8/12/2019 Ria PSCI 330 Paper

1/10

Shroff 1

Ria Shroff

PSCI 330

Professor Stroup

May 4, 2009

International Involvement in Bolivias Alternative Development Program

Once heralded for its successful cocaplant eradication pro!ra", #oli$ia is under attac%

a!ain for the increasin! production of cocaine and the relati$e failure of the &lternati$e

'e$elop"ent Pro!ra"s initiated to (ean the country off its dependence on coca) *his attac%

co"es pri"arily fro" the +nited States in ter"s of econo"ic, political and "ilitary pressure on

the #oli$ian !o$ern"ent to eradicate coca plantations, (ithout fully considerin! the suse-uent

ra"ifications that arise fro" the asence of lon!ter" de$elop"ent !oals) Continuous political

uphea$al, an unco"pro"isin! and ri!id !eo!raphy, the e"eddedness of coca as an intrinsic part

of &ndean and #oli$ian culture and international aid donors. do"estic policies ha$e constrained

oth local coca supply reduction as (ell as national de$elop"ent pro!ra"s in #oli$ia) In such a

situation, the international co""unity can definitely play an i"portant role in pullin! #oli$ia out

of its uni-ue .po$erty trap. y redesi!nin! aid pac%a!es, pro$idin! suitale "ar%ets for the

sustitute crops !ro(n as part of the &lternati$e 'e$elop"ent pro!ra", focusin! on curin! the

de"and for cocaine and stren!thenin! local institutions independent of coca eradication

pro!ra"s as a sho( of faith)

&ccordin! to a Con!ressional report, /lon!ter" social ine-uities and econo"ic and

political unrest contriute to cocas do"inant role in the econo"y of #oli$ia)1*he (idespread

1 Office of *echnolo!y &ssess"ent, Con!ress of the +nited States) &lternati$e Coca Reduction Strate!ies in the

8/12/2019 Ria PSCI 330 Paper

2/10

Shroff 2

presence of coca crops in #oli$ia occurred as a result of internal as (ell as eternal forces that

necessitated a shift in the do"inant industry and in the !loal de"and for dru!s) Paula Mendoa

eplains that the closin! of "ines and the econo"ic crisis at the national le$el5and suse-uent

a!rarian refor"s in 19635led to a "ass "i!ration fro" the rural areas to the Chapare pro$ince

in #oli$ia, a re!ion historically reno(ned for !ro(in! coca)2*he !o$ern"ent pro$ided titles to

s"all parcels of land in order to pro$ide e"ploy"ent for the "i!ratory population) Since the

land and cli"ate in the lo(lands of Chapare (as suitale to the sparse de"ands of the coca crop,

far"ers e!an culti$atin! coca in lar!e a"ounts) *he increase in the international de"and for

cocaine, particularly fro" the +nited States in the 1970s, led to a spiralin! de"and for cocaine,

and y 1976, coca production "ade up 88 of a!ricultural production in the Chapare re!ion)3

:hat "ust e re"e"ered is that the production of coca on such a lar!e scale (as ein!

underta%en y far"ers elon!in! to a culture (here the coca leaf (as an intrinsic part of the

culture)4&ny efforts to redesi!n #oli$ia.s econo"y and its path to de$elop"ent "ust consider

the position of coca in the lar!er sche"e of thin!s)

;or the di$erse indi!enous ethnicities in #oli$ia, culti$atin! coca plays an i"portant role

in estalishin! !ender identities, uildin! co""unal trust and relationships i"portant to the

s"ooth functionin! of social net(or%s in rural areas and solidifyin! connections that are

necessary for stren!thenin! institutions that can5and should5play a role in the distriution of

&ndean Re!ion) :ashin!ton, ')C +)S) ol)23, 2006) 174176

4 >ie%e &nderson) Social Mo$e"ents and Political Strate!ies Cocaleros in #oli$ia) Paper deli$ered at

conference /Social Mo$e"ents andBin post Colonial 'ispossession, 'e$elop"ent and Resistance in the

8/12/2019 Ria PSCI 330 Paper

3/10

Shroff 3

de$elop"ent aid and infrastructure) &lison ?) Speddin! eplains that one of the "ost consistent

Dand po(erfulE clai"s "ade in opposition to the dri$e a!ainst coca culti$ation in #oli$ia is that

the che(in! of the leaf is deeply e"edded in &ndean cultural eliefs and socioecono"ic

practices)6;or the indi!enous peasant co""unities in rural #oli$ia, coca production is lin%ed to

the estalish"ent and le!iti"acy of infor"al institutions Dsuch as a handsha%e or a $eral

contractE, e"ploy"ent opportunities for (o"en, sustained econo"ic !ro(th for "ultiple

!enerations and the construction of co""unity spirit in the for" of waykaor !roup co"petitions

(here each coca far" tries to de"onstrate its superiority)8In short, the culti$ation, har$est and

