Rising Waters, Rising Threat: How Climate Change Endangers America’s Neglected Wastewater...

8/10/2019 Rising Waters, Rising Threat: How Climate Change Endangers Americas Neglected Wastewater Infrastructure

1/23 WWW.AMERICANPROGRESS.O

Rising Waters, Rising ThreatHow Climate Change Endangers Americas Neglected

Wastewater Infrastructure

By Ben Bovarnick, Shiva Polefka, and Arpita Bhattacharyya October 2014


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Rising Waters, Rising ThreatHow Climate Change Endangers Americas Neglected

Wastewater Infrastructure

By Ben Bovarnick, Shiva Polefka, and Arpita Bhattacharyya October 2014


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1 Introduction and summary

3 U.S. wastewater systems are threatened by climate chan

6 The costs of inaction

8 Public health risks

10 Recommendations:Opportunities for strategic wastewater investment

15 Conclusion

16 About the authors & acknowledgments

17 Endnotes

Contents


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1 Center for American Progress | Rising Waters, Rising Threat

Introduction and summary

Te second anniversary o Supersorm Sandy recalls he ragic loss o 117 lives

across eigh saes, evoking images o flooded srees, power ouages, and sranded

communiies.1Te sorm also caused significan damage away rom news cameras

underground and offshoreo wasewaer inrasrucure. Sandys powerul rainall

and record-seting sorm surge2overwhelmed wasewaer sysems hroughou

coasal New York and New Jersey, resuling in he overflow o almos 11 billion

gallons o raw sewage ino he sricken regions srees, rivers, and coasal waers.

Tis was enough unreaed effluen o fill he Empire Sae Building 14 imes.3

Unorunaely, wasewaer overflow is no unique o supersorms or o he Eas

Coas. As climae change srains aging sewer sysems around he counry hrough

increasingly severe weaher and sea-level rise, he resilience o wasewaer

inrasrucure is becoming a criical public and environmenal healh issue or

communiies and municipal and sae governmens.

Te Unied Saes has an expansive bu aging wasewaer sysem ha was buil o

mee he needs o a much smaller populaion. Te Unied Saes had 14,780

wasewaer reamen aciliies and 19,739 wasewaer pipe sysems as o 2008.4

Te American Sociey o Civil Engineers, or ASCE, ound ha many o he

naions pipes were insalled shorly afer World War II and are reaching he end o

heir originally inended lieimes;5some sewers are more han 100 years old.6

Aging wasewaer inrasrucure has immediae, dangerous consequences. Te

ASCE esimaes ha aging pipes and inadequae capaciy lead o he discharge o

900 billion gallons o unreaed sewage and wasewaer ino U.S. waerways each

year, enough o cover New York Ciy under a layer 127 ee deep.7According o a

New York imesrepor, municipal sewer sysems are he naions bigges violaors

o he U.S. Clean Waer Ac, and more han one-hird o hem have violaedpolluion laws a leas once since 2006.8


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Tis worn-ou, auly inrasrucure requires new invesmens in order o proec

public healh and he environmen. As climae change poses increasingly severe

and cosly hazards o hese sysems, saes and municipaliies should ensure ha

any invesmen in new sewer inrasrucure incorporaes climae risk. Federal,

sae, and local governmens can achieve his hrough several innovaive sraegies.

Tis repor recommends aking he ollowing seps o keep American waers

clean and proec public healh rom disrupions and overflows in wasewaer

reamen sysems:

Inegrae climae risk ino all new wasewaer inrasrucure

Finance resilience improvemens hrough sae inrasrucure banks

Prioriize resilience in sae revolving-und invesmens, accouning or regional

differences in climae change vulnerabiliy

Inves in green inrasrucure and he proecion and resoraion

o welands and coasal ecosysems o proec and supplemen

wasewaer reamen sysems

Modern wasewaer inrasrucure is a vial par o everyones

daily lives, proecing Americans rom waerborne diseases and

preserving he naions waerways as ecological, recreaional, and

commercial asses. Bu Americans preerence o keep heir

minds ou o he guters, sewer mains, and reamen plans ha

comprise his sysem makes i easy or poliical leaders o neglec

his inrasrucurea leas unil caasrophes such as Supersorm

Sandy necessiae unpleasan spills and cosly cleanups. As climae

change exacerbaes he mos exreme weaher and speeds sea-level

rise, deficiencies in wasewaer inrasrucure will ge harder o

ignoreand increasingly cosly o clean up afer ailures. o

proec public healh, he environmen, and he economic gains

provided by good waer qualiy, local, sae, and ederal officials

mus ac quickly o repair and upgrade he naions rapidly agingwasewaer inrasrucure. Tis acion mus accommodae boh

conemporary and uure levels o service demand and wihsand

he worsening effecs o climae change.

Sanitary sewer overflow, or SSO:An SSO

an unintentional discharge of wastewater o

sewage from sanitary sewer systems due to

overloaded pipes, blockages, pump or pow

failures, broken lines, or other defects. SSOs

can spill into public waterways and back up

into buildings or neighborhoods, posing thre

to property and public health.

9

Combined sewer overflow, or CSO:A CSO

an infrequent, intentional discharge of was

water from a combined sewer system, whic

usually collects rainwater, sewage, and

industrial wastewater into a single pipe for

treatment. These systems are typically design

with an overflow that can intentionally

discharge the combined effluent into nearb

bodies of water in the event of heavy rain o

snowmelt that exceeds the systems maximuvolume.10The majority of combined sewer

systems in the United States are in the Grea

Lakes region and the Northeast.11


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U.S. wastewater systems are

threatened by climate change

Global warming is exacerbaing he hazards ha hreaen he naions aging municipal

wasewaer sysems, including sea-level rise, coasal sorms, droughs, and heavy

rainall evens, ofen called downpours. Tis porends an increase in he already

desrucive amoun o sewage ha overflows ino lakes, rivers, and oceans.

