RHETORICAL THEORY ANDTHE CARLISLE INDIAN SCHOOL: A …
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RHETORICAL THEORY ANDTHE CARLISLE INDIAN SCHOOL: CONSIDERATION OF RICHARD HENRY PRATT AND HIS PEDAGOGY
A Thesis
Presented to
the Faculty of the Caudill College of Humanities
Morehead State University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Arts
by
Deborah J. Oesch
November23, 1996
Accepted by the faculty of the Caudill College of Humanities, Morehead State University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree.
Master's Committee:
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RHETORICAL TiiEORY ANDTiiE CARLISLE INDIAN SCHOOL: CONSIDERATION OF RICHARD HENRY PRATT ANO HIS PEDAGOGY
Deborah J. Oesch, M.A. Morehead State University, 1996
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In recent years, NativeAmerican educational issues have come to the
·~ forefront of instructional concerns .. Numerous theorists debate the diverse
learning styles and cultural incompatibility of Native American students
mainstreamed into traditional "Americanized" classrooms. These assertions
are often supported by referencing the histories of Native American education,
claiming that Nineteenth Century schooling was academically inadequate and
culturally threatening to Native American students. While such observations are
helpful, they provide only superficial insights into the structuring and development
ofthese systems, Therefore, extensive consideration ofthosecontrolllng these
systems and their motivations is essential to a reflexive evaluation of previous
Native American educational efforts. Thus, a systematic examination of one
Native American educator, Richard Henry Pratt, and the ideologies influencing
his work, will provide valuable insights into the multiplicity offactors effecting
early, Native American school systems.
Supporting evidence for th is project includes numerous historical over
views, government documents, educational research, Pratt's personal publica
tions and studies of prevalent nineteenth-century ideologies. Historical docu
mentation by Jon Reyhner and Jeanne Eder is supplemented by readings from a
variety of other sources including the recently published work of David Wallace
Adams. In addition, governmental documentation of schooling regulations and
Bureau of Indian Affairs' conference minutes provide insightful clues to the
curricular requirements and instructional regulations governing Pratt's school, the
Carlisle Indian School. Due to a dearth of primary sources, insights into Pratt's
ideology have been gleaned from consideration of dominant rhetorical, theoreti
cal and educational movements of his age.
This thesis traces the inception of the Native American boarding school
system back to Richard Henry Pratt and his founding of the Carlisle Indian
School in 1879. Pratt's goal was to proyi9e Native American children with the
skills needed to become assimilated into "Americanized" society. He proposed
a half-day work, half-day school schedule to impart vocational and academic
trainingwhile instilling practical habits of learning. Pratt's program succeeded
because it complemented the United States government's deculturation agenda
while catering to the leading ideologies of the late 1800s.
A more probing consideration of factors which may have influenced
Pratt's pedagogy begins in Chapter One. This chapter examines two rhetorical
theories which were prevalent in nineteenth-century American schools-Scottish
Common Sense Realism and Current Traditionalism. This chapter examines
each rhetoric and Its major figures while speculating aboutthe factors implicated
in the rise and eventual fall of each. Chapter Two moves into a focused consid
eration of Pratt's military and educational careerwilh special emi;ihasis placed
on the founding, cu~culardevelopments, and eventual closure ofthe Carlble '
School. The concluding chapter compares materials from chapters one and
two, demonstrating ties between nineteenth-century rhetorical movements and
Pratt's educational practices. These correlations support the argument that
Pratt's instructional approaches were not haphazardly construed; but, rather,
were consistent With the rhetorical, educational and ideological climates of his day.