"ar%etin! of coca lea$es is a Fsi"ultaneous econo"ic, social and cultural underta%in! central to

e$eryday life)))it is a .total social fact., and as such, central to the life of peasantsF in #oli$ia)G;or

these campesinosD(or%ers fro" the countrysideE, the historical and cultural si!nificance of the

coca leaf is far "ore superior and hea$ily distanced fro" the creation of the ille!al dru! cocaine)

Ho(e$er, the de"ands of the international dru! trade ha$e led to a !reater use of the coca leaf in

creatin! cocaine than in its traditional uses) &ccordin! to =o &nn Aa(ell, approi"ately 800,

000 people li$e off cocaine production of those, 460,000 are coca !ro(ers and 160,000 produce

the cocaine paste)7 Hence, any effort to refor" the coca industry needs to consider the difference

et(een the production of coca and the production of cocaine, and its i"pact on the li$elihood of

these rural co""unities) e$ertheless, due to (ea% leadership and unstale "ilitary coups in the

1970s, the unions of coca far"ers assu"ed the role of local !o$ern"ent, assi!nin! land,

resol$in! disputes and underta%in! co""unity pro@ects such as uildin! schools or roads9,

6 &lison ?) Speddin!) The Coca Field as a Total Social Fact) Coca, Cocaine and the #oli$ian Reality) d)Madeline #arara ?Jons and Harry Sanaria) State +ni$ersity of e( Kor% Press, 199G) 4G)

8 Speddin! 68

G Speddin! 4G

7 =o &nn Aa(ell, *he &ddicted cono"ies) Report on the &"ericas) >ol) 22, )8) Mach 8, 1979 36)

9 ;arthin! and Aohl 178

8/12/2019 Ria PSCI 330 Paper

4/10

Shroff 4

leadin! to a further di$ide et(een the policies of the central !o$ern"ent and the realities of

coca far"in!) &s a result, (hen the +nited States e!an its (ar on dru!s5fuelled y the risin!

use of cocaine a"on! the &"erican population5and approached the #oli$ian !o$ern"ent (ith

plans for controlled eradication of coca fields, the elitecontrolled state a!reed to participate in

such actions in return for de$elop"ent aid) *his (as the start of the &lternati$e 'e$elop"ent

pro!ra" in #oli$ia, (hose "ission (as to eradicate coca far"in! and sustitute it (ith other

crops) *he t(entieth special session of the

8/12/2019 Ria PSCI 330 Paper

5/10

Shroff 6

1972E, the +S and #oli$ia estalished "echanis"s to paralye and eli"inate the supply of

cocaine, and reco!nied that the sustitution of another crop (ould reduce the illicit use of the

plant)12 Ho(e$er, this assu"ption ne!ates the fact that the licit use of the plantin traditional

rituals, "edicines and healin! potions and other custo"s(ould also e affected y this

eradication) *he second sta!e e!an in 1973 at a ti"e of political instaility and the asence of

le!al "echanis"s to chec% the !ro(th of dru! traffic%in! in the re!ion)13*his, coupled (ith the

international de"and, created the perfect stor" of ele"ents that propelled the production of coca

crops to e used for cocaine) *he +nited ations and the +)S)

8/12/2019 Ria PSCI 330 Paper

6/10

Shroff 8

infrastructure and a lac% of +)S) and international support for #oli$ia.s entry into the !loal

"ar%et pro$ed to e ostacles in the success of the &lternati$e 'e$elop"ent pro!ra")

*here (ere certain li"itations to &' ri!ht fro" the start that could ha$e een the result of

a "isunderstandin! of ho( coca!ro(in! co""unities in Chapare and the Kun!as $alley

functioned) oa" ?upu eplains that

*he pro!ra" si!ned a!ree"ents (ith co""unities rather than indi$iduals to reduce coca

production in return for infrastructure pro@ects, a!ricultural credits and a .technical

pac%a!e. of inputs to help culti$ate ne( $arieties of coffee) #ut since certain ettersuited

re!ions of the Kun!as (ere already culti$atin! $ast a"ounts of coffee, these co""unities

(ere the ones "ost interested in participatin! in &!royun!as) *he pro@ect therefore

eca"e concentrated in areas that already produced far less coca and (here far"ers (ere

already far etter off than those (here coca (as a pri"ary source of susistence) 18

*herefore, (hile the pro@ect produced sustantial results in ter"s of sho(in! re!ions (here crop

sustitution too% place, it (as "ost proaly constrained y the pressure to produce results in the

short ter" in order to "aintain cash inflo(s fro" the +nited ations in order to continue the

pro@ect) &s far as the &!royun!as pro@ect (as concerned, choosin! coffeean eistin! #oli$ian

cash cropas the sustitute (as a failure ecause of Fthe narro( $ision of the pro@ect desi!n and

the asence of ade-uate "ar%et appraisal and infrastructure de$elop"ent)F 1G&!royun!as had

already introduced hi!hyieldin! strains of coffee eans in Colo"ia and #rail (ith cli"ates

etter suited to coffee culti$ation, and the additional ependiture needed to pro$ide the technical