Firs, coasal flooding is expeced o increase due o an acceleraing rise in sea level.

In he pas 100 years, he Unied Saes has experienced measurable sea-level rise

due o global warming: ide gauges and geological evidence along he easernseaboard show ha seas are around 1 oo higher han hey were 100 years ago.12

However, he rae o sea-level change is ar rom seady. According o an analysis

by he Naional Oceanic and Amospheric Adminisraion, or NOAA, or he

Naional Climae Assessmen, or NCA, he rae o sea-level rise nearly doubled

beween 1900 and he 1990s.13Furhermore, because o expeced ocean warming

and meling ice shees in Greenland and Anarcica, he NCA predics wih high

confidencea greaer han 90 percen chance o occurrenceha he global

mean sea level will rise abou 3.9 ee by 2100. In he case o maximum ice and

glacier mel, i could rise as high as 6.6 ee.14Pu in more angible erms, scieniss

now predic ha sea-level rise will make Sandy-scale flooding a 20-year-even

one ha has a 5 percen chance o happening in any given yearby 2100.15

Te hazards o higher sea levels affec wasewaer sysems in several specific ways.

Firs, sea-level rise increases he risk o flooding or many wasewaer aciliies in

he Unied Saes. As baseline sea levels rise, hey reduce he level o inensiy

necessary or sorm surges o desroy coasal inrasrucure. In he San Francisco

Bay Area, here are 22 wasewaer reamen plans on he shoreline ha are

vulnerable o a 55-inch rise in sea level.16Climae Cenral esimaes ha as many

as 3,070 wasewaer reamen aciliies in he coasal Norheas17

and Florida willbe vulnerable o coasal flooding by he end o he cenury in he NCAs wors-

case scenario or ice-cap meling.18As menioned, many o hese plans already

lack he capaciy o handle curren sorms, meaning ha sewage spills will likely

become an even more requen occurrence.19


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ising sea levels also harm wasewaer sysems underground by raising coasal

groundwaer levels and increasing he infilraion o seawaer. Tese impacs can

reduce he overall capaciy o wasewaer sysems, resuling in more requen

sewage overflows. Tey can also inroduce seawaer ino reamen sysems,

impairing aciliies mechanical and biological inegriy, increasing mainenance

coss, and reducing sysem effeciveness.20

Second, climae change is projeced o increase he srengh o coasal sorms, 21and

such evens can cause physical damage o wasewaer reamen aciliies across

wide regions.22According o a U.S. Environmenal Proecion Agency, or EPA,

repor, Hurricane Karina affeced 208 wasewaer reamen aciliies in 2005,

including 117 in Mississippi, 78 in Louisiana, and 13 in Alabama, orcing many o

close in he afermah o he sorm.23Nearly wo weeks afer he hurricane, only 40

percen o he affeced wasewaer aciliies were able o operae normally.24According

o NOAA, here is inadequae evidence o sugges ha global warming causes an

increase in he requency o ropical sorms such as hurricanes. 25However, scienificevidence does show a link beween warming and hurricane inensiy.26In ac,

NOAA projecs average Alanic hurricane inensiy will increase 2 percen o 11

percen and rainall will increase abou 20 percen by 2100boh o which magniy

hurricanes desrucive power.27Tereore, he effecs o recen severe hurricanes

such as Sandy, Irene, and Karina provide valuable insighs ino he risks rom

uure exreme weaher evens.

Inland wasewaer aciliies are also a risk rom global warming. Increasing requency

o heavy rainall, induced by climae change,28has he poenial o overwhelm

wasewaer sysems, resuling in uninenional SSOs and more requen CSOs. In

March 2010, an exreme rain even in New England brough 12 inches o rain over

he course o hree days, flooding he Pawuxe, Blacksone, and numerous oher

rivers.29While such a sorm canno be direcly linked o climae change, he

Norheas is projeced o experience an 8 percen increase in exreme precipiaion

evens by 2050 and a 13 percen increase by 2100.30In Warwick, hode Island,

he exraordinary inensiy o he March 2010 sorm overloaded he owns

wasewaer reamen plan pas he poin o ailure, which caused raw sewage o

mix wih he rainwaer and exposed hundreds o homes in Warwick, Cranson,

and Johnson, hode Island, o nearly 1 oo o he oul effluen.31

Similarly, 2014sorms in Minnesoa,32Michigan,33and Maryland34overwhelmed local wasewaer

sysems, causing sewage spills ino waerways and homes. Tis hrea appears

likely o worsen and o affec more Americans naionwide as climae change

increases he requency o hese heavy rainall evens.35


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Drough can also disrup wasewaer reamen hrough waer shorages.36Climae

change is projeced o exacerbae drough condiions in he Wesern Unied Saes

and hereore o increase he srain on wasewaer sysems.37During a 2012 drough

in exas, he riniy iver Auhoriy issued a press release explaining o residens

ha lower waer levels would cause he normal flow o sewage hrough he sysem

which is propelled by graviyo slow down. Ulimaely, his slowdown caused

solids o accumulae a pipe joins and increased he requency o blockages.38o

make maters worse, he waer ha did flow ino he reamen plan had higher

levels o ammonia and oal suspended solids, which led o increased levels o

conaminans in he waer pumped ou o he plan ino he receiving waerway.39

As droughs coninue hroughou much o he Wes, many wasewaer sysems

could be increasingly subjec o incidens similar o hese.40

FIGURE 1

The frequency of extreme precipitation events in the United States

is increasing

Decadal frequency of heavy downpours compared to the 19011960 baseline average

Note: Heavy downpours are defined as two-day precipitation totals that were historically exceeded only once every five years. Data

come from long-term observations from 930 weather stations nationwide, excluding Alaska and Hawaii.

