a n d e n v i r o n m e n t s i n t h is g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n ? A n d l f

continuities, c o n v e r g e n c e s , a n d h o m o g e n e i t i e s c a n s o m e h o w b e

detected i n a n o n - a n t h r o p o g e n o u s f r a m e w o r k — f o r e x a m p l e

there is s u c h a t h i n g a s a M e d i t e r r a n e a n c l im a t e , w e c a n s t u d y

Mediterranean s e i s m i c a c t iv i t i e s, a n d w e k n o w f r o m p e r s o n a l

Observation t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n k a rs ti c l a n d s c a p e s — c a n w e

characterize c u l tu r a l p h e n o m e n a as ' M e d i t e r r a n e a n p h e n o m -

ena'? I s t h e r e s u c h a t h i n g as a M e d i t e r r a n e a n m e n t a l i t y , a

Medi terranean w a y o f l i f e , t y p i c a l M e d i t e r r a n e a n c u l t ic p r a c -

tices o r r i t u a ls , o r e v e n M e d i t e r r a n e a n v a l u e s ? 3 T h e s e q u e s t i o n s

sound r h e t o r i c a l . M o s t o f u s w o u l d s p o n t a n e o u s l y d e n y t h e

existence o f a M e d i t e r r a n e a n c u l t u re , a M e d i t e r r a n e a n r e l ig i o n

or a M e d i t e r r a n e a n w a y o f l if e , p e r h a p s o n l y m a k i n g a l lo w a n c e s

for c e r t a i n h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d s o r c e r t a i n l i m i t e d a s p e c t s . I t i s

necessary t o r e t h i n k w h a t is s p e c i f i c a l ly ' M e d i t e r r a n e a n ' i n

Medi terranean s t u d i e s , t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n o b j e c t s a n d O b

servation a n d c o n s t r u c t s — b u t a ls o t o a sk o u r s e l v e s if t h e r e is

any l e g i t i m a c y fo r M e d i t e r r a n e a n s t u d ie s o t h e r t h a n t h e n a t u r a l

geographical l i m i t s o f t h i s c l o s e d s e a , a n d i f y e s , w h i c h P a r a m

eters w e s h o u l d t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

I h a v e c h o s e n t o e x p l o r e t h i s i s s u e b y t r e a t i n g a c u l t u r a l

p h e n o m e n o n f o r w h i c h g e o g r a p h i c a l f a c t o r s d o n o t s e e m t o b edeterminant: r it u a ls . A d m i t t e d l y , r e l ig i o u s r e s p o n s e s t o s p a c e

and l a n d s c a p e h a v e o f t e n b e e n o b s e r v e d , a n d P . H o r d e n a n d N .

Purcel l h a v e v e r y a p t l y i n c l u d e d i n t h e ir Corrupting Sea a

chapter o n t e r r i t o r i e s o f g r a c e . 4 T h i s c h a p t e r d e a ls w i t h a

great v a r i e t y o f s u b j e c t s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n r e l i

gion a n d t h e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a n d t o g e o g r a p h i c a l p a r a m -

eters, s u c h a s t h e t o p o g r a p h i c a l f e a t u r e s o f c u l t p l a c e s ( h o l y

waters, h i g h p l a c e s , w o o d s a n d g r o v e s , n a t u r a l c a t a s t r o p h e s

such a s b a d w e a t h e r , e a r t h q u a k e s a n d v u l c a n i c a c t i v i t y ) , t h e

3 Se e e . g . J . G . P e r i s t i an y ( ed . ) , Honour and Sham e. The Values of Mediter

ranean Society ( L o n d o n , 1 9 65 ).4 CS 4 0 1 - 6 0 .

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Ritual Dynamics 143

sacralized e c o n o m y , a n d t h e m o b i l i t y o f r e l i g io u s p r a c t ic e s . T h e

questions o f c o n t i n u i t i e s , s u r v i v a l s , a n d c h a n g e s , c o n v e r g e n c e s

and d i v e r g e n c e s n a t u r a l l y o c c u p y a n i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n i n t h e ir

discussion. A l t h o u g h n o c l a i m is m a d e i n t h i s b o o k ( o r h a s e v e rbeen m a d e , a t l e a st t o t h e b e s t o f m y k n o w l e d g e ) t h a t t h e r e is a

'Mediterranean' r e l i g i o n o r t h a t t h e r e is a n y t h i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y

Mediterranean i n t h e r e l i g i o n s o f t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a n e a n ,

still c o n t i n u i t i e s i n w o r s h i p a r e d e t e c t e d i n c e r t a i n s i t e s — t h e

'classical' e x a m p l e b e i n g t h e u s e o f t h e s a m e s a c r e d s p a c e b y

pagans, C h r i s t i a n s a n d M u s l i m s ; a l so s i m i l a r it i e s i n t h e r e l i

gious u s e o f S p a c e a n d l a n d s c a p e p r a c t i c e s w i t h a w i d e g e o -

graphical d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n h a v e b e e n

observed . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f c o n t i n u i t i e s , s u r

vivals , a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s i n t h e s a c r e d l a n d s c a p e s o f t h e M e d i t e r

ranean re fe r s to cult, religion, w orship, o r t h e sacred; i t do e s no t

to r e f e r t o rituals. A l t h o u g h r it u a ls a r e o f t e n a l l u d e d t o b y

H o r d e n a n d P u r c e l l , t h e r e is h a r d l y a n y d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e

term ritual o r t o i n d i v i d u a l r i tu a l s , a n d v e r y p r u d e n t l y s o , f o r

reasons t h a t w i l l b e g i v e n in a m o m e n t .

2. F R O M M E A N I N G S T O F U N C T I O N S

But d e s p i t e t h e p r u d e n c e a n d c a u t i o n t h a t s h o u l d b e s h o w n i n

the t r e a t m e n t o f r it u a l s a s o b j e c t s o f a c o m p a r a t i v e o r a d i a -

chronic s t u d y , y e t r it u a l s a r e e s s e n ti a l f o r t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

cult, r e l i g i o n , a n d w o r s h i p , f o r t h e u s e o f s a c r e d s p a c e , b u t a ls o

for t h e c u l t u r a l p r o f i l e o f a g r o u p , i n t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a n e a nas i n a n y o t h e r r e g i o n a n d p e r i o d . I t w a s w i t h t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f

differences i n r i t u a l s ( e s p e c i a l l y b u r i a l c u s t o m s a n d t h e r i t u a l s

of d i n i n g ) t h a t m a n y a n c i e n t h i s t o r ia n s ( n o t a b l y H e r o d o t u s )

established c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e a n d id e n t i t y b e t w e e n G r e e k s

and b a r b a r i a n s o r a m o n g t h e G r e e k c o m m u n i t i e s . 5 I n o n e o f

the l o n g e s t a n d m o s t d e t a i l e d a n c i e n t t r e a t m e n t s o f r i t u a l s , i n

Athenaeus ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e d i n i n g r i tu a l s o f v a r i o u s p e o p l e s ,

the p e c u l i a r it i e s o f ea c h g r o u p a re d e t e c t e d t h r o u g h a c o m p a r i -

son o f t h e r i t u a l s a t t h e d i n i n g t a b l e . 6 T h e r e is a n u n s p o k e n , b u t

5 e . g . , F . H a r t o g , The M irror of Herodo tus. The Representation of the Other

in the Writing of H istory (Ber ke ley and Lo s An ge les , 1988) ; R . B i ch ler ,

Herodots Welt ( B e r l i n , 2 0 0 0 ), e s p . 4 8 - 5 6 , 8 4 - 9 3 , 1 2 3 - 3 1 , 1 5 1 - 7 8 .6 A t h e n . 4 . 1 4 8 - 5 4 d .

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144 Ritual Dynamics

relatively w i d e s p r e a d v i e w ( in G e r m a n y i n p a r t i c u la r ) , p e r h a p s

influenced b y t h e s p i r i t o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m , t h a t r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s

and d o c t r i n e s h a v e a s u p r e m a c y o v e r r i t u a ls , t h a t r i tu a l s a r e

meaningless. A n d y e t , s c h o l a r s s ti ll s e a r c h fo r t h e m e a n i n g o frituals n o l e s s t h a n s o m e a n t i q u a r i a n s d i d i n a n t i q u i t y .

Agatharchides n a r r a t e s a v e r y i n s t r u c t i v e a n e c d o t e : 7 ' T h e B o e -

otians s a c r i f i c e t o t h e g o d s t h o s e e e l s o f t h e K o p a i c L a k e w h i c h

are o f s u r p a s s i n g s i ze , p u t t i n g w r e a t h s o n t h e m , s a y i n g p r a y e r s

over t h e m , a n d C a s ti n g b a r l e y - c o r n s o n f h e m as o n a n y o t h e r

sacrificial v i c t i m ; a n d t o t h e f o r e i g n e r w h o w a s u t t e r l y p u z z l e d

at t h e s t r a n g e n e s s o f t h i s c u s t o m a n d a s k e d t h e r e a s o n , t h e

Boeotian d e c l a r e d t h a t h e k n e w o n e a n s w e r , a n d h e w o u l d

reply t h a t o n e s h o u l d o b s e r v e a n c e s t r a l c u s t o m s , a n d i t w a s

not h i s b u s i n e s s t o j u s t i f y t h e m to o t h e r m e n . ' T h i s a n e c d o t e

of A g a t h a r c h i d e s , r a th e r t h a n c o n f i r m i n g t h e v i e w o f t h o s e w h o

regard r i t u a l s m e a n i n g l e s s , a d v i s e s u s t o s h i f t t h e f o c u s o f t h e

discussion f r o m m e a n i n g t o f u n c t i o n s . T h e B o e o t i a n s c o n -

t inued t o s a c r i f i c e e e l s , n o t b e c a u s e o f a n o r i g i n a l , n o w f o r g o t -

ten, o b s c u r e a n d e n t ir e l y i n s i g n i f ic a n t m e a n i n g , b u t b e c a u s e o f

the i m p o r t a n c e a t ta c h e d t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f a n c e st ra l t r a d -

itions f o r t h e c o h e r e n c e a n d id e n t i t y o f a C o m m u n i t y .

O n e o f t h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n s o f r i t u a l s , a t l e a s t i n t h e c i v i c

communi t i es i n G r e e c e , w a s t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n

humans a n d o t h e r b e i n g s w i t h i n a n d w i t h o u t h u m a n s o c ie t y . 8

Publ i c r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l s — s a c r i f i c e i n p a r t i c u l a r , a n d o t h e r a c t i v -

ities c o n n e c t e d w i t h s a c r if i c e ( th e s in g i n g o f h y m n s , r it u a l

dances, e t c . ) , r i tu a l s o f p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d r i t u a l s o f d e d i c a t i o n —are p r i v i l e g e d m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n m o r t a l s a n d

gods; r it u a l a c t i v it i e s e s t a b l is h t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e

l iving a n d t h e d e a d , i n t h e f u n e r a r y c u l t a n d t h e c u l t o f h e r o e s ; it

is a l s o w i t h r i t u a l s — t h e s e c re t r it u a ls o f m a g i c — t h a t m e n e s t a b

lish a c o n t a c t w i t h s u p e r h u m a n b e i n g s . P u b l i c r it u a ls ( s u c h a s

7 FGrH 8 6 F 5 ( f r o m A t h e n . 7 . 2 9 7 d ) .

8 e . g. F . G r a f , ' Z e i c h e n k o n z e p t i o n in d e r R e l i g i o n d e r g r i e c h is c h e n u n d

römischen A n t i k e ' , i n R . P o s n e r , K . R o b e r i n g , a n d T . A . S e b e o k ( e d s .) ,

Semiotik. Ein Handbuch zu den zeichentheoretischen Grundlagen von Natur

und Kultur ( B e r l i n a n d N e w Y o r k , 1 9 9 7) , 9 3 9 - 5 8 . C f . N . B o u r q u e , ' A n

Anthropologist's V i e w o f R i t u a l ' , i n E . B i s p h a m a n d C . S m i t h (e d s .) , Religion

in Archaic and Repu blican Rome and Italy: Evidence and Experience ( E d i n

burgh, 2 0 0 0 ) , 2 1 - 2 .