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Introduction
In the triumph and turmoil of the post-Civil War period, the age old
"Indian Problem" came to the foreground of United States governmental
concerns. After more than a century of conflict with Native American tribes, a
new approach to quelling hostilities was proposed-civilize the savages. The
plan for civilization was twofold: deculturate the tribes and assimilate them
into mainstream, white society. Americanized education was exalted .as the
vehicle of change that would expedite assimilation efforts. The U.S. Board of
Indian Commissioners reported:
As a savage we cannot tolerate [the Indian] any more than as a
half-civilized parasite, wanderer, or vagabond. The only
alternative left is to fit him by education for civilized life. The
Indian, though a simple child of nature with mental faculties
dwarfed and shriveled, while groping his way for generations in
the darkness of barbarism, already sees the importance of
education. (Reyhner His(qry of Indian Education 194)
Thus, the pursuit of systemized, Native American educational programs
began. In 1878, Richard Henry Pratt proposed a boarding school experiment
which complimented the government's deculturation agenda. Later heralded
as the "Red Man's Moses," Pratt emerged as the primary voice on Native
American educational issues from the late 1880's until his retirement in 1903.
The Carlisle Indian School became the embodiment of his proposal
and served as a model for government boarding school programs. Founded
on November 1, 1879, the Carlisle School was the first off"reservation,
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government funded boarding school for Native American children. Officials
viewed Carlisle as an "educational experiment" to determine the educability
of Native Americans when removed from tribal influences.
Pratt's timely educational proposal met the deman~s of multiple
constituencies. Philanthropists perceived efforts to educate Native Americans
as the key to transforming "noble savages" into "civilized," productive, United
States citizens. Military officials also were growing increasingly concerned
over expenses incurred battling plains tribes, while politicians felt a renewed
pressure from their supporters to address the continuing "Indian Problem."
Education, specifically Pratt's boarding school project, appeared to be the
long sought solution to each of these concerns.
Educators promised that academic instruction and industrial training
would dramatically metamorphose Native American children into
accomplished farmers and factory workers, eager to participate in the body
politic--all for a fraction of the price needed to maintain battle wearied U. S.
military troops. Pratt's theory that children could be more quickly diverted
from tribal ways when removed from family influences distinguished him from
other educators. Pratt's charismatic fervor and widespread philanthropic
support brought his proposal to the forefront of the assimilation agenda.
Regrettably, Native Americans were not consulted regarding the
government's grand educational scheme. This disregard for Native
Americans' rights was consistently demonstrated throughout the nineteenth
century and beyond. Thousands of Native Americans had been killed in the
Indian Wars while others were forced westward as expansionists relentlessly
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pressed toward the Pacific Coast. Settlers and prospectors proclaimed it as
their "Manifest Destiny" to seize Indian territories, imposing Anglo cultural and
religious practices on Native Americans. In the midst of this societal
upheaval, many tribes became the victims of broken treaties and were
interred on reservations. Reservated Native Americans depended on the
government for food due to the virtual extinction of the buffalo and the seizure
of century old hunting grounds, forever changing their nomadic patterns of life.
It was to these conquered_, starving, disease ridden peoples that Pratt
made his initial student recruitment campaign. Pratt visited the Sioux at the
Rosebud and Pine Ridge Reservations meeting with Spotted Tail and other
tribal leaders. He claimed, "If you, yourself, had education you might be
owning the Black Hills ... Because you were not educated, these mountains,
valleys, and streams have passed from you" (Pratt Battlefield 223). As a
result, eighty-four Sioux children were among the one hundred and thirty-six
pupils enrolled in Carlisle's inaugural class (228). As many as 1,200 students
attended the Carlisle Indian School each year until its closure in 1917.
While numerous educators and historians have discussed the plight of
Native American educational programs in the 1800s, few have paid
systematic attention to the ideologies of school reformers like Pratt. This
project proposes to explore Pratt's "ideology" to gain insight into his
"understanding and motivation" (Kaestle 124). The term "ideology" will be
relegated to uses in keeping with Clifford Geertz's article "Ideology as a
Cultural System." He states that ideologies "are, most distinctly, maps of
problematic reality and matrices for the creation of collective conscience" (64).