Source: Katharine Hayhoe and others, Heavy Downpours Increasing. In U.S. Global Change Research Program, National ClimateAssessment (2014), available at http://nca2014.globalchange.gov/report/our-changing-climate/heavy-downpours-increasing;

Kenneth E. Kunkel and others, Monitoring and Understanding Trends in Extreme Storms: State of Knowledge, Bulletin of the AmericanMeteorological Society94 (2013): 499514.

-10%

0

10%

20%

1905 1915 1935 1955 1975 19951925 1945 1965 1985 2005

30%

40%


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The costs of inaction

Alhough invesmens in wasewaer resilience can be expensive, hey are worh he

cos. Beore Supersorm Sandy, New York Ciy compleed $9.3 billion o upgrades

o he resilience o is wasewaer inrasrucure and reamen aciliies rom 1997

o 2002.41While he sorm produced massive damage o he region, he New York

Ciy Deparmen o Environmenal Proecion repored ha he oal cos o is

wasewaer inrasrucure was only $95 million, or 10 percen o he original

invesmen in resilience improvemens.42While subsanial, his is a racion o he

damage incurred by nearby aciliies elsewhere in New York sae and New Jersey.Te nearby Nassau Couny Bay Park Wasewaer reamen Plan alone required

$810 million in recovery unds rom he Federal Emergency Managemen Agency,

or FEMAhe larges single ederal award or an inrasrucure projec relaed o

he sormafer he sorm surge caused 2.3 billion gallons o sewage o overflow

ino he surrounding neighborhood and he Hudson iver, disruping normal

operaions or 44 days.43Meanwhile, New York Ciy was able o resore all is

wasewaer reamen operaions afer five dayswih he excepion o reamen

aciliies in he ockaways, which were resored afer wo weeks.44

Similar o he invesmens New York Ciy underook, a 2008 sae assessmen

esimaed ha New Jersey would need o spend $11 billion o improve is wasewaer

reamen inrasrucure rom 2008 o 2028.45Jus our years laer, Supersorm Sandy

wrough an esimaed $3.01 billion in wasewaer coss, damaging unprepared

wasewaer aciliies and sewer sysems around he sae.46Combined wih he

$1.06 billion in damage o New York sae wasewaer reamen aciliies and

inrasrucure, Supersorm Sandy infliced more han $4 billion in damage o

unproeced wasewaer reamen operaions across he wo saes.47Te EPA

disribued $600 million o New York and New Jersey or recovery coss, allocaed

hrough congressionally appropriaed disaser relie.48

However, his sill lef ashorall ha boh saes have been orced o fill. New Jersey announced in Augus

ha 235 projecs would receive $1.3 billion in low- and no-cos loans o repair

damage o wasewaer inrasrucure.49


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Tese considerable expendiures underesimae he enirey o coss associaed wih

wasewaer inrasrucure damage rom Supersorm Sandy, as hey do no include

damage o ecosysems, waerways, beaches, and neighborhoods conaminaed by

sewage and wasewaer spills.50Because hey are broadly dispersed, he impacs o

wasewaer polluion rom SSOs and CSOs on he American economy are difficul

o ully quaniy, bu evidence suggess hey are subsanial. Approximaely 722municipaliies comprised o more han 40 million peopleranging rom small

owns o large ciies such as Philadelphia and New Yorkhave combined sewer

sysems ha dump sewage ino heir waersheds during major sorms.51

Firs, he rivers, lakes, and seashores ha receive wasewaer runoff also happen o

be op American vacaion desinaions.52As a resul, sewage-ouled waerways and

beach closures ollowing major sorms resul in subsanial economic losses or

recreaion- and ourism-based businesses ha depend on healhy coass. Sudies

in Souhern Caliornia53and Michigan54boh ound ha he daily economic cos

o closing jus one beach due o polluion was abou $37,000. In 2012, here were5,634 days o beach closures and beach advisories naionwide due o sorm-waer

runoff; in 2011, which was a significanly weter year, here were 10,780 days o

closures and advisories.55Alhough a naional average economic cos per day o

beach closures is no available, hese findings sugges ha he impac o inadequae

wasewaer managemen o coasal businesses and communiies is considerable.

Second, sewage spills also carry significan healh coss, exposing people o

pahogens and oxins.56Anoher Souhern Caliornia sudy ound ha he ecal

conaminaion o ocean waers in Los Angeles and Orange counies alone causes

as many as 1,479,200 gasroinesinal illnesses every year, wih a public healh cos

o beween $21 million and $51 million.57Te EPA esimaed in 2011 ha 3.5

million people around he naion conrac illnesses each year afer conac wih

raw sewage rom SSOs.58


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combined sewer sysems or compliance wih he Clean Waer Ac and he

Naional Polluan Discharge Eliminaion Sysem and issues fines or noncompli-

ance or excessive overflow evens.

Unlike he semi-inenional overflows o combined sewer sysems, SSOs spill

ino basemens and ciy srees, in addiion o local waerways, ofen causingsevere damage o propery. In a 2004 repor o Congress, he EPA esimaed

here are up o 75,000 SSOs every year.66As climae change increases he

likelihood o exreme precipiaion evens,67SSOs may also become increasingly

common as wasewaer sysems sruggle o cope wih severe rainall and are

srained by coninually aging pipes.


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Recommendations: Opportunities

for strategic wastewater investment

Around he counry, homeowners, businesses, and ouriss visiing Americas

beaches and waerways rely on an aging, inadequae wasewaer inrasrucure ha

is increasingly vulnerable o he desrucive impacs o global warming. Failure o

make invesmens in he capaciy and resilience o hese sysemsand o accoun

or evolving climae change risks in inrasrucure planningwill only exacerbae

he already severe environmenal and public healh impacs o unreaed sewage

discharge and lead o unenable sysem ailures and unaffordable repair coss.

Alhough he cos o new invesmen will be subsanial in he shor erm, efficienand demonsrably affordable sraegies exis o increase resilience and aver greaer

coss over he long erm. Tereore, i is imperaive ha municipal and sae

governmens iniiae he planning needed o ensure he long-erm adequacy and

resiliency o heir wasewaer inrasrucureand ha he ederal governmen

coninue o expand is suppor or hese effors so ha needed sysem upgrades

can be swifly implemened.