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Ritual Dynamics 145

oath c e r e m o n i e s , b a n q u e t s , p r o c e s s i o n s , a n d i n i t i a t o r y r it u a ls )

play a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t a ls o in t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n

communit ies , g r o u p s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s ; t h e P e r f o r m a n c e o f

rituals e x p r e s s e s s y m b o l i c a l l y r o l e s , h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e s ,and i d e a l s ; r i t u a ls i n c l u d e o r e x c l u d e i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n s o r

whole g r o u p s f r o m c o m m u n a l l i fe . C o m m u n i c a t i o n is a ls o t h e

aim o f a ll t h o s e f o r m s o f r i t u a l a n d r i t u a l i z e d b e h a v i o u r t h a t

accompany t h e s o c ia l a n d p o l i t ic a l l if e o f t h e G r e e k s — t h e

drinking p a r t y o r t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f a v i c t o r y , t h e h o n o u r i n g

of b e n e f a c t o r s o r t h e a s s e m b l y , t h e e n t h r o n i z a t i o n o r t h e adven-

tus o f a r u l e r , o r e v e n d i p l o m a t i c n e g o t i a t i o n s , a s m y n e x t

anecdote w i l l h o p e f u l l y d e m o n s t r a t e . I n 8 6 B C S u l l a w a s a t

war w i t h A t h e n s . A f t e r a l o n g s i eg e o f t h e i r c i t y t h e A t h e n i a n s

sent a d e l e g a t i o n t o n e g o t i a t e w i t h t h e R o m a n g e n e r a l . P l u t a r c h

reports: 9 ' W h e n t h e y ( th e e n v o y s ) m a d e n o d e m a n d s w h i c h

could s a v e t h e c i t y , b u t t a l k e d i n l o f t y s t r a in s a b o u t T h e s e u s

and E u m o l p u s a n d th e P e r s i a n w a r s , S u l l a s a id t o t h e m : ' B e o f f ,

m y d e a r s i r s , a n d t a k e t h e s e s p e e c h e s w i t h y o u ; f o r I w a s n o t

sent t o A t h e n s b y t h e R o m a n s t o l ea r n it s h i s t o r y , b u t t o s u b d u e

its r e b e l s . ' T h i s a n e c d o t e m a y p r e s e n t m o r e t h a n t h e c o n f r o n -

tation o f A t h e n i a n o r a t o r y a n d R o m a n p r a g m a t i s m . I t h in k w e

have h e r e t h e c a s e o f a m i s u s e d a n d m i s u n d e r s t o o d r i tu a l , t h e

funct ion o f w h i c h w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e

basis o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , b u t w h i c h f a i l e d t o d o s o . F r o m t h e

t imes o f P l a t o ' s Menexenus t o A e l i u s A r i s t i d e s , t h e A t h e n i a n s

reminded t h e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s s t e r e o t y p i c a l l y a n d i n a n

almost r i t u a l i z e d w a y o f t h e s a m e t h r e e v i c t o r i e s o v e r b a r b a r -ians: t h e v i c t o r y o f T h e s e u s o v e r t h e A m a z o n s , E r e c h t h e u s o v e r

the T h r a c i a n s o f E u m o l p u s , a n d t h e v i c t o r y in t h e P e r s i a n

Wa r s . 1 0 T h e s e s t a n d a r d i z e d c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e ir c u l t u ra l

m e m o r y a r e t o b e f o u n d n o t o n l y i n o r a t i o n s h e l d i n f e s t i v a l s

(in o t h e r w o r d s w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f a r i tu a l ) , b u t a l s o i n

their d i p l o m a t i c c o n t a c t s , e . g . w i t h S p a r t a . 1 1 T h i s r i tu a l i ze d u s e

of h i s t o r y a s a n a r g u m e n t t h a t c a n b e o b s e r v e d in m a n y o c c a -

sions a n d i n m a n y f o r m s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f G r e e k d i p l o m a c y ,

f rom t h e P e l o p o n n e s i a n W a r t o t h e ' k i n s h i p d i p l o m a c y ' o f t h e

9 P l u . Sulla 13.10 Pla t . Menex. 2 3 9 b - 4 0 e ; A e l . A r i s t. Panath. 8 3 - 7 , 9 2 - 1 1 4 .11 Xen.Hell. 2.2 .20 ; 6 .2 .6 .

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146 Ritual Dynamics

Hellenistic a n d I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , e s t a b l i s h e d a n d f a ci l it a t e d

communica t ion a m o n g t h e G r e e k c o m m u n i t i e s t h at s h a r e d t h e

same c u l tu r a l m e m o r y a n d v a l u e s . 1 2 T h i s d i p l o m a t i c r it u al

failed i n t h e c a s e o f S u l l a , a n d q u i t e n a t u r a l l y : S u l l a h i m s e l f

w as a b a r b a r i a n a g g r e s s o r, n o t u n l i k e t h e A m a z o n s , t h e T h r a -

cians a n d t h e P e r s i a n s t h a t h a d t h r e a t e n e d t h e f r e e d o m o f t h e

Athenians i n t h e r e m o t e p a s t .

3. R I T U A L S A N D C U L T U R A L T R A N S F E R

I h a v e s t r e t c h e d o u t t h i s c o m m u n i c a t i v e f u n c t i o n o f r it u a ls a n d

ritualized a c t i v i ti e s b e c a u s e I t h i n k it s h o w s w h y w e s h o u l d

include r i tu a l s a n d r i t u a l i z e d b e h a v i o u r i n c o m p a r a t i v e a n d

diachronic s t u d i e s o f t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a n e a n , d e s p i t e a ll

the o b s t a c l e s a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s t h a t c o n f r o n t u s . I t

w o u l d b e m i s l e a d i n g , f o r i n s t a n c e , t o i g n o r e t h e r it u a l c o m p o n -

ents i n d i s c u s s i o n s o f c o n t i n u i t i e s i n t h e u s e o f s a c r e d s p a c e .

T w o C r e t a n s a n c t u a r i e s w i t h t h e l o n g e s t r e c o r d o f a n u n i n t e r -

rupted u s e a s s a c r e d p l a c e s , t h e s a n c t u a r y i n S i m i V i a n n o u a n d

the I d a e a n C a v e , d e m o n s r a t e t h a t it i s e x a c t l y t h e c h a n g e o f t h e

rituals t h a t r e v e a l s s u b s t a n t i a l b r e a k s i n t h e t r a d i t i o n , d i s c o n -

tinuities r a t h e r t h a n c o n t i n u i t i e s . I n S i m i V i a n n o u t h e r e w a s a

shift i n t h e w o r s h i p f r o m s a c r i fi c ia l r i t u a ls a n d b a n q u e t s t o t h e

initiatory r i t u a l s o f e p h e b e s i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d . 1 3 I n t h e

Idaean C a v e t h e o f f e r i n g o f f o o d i t e m s i n t h e M i n o a n p e r i o d is

replaced b y b l o o d s a c ri f i ce s , t h e d e d i c a t i o n o f w e a p o n s — a g a i n ,poss ib ly i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h m i l i t a r y r it es o f p a s s a g e — i n t h e

early h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d , a n d t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f a c u l t o f d e a t h

and r e b i r t h . 1 4 T h a t t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f u s e c a n b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y

12 S e e m o s t r e c e n t l y C . P . J o n e s , Kinship Diplomacy in the Ancient World

(Cambridge, M a s s . , 1 99 9 ).13

A . L e b e s s i a n d P . M . M u h l y , ' A s p e c t s o f M i n o a n C u l t : S a c r e d E n c l o s -ures: T h e E v i d e n c e f r o m t he S y m e S a n c t u a r y ( C r e t e )' , Archäologischer Anzei

ger ( 1 9 9 0 ) , 3 1 5 - 3 6 ; A . L e b e s s i , ' F l a g e l l a t i o n o u a u t o f l a g e l l a t i o n ? D o n n e e s

iconographiques p o u r u n e t e n t a t i v e d ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ' , Bulletin de Correspon-

dance Hellenique 1 1 5 ( 1 9 9 1 ), 1 0 3 - 2 3 ; K . S p o r n , Heiligtümer und K ulte Kretas

in klassischer und hellenistischer Zeit ( H e i d e l b e r g , 2 0 0 2 ) , 8 5 - 9 ( w i t h th e ea r li e r

bibliography).14 J . S a k el la r ak is , ' T h e Id e a n C a v e : M i n o a n a n d G r e e k W o r s h i p ' , Kernos 1

(1988), 2 0 7 - 1 4 ; S p o r n , Heiligtümer 2 1 8 - 2 3 ( w i t h t h e e a r li e r b i b l i o g r a p h y ) .

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Ritual Dynamics 1 4 7

a r a d i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n r i t u a l p r a c t i c e s i s a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e d

b y t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f p a g a n t e m p l e s . S c h o l a r s o f t e n r e f e r t o t h e

e x i s t e n c e o f C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s o n t h e r u i n s o f p a g a n s a n c t u a r -

i es a s a c a s e o f c o n t i n u i t y i n t h e u s e o f s a c r e d s p a c e ; s o m e t i m e s i t

w a s n o t t h e s a n c t i t y o f t h e s p a c e t h a t i n v i t e d t h e C h r i s t i a n s t o

b u i l d t h e i r p l a c e s o f w o r s h i p t h e r e , b u t o n t h e c o n t r a r y i t s

u n h o l i n e s s ; n o t t h e e f f o r t t o c o n t i n u e t h e s a c r e d u s e o f a s i t e ,

b u t t h e e f f o r t t o e x p e l t h e p a g a n d e m o n s ; t h e e f f o r t t o c o n q u e r

a n u n h o l y a n d i m p u r e p l a c e a n d make i t s a c r e d . A s H o r d e n a n d

P u r c e l l p u t i t : ' t h e " h a r d w a r e " o f l o c a l i t y a n d p h y s i c a l f o r m ,

i n c l u d i n g t e m p l e , c h u r c h o r t o m b , i s i n p r a c t i c e i n f u s e d w i t h

c h a n g i n g s t r u c t u r e s o f m e a n i n g b y r i t u a l a n d o b s e r v a n c e . ' 1 5

R i t u a l s h a v e b e e n a n d s h o u l d r e m a i n a n i n t r i n s i c p a r t o f

c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n . T h e r e i s a p l e t h o r a

o f c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s o n r i t u a l s t h a t n o t o n l y c o n t a i n t h e n a m e

o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n i n t h e i r t i t l e , b u t a l s o a d d r e s s t h e c o n v e r -

g e n c e s a n d d i v e r g e n c e s i n r i t u a l s i n t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a

n e a n . 1 6 W i t h o u t c l a i m i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a M e d i t e r r a n e a n

15 CS 4 2 2 . F o r a me th o d o lo g i c a l a p p r o a c h s ee P . Pa k k a n e n , ' T h e R e la t i o n -

ship b e t w e e n C o n t i n u i t y a n d C h a n g e in D a r k A g e G r e e k R e l i g io n : A M e t h

odological S t u d y ' , Opuscula Atheniensia 25—6 (2 00 0-1 ) , 71—88.16 T o g ive on ly a few e xam ple s f r om the last decade or so , a Conference in

Ro me wa s devo ted to ded ica to ry prac t ices in the anc ient Med i ter ra nea n

(G . B a r to lo n i , G . C o lo n n a a n d C . G r o ta n e l l i ( e d s .) , Atti del corwegno inter-

nazionale Anathema. Regime delle offene e vita dei santuari nel mediterraneo

antico, Roma 15-18 Giugno 1989, in Scienze dell'antichitä 3-4 ( 1 9 8 9 - 9 0 )

(1991)); ar iö ther Conference in L y o n had M ed i ter ra nea n sacr i fi c ia l r i tua ls as

its s u b j e c t ( R . E t i e n n e an d M . - T . L e D i n a h e t ( e ds .) , L'Espace sacrificiel dans

les civilisations mediterraneenne s de l'antiquite: Actes du colloque tenu ä la

Maison de l'Orient, Lyon, 4-7 juin 1988 (Par is 1991); R . E . De M ar is , has

studied th e cu l t o f D e m e te r in R o m a n C o r in th a s a 'l o ca l d e v e lo p m e n t in a

Mediterranean r e li g io n ' ( ' D e m e t e r i n R o m a n C o r i n t h : L o c a l D e v e l o p m e n t i n

a M e d i t e r r a n e a n R e l i g i o n ' , Numen 4 2 ( 1 99 5 ) 1 0 5 - 1 7 ) ; D . J . T h o m p s o n a p -

proached Ph i l a d e lp h u s ' p r o c e s s io n in A l e x a n d r i a a s a n e x p r e s s io n o f ' d y n a s t i c

power i n a M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o n te x t ' ( 'Ph i l a d e lp h u s ' P r o c e s s io n : D y n a s t i c

Power i n a M e d i t e r r a n e a n C o n te x t ' , i n L . M o o r e n ( e d . ) , Politics, Adminis

tration and Society in the Hellenistic and Roman World: Proceedings of the

International Colloquium, Bertinoro 19-24 July 1997 ( L o u v a i n , 2 0 00 ) 3 6 5 -

88); and L . L i D o n n ic i has r ecent ly s tud ied 'e ro t ic spe l l s for fever and c o m -

pulsion in the anc ient Med i ter r ane an w or ld ' ( 'Bu rn in g for i t: Ero t ic Spe l l s for

Fever a n d C o m p u l s i o n in t h e A n c i e n t M e d i t e r ra n e a n W o r l d ' , Greek, Roman,

and Byzantine Studies 3 9 ( 1 9 9 8 ), 6 3 - 9 8 ) . S e e a l so B . G la d i g o w , 'M e d i t e r r a n e