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Thus, all people display ideological thinking. This may be manifested through
the complexities of evolving governmental legislation, printed personal
statements or the "unuttered social beliefs implicit in individuals' actions"
(Kaestle 125). Geertz clarified his point by noting, "Whether, in any
particular case, the [ideological] map is accurate or the conscience creditable
is a separate question" (64). Therefore, comments regarding Pratt's ideology
will generally be limited to critiques of his compatibility with nineteenth
century paradigmatic structures rather than judgments of the impropriety of
his agenda.
Consequently, this thesis will trace Native American boarding schools
back to Pratt and the Carlisle School to examine the educational ideologies at
play that ultimately led to the failure of this "educational experiment." Some
critical questions remain: What influences led Pratt to his educational
theories? How did these influences relate to the "manifest destiny" mentality
of the 1800s? Why did Pratt's boarding school experiment appeal to such a
broad spectrum of individuals and agencies? It is the objective of this thesis
to investigate these questions. This project will examine nineteenth-century
rhetorical theories and note how these may have influenced Pratt's ideology
and his boarding school experiment. The following chapters will explore
these issues by noting correlations between major theoretical movements,
nineteenth-century socio-political transformations and Pratt's experiences as
an educator.
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Chapter One will examine two rhetorical theories which were influential
in nineteenth-century American schools--Scottish Common Sense Realism
and Current-Traditionalism. This will include consideration of corresponding
educational theories and prevalent ideologies that influenced the rise of these
rhetorics. Chapter Two will continue by tracing Pratt's military and
educational career in relation to governmental legislation regulating Native
American education. Emphasis will be placed on the founding, curricular
developments and eventual closure of the Carlisle Indian School.
The final chapter will demonstrate ties between Pratt's pedagogy and
nineteenth-century theoretical movements. Correlations will demonstrate
how his philosophy was touched by a wave of Scottish Common Sense
Realism, and his practices toppled by the flood of Current-Traditionalism.
Chapter Three will further propose that Pratt's approaches were not
haphazardly construed or formed in a vacuum. It will be demonstrated that
his views were consistent with the rhetorical, anthropological, educational and
political climates of his day. Likewise, the decline of Pratt's popularity will be
tied to shifts in the intellectual domain toward a mechanistic, assembly-line
mentality.
CHAPTER ONE
The Nature of Rhetoric
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In Writing Instruction in Nineteenth-Century American Colleges, James
A. Berlin defined rhetoric as a "social invention ... [arising] out of a time and
place, a peculiar social context, establishing for a period the conditions that
make a peculiar kind of communication possible" (1). A rhetoric is accepted
because of its compatibility with the prevailing mood and temperament of an
era and changes to accommodate social conditions. Berlin also noted that
no rhetoric is permanent nor is it embraced by all peoples at the same time.
In fact, multiple rhetorics may be in competition for societal allegiances (ix, 1).
This variance adds to the complexity of discussing the prevalent rhetorics of
any given age.
All rhetorics are based on conceptions of human nature and reality, the
knower and the known, and the nature of language. Rhetorical systems differ
in the way each defines these conceptions. Walter J. Ong termed the
conceptions underlying a rhetoric as a noetic field. Berlin described this as:
A closed system defining what can, and cannot, be known; the
nature of the knower; the nature of the relationship between the
knower, the known, and the audience; and the nature of
language (Writing 2).
Therefore, the noetic field underlying a rhetoric determines how the four
rhetorical elements--reality, writer/speaker, audience, and language-are
perceived and defined. Established ideas about the nature of these elements
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and how they work together create "the codification of the unspeakable as
well as the speakable," otherwise known as a rhetorical system.
Consequently, rhetoric is at the center of a culture's activities and is ultimately
implicated in all a !30ciety attempts (Berlin Writing 1,2). Since rhetoric also
serves as an indicator of change in a society, careful consideration of
nineteenth-century rhetorical movements will help to situate Richard Henry.
Pratt's position on Native American education and provide an explanation for
later disillusionment with his educational theories.