Te Cener or American Progress recommends aking he ollowing seps o keep

Americas waers clean and proec public healh rom disrupions and overflows

in wasewaer reamen sysems:

Inegrae climae risk ino all new wasewaer inrasrucure

Finance resilience improvemens hrough sae inrasrucure banks

Prioriize resilience in sae revolving-und invesmens, accouning or regional

differences in climae change vulnerabiliy

Inves in green inrasrucure and he proecion and resoraion o welands andcoasal ecosysems o proec and supplemen wasewaer reamen sysems


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Integrate climate risk into all new wastewater infrastructure

Ciy planners should consider elevaing, relocaing, and building any new wase-

waer reamen plans urher rom flood- or sorm-surge-prone waers and ensure

ha exising sysems have adequae capaciy o accommodae large influxes o sorm

waer. Some ciies and saes are already beginning o ake acion o incorporaeprojecions o more requen and exreme weaher ino wasewaer inrasrucure

design and consrucion. For example, in building he new Deer Island Sewage

reamen Plan ouside o Boson, he Massachusets Waer esources Auhoriy,

or MWR, raised he plan 1.9 ee above he ground o ully proec i rom a

100-year flood. Te plan also has an onsie power plan o ensure access o an

uninerruped power supply.68MWR planners increased he diameer o he main

unnel ino he plan o mainain he hydraulic capaciy needed during increased

precipiaion and sorm surges.69Similar long-erm planning and consideraions

should be aken ino accoun whenever new plans are upgraded or buil. Saes

and municipaliies should seek ederal assisance o properly sie new wasewaeraciliies. NOAA already helps localiies avoid siing new aciliies in flood zones

by sharing climae daa and sea-level-rise projecions.70Sae and local governmens

should use his inormaion o develop adequae green inrasrucure and man-

made proecions o wihsand flooding in areas where plans canno be moved.

Finance resilience improvements through state infrastructure banks

Because wasewaer reamen aciliies rely on elecric pumping saions o move

wasewaer hrough pipes and reamen sysems, power ouages and operaional

ailures by backup generaors can shu down pumps and orce plans o spill

unreaed sewage direcly ino waerways. During Supersorm Sandy, a 12-oo

sorm surge flooded New Jerseys Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission, crippling

is pumping saions and elecrical inrasrucure and spilling 3.9 billion gallons o

unreaed and parially reaed sewage. Te resuling power ouage and damage o

elecrical componens shu down he plans pumps and orced 840 million gallons

o unreaed sewage direcly ino Newark Bay.71Te plan is undergoing $290

million in repairs and resilience upgrades o again reach capaciy.72Coordinaed

invesmens in onsie power generaion and energy resilience can reduce hechances ha flooding and exreme weaher hreaen such inrasrucure operaion.


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In response o he significan coss o Supersorm Sandy, New Jersey is currenly

in he process o developing he New Jersey Energy esilience Bank, or EB, o

srenghen is energy inrasrucure and deploy disribued energy resources ha

can mainain power or vial inrasrucure in he wake o exreme weaher.73Iniial

unding or he bank will come rom a $200 million Communiy Developmen

Block Gran-Disaser ecovery, or CDBG-D, award allocaed as par o heSupersorm Sandy recovery appropriaions, and he sae has indicaed ha he EB

will prioriize financing or wasewaer reamen plans. New Jersey should commi

o mainaining EB financing beyond he poin a which he iniial CDBG-D

gran is disbursed in order o expand resilience effors beyond inrasrucure direcly

affeced by Supersorm Sandy.74

Similarly, New York sae plans o esablish a $900 million und o proec wase-

waer reamen plans affeced by Supersorm Sandy in 100-year and 500-year

flood zones ha will be managed by a sae inrasrucure bank.75Te New York

Inrasrucure Bank will allow he sae o cenralize inrasrucure invesmen andensure ha resources are used efficienly.76Te bank will be unded hrough ederal

recovery unds, sae revenue, and public and privae invesors, wih unding

oaling approximaely $2 billion.77In boh New York and New Jersey, ederal

disaser assisance was available o launch hese inrasrucure banks. W hile saes

ha have no required similar disaser recovery assisance will no have access o

such unds, hey can benefi by planning or invesmen ouside o an emergency

siuaion. Tey can also explore plans or a raional combinaion o public and

privae spending.

Prioritize resilience in the Clean Water State Revolving Fund

Following Supersorm Sandy, he Disaser elie Appropriaions Ac se aside

$500 million in EPA unding o suppor wasewaer sysem improvemens hrough

he Clean Waer Sae evolving Fund, or CWSF. Since is creaion in 1987, he

CWSF has provided more han $5 billion annually o all 50 saes and Puero ico

or waer-qualiy and wasewaer reamen projecs. Tis is a oal o more han

$100 billion in mobilized capial, supporing more han 33,320 low-ineres loans

or local wasewaer inrasrucure invesmen.78

Congress and Presiden BarackObama should preserve and suppor his vial, highly successul program. In order

o ensure hese resources are used efficienly, he EPA should work wih saes o

incenivize resilience effors in CWSF projecs and o prioriize improvemens

in wasewaer sysems ha are mos vulnerable o he impacs o a changing climae,

including sea-level rise, drough, and exreme rainall evens.79


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Invest in wetlands, coastal ecosystems, and green infrastructure

o address he someimes prohibiively high coss o upgrading wasewaer

reamen inrasrucure, some ciies have begun o deploy innovaive new

approaches designed around naures unmached abiliy o absorb and recycle

polluans. Tese mehods mee inrasrucure needs effecively and provideremarkable cos savings compared wih radiional arificial soluions.