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148 Ritual Dynamics

religion o r o f Mediterranean r i t u a l s , t h e s e s c h o l a r s r e g a r d a

comparat ive s t u d y o f r i t u a l s l i m i t e d t o t h i s a r e a a s a m e a n i n g f u l

task. A n d t h e r e a r e g o o d re a s o n s f o r d o i n g s o , a t l ea s t i n c e r t a i n

historical p e r i o d s . T h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a h a s m o r e o f t e n b e e n

a f ac i l it at or o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a n a b a r r i e r, a n d c o m m u m -

cation c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e w i d e d i f f u s i o n n o t o n l y o f f l o r a , f a u n a ,

and a r t e f a c t s , b u t a l s o o f c u l t u r e . A n d r i tu a l s a r e a n i m p o r t a n t

component o f c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s . R i t u a l t r a n s f e r i s, t h e r e f o r e ,

neither a r a re n o r a s u r p r i s i n g p h e n o m e n o h . 1 7 T h e m e c h a n i s m s

of t h e tr a n s f e r a n d t h e f a c to r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e — i n ce r t a i n

per iods —conver gences i n r i tu a l p r a c t i c e s a r e m a n i f o l d a n dhave s o o f t e n b e e n s t u d i e d th a t a b r i e f r e f e r e n c e t o t h e m o s t

c o m m o n f o r m s w o u l d s u f fi c e : m a s s i v e m o v e m e n t s o f p o p u l a -

t i o n — i n v a s i o n , m i g r a t i o n , c o n q u e s t , a n d o f c o u r s e c o l o n i z a -

t ion, w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e r i tu a l s o f t h e m o t h e r - c i t y t o

the c o l o n y — w e r e s o m e t i m e s n o m o r e i n f l u en t ia l t h a n t h e s e tt le -

ment o f s m a l l g r o u p s o f f o r e i g n e r s (e s p e c i a l l y m e r c h a n t s , g a r -

risons, a n d e x i le s : f o r e x a m p l e , P t o l e m a i c m e r c e n a r i e s w e r e a s

important f o r t h e d i f f u s i o n o f t h e c u l t o f E g y p t i a n d e i t i e s , a s t h e

R o m a n a r m y f o r t h e d i f f u s i o n o f m a n y O r i e n t a l c u l t s) .1 8 I n

addit ion t o t h i s , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m e a s u r e s o f e m p i r e s a n d e v e n

diplomatic c o n t a c t s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e u n i f o r m i t y o f r i tu a l

practices. O n e s h o u l d a ls o u n d e r s c o r e t h e m i s s i o n a r y a c t i v i t y

of i n d i v i d u a l s o r o r g a n i z e d g r o u p s . F i n a l l y , w e s h o u l d n o t

forget t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c a n o n i c a l t e x t s , e i t h e r o r a l l y t r a n s m i t

ted o r w r i t t e n , f o r r i t u a l t r a n s f e r f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e u n i f o r m i t y o fmagical r it u a ls t h r o u g h o u t t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n o r t h e u n i f o r m i t y

Religionsgeschichte, R ö m i s c h e R e l i g i o n sg e s c h i ch t e , E u r o p ä i s c h e R e h g i o n s -

geschichte: Z u r G e n e s e e in s e F a k t k o n z e p t e s ' , i n Kykeon: Studies in Honour of

H. S. Versnel ( L e i d e n , e tc . , 2 0 0 2 ) , 49-67.

17 S e e , e . g. E . R . G e b h a r d , ' T h e G o d s i n T r a n s i t : N a r r a t i v e s o f C u l t

Transfer' , i n A . Y . C o l l i n s a n d M . M . M i t c h e l l ( e d s. ), Antiquity and Hum an-ity. Essays on Ancient Religion and Philosophy presented to D. Betz on his 70th

Birthday ( T ü b i n g e n , 2 0 01 ), 4 5 1 - 7 6 .18 M . L a u n e y , Recherches sur les armees hellenistiques ( r e imp r e s s io n a v e c

addenda e t m i s e ä j o u r e n p o s t f a c e p a r Y . G a r l a n , Ph . G a u t h ie r , C l . O r r i e u x ,

Paris, 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 0 2 6 - 3 1 ; A . C h a n i o t i s , ' F o r e i g n S o l d i e r s — N a t i v e G i r l s ? C o n -

structing a n d C r o s s in g B o u n d a r i e s in H e l l e n i s t i c C i t i e s w i th F o r e ig n G a r

risons', i n A . C h a n io t i s a n d P . D u c r e y (e d s . ) , Army and P ower in the Ancient

World ( S tu t tg a r t , 2 0 0 2 ) , 1 0 8 - 9 .

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Ritual Dynamics 149

of r i t u a l s o f m y s t e r y c u l t s w a s t o a g r e a t e x t e n t t h e r e s u l t o f t h e

existence o f r it u a l h a n d b o o k s . 1 9

In w h a t f o l l o w s , I w i l l n o t d i s c u s s t h e m e c h a n i s m s o f r i tu a l

transfer a n d u n i f o r m i t y i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , b u t s i m p l y a d dress s o m e p r o b l e m s w e a re c o n f r o n t e d w i t h w h e n w e a t t e m p t

to m a k e r it ua ls a m e a n i n g f u l s u b j e c t o f M e d i t e r r a n e a n s t u d i e s —

either d i a c h r o n i c a l l y o r i n p a r t i c u l a r p e r i o d s .

4 . T H E E L U S I V E N E S S O F R I T U A L S

Rituals b e l o n g t o t h e m o s t e l u s i v e p h e n o m e n a o f a n c i e n t r e l i -

gious a n d s o c ia l b e h a v i o u r . A s w i d e l y e s ta b l i s h e d , s t e r e o t y p i c a lactivities, f o l l o w e d c o n s i s t e n t l y a n d ( at l ea s t i n t h e o r y ) i n v a r i -

ably , t h e y a r e r a r e l y d e s c r i b e d a n d h a r d l y e v e r e x p l a i n e d b y

those w h o p e r f o r m t h e m ; t h e y a re r a t h e r d e s c r i b e d b y t h o s e

w h o o b s e r v e t h e m a n d ar e a s t o u n d e d a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s f r o m t h e

rituals o f t h e i r o w n c u l t u r e , o r t h e y a r e d e s c r i b e d b y p u z z l e d

antiquarians. W h e r e a s r e l ig i o u s a c t i v i t y at a s it e c a n b e e s t a b

l ished b y v a r i o u s m e a n s (e .g . t h r o u g h t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a c u l t

bui ld ing, e x - v o t o s , o r d e d i c a t o r y i n s c r i p t i o n s ) , w e o f t e n l a ck

any k n o w l e d g e o f t h e r i tu a l s i n v o l v e d ; a n d t h e c u l t o f a d i v i n i t y

ma y b e p r a c t i s e d c o n t i n u a l l y , e v e n t h o u g h t h e r i tu a l s o f t h e

worship c h a n g e . T o g i v e a f e w e x a m p l e s , t h e r e w a s a d e c l i n e

in t h e o f f e r i n g o f b l o o d s a c r i f i c e i n t h e l a t e r p a r t o f t h e I m p e r i a l

period, a n d i n s t e a d a p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e s i n g i n g o f h y m n s a n d

the o f f e r i n g o f l i b a t i o n s . 2 0 A n o t h e r c h a n g e w e m a y o b s e r v e

19 F o r r rrag ical ha nd bo ok s see F . G ra f , Gottesnähe und Schadenzauber: Die

Magie in der griechisch-römischen Antike ( M u n i c h , 1 9 9 6) 1 0 ; M . W . D i c k i e ,

' The L e a r n e d M a g i c i a n a n d t h e C o l l e c t i o n a n d T r a n s m i s s i o n o f M a g i c a l

Lore' , i n D . R . J o r d a n , H . M o n t g o m e r y , a n d E . T h o m a s s e n ( ed s. ), The

World of Ancient M agic: Papers from the First International Samson Eitrem

Seminar at the Noruiegian Institute at Athens, 4-8 M ay 1997 (Bergen , 1999) ,

163-93. A n imp res s ion o f in i t i a to ry li turg ica l boo ks i s p r ov id ed by the

so-called ' M i t h r a s l i t u r g i e ' i n a p a p y r u s in P a r i s (Papyri Graecae Magicae 4

475-824); s e e R . M e r k e l b a c h , Abrasax III. Ausgewählte Papyri religiösen und

magischen, Inhalts I I I ( O p l a d e n , 19 9 2) .20 S . Br a d b u r y , 'J u l i a n ' s P a g a n R e v i v a l a n d th e D e c l i n e o f B l o o d S a c r i f i c e ' ,

Phoenix 4 9 ( 1 9 9 5 ) , 3 3 1 - 5 6 ; se e e . g. F . S o k o l o w s k i , Lois Sacrees de l'Asie

Mineure ( P a r i s , 1 9 5 5 ) , n o . 2 8 ; A . R e h m , Didyma I I . Die Inschriften, e d .

R. H ä r d e r ( Be r l i n , 1 9 5 8 ) , n o . 2 1 7 ; R . M e r k e l b a c h a n d J . S t a u b e r , ' D i e O r a k e l

des A p o l l o n v o n K l a r o s ' , Epigraphica A natolica 27 (1996) , 1 -54 , nos . 2

(Pergamon), 4 ( H i e r a p o l i s ) , a n d 11 ( S a r d e s o r K o l o e ) .

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Ritual Dynamics

thanks t o i n s c r i p t i o n s w i t h s a c r e d r e g u l a t i o n s i s a s h i f t f r o m t h e

preoccupat ion w i t h t h e r it u a l p u r i t y o f t h e b o d y t o a p r e o c c u -

pation w i t h t h e p u r i t y o f t h e m i n d ; 2 1 t h e r e l e v a n t e v i d e n c e d a te s

f r o m t h e f o u r t h C e n t u r y B C o n w a r d s a n d is w i d e l y d i f f u s e d i n

the e a st er n M e d i t e r r a n e a n ( in M a c e d o n i a a n d m a i n l a n d

Greece , i n C r e t e a n d m a n y i s la n d s o f t h e A e g e a n , a n d m a n y

places i n A s i a M i n o r ) . B o t h c h a n g e s i n r i tu a l s o c c u r r e d i n

sanctuaries u s e d w i t h o u t a n y in t e r r u p t i o n a n d d e v o t e d t o t h e

same d i v i n i t y . A l l t h i s h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d t h a n k s t o t h e r a t h e r

unusual a b u n d a n c e o f l i t e r a r y t e x t s a n d a b o v e a ll o f i n s c r i p t i o n s

(sacred r e g u l a t i o n s ) i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e p e r i o d s . S u c h c h a n g e s

have a s o c ia l p a r a m e t e r a s w e l l . B o t h a f o r e m e n t i o n e d c h a n g e s

seem t o h a v e i n f l u e n c e d o n l y p a r t o f t h e w o r s h i p p e r s , t h e i n t e l -

lectual e l it e a n d t h e p e r s o n s t h a t s t o o d u n d e r i ts i n f l u e n c e .

Social a n d in t e l l e c t u a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s i n t h e p r a c t i c e o f r i t u a l s

should b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n , b u t it i s o n l y i n e x c e p t i o n a l

cases t h a t o u r s o u r c e s a l l o w u s t o d o so .

A n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f c o n t i n u a l u s e o f a s a c r e d p l a c e c o n n e c t e d

wi th a d i s r u p t i o n o f r i t u a l p r a c t i c e s i s p r o v i d e d b y t h e a l ta r o f t h e

Jerusa lem t e m p l e . I t w a s u s e d a s a n al ta r f o r b l o o d s a c r i f ic e s

throughout t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , w i t h n o i n t e r r u p t i o n i n i ts

u s e — a w o n d e r f u l c a s e o f c o n t i n u i t y i n r i tu a l s , o n e m i g h t h a v e

thought , i f w e d i d n o t h a v e t h e l i t e r a r y e v i d e n c e t h a t i n f o r m s u s

that f o r a p e r i o d o f t h r e e y e a r s a n d s i x m o n t h s d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f

Ant iochus I V t h e a l ta r w a s u s e d f o r t h e s a c r i f i c e o f s w i n e ; 2 2 t h e

change o f j u s t o n e c o m p o n e n t o f t h e r i tu a l o f b l o o d s a c r i f i c e ( t h especies o f t h e s a c r if ic i a l a n i m a l ) p r o v o c a t i v e l y d e m o n s t r a t e d a

disrupt ion o f t h e r i t u a l t r a d i t i o n . I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e w e

happen t o k n o w o f t h i s s h o r t - t e r m i n t e r r u p t i o n , i n o t h e r s w e

do n o t , a n d it h a s o f t e n b e e n o b s e r v e d t h a t c o n t i n u i t y i n u s e o f

the s a m e s p a c e d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m e a n it s i d e n t i c a l u s e . 2 3 It is

21

A . C h a n i o t i s , ' R e i n h e i t d es K ö r p e r s — R e i n h e i t d e r S e e le in d e n g r ie chischen K u l t g e s e t z e n ' , in J . A s s m a n n a n d T h . S u n d e r m e i e r ( ed s .) , Schuld,

Gewissen und Person ( G ü te r s l o h , 1 9 9 7 ) , 1 4 2 - 7 9 .22 J o s e p h . Ant.Jud. 1 2 .2 5 3 .23 A . C h a n io t i s , in J . S c h ä fe r ( e d . ), Amnisos nach den archäologischen, topo

graphischen, historischen und epigraphischen Zeugnissen des Altertums und der

Neuzeit ( B e r l in , 1 9 9 2 ), 8 8 - 9 6 ; L . V . W a t r o u s , The Cave Sanctuary of Zeus at

Psychro. A Study of Extra-Urban Sanctuaries in Minoan and Early Iran Age

Crete ( L i e g e , 1 9 9 6 ) , e s p . 1 0 6 - 1 1 ; CS 4 0 4 - 1 1 .

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Ritual Dynamics

often t h i s e l u s i v e n e s s o f r i tu a l s t h a t m a k e s s c h o l a r s v e r y p r u -

dently t a lk a b o u t c o n t i n u i t y o f c u l t , b u t n o t o f c o n t i n u i t y o f

rituals.