Nineteenth-Century Rhetorical Movements
Two major rhetorical movements contributed to the rise and eventual
fall of the Carlisle Indian School-Scottish Common Sense Realism and
Current-Traditional Rhetoric. Scottish Common Sense Realism flourished in
the United States from the beginning of the 1800s through the Civil War
period. It was influenced chiefly by the works of Hugh Blair and George
Campbell. These rhetoricians maintained a mechanistic view of reality that
was positivistic in nature. Current-Traditionalism was strongly influenced by
Scottish Common Sense Realism, but relegated its approaches to only the
most mechanistic features of Blair and Campbell. Its three major voices
included Adams Sherman Hill, Barrett Wendell and John Franklin Genung.
Prior to providing an indepth review of these two rhetorics, it seems
advantageous to examine the noetic field contributing to the successes of each.
Scottish Common Sense Realism was formed in contentious rebellion
to the English educational model which limited studies to classical courses
and catered to the well-born, well-bred elite. In the 1800s, American
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educational proponents mimicked this trend. This may be attributed to the
similarities between eighteenth-century Scotland and the fledgling American
nation. First, it is important to recognize the political correlations. Both
Scotland and the United States had a history of conflict with England, but
Scotland succumbed to English rule. The 1707 Act of Union joined Scotland
to England and yielded Scottish political and economic independence
(Horner 85). Yet, the Scots fiercely maintained their educational freedom. In
contrast to the English model of education, the Scottish approach contained a
philosophic and democratic flavor compatible with the United States' socio
political atmosphere and was consistent with views of equality and
individualism flourishing in early America.
Second, Scottish universities were rooted in a contentious concern for
democratic and humanistic values. This led to a strong liberal arts program
designed to cultivate an informed citizenry. Renowned Scottish educator
George Jardine noted that education should prepare "young men destined to
fill various and very different situations in life" (Horner 88). Unlike the
English, Scots did not exclude students seeking non-professional
occupations and encouraged even "lower class" citizens to pursue an
education. Francis Jeffrey defended this system against criticism from Dr.
Ben Johnson asserting, "I think it is a great good on the whole, because it
enables relatively large numbers of people to get ... that knowledge which
tends to liberalise and make intelligent the mass of our population" (Homer 87).
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The Scottish system attained this goal by providing mass, democratic,.
liberal education. Students at Edinburgh and Glasgow received exposure to
a variety of courses including Newtonian theories, German philosophy,
economics and agriculture. This breadth of disciplinary instruction appeared
to be indicative of Scottish schools which also were among the first to include
studies in medicine and English literature (Horner 86). 1
Much like the Scots, educators in the United States upheld democratic
values by attempting to make education available to all citizens and
incorporating liberal studies programs. 2 This approach was in keeping with a
new emphasis on the "equality of man" and a rising admiration for the "self
made man." These views were intrinsically rooted in Constitutionally based
notions of human equality and stemmed from a "republican polity" which
valued individual character, personal industry and private ownership of
property and businesses (Kaestle 128). American educators perpetuated
these beliefs in individualism and equality, owing much of their independent
philosophy to eighteenth-century Scottish influences.
Scottish educators had deftly opposed the English system of education
and defended the validity of liberal arts instruction rather than classical
specialization (Horner 87,88). The Scots also supported "rhetoric,
discussion, and writing as a way of learning in conjunction with lectures" (87).
In support of rhetorical instruction, one educator further noted, "A man may
be capable of great reflection, but if he cannot communicate it to others, it
can be of but little use" (88). Consequently, rhetoric retained a central role in
the Scottish arts program.