In 2011, Philadelphia began a 25-year, $2.4 billion Green Ciy, Clean Waers plan

ha incorporaes he naural capabiliies o soils, aquiers, and welands o capure

and filer urban runoff o achieve cos-effecive soluions.80Consuling firm CDM

Smihwhich he ciy hired o help address is inadequae combined sewer sysem

and comply wih ederal waer-qualiy lawsound ha he radiional approach

o insalling muliple, massive wasewaer deenion unnels beneah he ciy would

cos $8 billion o $10 billion, significanly more han he ciy could afford. 81Trough

collaboraion wih he consuling firm and he EPA, Philadelphia is working ogreen one-hird o is impervious suraceshe concree, seel, and asphal ha

shun sorm waer direcly ino he sewer sysemby ransorming hem ino

porous, vegeaed landscapes such as gardens and parks, which absorb, filer, and

hold sorm waer in place.82In addiion, he ciy is invesing in he resoraion o

weland and waerway ecosysems o enhance he naural filraion o polluans

associaed wih wasewaer discharge. By invesing in polluion capure boh beore

and afer sorm waer passes hrough he ciys combined sewer sysem, his

green-inrasrucure-based plan is expeced o eliminae polluion equivalen o

he arificial capure o 85 percen o he ciys wasewaer oupu.83

Tis approach o sorm-waer managemen also benefis ciizens in ways beyond

polluion conrol. I creaes accessible local jobs, improves and expands access o

parks, increases propery values or homes near parks and public gardens, and

reduces hea-relaed aaliies hanks o new shade rees planed hroughou he

ciy.84Tese exernal benefis urher enhance he cos effeciveness o he Green

Ciies, Clean Waers program.

Jus as Phi ladelphia has se isel up as a naional leader in he use o green

inrasrucure or wasewaer managemen, oher municipaliies naionwide arealso beginning o incorporae his approach o conrol waer polluion and enhance

inrasrucure resilience o hazards such as coasal flooding, realizing significan

cos savings over he consrucion o convenional arificial inrasrucure. A recen

sudy on flood-conrol opions o help he San Francisco Bay address sea-level rise


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ound ha Bay Area ciies could proec heir coasal assesincluding wasewaer

reamen aciliiesby consrucing shorer, broader earhen levees roned by

resored salwaer marshes. Tis projec could achieve he same flood proecion

and wave reducion delivered by much aller and more-capial-inensive radiional

levees.85Tese shorer, weland-ringed levees would lower he cos o he needed

flood proecion rom more han $12 million per mile or a radiional levee sysemo less han $7 million per mile,86represening oal savings [ha] could evenually

exceed more han a billion dollars over he San Francisco Bays 275 miles o

vulnerable coasline, according o he San Jose Mercury News.87

Te EPA is responsible or he enorcemen o he naions waer-qualiy-conrol

laws and ensuring ha polluion-conrol sysems are adequae. An EPA sudy ha

evaluaed 12 naionwide examples ound ha, in 11 cases, green inrasrucure

sysems provided desired waer-polluion conrol equivalen o ha o radiional

sysems bu a a cheaper cos, while offering addiional auxiliary benefis similar o

hose enjoyed by Philadelphia.88

An April CAP analysis on he economic value o coasal ecosysem resoraion

underscores he poenial o naure-based approaches o enhance wasewaer

managemen sysems. In hree case sudies o projecs unded by he American

ecovery and einvesmen Ac o 2009, each axpayer dollar invesed yielded an

average o $15 in benefis o he U.S. economy in he orm o polluion conrol,

carbon capure and sorage, resilience, wildlie habia, and oher services.89


18/23


Conclusion

Te New York imesrepored in 2009 ha New York Ciys combined sewer sysem

was designed o accommodae rainall rom a five-year sormprecipiaion so

heavy ha i is only expeced o occur wice per decade. A inensiies beyond ha,

he sewers would begin o back up and discharge unreaed sewage ino public

waerways; planners had anicipaed ha he rariy o hese occurrences would

miigae heir adverse effecs. Ye New York Ciy experienced hree separae sorms

in 2007 srong enough o quali y as 25-year sormsdownpours so srong hey

would be expeced only our imes each cenury, based on hisoric rainall records.90As James obershen he depuy commissioner o he New York Ciy

Deparmen o Environmenal Proecionsuccincly described, When you ge

five inches o rain in 30 minues, is like Tanksgiving Day raffic on a wo-lane

bridge in he sewer pipes.91

Inrasrucure is a is bes when i goes unnoiced92and is users can go abou

heir business wihou impedimen. Tis is especially rue when i comes o

managemen o wasewaer. Unorunaely, he consequences o human-caused

global warming are already causing Tanksgiving raffic jams in wasewaer sysems

wih alarming requency, resuling in illnesses and beach closures ha are much

more problemaic han holiday raffic. Lawmakers and municipal planners mus

iniiae and accelerae effors o upgrade he naions rapidly aging wasewaer

inrasrucure, boh o address mainenance backlogs and o prepare or he new

realiies o climae change, including droughs, exreme weaher, and sea-level rise.

I hey do no, decades o progress on public healh, environmenal proecion, and

economic developmen spurred by cleaner waerways is liable o be washed away.


19/23


About the authors

Ben Bovarnickis a Special Assisan wih he Energy Policy eam a he Cener or

American Progress.

Shiva Polefkais a Policy Analys or he Ceners Ocean Policy program.

Arpita Bhattacharyyawas previously a Policy Analys or he Energy Policy eam

a he Cener.

Acknowledgments

Tanks o Claire Moser, esearch and Advocacy Associae or he Ceners Public

Lands Projec; Danielle Baussan, Managing Direcor o Energy Policy a he

Cener; Michael Conahan, Direcor o Ocean Policy a he Cener; and Joe Nye,Cener or American Progress inern, or heir conribuions o his repor.