But e x c e p t f o r i n t e r r u p t i o n s a n d d i s r u p t i o n s t h a t e s c a p e o u rnotice, s o m e t i m e s th e r e a r e e l u s i v e c o n t i n u i t i e s . R i t e s o f p a s -

sage i n p a r t i c u l a r , l o n g a b o l i s h e d o r n e g l e c t e d , h a v e t h e t e n -

dency t o e m e r g e i n u n e x p e c t e d p la c e s a n d f o r m s ( v e r y o f t e n a s

the b a c k g r o u n d o f l it e ra r y n a r r a t i v e s — a n i m p o r t a n t s u b j e c t

that c a n n o t b e a d d r e s s e d h e r e ) . 2 4 T h e a c t iv it ie s o f t h e A t h e n i a n

ephebes i n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , a f t e r t h e a r ti f ic i a l r e v i v a l o f

the e p h e b i c i n s t it u t i o n s b u t w i t h o u t t h e in s t i t u t io n a l i z e d P e r

formance o f i n i t i a t o r y r i t u a l s , p r e s e n t a n i n t e r e s t i n g ca s e . A n

honor i f ic d e c r e e o f 1 2 3 B C d e s c r i b e s t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s , w h i c h

included p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n f e s t i va l s , p r o c e s s i o n s , a n d a t h le t i c

competit ions, a t t e n d a n c e at p h i l o s o p h i c a l s c h o o l s , m i l i t a r y

exercises, v i s i ts t o i m p o r t a n t h i s t or i ca l m o n u m e n t s a n d s a n c t u -

aries, a n d a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h t h e b o r d e r s o f A t h e n i a n t e r r i t o r y ;

these a c t i v i t i e s a r e m o r e o r l e ss s t a n d a r d i z e d , s i n c e w e f i n d

references to th e m in s im i la r dec rees . I t i s in th i s pa ssa ge thatw e f i n d t h e f o l l o w i n g r e p o r t : 2 5

and they m ad e an excu rsion to the border of Att ic terr itory carry ing

their we ap on s, acquir ing k no wl edg e of the terr itory and the roads

[lacuna] an d they visited the sanctuaries in the cou ntr ysid e, offering

sacrifices on b ehalf of the people . W h e n they arr ived at the grave at

Marathon, they offe red a wrea th and a sacrif ice to those w h o died in

war for f reedo m ; they a lso came to the sanctuary o f Am ph iara us . A n d

there they d em onstra ted the legit imate possession of the sanctuary

which ha d been occ upie d b y the ancestors in o ld t imes. A n d after they

had offe red a sacrif ice, they returned o n the sam e day to our o w n

territory.

W h a t a t f i rs t s i g h t s e e m s a h a r m l e s s e x c u r s i o n , a c q u i r e s a n o t h e r

dimension w h e n w e t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h i s

per iod t h e s a n c t u a r y o f A m p h i a r a u s w a s not p a r t o f t h e A t h e n

ian t e r r i t o r y , b u t b e l o n g e d t o t h e c i ty o f O r o p o s . T h e A t h e n i a n s

had l o s t th i s t e r r i t o r y l e ss th an a ge ne ra t io n ear l i e r ( th i s w a s the

occasion o f t h e f a m o u s e m b a s s y o f t h e A t h e n i a n p h i l o s o p h e r s t o

24 C f . J . M a , ' B la c k H u n t e r V a r i a t i o n s ' , Proceedings of the Cam bridge Philo-

logical Society 4 0 (1 9 9 4 ) , 4 9 - 8 0 .25 IG I I 2 1 0 0 6 l i n es 6 5 - 7 1 .

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! g 2 Ritual Dynamics

R o m e ) . T h e A t h e n i a n e p h e b e s m a r c h e d u n d e r a r m s i n to f o r -

eign t e r r i t o r y , r e m i n d i n g t h e ir a u d i e n c e w i t h S p ee c h e s t h a t t h e

Athenians w e r e t h e l e g i t i m a t e o w n e r s o f t h e s a n c t u a r y , a n d t h e n

w i t h d r e w b e h i n d t h e A t h e n i a n b o r d e r . T h i s l o o k s v e r y m u c h

like t h e s u r v i v a l o f a n i n i t i a t o r y r i t u a l : S e p a r a t i o n f r o m u r b a n

life, l i m i n a l i t y t h r o u g h v i s i t o f t h e b o r d e r s o f t h e t e r r i t o r y ,

exp'osure t o a d a n g e r a n d a c h i e v e m e n t o f a n i m p o r t a n t d e e d ,

and r e i n t e g r a t i o n — r e t u r n t o A t h e n s a n d a c c e p t a n c e i n t o t h e

Citizen b o d y .

5. A R T I F I C I A L R E V I V A L S

A s e c o n d p r o b l e m i n v o l v e d in t h e s t u d y o f c o n t i n u i t ie s i n

rituals ( b u t a l s o i n t h e s t u d y o f r e l i g i o u s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n g e n e r a l )

is t h e fa c t t h a t w h a t a t f i r s t s i g h t s e e m s a s u r v i v a l m a y w e l l b e a n

artificial r e v i v a l . S o m e t i m e in t h e f if t h C e n t u r y A D , a p a g a n

priest i n M e g a r a , o n e H e l l a d i o s , s et u p a n i n s c r i p t i o n o n t h e

m o n u m e n t o f t h e d e a d o f t h e P e r s i a n W a r s , r e s to r i n g S i m o m -

des' e p i g r a m ( w r i t t e n a l m o s t o n e m i l l e n n i u m ea r li er ) a n d

adding t h e r e m a r k t h a t ' t h e c i t y o f f e r e d s a c r i f i c e s u p t o t h i s

day ' . 2 6 I t w o u l d b e a b i g m i s t a k e t o t a k e t h i s S t a t e m e n t a s p r o o f

that t h i s r i t u a l h a d b e e n c o n t i n u a l l y p e r f o r m e d in M e g a r a f o r

ten c e n t u r i e s . A l o n g t i m e a f t e r t h e p r o h i b i t i o n o f p a g a n s a c r i

fices, H e l l a d i o s p r o v o c a t i v e l y d e f i e s t h e l a w s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n

e m p e r o r s — a p h e n o m e n o n to w h i c h I w i l l r e t u r n l at er . H e r e , w e

are m o r e p r o b a b l y d e a l in g w i t h a r e v i v a l r a th e r t h a n a s u r v i v a l .T h i s is m o r e c le a r i n m y s e c o n d e x a m p l e , a M i l e s i a n d e c r e e o f

the m i d - f i r s t C e n t u r y c o n c e r n i n g a b a n q u e t w h i c h s h o u l d b e

offered b y t h e prophetes ( th e p r i e st o f A p o l l o D i d y m e u s ) at

D i d y m a t o t h e kosmoi ( p r o b a b l y a b o a r d o f s a c re d o ff i c ia l s

responsible f o r s o m e k i n d o f d e c o r a t i o n in t h e s a n c t u a r y ) a n d

b y t h e stephanephoros to the molpoi, t h e o l d , r e s p e c t e d p r i e s t l y

board o f s i n g e r s . 2 7 T h i s d e c r e e w a s b r o u g h t t o t h e a s s e m b l y b y

T iber ius C l a u d i u s D a m a s , a w e l l - k n o w n C it iz en o f M i l e t u s .

26 IG V I I 5 3.27 P . H e r r m a n n , Inschriften von Milet, Pa r t 1 (Ber l in , 1997) , no .13 4 (w i th

the e a rl ie r b ib l i o g r a p h y ) ; F . S o k o lo w s k i , Lots sacrees de l'Asie Mineure (Par is ,

1955), no . 53 . Fo r a deta i led d iscuss ion o f the re l ig ious con tex t o f D am a s '

initiative a n d fu r th e r e x a m p le s s ee A . C h a n io t i s , ' Ne g o t i a t in g R e l ig io n in th e

Cities o f t h e E a s t e r n R o m a n P r o v i n c e s ' , Kernos 16 (2003) , 177 -90 .

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Ritual Dynamics 153

T h a n k s t o n u m e r o u s i n s c r i p t i o n s a n d c o i n s w e k n o w a f e w

things a b o u t h i s p e r s o n a l i t y . H e h e l d t h e o f f i c e o f t h e prophetes

for a t l e a st t w o t e r m s a n d h e in i t i a t e d a c o i n a g e w i t h r e p r e s e n t a -

tions o f A p o l l o D i d y m e u s a n d A r t e m i s P y t h i e .

2 8

W e a re d e a l in gwi th a n i n d i v i d u a l w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r i n t e re s t i n t h e o l d , r e v e r e d ,

but a l s o o f t e n d e s t r o y e d a n d n e g l e c t e d s a n c t u a r y a t D i d y m a .

T h e a c t u a l s u b j e c t o f t h e d e c r e e i s p r e s e n t e d in f e w e r t h a n s i x

lines: T h e a c t i ng prophetes a n d t h e stephanephoros a r e o b l i g e d

'to o r g a n i z e t h e b a n q u e t o f t h e kosmoi a n d t h e molpoi a c c o r d i n g

to a n c e s t r a l c u s t o m a n d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e l a w s a n d t h e

decrees w h i c h h a v e b e e n p r e v i o u s l y is s u e d . ' S u r p r i s i n g l y

enough, t h i s s h o r t t e x t is f o l l o w e d b y t w e n t y - f o u r li n e s, d e v o t e d

to m e a s u r e s p r e v e n t i n g f u t u r e v i o l a t i o n s o f t h i s d e c r e e a n d t h e

punishment o f w r o n g d o e r s . T h e r e s p o n s i b l e m a g i s tr a te s w e r e

not a l l o w e d t o S u b s t i t u t e t h i s c e l e b r a t i o n w i t h a m o n e y c o n t r i -

but ion .2 9 A n y f u t u r e d e c r e e w h i c h d i d n o t c o n f o r m to t h i s

decree s h o u l d b e i n v a l i d ; i ts i n i ti a t o r w o u l d h a v e t o p a y a f in e ,

in a d d i t i o n t o t h e d i v i n e p u n i s h m e n t w h i c h a w a i t s t h e i m p i o u s ;

and t h e r it u a l w o u l d h a v e t o b e p e r f o r m e d , n o n e t h e l e s s . T h i sdecree i s d e c l a r e d t o b e ' a d e c r e e p e r t a i n i n g t o p i e t y t o w a r d s t h e

gods a n d t h e A u g u s t i a n d t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e c i t y ' . D a m a s

w as o b v i o u s l y a f r a i d t h a t h i s d e c r e e w o u l d b e a s p e r s i s t e n t l y

ignored b y f u t u r e m a g i s t r a t e s a s a ll t h o s e e a r l i e r l a w s o n t h e

same m a t t e r w h i c h h e q u o t e s . H i s c o n c e r n m u s t h a v e b e e n

justif ied. D a m a s h i m s e l f s e r v e d as a prophetes, v o l u n t a r i l y ; i n

the t e x t w h i c h r e c o r d s h i s f ir s t t e r m i n t h i s o f f i c e D a m a s u n d e r -

scores t h e f a c t t h a t ' h e p e r f o r m e d e v e r y t h i n g w h i c h h i s p r e d e -

cessors u s e d t o p e r f o r m ' . S u c h S ta t e m e n ts i n h o n o r i f i c

inscriptions i n d i c a t e t h a t s o m e m a g i s t r a t e s w e r e l es s d i l i g e n t

in t h e f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e i r d u t i e s . D a m a s s e r v e d a s e c o n d t e r m

later, a f t e r a y e a r o f v a c a n c y in t h i s o f f i c e ; 3 0 n o t a S ingle

28 L . R o b e r t , Monn aies grecques. Types, legendes, Ma gistrats monetaires et

geographie ( G e n e v a a n d P a r i s , 1 9 6 7 ) , 5 0 .29 T h a t t h is o cc a s i o n a ll y h a p p e n e d , f o l l o w i n g t he d e m a n d o f t h e C o m m u

nity, is d em o n s t r a t e d b y a n e w in s cr ip t io n f r o m D a g ' m a r a / K a r a k ö y ( T e m p -

sianoi?): a p r ie s t acceded to the request o f the c i t y and p r ov ide d the m on ey he

was s u p p o s e d t o s p e n d f o r b a n q u e t s fo r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f an a q u e d u c t (c.AD

180-92). S e e H . M a l a y , Researches in Lydia, Mysia and Aiohs (TAM, E r g a n -

Eungsband 23) (V ien na , 1999) , 115 no . 127 .30 R e h m , Didyma, no . 268 .

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154 Ritual Dynamics

Miles ian h a d b e e n W i l l i n g t o s e r v e a s a prophetes—not an un -

usual S it u at io n a t D i d y m a .