18 oa" ?upu) *o(ards a e( &rticulation of &lternati$e 'e$elop"ent ?essons fro" Coca Supply

Reduction in #oli$ia) 'e$elop"ent Policy Re$ie() >ol)22, )4, 2004) 407

1G

8/12/2019 Ria PSCI 330 Paper

7/10

Shroff G

assistance to #oli$ian far"ers to "a%e their lands suitale to !ro(in! coffee contriuted to a

!ro(in! feelin! of failure and loss of hope a"on! the #oli$ian far"ers) M) #arara ?Jons

shares that the population of Chapare and the Kun!as re!ion elie$ed that the "o$e to introduce

.alternati$e. crops (as, and (ould continue to e, a failure ecause althou!h it (as concei$ed as

a .$oluntary. pro!ra", the peasants $ie(ed it as a serious threat to their li$elihood, and "ore

i"portantly to their cultures and traditions)

8/12/2019 Ria PSCI 330 Paper

8/10

Shroff 7

that (ould ha$e a de"and o$erseas) & lar!e portion of de$elop"ent aid, therefore, should e

di$erted fro" current eradication efforts in order to construct road(ays and stron! transport

routes that !i$e #oli$ia access to Chiles ports) #y doin! so, the Tspecialty crops produced in

lieu of coca can ha$e reach their "ar%ets in a "ore efficient fashion) &t the sa"e ti"e, #oli$ia

faces tou!h co"petition fro" countries such as Colo"ia and #rail (ho (ould produce si"ilar

crops and ha$e access to a roader eport ase) If the :orld *rade Or!aniation (ould

encoura!e predo"inantly :estern donor countries to open up their "ar%ets to countries (ho are

tryin! to decrease their dependency on coca, it "i!ht e possile to achie$e the !oals of the

&lternati$e 'e$elop"ent pro!ra")

&s a final point, it "ust e re"e"ered that the onus on startin! the &lternati$e

'e$elop"ent pro!ra" ca"e fro" the +nited States in fear of the increasin! cocaine use a"on!

its people) :hile the !oal of reducin! cocaine production is eneficial to society in !eneral, there

should e sufficient efforts on the part of the +)S)5and other countries affected y cocaine use

5to "onitor the dru! trade and to i"pose such strin!ent penalties and punish"ents on the

consu"ption and supply of cocaine that the de"and for the dru! (ould reduce, therey

decreasin! the de"and for the production of coca fro" #oli$ian far"ers)

*he uropean +nion has also een in$ol$ed in #oli$ias de$elop"ent !oals and has een

(or%in! throu!h the &ssistance to the Chapare &lternati$e 'e$elop"ent Strate!y5PR&'&C

5to stren!then local ad"inistrati$e capacity and access to credit for poor far"ers)19;arthin! and

Aohl point out the uni-ueness of the + pro!ra" in its (illin!ness to (or% (ith already

estalished local or!aniations and offer assistance (ithout de"andin! coca eradication)20*he

19 ;arthin! and Aohl 191

20 iid

8/12/2019 Ria PSCI 330 Paper

9/10

Shroff 9

pre$alent anti+)S) senti"ent eistin! in #oli$ia could e countered if the +)S) also adopts such

a policy and "a%es it a point to interact (ith the coca far"ers (hose fields are ein! eradicated

in order to find a solution that (ould (or% for all parties concerned)

*o conclude, the &lternati$e 'e$elop"ent pro!ra" in #oli$ia faces pressure fro"

"ultiple !roups, oth (ithin #oli$ia and on the (orld sta!e) *he !oals of the pro!ra" "ust e

refocused ta%in! into consideration the presence of the coca leaf in #oli$ian culture and oth the

#oli$ian as (ell as forei!n donor !o$ern"ents "ust "a%e it a point to en!a!e (ith the local

far"ers and campesinounions and syndicates in order to estalish a relationship of trust fro"

(hich to ase their de$elop"ent efforts)

#ilio!raphy

&nderson, >ie%e) Social Mo$e"ents and Political Strate!ies Cocaleros in #oli$ia) Paper

deli$ered at conference /Social Mo$e"ents andBin post Colonial 'ispossession, 'e$elop"entand Resistance in the

8/12/2019 Ria PSCI 330 Paper

10/10

Shroff 10

Co""on 'efinition, 1997) LhttpBB((()cicad)oas)or!B'esarrollo&lternati$oBol) 22, )8) Mach 8, 1979)

?ana, ol)22, )4, 2004)

Mendoa, Paula) & Study of So"e of the Challen!es of the &lternati$e 'e$elop"ent Pro!ra"in #oli$ia) *hesis) >ir!inia Polytechnic Institute and State +ni$ersity, 2004)

Office of *echnolo!y &ssess"ent, Con!ress of the +nited States) &lternati$e Coca Reduction

Strate!ies in the &ndean Re!ion) :ashin!ton, ')C +)S)