20/23


Endnotes

1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, DeathsAssociated with Hurricane Sandy OctoberNovember2012, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report62 (20)(2013): 393397, available athttp://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6220a1.htm.

2 Seth Borenstein, 12 strange weather features ofSuperstorm Sandy, Associated Press, October 25, 2013,available at http://bigstory.ap.org/article/12-strange-weather-features-superstorm-sandy.

3 Climate Central, Sewage Overflows from HurricaneSandy, available at http://www.climatecentral.org/news/11-billion-gallons-of-sewage-overflow-from-hurricane-sandy-15924(last accessed October 2014).

4 American Society of Civil Engineers, Wastewater:Conditions & Capacity, available at http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/a/#p/wastewater/conditions-and-capacity(last accessed October 2014).

5 Keith Miller, Kristina Costa, and Donna Cooper, How toUpgrade and M aintain Our Nations Wastewater andDrinking-Water Infrastructure (Washington: Center forAmerican Progress, 2012), available athttp://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/MillerWaterInfrastructureReport.pdf.

6 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. EPA IssuesTechnical Guides and Computer Tools for Sewer Conditionand Capacity Assessment, available at http://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_report.cfm?dirEntryId=244653(last accessed October 2014).

7 900 billion gallons is equivalent to 2,761,994.95 acre-feet.New York City has a surface area of 21,612.8 acres.Dividing the former by the latter yields 127.8 feet. SeeAmerican Society of Civil Engineers, Wastewater:Conditions & Capacity.

8 Charles Duhigg, As Sewers Fill, Waste Poisons Waterways,The New York Times, November 22, 2009,available athttp://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/23/us/23sewer.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.

9 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Sanitary SewerOverflows and Peak Flows, available at http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/npdes/sso/(last accessed October 2014).

10 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Combined SewerOverflows (CSO) Home, available at http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/npdes/cso/(last accessed October 2014).

11 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Report toCongress on the Impacts and Control of CSOs and SSOs(2004), available at http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/npdes/cso/upload/csossoRTC2004_executive_summary.pdf.

12 Andrew C. Kemp and others, Climate related sea-levelvariations over the past two millennia, Proceedings ofthe National Academy of Sciences108 (27) (2011):1101711022, available at http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011/06/13/1015619108.full.pdf;John D.Boon, Evidence of Sea Level Acceleration at U.S. and

Canadian Tide Stations, Atlantic Coast, North America,Journal of Coastal Research28 (6) (2012): 14371445,available at http://www.jcronline.org/doi/abs/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-12-00102.1.

13 Adam Parris and others, Global Sea Level Rise Scenariosfor the US National Climate Assessment (Silver Spring,MD: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,2012), available athttp://scenarios.globalchange.gov/sites/default/files/NOAA_SLR_r3_0.pdf.

14 Ibid.

15 Tom Johnson, Mapping Out Areas in New Jersey at Riskof Flooding as Sea Levels Rise, NJ Spotlight, October28, 2013, available at http://www.njspotlight.com/stories/13/10/27/analysis-maps-out-flood-risks-in-nj-as-ocean-levels-rise/.

16 Jeffery Mount and Jeremy Lowe, Flooding in SanFrancisco Bay: Risks and Opportunities (Sacramento,CA: Resources Legacy Fund, 2014), available athttp://sfbayrestore.org/docs/Sea_Level_Rise_report_Jan2014.pdf.

17 The coastal Northeast is defined as Connecticut,Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, New Jersey,New York, and R hode Island.

18 Climate Central, Surging Seas, available at http://sealevel.climatecentral.org/(last accessed October 2014).

19 Duhigg, As Sewers Fill, Waste Poisons Waterways.

20 Jefferson F. Flood and Lawrence B. Cahoon, Risks toCoastal Wastewater Collection Systems from Sea-LevelRise and Climate Change,Journal of Coastal Research27(4) (2011): 652660, available at http://www.jcronline.org/doi/pdf/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-10-00129.1(lastaccessed October 2014).

21 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ClimateChange 2007: Working Group I: The Physical ScienceBasis, available athttp://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ch11s11-1-3.html(last accessedOctober 2014).

22 Christopher Field and others, Climate Change 2014:Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability TechnicalSummary (Geneva, Switzerland: I ntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Change, 2014), p. 7.

23 Carolyn Cooper and others, EPA Provided Quality andTimely Information Regarding Wastewater afterHurricane Katrina (Washington: U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency, 2006), available at http://www.epa.

gov/oig/reports/2006/20060328-2006-P-00018.pdf.

24 Claudia Copeland, Hurricane-Damaged Drinking Waterand Wastewater Facilities: Impacts, Needs, and Response(Washington: Congressional Research Service, 2005),available at http://www.vepr.lsu.edu/References/Hurricane%20Damage%20to%20Drinking%20Water.pdf.

25 Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, Global Warmingand Hurricanes: An Overview of Current Research,available at http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/global-warming-and-hurricanes(last accessed October 2014).

26 Ibid. For example, see Ryan Sriver and Matthew Huber,Low frequency variability in globally integrated tropicalcyclone power dissipation, Geophysical Research Letters33 (11) (2006), available at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2006GL026167/abstract;Thomas R. Knutsonand others, Tropical cyclones and climate change,

Nature Geoscience3 (2010): 157163, available at http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v3/n3/abs/ngeo779.html.

27 Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, Global Warmingand Hurricanes.

28 U.S. Global Change Research Program, National ClimateAssessment: Extreme Weather, available at http://nca2014.globalchange.gov/highlights/report-findings/extreme-weather#narrative-page-20985 (last accessedOctober 2014).
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29 Frank Carini, Severe Weather Warning for Southern NewEngland, EcoRI News, February 11 , 2014, available athttp://www.ecori.org/climate-change/2014/2/11/severe-weather-warning-for-southern-new-england.html.

30 Massachusetts Executive Office of Energy andEnvironmental Affairs, Massachusetts Climate ChangeAdaptation Report (2011), available at http://www.mass.gov/eea/docs/eea/energy/cca/eea-climate-adaptation-firstpart.pdf.