N u m e r o u s i n s c r i p t i o n s d o c u m e n t a g e n e ra l u n w i l l i n g n e s s

amongst t h e C i t i z e n s t o s e r v e a s prophetai a n d a n e v e n g r e a t e r

unwil l ingness t o p e r f o r m all t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r i t u ä l s . I n t h e l o n g

series o f m o r e t h a n o n e h u n d r e d i n s c r i p t i o n s t h a t r e c o r d t h e

names o f t h e prophetai m a n y t e x t s i n f o r m u s t i m e a n d a g a i n o f

the d i f f i c u l t i e s i n f i n d i n g c a n d i d a t e s . O n e o f t h e prophetai,

Cla ud ius C h i o n i s , e x p l i c i t l y s ta t es t h a t h e s e r v e d b o t h a s archi-

prytanis a n d a s prophetes i n a y e a r i n w h i c h ' n o C i t iz e n w a s

Willing t o a c c e p t e i t h e r o f f i c e ' .3 1

W e g et s o m e i n f o r m a t i o nabout D a m a s ' s e c o n d t e r m as a prophetes f r o m t h e a b o v e i n -

scription f r o m D i d y m a . I t r e po r ts t h at D a m a s s e r v e d v o l u n t a r -

i ly a s e c o n d t e r m as a prophetes, at th e ag e o f 81 , a n d tha t

'he r e v i v e d t h e a n c e s t r a l c u s t o m s ' a n d c e l e b r a t e d t h e b a n q u e t

in t h e s a n c t u a r y a t D i d y m a t w e l v e d a y s l o n g . S i m i l a r r e fe r e n ce s

to t h e r it es p e r f o r m e d b y t h e prophetes a p p e a r o c c a s i o n a l l y i n th e

inscriptions o f t h e prophetai. T h e e x p l i c i t c e r t i fi c a t i o n t h a t

the p a r t i c u l a r p r i e s t h a d f u l f i l l e d h i s d u t i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s

w a s n o t a l w a y s t h e c a s e. A n d s o m e o f f ic i a l s s e e m t o h a v e d o n e

mor e t h a n t h e ir p r e d e c es s o r s . A n a n o n y m o u s prophetes, f o r

example , p r o v i d e d t h e f u n d s f o r a b a n q u e t fo r a ll t h e C i t iz e n s

for 1 3 d a y s ; h e d i s t r i b u t e d m o n e y to w o m e n a n d v i r g i n s i n a

festival; h e o f f e r e d a d i n n e r f o r t h e b o y s w h o o f f i c i a t e d i n

a c e l e b r a t i o n ; a n d h e d i s t r i b u t e d m o n e y t o t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e

Council o n A p o l l o ' s b i r t h d a y .3 2

T h e s e s p o r a d i c r e f e r e n c e s t o r e v i v a l s s e e m t o m e t o r e f l e c t

failures r a t h e r t h a n s u c c e s s . T h i s e v i d e n c e ( a n d t h e r e is m u c h

mor e f r o m o t h e r c i ti e s) s h o w u s h o w a n i n d i v i d u a l w i t h a v i v i d

interest i n a n c e s t r a l c u s t o m s r e v i v e d ri tu a l s l o n g fo r g o t t e n a n d

neglected. T h e f a c t t h a t i n s c r i p t i o n s w h i c h r e f e r t o t h e s e i n i t i a

tives s u r v i v e d o e s n o t p e r m i t t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e s u c c e s s o f

these i n i t i a t i v e s w a s l a s t i n g . D a m a s ' d e c r e e o f f e r s a n i n t e r e s t i n g

example o f a r e v i v a l w h i c h w a s a p p a r e n t l y a c c e p t e d b y t h e

people , b u t w h o s e s u c c e s s w a s e p h e m e r a l . F r o m h i s o w n

31 Ib id . no . 272 . S im i la r p ro b l em s are a l lud ed to in nos . 214 B , 215 , 236 B

I I I , 241 , 243, 244, 252 , 269, 270 , 277, 278, 279 A , 286 , 28 8, and 289.32 I b i d . n o . 2 9 7 . T w o o t h e r prophetai c la i m that they ha d rev ive d anc ient

customs, but the i r insc r ip t ions a re too f ragm en tar y to a l low us to see wha t

exactly the ob je c t o f the rev iva l had been : nos . 289 and 303 .

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Ritual Dynamics 155

inscriptions w e k n o w th a t a t l ea s t he f o l l o w e d t h e c u s t o m , b u t

otherwise t h e r e a r e o n l y s p o r a d i c r e f e r e n c e s to t h i s c e l e b r a t i o n .

W h e n t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e o f a r e v i v a l w a s a n i n d i v i d u a l , n o t t h e

Communi t y , t h e r e v i v a l o f t e n d i e d w i t h i ts i n i t i a t o r , e x a c t l y a s

certain f e s t i v a l s o r c u l t s d i d n o t s u r v i v e t h e d e a t h o f t h e i r

founders. I h a v e d i s c u s s e d t h i s c a s e i n s u c h d e t a i l , b e c a u s e i t

seems t o m e a v e r y c h a r a c t e ri s t ic e x a m p l e o f h o w m i s l e a d i n g it

m a y b e t o t r y t o d r a w c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e c o n t i n u a l P e r f o r m

ance o f r it u a ls f r o m is o l a te d p i e c e s o f e v i d e n c e . T h i s e x a m p l e

also d e m o n s t r a t e s th e r o l e o f i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t i es a n d i d i o -

syncrasies f o r t h e P e r f o r m a n c e o f r i t u a l s , a s u b j e c t t o w h i c h Ireturn l a te r . N e e d l e s s t o s a y a r t if ic i a l r e v i v a l s s o m e t i m e s a re

accompanied w i t h c h a n g e s i n m e a n i n g . T h e i n i t i a t o r y r it u al o f

the f l a g e l la t i o n i n t h e s a n c t u a r y o f A r t e m i s O r t h i a i n S p a r t a

( k n o w n a l s o f r o m C r e t e ) w a s r e v i v e d a s a t o u r i s t i c a t t r a c t i o n i n

the i m p e r i a l p e r i o d . 3 3

6. M I S L E A D I N G A N A L O G I E S : T H E D A I D A L A O FP L A T A I A A N D I T S M O D E R N E X E G E T E S

A t h i r d p r o b l e m is t h a t s o m e t i m e s s im i l a r it i es i n i s o la t e d e l e m -

ents o f r i t u a l s a t t e s t e d i n d i s t a n t p a r t s o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a r e

regarded a s p r o o f o f t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e s e r i t u a l s , o r o f a n a n a l o g y

between t h e m . L e t u s t a k e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e c a r r y i n g o f t h e

w o o d e n i m a g e i n a p r o c e s s i o n , t h e c e n t r a l r i t u a l o f t h e f e s t i v a l o f

the D a i d a l a .3 4

T h e a e t io l o g ic a l m y t h is n a r r a t e d b y P l u t a r c hand P a u s a n i a s :3 5 o n c e H e r a h a d q u a r r e l le d w i t h Z e u s a n d w a s

hiding. A l a l k o m e n e s a d v i s e d Z e u s to d e c e i v e H e r a , b y a c t in g a s

if h e w e r e g o i n g t o m a r r y a n o t h e r w o m a n . W i t h A l a l k o m e n e s '

help, Z e u s s e c r e t ly c u t d o w n a b i g a n d v e r y b e a u t i f u l o a k - t r e e ,

gave it t h e s h a p e o f a w o m a n , d e c o r a t e d it a s a b r i d e , a n d c a l l e d

it D a i d a l e . T h e n t h e y s a n g t h e w e d d i n g s o n g fo r h e r , t h e

n y m p h s o f t h e r i v e r T r i t o n g a v e h e r t h e n u p t i a l b a t h , a n d

Boiotia p r o v i d e d f o r f l a u t i s ts a n d r e v e l l e rs . W h e n a ll t h i s w a s

33 P l u . Mor. 2 3 9 d .34 F o r a mo r e d e ta i l e d d i s c u s s io n s ee A . C h a n io t i s , ' R i tu a l D y n a m ic s : T h e

Boiotian fes t i va l o f the Da ida la ' , in Kykeon: Studies in Honour ofH. S. Versnel

(Leiden, 2002) , 23 -48 (w i th the ear l ier b ib l iography) .

35 P l u t a r c h , FGrH 388 F 1 (peri ton en Plataiais Daidalon); Pa u s a n ia s 9 .2 .7 -

9.3.3.

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Ritual Dynamics

almost c o m p l e t e d , H e r a l os t h e r p a t i e n c e . S h e c a m e d o w n f r o m

M t . K i t h a i r o n , f o l l o w e d b y t h e w o m e n o f P l a t a ia , a n d r a n f ü l l o f

anger a n d j e a l o u s y t o Z e u s . B u t w h e n s h e r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e

'br ide ' w a s a d o l i , s h e r e c o n c i l e d h e r s e i f w i t h Z e u s w i t h j o y

and l a u g h t e r a n d t o o k t h e r o l e o f t h e b r i d e s m a i d . S h e h o n o u r e d

this w o o d e n i m a g e a n d n a m e d t h e f es t i va l D a i d a l a . N o n e t h e -

less, s h e b u r n e d t h e i m a g e , a l t h o u g h it w a s n o t a l i v e , b e c a u s e o f

her j e a l o u s y . P a u s a n i a s g i v e s u s t h e m o s t d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f

the r i t u a l :

In this wa y they celebrate the fest ival. N o t far fr om Ala lko m en ai is a

grove of oaks. H er e the trun ks of the oaks are the largest in Boeotia .

T o this grov e co m e the Plataians, and lay out por t ion s of boi led f lesh.

They keep a str ict wa tch o n the crow s wh ic h flock to them , bu t the y

are not trou ble d at all abo ut the other bird s. T h e y mar k careful ly the

tree on w hic h a cro w set tles w i t h the mea t he has se ized . T h e y cut

down the trunk of the tree on w h ic h the cro w has sett led, and m ake of

it the daidalon; for this is the nam e that they give to the w oo de n imag e

also. T h i s fest ival the Plataians celebrate b y them selves , cal l ing it the

Little Da idala , bu t the G re at Daida la , wh ich is ce lebrated wi th the m

by the Bo eotian s, is a fest ival held at intervals of f i f ty -n ine y ears, for

that is the per io d durin g w hi ch , they say , the fest ival cou ld not be

held, as the P lata ians we re in ex ile . Th e re are fourteen wo od en images

ready, ha v ing be en p rov ide d each year at the L i t t le Da idala . L ot s are

cast f o r them b y the P la ta ians , Koro na ian s , Thes p ian s , Thangra ians ,

Chaironeis, Orc hom enia ns , Leb ade i s , and Th eb an s . Fo r a t the t ime

when Kas sand ros , the son o f Ant ipa te r , r ebu il t Th eb es , the T he ba ns

wished to be reconc i led wi th the Plataians, to share in the co m m o nassembly, and to send a sacr i fice to the Da ida la. T h e tow ns of less

account pool the ir fund s for images . Br ing ing the ima ge to the A s o -

pos, and sett ing it up on a wa go n, they place a br id esm aid also on

the wa go n. T h e y again cast lots for the pos it ion the y are to ho ld in the

procession. A ft er this they dr ive the wa go ns f ro m the r iver to the

summit of Kit ha iro n. O n the peak of the mo un tain an altar has been

prepared, wh ich they m ake in the fo l low ing w ay . T h e y f it together

quadrangular pieces of wo o d , putt in g th em together just as i f theywere m akin g a stone bui ldin g, and h av ing raised it to a height they

place br us hw oo d up on the a ltar . T h e c it ies w i t h the ir magistrates

sacrifice a cow to H era an d a bul l to Ze us , bur nin g on the altar the

victims, fül l of w in e and incense, along wi th the daidala. Rieh peop le ,

as ind iv idu als sacr if ice wh at they wis h; bu t the less wea lth y sacr i fice

the sm aller cattle; all the vic tim s alike are bu rn ed . T h e f ire seizes the

altar and the v ict im s as we l l , and con su m es them all together . I kn ow

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Ritual Dynamics 157

of no b laz e that is so hig h, or seen so far as this (trans. W . H . S. Jo n es ,

modified).

F r o m F r a z e r ' s t i m e s o n w a r d s t h e D a i d a l a o f B o e o t i a h a v e f a s -

cinated s c h o l a r s s t u d y i n g t h e r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n m y t h a n d r i tu a l .

A m o n g s t t h e m a n y s t u d i e s o n th e D a i d a l a t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l

approach r e c o g n i z e s t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f t h e d e t a i l s d e s c r i b e d

b y P a u s a n i a s , b u t f o c u s e s o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d b u r n i n g o f

the w o o d e n i m a g e o r i m a g e s , in v e s t i n g th i s r it u a l w i t h a v a r i e t y

of m e a n i n g s w h i c h r ä n g e f r o m th e i d e a o f a n a n n u a l f ir e e x -

pressing t h e r e j u v e n a t i o n o f n a t u r e t o t h e a p p e a s e m e n t o f a

mighty c h t h o n i c g o d d e s s . T h i s a p p r o a c h a s s oc ia t e s t h e D a i d a l awi th t h e s p r i n g a n d m i d - s u m m e r b o n f i r e f e st iv a ls o f m o d e r n

E u r o p e ( o f t h e M a y p o l e o r J o h a n n e s f e u e r - t y p e ) , a t w h i c h a

w o o d e n i m a g e is b r o u g h t t o t h e s e t t l e m e n t a n d b u r n e d .

A c c o r d i n g t o F r a z e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t io n , t h e D a i d a l a r e p r e s e n t

the m a r r i a g e o f p o w e r s o f V e g e t a t i o n ; H e r a ' s r e t i r e m e n t is a

mythica l e x p r e s s i o n f o r a b a d s e a s o n a n d t h e f a i lu r e o f

crops.3 6 M . P . N i l s s o n s p e c u l a t e d t h a t t h e i m a g e w h i c h w a s

bur ned r e p r e s e n t e d a d e m o n o f V e g e t a t i o n t h a t h a d to g o

through f i r e i n o r d e r t o s e c u r e t h e w a r m t h o f t h e s u n f o r

every th ing t h a t l i v e s a n d g r o w s . S i n c e t h i s f i r e r i t u a l h a d t h e

purpose o f p r o m o t i n g f e r t i l it y , it w a s u n d e r s t o o d a s a w e d d i n g ;

Her a w a s asso c ia ted w i t h th i s f e s t i v a l a t a l a te s tage , as th e

goddess o f m a r r i a g e ; t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n t h e m y t h s a n d t h e

rituals r e f l e c t t h e l a t e c o n f l a t i o n o f t w o s e p a r a t e f e s t i v a l s , a f i r e

festival a n d a f e s t i v a l o f H e r a . 3 7

T h e p r o m i n e n t p o s i t i o n o f a h o l o c a u s t o f f e r i n g a t t w o f e s t i

vals o f A r t e m i s , t h e L a p h r i a a n d t h e E l a p h e b o l i a , l ed A .

Schachter t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e b u r n i n g o f t h e i m a g e s a t

the D a i d a l a w a s a l s o o r i g i n a l l y d e d i c a t e d t o A r t e m i s a n d a t

some l a te r p o i n t c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e c u l t o f H e r a . 3 8 N e e d l e s s

to s a y , t h e s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e D a i d a l a o n t h e o n e h a n d

and t h e L a p h r i a a n d t h e E l a p h e b o l i a o n th e o t h e r is r a t h e r

36 J . G . F r a z e r , The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and R eligion. Part I :

The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, 3rd edn . (L on d o n , 1913), i i. 140 -1 .37 M . P . N i l ss o n , Griechische Feste von religiöser Bedeutung mit Ausschluss

der attischen ( L u n d , 1 9 0 6) , 5 4 - 5 ; Geschichte der griechischen Religion, 3 r d e d n .

(Munich, 1967) , i . 130 -1 , 431 .38 A . S c h a c h t e r , Cults of Boiotia ( L o n d o n , 1 9 8 1 ), i. 2 4 7 .

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158 Ritual Dynamics

superficial; t h e b u r n i n g o f s l a u g h t e r e d s a c ri f ic i a l v i c t i m s a t t h e

Daida la c a n n o t b e c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e t h r o w i n g o f l i v i n g

animals o n t h e p y r e a t t h e L a p h r i a . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s , I c a n

see n o e v i d e n c e f o r t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t i n t h e h o l o c a u s t s o f t h e

L a p h r i a a n d th e E l a p h e b o l i a A r t e m i s w a s c o n c e i v e d a s t h e

patroness o f c h i l d b i r t h ; a n d o f c o u r s e t h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c e f o r

the s a c r if ic i a l b u r n i n g o f w o o d e n i m a g e s i n t h e s e f e s t iv a l s o f

Ar temis .

F ina l ly , W . B u r k e r t h a s a t t r i b u t e d t h e D a i d a l a t o a c a t e g o r y

of m y t h s a n d r it u a ls t h e c o m m o n t h e m e o f w h i c h is t h e d e p a r t -

ure a n d r e t u r n o f a g o d d e s s o f f e r t i l i t y — w e l l k n o w n f r o mOrienta l i c o n o g r a p h y a n d m y t h . 3 9 B u r k e r t r e c o g n i z e d a n a n -

cient G r e e k p a r a l l e l i n a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o n a pithos o f t h e n i n t h

Century B C f o u n d a t K n o s s o s . A w i n g e d g o d d e s s , r i c h ly d r e s s e d

and w i t h a h i g h polos, S t a n d s o n a c h a r i o t . S h e i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n

t w o d i f f e r e n t w a y s i n t w o p a n e l s o n t h e t w o o p p o s i t e s i d e s o f t h e

pithos. I n t h e o n e p a n e l t h e g o d d e s s r ai se s h e r h a n d s o n w h i c h

t w o b i r d s a r e s e a t e d . O n t h e o t h e r p a n e l t h e g o d d e s s h a s

dr opped h e r a r m s , h e r w i n g s a r e l o w e r e d , t h e b i r d s f l y a w a y .

T h e t r e e s i n t h e f i r s t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n b l o s s o m , t h e tr e e s o n t h e

other s i d e d o n o t . A c c o r d i n g t o B u r k e r t ' s p l a u s i b l e i n t e r p r e t -

ation, t h e t w o p a n e l s a r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h a f e s t iv a l o f t h e C o m i n g

and t h e d e p a r t u r e o f t h e g r e a t g o d d e s s o f f e r t i l i t y ; t h e c h a r i o t

impl ies t h a t a n i m a g e o f t h e g o d d e s s w a s b r o u g h t i n t o t h e c i t y .

T h e r e a r e i n d e e d o b v i o u s a n a l o g i e s t o t h e m y t h s a n d t h e r i tu a l

of t h e D a i d a l a : t h e d e p a r t u r e o f a n ( a n g r y ) g o d d e s s a n d h e r

return, t h e c a r r y i n g o f a n i m a g e o n a c h a r i o t . B u t t h e r e a r e

also o b v i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s : t h e r e p r e s e n t a t io n f r o m K n o s s o s is

the i m a g e o f a g o d d e s s ; t h e w o o d e n daidala w e r e n o t ; t h e

daidala w e r e b u r n e d ; a n d t h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e i m a g e

o n t he K n o s s i a n pithos i s t h a t o f a b r i d e .

Another p a r a l l e l w a s r e c o g n i z e d b y B u r k e r t i n t h e r e p o r t

of F i r m i c u s M a t e r n u s c o n c e r n i n g a f e st iv a l o f P e r s e p h o n e . 4 0

A t r e e w a s c u t a n d w a s u s e d f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i m a g e o f

39 W . B u r k e r t , ' K a t a g ö g i a - A n a g ö g i a a n d t h e G o d d e s s o f K n o s s o s ' , i n R .

Hägg, N . M a r i n a t o s , a n d G . N o r d q u i s t ( e d s. ), Early Greek Cult Practice.

Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium at the Sw edish Institute at

Athens, 26-29 June 1986 ( S t o c k h o l m , 1 9 88 ), 8 1 - 7 .40 Err. prof. rel. 27 .2 .

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Ritual Dynamics 159

a m a i d e n , w h i c h w a s t h e n b r o u g h t t o t h e c i t y ; t h e r e , it w a s

m o u r n e d f o r f o r t y d a y s ; o n t h e e v e n i n g o f t h e f o r t i e t h d a y , t h e

image w a s b u r n e d . T h i s r it u a l is s u p p o s e d t o r e fl e ct t h e a n n u a l

cycle o f n a t u r e . T h e j o y a t t h e C o m i n g o f t h e g o d d e s s w a sfo l lowed b y t h e s a d n e s s a t h e r d e p a r t u r e i n t h e fa l l. A g a i n , t h e

differences f r o m t h e D a i d a l a a r e n o l es s s t r i k i n g t h a n t h e s i m i -

larities. P e r s e p h o n e ' s p e r i o d i c a l d e a t h f i n d s n o a n a l o g y i n a n y

k n o w n c u l t o f H e r a ; t h e w o o d e n daidala w e r e n o t b r o u g h t t o t h e

city, t h e y w e r e n o t m o u r n e d , a n d t h e y w e r e n o t s u p p o s e d t o

represent t h e p e r i o d i c a l d e a t h o f a v i r g i n . A e l i a n a n d A t h e n a e u s

have r e p o r t s o f a s i m i l a r fe s t i v a l a t E r y x i n S i c i l y , t h i s t i m e f o r

A p h r o d i t e — t h e f e s t i v a l A n a g o g i a . I t o w e d it s n a m e t o t h e d e

parture o f A p h r o d i t e , w h o w a s t h o u g h t t o l e a ve f o r A f r i c a ,

fo l lowed b y b i r d s ( p i g e o n s ) . N i n e d a y s l at e r a v e r y b e a u t i f u l

pigeon w a s s e e n c o m i n g f r o m t h e s o u t h , a n d its c o m i n g w a s

celebrated a s t h e f e s t iv a l K a t a g o g i a . W e o b s e r v e , h o w e v e r , t h a t

in t h i s f e s t i v a l t h e r e is n o i m a g e , n o m a r r i a g e , n o p y r e . B u r k e r t

suggested a s s o c i a t in g t h is g r o u p o f f e s ti v a ls w i t h m a n k i n d ' s

pr imordia l f e a r s : t h r e a t e n e d b y d r o u g h t , b a d h a r v e s t s , i n f e r t i l -

ity, a n d b a d w e a t h e r , p e o p l e f r o m t i m e t o t i m e l e a v e t h e a re a o f

agricultural a c t i v i t y a n d r e t u r n to t h e fo r e s t , w h e r e t h e y u s e d t o

f ind f o o d a t t h e s t a g e o f h u n t e r s a n d g a t h e r e r s . T h e b u r n i n g o f

an i m a g e m a y b e a s u r v i v a l o f t h e g r e a t p y r e s o n p e a k s a n c t u a r -

ies i n M i n o a n C r e t e .

M o d e r n r e s e a r c h h a s n o t o n l y i s o l a t e d t h e s e t w o i m p o r t a n t

components o f t h e D a i d a l a , t h e s a c r e d m a r r i a g e a n d t h e f i r eritual; it h a s a l s o p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e b u r n i n g o f t h e D a i d a l a c a n

be c o n c e i v e d o f a s a s a c r if i c e , a n d t h is is a v e r y i m p o r t a n t

d e m e n t w h i c h i s d i f f i c u l t t o r e c o n c i l e w i t h t h e o t h e r t w o a p -

proaches. K . M e u l i h a s a s s i g n e d t h e s a c r i f ic e o f t h e D a i d a l a t o

the c a t e g o r y o f t h e ' c h t h o n i s c h e V e r n i c h t u n g s o p f e r ' , s a c ri fi c es

offered t o c h t h o n i c d e it ie s w h o s e d a n g e r o u s p o w e r s h o u l d b e

appeased;41 t h e m y t h a b o u t t h e q u a r r e l b e t w e e n H e r a a n d Z e u s

and t h e g o d d e s s ' w i t h d r a w a l c a n b e a s s o c ia t e d w i t h t h is i n t e r -

pretation, w h i c h , h o w e v e r , f ai ls t o e x p l a i n o th e r c o m p o n e n t s o f

the r i t u a l i n t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e a l l u s i o n s t o a

wedding) . T h e f a c t t h a t t h e daidala c a n n o t b e c o n c e i v e d a s

41 K . M e u l i , ' G r i e c h i s c h e O p f e r b r ä u c h e ' , i n Phyllobolia für Peter von

Mühll zum 60. Geburtstag am 1. August 1945 (Base l , 1946) , 20 9 -1 0 .

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i6o Ritual Dynamics

div ine i m a g e s l e d E . L o u c a s - D u r i e t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h at t h e ir

burning w a s t h e S u b s t i t u t e f o r a h u m a n s a c r i f ic e , w h i c h m a y

have c o n s t i t u t e d a c e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e ri t u a l i n i t s e a r l y p h a s e . 4 2

I h a v e d e al t w i t h th e D a i d a l a a t s o m e l e n g t h — w i t h o u t m e n -

t ioning a ll t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f f e r e d s o f a r — b e c a u s e it o f f e r s a

characteristic e x a m p l e o f t h e p r o b l e m s w e f a c e w i t h s i m i l a r it i e s

and a n a l o g i e s b e t w e e n r i tu a l s , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n o u r s o u r c e s c o m e

f r o m a p e r i o d in w h i c h t h e P e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e r i t u a l is t h e r e s u l t

of a m a l g a m a t i o n s a n d s y n c o p a t i o n s .

7 . R I T U A L S A N D T H E P H Y S I C A L E N V I R O N M E N T

A f o u r t h o b s ta c l e i n t h e w a y o f s t u d y i n g r i tu a l s i n a M e d i t e r r a -

nean c o n t e x t is t h e f a c t t h a t r i t u a ls p r e s e n t a n a s p e c t o f w o r s h i p

that s e e m s t o b e l ea s t r e l a te d t o g e o g r a p h y , p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n -

ment a n d l a n d s c a p e . O n e m a y r a is e o n e ' s h a n d s i n p r a y e r , k n e e l

before a c u l t s t a t u e , k i s s a n o b j e c t o f w o r s h i p , p o u r a l i q u i d

dur ing a n o a t h c e r e m o n y , o r t a k e a r i t u a l b a t h n e a r t h e b a n k s o f

the N i l e o r i n t h e r o c k y l a n d s c a p e o f K a p p a d o k i a — o r v i r t u a l l y

a nywher e e is e . N o g e o g r a p h i c a l f a c t o r s s e e m t o b e d i r e c t l y i n

Operation w h e n p e o p l e p e r f o r m r it es o f p a s s a g e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

threefold s t ru c t u re e s t a b l is h e d b y v a n G e n n e p a n d m o d i f i e d b y

T u r n e r a n d o t h e r s , w h e t h e r t h e y a r e i n a n c i e n t G r e e c e , m e d i -

eval I n d i a , o r a c o n t e m p o r a r y S t u d e n t f r a t e r n i t y .

T h i s p o s i t io n w h i c h d i s s o c ia t e s r it u a ls f r o m g e o g r a p h i c a l

factors a n d la n d s c a p e s i s r e l a t e d t o a w i d e s p r e a d a t t i t u d e i n t h estudy o f r it u al s t h a t r e a p p e a r s i n d i f f e r e n t f o r m s f r o m F r a z e r ' s

Golden Bough t o B u r k e r t ' s Creation of the Sacred: r i t u a l s a r e

primeval, t h e y a re n o t i n v e n t e d b u t t r a n s m i t t e d — e i t h e r t h r o u g h

natural p r oc es se s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n o r e v e n b i o l o g i c a l l y — a n d

adapted t o n e w c u l t u ra l e n v i r o n m e n t s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h is v i e w ,

rituals o b s e r v e d i n v a r i o u s c u l t u r e s s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s m u t a -

tions o r v a r ia n t s o f a r c h e t y p a l f o r m s .