31 Carini, Severe Weather Warning for Southern New

England.

32 Shelby Capacio, Sewer Strain: 18 metro communitiesasked to watch basements, Fox KMSP, June 19, 2014,available at http://www.myfoxtwincities.com/story/25825473/sewer-strain-18-metro-communities-asked-to-watch-basements.

33 Chad Selweski, Millions of gallons of raw sewagedumped in Macomb County, The Macomb Daily,August 21, 2014, available at http://www.macombdaily.com/general-news/20140820/millions-of-gallons-of-raw-sewage-dumped-in-macomb-county.

34 David Anderson, Heavy rains caused sewage spills intoHarfords Bush River, The Baltimore Sun, May 6, 2014,available at http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/harford/abingdon/ph-ag-apg-sewage-spill-0507-20140502,0,3904129.story.

35 U.S. Global Change Research Program, National ClimateAssessment: Extreme Weather.

36 American Society of Civil Engineers, Failure to Act: TheEconomic Impact of Current Investment Trends inWater and Wastewater Treatment Infrastructure (2011),available at http://www.asce.org/uploadedFiles/Infrastructure/Failure_to_Act/ASCE%20WATER%20REPORT%20FINAL.pdf.

37 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Climate Impactsin the Southwest, available at http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/impacts-adaptation/southwest.html(last accessed October 2014).

38 Trinity River Authority of Texas, Drought impacts bothwater and wastewater treatment systems, Press release,February 1, 2012, available at http://www.trinityra.org/

pressrelease.htm?id=137.

39 Ibid.

40 Toby R. Ault and others, Assessing the Risk of PersistentDrought Using Climate Model Simulations andPaleoclimate Data,Journal of Climate27 (2014):75297549, available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00282.1.

41 James M. Tierney, Falling Far Behind: Report on the NewYork City Department of Environmental ProtectionsProgram to Upgrade Waste Water Treatment PlantsWithin the New York City Watershed (Albany, NY: Officeof the New York State Attorney General, 2000), availableat http://www.ag.ny.gov/sites/default/files/pdfs/bureaus/environmental/water_treatment.pdf.

42 New York City Water Board, New York City FY2014

Water and Wastewater Rate Report (2013), available athttp://www.nyc.gov/html/nycwaterboard/pdf/blue_book/bluebook_2014.pdf.

43 Governors Office of Storm Recovery, New York Rising:20122014 (2014), available athttp://stormrecovery.ny.gov/sites/default/files/uploads/gosr_report_letter_full_high.pdf; Climate Central, Sewage Overflows fromHurricane Sandy.

44 New York City Water Board, New York City FY2014Water and Wastewater Rate Report.

45 Robert A. Kull and Robert W. Burchell, New Jersey StateDevelopment and Redevelopment Plan: InfrastructureNeeds Assessment (Trenton, NJ: New Jersey StatePlanning Commission, 2009), available at http://www.nj.gov/state/planning/docs/dfplan_ina.pdf, p. 19.

46 Ibid.; Tom Johnson, NJ Allocates Over $1 Billion in Loansfor Sandy-Related Water, Sewer Repairs, NJ Spotlight,August 15, 2014, available at http://www.njspotlight.

com/stories/14/08/14/nj-allocates-over-1-billion-in-loans-for-sandy-related-water-sewer-repairs/.

47 Jeroen Aerts, Wouter Botzen, and Hans de Moel, CostEstimates for Flood Resilience and Protection Strategiesin Ne w York City,Annals of the New York Academy ofScience (2013), available at http://www.ivm.vu.nl/en/Images/NYC_cost_estimates_Aerts_tcm53-342235.pdf.

48 Disaster Relief Appropriations Act, Public Law 113-2, 113thCong., 2d sess. (January 29, 2013); U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency, EPA to Award Over a Half Billion inFunding to Areas Impacted by Hurricane Sandy in NewJersey and New York, Press release, May 2, 2013,available at http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/d0cf6618525a9efb85257359003fb69d/8a24127bddd6392785257b5f0050595f!OpenDocument.

49 Johnson, NJ Allocates Over $1 Billion in Loans for

Sandy-Related Water, Sewer Repairs.

50 Michael Schwirtz, Sewage Flows After Storm ExposeFlaws in System, The New York Times, November 29,2012, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/30/nyregion/sewage-flows-after-hurricane-sandy-exposing-flaws-in-system.html?pagewanted=all.

51 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Combined SewerOverflows FAQs, available at http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/npdes/cso/CSO-FAQs.cfm(last accessedOctober 2014).

52 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, CoastalWatershed Factsheets - The Beach and Your CoastalWatershed, April 1998, available at http://water.epa.gov/type/oceb/fact2.cfm.

53 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,

State of the Coast: A Closed Beach Affects LocalEconomies, available at http://stateofthecoast.noaa.gov/coastal_economy/beacheconomics.html(lastaccessed October 2014).

54 Sharyl J. M. Rabinovici and others, Economic and HealthRisk Trade-Offs of Swim Closures at a Lake M ichiganBeach, Environmental Science and Technology38 (10)(2004): 27372742.

55 Mark Dorfman and Angela Haren, Testing the Waters(New York: Natural Resources Defense Council, 2013),available at http://www.nrdc.org/water/oceans/ttw/ttw2013.pdf.

56 John Tibbetts, Combined Sewer Systems: Down, Dirty,and Out of Date, Environmental Health Perspectives113(7) (2005): A464A467, available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1257666/.

57 Suzan Given, Linwood H. Pendleton, and Alexandria B.Boehm, Regional Public Health Cost Estimates ofContaminated Coastal Waters: A Case Study ofGastroenteritis at S outhern California Beaches,Environmental Science and Technology40 (16) (2006):48514858.
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58 Natural Resources Defense Council, Testing the Waters2014: Executive Summary, available athttp://www.nrdc.org/water/oceans/ttw/executive-summary.asp#note1(last accessed October 2014).