It s h o u l d n o t t h e r e f o r e b e a s u r p r i s e t h a t t h e s t u d y o f r i t u a ls

in m o d e r n s c h o l a r s h ip h a s p r i m a r i l y b e e n a s t u d y o f o r i g i n s .

E v e n w h e n w e h a v e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f r i tu a l s f r o m th e

Imperial p e r i o d , s u c h a s t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e D a i d a l a i n

42 E . L o u c a s - D u r i e , ' S i m u l a c r e h u m a i n et o f f r a n d e ri t u el le ' , Kernos 1 (1988) ,

151-62.

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Ritual Dynamics 161

Boeotia, t h e q u e s t i o n a s k e d is n o t w h a t t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e r i t u a l

was i n t h e p e r i o d f r o m w h i c h th e e y e - w i t n e s s r ep o r t s c o m e , b u t

h o w w e c a n r e c o n s t r u c t t h e r i tu a l 's o r i g i n a l f o r m a n d m e a n i n g .

T h i s i s n o t t h e p l a c e t o d i s c u s s t h e e t h o l o g i c a l b a c k g r o u n d o f

rituals43 o r h o w m e a n i n g f u l t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f o r i g i n s m a y b e .

Nonetheless , g i v e n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o n t e x t o f t h is v o l u m e , it

is n o t i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o e m p h a s i z e th e i m p o r t a n c e o f p h y s i c a l

environment, n o t f o r t h e o r i g i n o f r i t u a l s p e r h a p s , b u t c e r t a i n l y

for t h e i r e v o l u t i o n a n d d i f f u s i o n . A g a i n , H o r d e n a n d P u r c e l l

have p r e s e n t e d a s t r o n g ca s e f o r a d i s t i n c t i v e l y M e d i t e r r a n e a n

sense o f p l a c e a n d h a v e s h o w n t h a t p l a c e c a n b e a u s e f u l i n s t r u -ment o f a n a l y s i s . 4 4 T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f e at u re o f t h e M e d i t e r

ranean, i n t h i s r e s p e c t , is t h e f r a g m e n t e d t o p o g r a p h y , a f a c t o r

that c o n t r i b u t e s t o d i v e r g e n c e s a n d d i v i s i o n s b e t w e e n c u l t u r a l

Systems, b u t h a s i n m a n y p e r i o d s a l so c h a l l e n g e d M e d i t e r r a

nean p o p u l a t i o n s t o o v e r c o m e t h is f r a g m e n t a t i o n . T h e c h a l -

lenge h a s m a d e t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a z o n e o f ' l at er al

transmission o f i d e a s a n d p r a c t i c e s ' , i n c l u d i n g t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n

of r i t u a l s . 4 5 T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a s t h e

setting i n w h i c h r it u a ls a re p e r f o r m e d c a n s o m e t i m e s , u n e x -

pectedly, b e o b s e r v e d w h e n a n a t t e m p t is m a d e t o r e p r o d u c e th e

physical e n v i r o n m e n t o f a p a r t i c u l a r r it u a l i n a n e w e n v i r o n

ment, t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n n o t o n l y o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , b u t a ls o o f

its o r i g i n a l s e t t in g . T h e b e s t k n o w n e x a m p l e is t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n

of N i l o t i c l a n d s c a p e s i n s a n c t u a r i e s o f t h e E g y p t i a n d e i t ie s

outside E g y p t ; 4 6 s i m i l a r p h e n o m e n a a r e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f

artificial c a v e s f o r t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e M i t h r a i c m y s t e r i e s o r

for D i o n y s i a c c e l e b r a t i o n s ( c o m p a r e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c a v e s i n

moder n I n d i a t o r e p r o d u c e t h e c a v e o f S t M a r y a t L o u r d e s ) .

O ne c a n i n c l u d e h e r e th e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p o o l s f o r t h e w o r s h i p

of t h e n y m p h s , 4 7 a n d p e r h a p s e v e n p e a k s a n c t u a ri e s o n e l e v a -

43 W . B u r k e r t , Creation oj the Sacred: Tracks of Biology in Early Religions

(Cambridge, M a s s . a n d L o n d o n , 1 9 96 ); i d . , ' F i tn e s s o d e r O p i u m ? D i e F r a gestellung der Soz io lo g ie im Bere ich a lter Re l ig io ne n ' , in F . S to lz (ed . ) , Homo

naturaliter religiosus. Gehört Religion notwendig zum Mensch-Sein? ( B e r n ,

1997), 1 3 - 3 8 .44 CS 4 0 1 - 6 0 . 4 5 CS 4 0 4 , 4 0 7 - 8 .46 e . g . R . S a l d i t - T r a p p m a n n , Tempel der ägyptischen Götter in Griechenland

und an der Westküste Kleinasiens ( L e id e n , 1 9 7 0) , 1 - 2 5 .47 C f . CS 4 3 1 . B a k c h i c ca v e s : A th e n . 4 .1 4 8 b c . C f . th e t e r m androphylakes

('the gua rd ian s o f the cave ' ) in an insc r ip t ion o f a D i on ys iac assoc ia t ton in

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I Ö 2 Ritual Dynamics

tions t h a t d o n o t d e s e r v e t h e d e s i g n a t i o n m o u n t a i n , b u t p r e s e n t

' imaginary m o u n t a i n s ' . 4 8 T h e S a m a r i t a n s o n D e l o s w e r e s o

b o u n d t o t h e h o l y p l a c e o f t h e ir h o m e l a n d t h a t t h e y d e s i g n a t e d

their a s s o c i a t i o n a s ' t h o s e w h o s a c r i f i c e i n t h e h o l y s a c r e d M t .

Argar ize in ' (aparchom enoi eis hieron hagion Argarizein).49

Fina l ly , e v e n i f i t w o u l d b e f u t i l e t o l o o k f o r r i t u a l s o r i g i n a t i n g

in t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n o r p r a c t i se d o n l y i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n ,

one c a n o b s e r v e c e r t a i n p r e f e r e n c e s t h a t t o s o m e e x t e n t a r e

favoured b y t h e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t , f ör e x a m p l e t h e p r o m

inent p a r t p l a y e d b y p r o c e s s i o n s o r t h e w i d e s p r e a d c u s t o m o f

setting u p t e n t s , a t t e s t e d i n a v a r i e t y o f c o n t e x t s , f r o m t h eH e b r e w succah t o t h e G r e e k T h e s m o p h o r i a a n d f r o m t h e P t o -

lemaia o f A l e x a n d r i a t o t h e skanopageia o f K o s . 5 0

8. T H E R O L E O F R E L I G I O U S I D I O S Y N C R A S I E S

A f a c to r o f e n o r m o u s i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e e v o l u t i o n o f r i t u a l s —

no m a t t e r w h e t h e r w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h r e v i v a l o r t r a n s m i s s i o n ,

amalgamation o r s y n c o p a t i o n , a e s t h e t i c o r i d e o l o g i c a l t r a n s -

f o r m a t i o n — i s t h e p a r t p l a y e d b y i n d i v i d u a l s , t h e i r i d i o s y n -

crasy, p e r s o n a l p i e t y , s o c ia l p o s i t i o n , e d u c a t i o n , o r e v e n

political a g e n d a . I h a v e a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d t o t w o m e n ( u n f o r t u -

nately o u r s o u r c e s m o s t l y r e fe r t o m e n ) w h o s e r o l e w a s e s s en t ia l

for t h e r e v i v a l o f r i t u a l s : t h e p r i e s t H e l l a d i o s i n M e g a r a a n d t h e

prophetes D a m a s i n M i l e t u s . W e o f t e n h e a r o f p e r s o n s w h o o n

their o w n i n i t i a t i v e i n t r o d u c e d c u l t a n d r i tu a l s f r o m o n e p l a c e a tanother, f o r i n s t a n c e t h e T e l e m a c h o s w h o i n t r o d u c e d t h e c u l t o f

Asklep ios i n A t h e n s o r D e m e t r i o s w h o f o u n d e d a s a n c t u a r y o f

the E g y p t i a n d e i t ie s a t D e l o s . 5 1 S o m e t i m e s w e h e a r o f p e r s o n s

Ro me ( G . R i c c i a r d e l l i , ' M i t o e Pe r fo r ma n c e n e l l e a s s o c iaz i o n i d i o n i s i a c h e ' , i n

M . T o r t o r e l l i G h e d i n i , A . S t o rc h i M a r i n o , a n d A . V i s c o n t i ( e d s. ), Tra Orfeo e

Pitagora. Origini e incontri di culture nell'antichitä. Atti dei seminari napoletani

1996-1998 ( N a p l e s , 2 0 0 0 ) , 2 7 4 ) .48 F o r ' i m a g i n a r y m o u n t a i n s ' s ee R . B u x t o n , Imaginary Greece: The Con

texts ofMythology ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 94 ), 8 1 - 9 6 .

R. G o g g i n s , ' J e w i s h L o c a l P a t r io t i sm : T h e S a m a r i t a n P r o b l e m ' , i n S .

Jones an d S . Pea rce (eds . ) , Jewish Local Patriotism an d Self-Identification in

the Graeco-Roman Period ( S h e f f i e ld , 19 9 8 ), 7 S - 7 .

Thesmophoria: H . S . V e r s n e l , Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Reli

gion (L e id en , 1993) , i i. 236 n . 25 .

51 H . E n g e l m a n n , The Delian Aretalogy of Sarapis ( L e id e n , 1 9 7 5) .

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Ritual Dynamics 163

w h o r e v i v e d a n e g l e c t e d r i t u a l, f o r e x a m p l e D a m a s w h o r e v i v e d

the r i t ua l b a n q u e t at D i d y m a , S y m m a c h o s o f L y t t o s w h o

rev ived t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m o n e y t o t r i b a l s u b d i v i s i o n s i n h i s

Cretan c i t y o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h e f e s t i v a ls W e l c h a n i a a n d

Theodais ia , 5 2 o r M n a s i s t r a t o s i n A n d a n i a w h o g a v e t h e s a c re d

books o f t h e m y s t e r i e s t o t h e c i t y , t h u s c o n t r i b u t i n g to a r e -

organization o f t h i s c u l t . 5 3

L e t u s t a k e o n e o f t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g c a s es o f r i t u a l t r a n s f e r ,

the m y s t e r i e s o f t h e r u r a l s a n c t u a r y a t P a n ö i a s i n n o r t h e r n

Portugal. 5 4 A lex sacra i n f o r m s u s t h a t t h e S e n at o r C . C a l p u r -

nius R u f i n u s f o u n d e d a m y s t e r y cu lt d e d i c a te d t o H y p s i s t o sSarapis, t o d e i ti e s o f t h e u n d e r w o r l d (Diis Severis), a n d t h e

local g o d s o f t h e L a p i t e a e . T h e t e x t s m e n t i o n a t e m p l e (tem-

plum, aedes) a n d v a r i o u s c u l t f a c il it i es c o n s t r u c t e d o n t h e n a t

ural r o c k (quadrata, aeternus lacus, a gastra); t h e i r f u n c t i o n is

explained i n s e v e r a l t e x t s : hostiae quae cadunt hic imm olantur.

Extra intra quadrata contra cremantur. Sanguis laciculis super-

funditur (1 ) , in quo h ostiae voto cremantur (3) , lacum, qui voto

miscetur ( 5 ). F r o m t h e s e i n s t r u c t i o n s g i v e n t o t h e i n i ti a t es

A l f ö l d y r e c o n s t r u c t s t h e r i tu a l , w h i c h i n c l u d e d th e p r e p a r a t i o n

of s a c r i f ic i a l a n i m a l s , t h e o f f e r i n g o f t h e i r b l o o d t o t h e g o d s o f

the u n d e r w o r l d , t h e b u r n i n g o f t h e ir i n t es t in e s , a b a n q u e t , a n d

purification. T h e m y s t e r y c u l t w a s p r o b a b l y i n t r o d u c e d f r o m

Perge ( cf . t h e D o r i a n f o r m mystaria, f o r mysteria), R u f i n u s '

place o f o r i g i n . I f w e o n l y h a d t h e d e d i c a t o r y f o r m u l a ( R u f i n u s

dedicated t o H y p s i s t o s S a r a p i s ), w e w o u l d n a t u r a l l y h a v e

assumed t h a t R u f i n u s ' a c t i v i t y w a s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f T e l e m a -

chos i n A t h e n s o r D e m e t r i o s i n D e l o s . T h e d e t ai le d d e s c r i p t i o n

of t h e r it u a l s s h o w s t h a t u n d e r t h e g u i s e o f m y s t e r i e s o f S a r a p i s

w e h a v e a n a m a l g a m a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t r it u a l t r a d i t io n s . R u f i n u s

is n o t a n i s o l a t e d c a s e. T h e c u l t f o u n d a t i o n o f A l e x a n d e r , t h e

52 /. Cret. 1 . x v i i i 11 (2n d /3 rd Century ) .

53 F . S o k o l o w s k i , Lois sacrees des cites grecques (Par is , 1969) , no . 65 . F o r the

cult see mo s t r ecent ly L . P io lo t , 'Pausan ias e t les Mys ter es d 'A nd an ie : His t o i re

d'une apo r ie ' , in J . Re na rd (ed . ) , he Peloponnese. Archäologie et Histoire. Actes

de la rencontre internationale de Lorient, 12-15 mai 1998 ( R e n n e s , 1 9 9 9 ), 1 9 5 -

228 ( w i th e a r li e r b ib l i o g r a p h y ) .54 G . A l fö ld y , ' Insc r ic ion es , sac r i f i cios y mis ter ios : E l santuar io rupes tre de

Panöias/Portugal', Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts—

Abteilung Madrid 3 6 ( 1 9 95 ) , 2 5 2 - 8 : id . , ' D i e M y s te r i e n v o n Pa n ö ia s ( V i l a

Real, Po r tug a l ) ' , ib id . 38 (1997), 176 -24 6 .

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164 Ritual Dynamics

false p r o p h e t , a t A b o n o u t e i c h o s is v e r y s i m i l a r , i n c l u d i n g t h e

adaptation o f h e t e r o g e n e o u s e l e m e n t s f r o m t h e c u lt o f A s c l e -

pius, d i f f e r e n t o r a c u l a r p r a c t i c e s, N e o p y t h a g o r e a n o b s e r v a n c e s

and d o c t r i n e s , a n d t h e m y s t e r i e s o f E l e u s i s . 5 5 A n d a c e rt a in

Dionys ios w h o f o u n d e d a m y s t e r y c u l t a n d a c u l t a s s o c i a t i o n

at P h i l a d e l p h i a c o m p o s e d a s a cr e d r e g u la t io n w i t h st ric t m o r a l

and r i tu a l o b s e r v a n c e s n o t m o d e l l e d a c c o r d i n g to a p a r t i c u l a r

mys te r y c u l t , b u t i n f l u e n c e d b y m a n y d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n s . 5 6 It is

certainly n o t n e c e s s a r y to u n d e r l i n e h o w d i f f i c u l t it is t o g r a s p

the p e r s o n a l r e l i g i o s it y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s th a t i n t r o d u c e d o r

rev ived r i tu a l s , n o t t o m e n t i o n t h e c a s e o f p e r s o n s w h o p e r -f o r med r it u a ls . H o w c a n w e e v e r k n o w h o w a n E p i c u r e a n p h i l

osopher t h o u g h t a n d fe i t w h e n h e s e r v e d a s a p r i e s t r e s p o n s i b l e

for t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r i tu a l s s c o r n e d b y h i s f e l l o w p h i l o s o p h e r s ? 5 7

9. T H E M A N I F O L D C H A R A C T E R O F R I T U A L T R A N S F E R

Ritual t r a n s f e r m e a n s n o t o n l y t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f r it u a ls f r o m

one p l a c e t o a n o t h e r , it i m p l i e s a f a r m o r e c o m p l e x p r o c e s s :

the t r a n s f e r o f a r it u a l f r o m a p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t to a n o t h e r — t o

55 S e e tn o st r e c e n t l y U . V i c to r , Lukian von Samosata, Alexander oder Der

Lügenprophet ( L e i d e n , e t c. , 1 9 9 7) ; G . S f a m e n i G a s p a r r o , ' A l e s s a n d r o d i A b o -

nutico, l o " p s e u d o - p r o f e t a ' o v v e r o C o m e cons tru i r s i un ' ide nt i tä r e lig iosa I ' ,

Studi e M ateriali di Storia delle Religioni 62 (1996) (1998) , 565 -9 0 ; ead . ,

'Alessandro d i A b o n u t i c o , l o " p s e u d o - p r o f e t a " o v v e r o c o m e c o s tr u ir s iun'identitä r e l ig i o s a I I ' , i n C . B o n n e t a n d A . M o t t e ( e d s .) , Les syncretismes

religieux dans le monde mediterraneen antique. Actes du colloque international

en l'honneur de Franz Cum ont ( B r ü s se l s a n d R o m e , 1 9 9 9 ), 2 7 5 - 3 0 5 ; A . C h a -

niotis, ' O l d W i n e i n a N e w S k i n : T r a d i t i o n a n d I n n o v a t i o n i n t h e C u l t

Foundation o f A l e x a n d e r o f A b o n o u t e i c h o s ' , i n E . D a b r o w a ( e d. ), Tradition

and Innovation in the Ancient Wo rld ( K r a k o w , 2 0 0 2 ) , 6 7 - 8 5 . F o r th e in f lu e n c e

of m a g i c a l r it u al s o n A l e x a n d e r o f A b o n o u t e i c h o s , s ee A . M a s t r o c i n q u e ,

'Alessandro d i A b o n o u te i c h o s e la ma g ia ' , i n Imago A ntiquitatis. Religions et

iconographie du monde romain: Melanges offerts ä Robert Turcan (Par is , 1999) ,341-52.

56 S . C . B a r t o n a n d G . H . R . H o r s l e y , ' A H e l l e n i st i c C u l t G r o u p a n d

the N e w T e s t a m e n t C h u r c h ' , Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum 24

(1981), 7 - 4 1 .

57 R e h m , Didyma, no . 285 . Fo r per sona l r e l ig ios i ty see F . G ra f , 'Be m er

kungen z u r b ü r g e r l i c h e n R e l ig io s it ä t im Z e i t a l t e r d e s H e l l e n i s m u s ' , in

M . W ö r r l e a n d P . Z a n k e r (e d s . ), Stadtbild und Bürgerbild im Hellenismus

(Munich, 1995) , 103 -14 .

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Ritual Dynamics 165

a n e w s o c i a l c o n t e x t , a n e w c u l t i c c o n t e x t , a n e w i d e o -

logical c o n t e x t . M y la st e x a m p l e s a i m a t d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h i s

complex i ty .

T h e f i r s t c o n c e r n s t h e t r a n s f e r o f s a c r i f i c i a l r i t u a l s f r o m

the c u l t o f t h e g o d s t o t h e c u l t o f t h e d e a d , t h e r u l e r c u l t ,

and t h e a p p e a l t o s u p e r h u m a n p o w e r s i n m a g i c . I n a ll t h e s e

cases t h e t r a n s f e r is a c c o m p a n i e d e it h e r b y r e v e r s a l s o r b y

syncopations. I n t h e c a s e o f m a g i c , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e s a c r i f i c e

takes p l a c e i n t h e d a r k a n d i n v o l v e s t h e k i l l i n g o f u n u s u a l

animals i n u n u s u a l w a y s . 5 8 A n a l o g o u s re v e rs a ls c a n b e o b s e r v e d

in t h e enagismoi o f f u n e r a r y c u l t ; i n t h e r u l e r c u l t , t h e d e m e n t o fprayer, i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e s a c r if i c e , h a r d l y p l a y s a n y r o l e . 5 9

M y s e c o n d e x a m p l e c o n c e r n s t h e t r a n s f e r o f a r i tu a l i n t o a

new i d e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t . L e t u s t a k e a g a i n t h e r i tu a l o f b l o o d

sacrifice. U n t i l t h e l at e f o u r t h C e n t u r y A D it w a s a w i d e l y

attested a n d a c c e p t e d p r a c t i c e . I t w a s p e r f o r m e d in p r i v a t e

and i n t h e C o m m u n i t y ; it d i d n o t h a v e a l i m i n a l p o s i t i o n . O f

course t h i n g s c h a n g e d a f t e r t h e y e a r 3 9 1 , w h e n s a c r i fi c e s w e r e

forbidden. T h e s p o r a d i c P e r f o r m a n c e o f s a c r if ic e s , a t te s t ed b y

several i n s c r i p t i o n s a f t e r t h i s p r o h i b i t i o n ( e .g . t h e in s c r i p t i o n o f

the p r i e s t H e l l a d i o s in M e g a r a ) , a c q u i r e s a d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g i n

the n e w h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t . I t is n o t j u s t t h e P e r f o r m a n c e o f a

custom, b u t t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e d e f i a n c e o f C h r i s t i a n le g i sl a ti o n

and o b s e r v a n c e o f a n c i e n t c u s t o m s i n a p e r i o d o f r e l ig i o u s

intolerance.60 B u t e v e n b e f o r e t h e p r o h i b i t i o n , w e k n o w f r o m

58 G r a f , Gottesnähe, 203-4. C f . n o w S . I. J o h n s to n , ' S a c r if i c e in th e G r e e k

Magical Pa p y r i ' , i n P . M i r e c k i a n d M . M e y e r ( e d s .) , Magic and Ritual in the

Ancient World ( L e i d e n , 2 0 0 2 ), 3 4 4 - 5 8 .59 S . R . F . Pr ice , Rituals and Power: The Rom an Imperial Cult in Asia

Minor ( C a m b r i d g e , 19 8 4 ), 1 1 8 - 2 1 ; M . C l a u s s , Kaiser und Gott: Herrscherkult

im römischen Reich (S tu t tga r t and Le ip z i g , 1999) , 41 3 -1 9 . In the Eas t , the on ly

unecjüivocal re ference to a pray er (euche) to an em pe ror is in an inscr ip t ion at

Thyateira (IGRRP4A273, l ines 11 -13 ) . M o re pro b lem at ic are the re ferences

to euche in the con tex t o f the em pe ror cu l t in SE G 2 .718 and 45 .1719 . Fo r a

discussion s ee D . F i s h w i c k , ' V o t i v e O f f e r i n g s t o t he E m p e r o r ? ' , ZPE 8 0

(1990), 1 2 1 - 3 0 , a n d A . C h a n i o t i s , ' D e r K a i s e r k u l t i m O s t e n d e s R ö m i s c h e n

Reiches im K o n te x t d e r z e i tg e n ö s s is c h e n R i tu a lp r a x i s ' , i n H . C a n c ik a n d

K. H i t z l (e d s . ) , Die Praxis der Herrscherverehrung in Rom und seinen Provin

zen: Akten der Tagung in B laubeuren vom 4. bis 6. April 2002 ( T ü b i n g e n ,

2003), 3 - 2 8 .60 G e n e r a l s u r v e y o f t h e e v i d e n c e : F . R . T r o m b l e y , Hellenic religion

and Christianization, c.370-529 ( L e i d e n , 1 9 9 3 -4 ) . E x a m p l e s : A . C h a n i o t i s ,

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i66 Ritual Dynamics

the f o u r t h C e n t u r y s e v e r a l c a se s o f l a te p a g a n s w h o e m p h a s i z e i n

their i n s c r i p t i o n s t h a t t h e y h a v e o b s e r v e d t h e p a g a n r it u a ls . N o t

so m a n y p e o p l e b o t h e r e d t o w r i t e e p i g r a m s c o m m e m o r a t i n g t h e

fact t h a t t h e y h a d o f f e r e d s a c r i f ic e s b e f o r e t h e f o u r t h C e n t u r y

AD. I n t h e p e r i o d o f a d v a n c i n g C h r is t i a n iz a t i o n m a n y d i d — f o r

example P l u t a r c h , praeses insularum d u r i n g th e re i g n o f J u l i a n ,

w h o m e n t i o n s i n a n e p i g r a m o n S a m o s t h e f a ct t h a t h e h a d

sacrificed i n t h e I d a e a n C a v e , 6 1 o r V e r a i n P a t m o s ( f o u r t h

Century), s e l e c t e d b y A r t e m i s t o b e h e r p r i e s t e s s ; a s a hydro-

phoros s h e c a m e t o P a t m o s f r o m L e b e d o s i n o r d e r t o c e l e b r a t e a

festival w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e s a c r if ic e o f a p r e g n a n t s h e - g o a t .6 2

Fina l ly , r i t u a l t r a n s f e r m a y i m p l y a r a d i c a l c h a n g e i n t h e s o c i a l

context o f i ts P e r f o r m a n c e . I t h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d , f o r i n s t a n c e

that i n i t i a t o r y r i tu a l s i n e a r l y t i m e s p e r f o r m e d b y a ll t h e

member s o f a C o m m u n i t y , s u r v i v e d a s r i tu a l s o f a p r i v i l e g e d

group ( e . g . i n A t h e n s t h e r it u a l o f t h e arkteia).63

10 . C O N T E X T U A L I Z I N G M E D I T E R R A N E A N R I T U A L S

T h e p l e t h o r a o f ' M e d i t e r r a n e a n ' s t u d i e s m a k e s c le a r h o w

urgent t h e n e e d t o c o n c e p t u a l i z e t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n i s. T h i s

can o n l y w o r k i f it g o e s a l o n g w i t h t h e c o n t i n u a l e f f o r t t o

contextualize ' M e d i t e r r a n e a n ' p h e n o m e n a . I h o p e t h a t t h e

case s t u d i e s p r e s e n t e d h e r e h a v e s h o w n t h e n e c e s s i t y t o c o n

textualize r i tu a l s a n d r i tu a l b e h a v i o u r in t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a

nean a n d t h e i r s u r v i v a l s i n l at er p e r i o d s . T h e t i tl e o f t h e b o o kwi th w h i c h th e heros ktistes o f o u r c o m m o n s u b j e ct , F e r n a n d

Braudel, i n a u g u r a t e d M e d i t e r r a n e a n s t u d i es , r e m i n d s u s t ha t

the s t u d y o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n is t h e s t u d y o f h i s t o ri c a l c o n -

texts.

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(eds.), Le orse di Brauron: Un rituale di iniziazione femminile nel santuario di