59 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Sanitary SewerOverflows and Peak Flows.

60 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Why ControlSanitary Sewer Overflows?, available at http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/npdes/sso/upload/sso_casestudy_control.pdf(last accessed October 2014).

61 John Manuel, In Katrinas Wake,Environmental HealthPerspectives114 (1) (2006): A32A39, available athttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1332683/.

62 Ibid.

63 Ibid.

64 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, A ScreeningAssessment of the Potential Impacts of Climate Changeon Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) Mitigation in theGreat Lakes and New England Regions (2008), availableat http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=188306.

65 Ibid.

66 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Sanitary Sewer

Overflows and Peak Flows.

67 U.S. Global Change Research Program, NationalClimate Assessment: Extreme Weather.

68 Stephen Estes-Smargiassi, MWRAs PragmaticApproach to Climate Change Adaptation (Boston:Massachusetts Water Resources Authority, 2014),available at http://www.mwra.com/monthly/wac/presentations/2014/030714-climatechange.pdf.

69 Ibid.

70 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,Climate: Vulnerability of Our Nations Coasts to SeaLevel Rise, available athttp://stateofthecoast.noaa.gov/vulnerability/welcome.html(last accessed October 2014).

71 Erin ONeill, $260M in federal post-Sandy aid awarded

to N.J.s largest wastewater treatment plant, The NewarkStar-Ledger, August 24, 2014, available athttp://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2014/08/260m_in_federal_post-sandy_aid_awarded_to_njs_largest_wastewater_treatment_plant.html.

72 Ibid.

73 State of New Jersey Board of Public Utilities, EnergyResilience Bank, available at http://www.state.nj.us/bpu/commercial/erb/(last accessed October 2014).

74 State of New Jersey Board of Public Utilities, New JerseyEnergy Resilience Bank Grant and Loan FinancingProgram Guide (2014), available at http://www.state.nj.us/bpu/pdf/erb/FINAL%20DRAFT%20-%20ERB%20Program%20Guide%208%2020%2014.pdf.

75 Governors Office of Storm Recovery, Wastewater and

Solid Water Treatment Infrastructure, available athttp://stormrecovery.ny.gov/Wastewater-Solid-Water-Treatment-Infrastructure(last accessed October 2014).

76 Office of New York Gov. Andrew M. Cuomo, GovernorCuomo Seeks Federal Approval of NY State Plans forHousing and Business Storm Recovery Programs, Pressrelease, March 12, 2013, available at https://www.governor.ny.gov/press/03122013cuomo-seeks-federal-nys-housing-bus-storm-recovery.

77 Governors Office of Storm Recovery, Wastewater andSolid Water Treatment Infrastructure.

78 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Clean WaterState Revolving Fund, available athttp://water.epa.gov/grants_funding/cwsrf/cwsrf_index.cfm(lastaccessed October 2014).

79 For more information on ways to use the CWSRF toincrease the resilience of wastewater systems, see BenChou, Becky Hammer, and Larry Levine, Using StateRevolving Funds to Build Climate-Resilient Communities

(New York: National Resources D efense Council, 2014),available at http://www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/files/state-revolving-funds-IP.pdf.

80 Philadelphia Water Department, Amended GreenCities, Clean Waters: The City of Philadelphias Programfor Combined Sewer Overflow Control (2011), availableat http://www.phillywatersheds.org/doc/GCCW_AmendedJune2011_LOWRES-web.pdf.

81 Randy Rodgers, Philadelphia Plans for Green City,Clean Water, Sustainable City Network, May 15, 2014,available at http://www.sustainablecitynetwork.com/topic_channels/water/article_b296460c-8caa-11e0-93e0-001a4bcf6878.html; Stephen C. Maakestad andHatch Mott MacDonald, Green Stormwater InfrastructureDesign: Lessons Learned in Philadelphia (Alexandria,VA: Water Environment Federation, 2013), available athttp://assets.conferencespot.org/fileserver/file/258770/

filename/a186_3.pdf.

82 Larry Levine, Philadelphia Gains Approval of LandmarkGreen Infrastructure Plan, a Model for Smart WaterPractices Nationwide, NRDC Switchboard, June 1 , 2011,available at http://switchboard.nrdc.org/blogs/llevine/philadelphia_gains_state_appro.html.

83 Philadelphia Water Department, Amended GreenCities, Clean Waters.

84 Ibid., p. 20.

85 Environmental Science Associates, Analysis of the Costsand Benefits of Using Tidal Marsh R estoration as a SeaLevel Rise Adaptation Strategy in San Francisco Bay(2013), available athttp://thebayinstitute.blob.core.windows.net/assets/FINAL%20D211228.00%20Cost%20and%20Benefits%20of%20Marshes%20022813.pdf.

86 Ibid.

87 Chris Palmer, Bay Area environmental groups proposeshybrid levees for bay, San Jose Mercury News, February23, 2013, available at http://www.mercurynews.com/science/ci_22651840/bay-area-environmental-group-proposes-hybrid-levees-bay.

88 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, ReducingStormwater Costs through Low Impact Development(LID) Strategies and Practices (2007), available at http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/green/upload/2008_01_02_NPS_lid_costs07uments_reducingstormwatercosts-2.pdf.

89 Michael Conathan, Jeffrey Buchanan, and Shiva Polefka,The Economic Case for Restoring Coastal Ecosystems(Washington: Center for American Progress, 2014),available at http://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/

uploads/2014/04/CoastalRestoration_report2.pdf.

90 Duhigg, As Sewers Fill, Waste Poisons Waterways.

91 Ibid.

92 Becky Moylan, Investment in Water Infrastructure Works,ASCE Roundup, September 12, 2014, available at http://blogs.asce.org/investment-in-water-infrastructure-works/.
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