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Scottish Common Sense Realism
The Scottish School of Philosophy and the doctrine of "common
sense" paved the way for the coming rhetoric, appropriately termed, Scottish
Common Sense Realism. Theories of human nature developed by John
Locke and David Hume profoundly influenced the Scottish School. Locke
had argued that the human mind was a tabula rasa or blank slate and could
only be developed through experiences with the external world. In this
model, the mind was made up of two major faculties, the understanding and
the will. The understanding was thought to be cultivated through the
associative principle of ideas. Ideas were produced through reflection on
sensory experiences. Associations or connections made between new and
previous ideas, in turn, produced an understanding of things. Action was
produced when the will was compelled to act on a prior understanding. Belief
in this process was referenced as a mechanistic faculty psychology because
it noted the independent or mechanistic functions of each of the human
faculties. Later, David Hartley, author of Observations on Man, His Frame,
His Duty, and His Expectations (1749). added memory, imagination and
affection to Locke's list of faculties (Golden 9-11). This expanded list
composed the primary faculties of human nature as recognized by Scottish
philosophers.
A second epistemological theme influencing eighteenth-century
rhetoric was the doctrine of "common sense." Thomas Reid interpreted
"common sense" to be a scientific phenomenon that occurred when self
evident laws of nature were recognized and understood (Golden 11, 12).
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He felt that these phenomenons were trans-cultural, thus providing a point of
common judgment between peoples of all nations. These commonalities
were noted as "the first-born of reason" and served as the final arbiter of
disputes, especially those involving judgment and taste (12).
The rhetoric resulting from a union between the Scottish School of
philosophy and the doctrine of "common sense" first impacted the Scottish
educational system in the 1700s and, in turn, dominated American
educational trends in the 1800s. Scottish Common Sense Realism (SCSR)
was derived from this fervor for a a philosophically grounded, democratic
educational system. This rhetorical movement was uniquely compatible with
Scottish, and later American, "economic, religious and even aesthetic
experiences" (Berlin Writing 6).
SCSR was based on principles of human nature consistent with the
Empirical philosophy of Locke and Hurne, and, therefore, was in conscious
opposition to Scholasticisrn (Berlin Writing 20; Golden 9, 10). This rhetoric was
mechanical in nature locating reality in the external world (Berlin Writing 62).
Reality, in this paradigm, existed in two distinct realms: the spiritual and the
material. The spiritual was deemed most important, but transcended
discussions. This was due to the belief that perception and understanding of
the spiritual were intensely personal, between the individual and God, and
existed beyond the language needed for disclosure.
The material realm could be understood through experiences with the
world of sensory data. Reality was discovered through observation. This
placed particular faith in the senses' response to external stimuli.
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Observance of the material world, like the spiritual, was seen as a personal
endeavor and held little regard for others' observations. This perspective
maintained that ideas were produced from the literal impressions that sensory
data made on the mind (Berlin Writing 6,7). Thus, observers gained
understanding of the world by making associations between new impressions
and past ideas. This mechanistic view was derived from Locke's doctrine of
association which enabled reason to unite ideas that may otherwise seem
unrelated (Golden 9).
To communicate an idea, the writer or speaker recreated the
experience by appealing to an audience's faculties. Clearly recounting all the
details of an experience was an essential part of effective communication.
This led to an emphasis on style to reproduce the "content of experience in
the minds of the audience" (Berlin Writing 8). But instilling an understanding
of experience served no purpose without the assurance that associations
could be made with prior ideas. Hence, the rational process needed
reinforcement through an emotional appeal. Hume suggested that the
emotional appeal would initiate action by relating a past "lively idea" with a
"present impression." Promoters of SCSR consented to Hume's claim that
"reason is and ought to be the slave of the passions" by emphasizing appeals
to the senses and faculties (Golden 10). 3 Blair and Campbell thought this
was best accomplished through persuasive oratory because it addresses itself
to the total person (Berlin Writing 62).
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Accordingly, SCSR rejected the syllogism on the grounds that it did not
demonstrate or strengthen connections between ideas. The power of
inference was declared "a talent given to man by God" which made it
possible to determine if perceived associations were coherent (Golden 9).
Thus, SCSR consciously opposed Aristotelian logic and deduction in lieu of
scientific logic and induction. The experimental and highly personalized
nature of induction predicated a rejection of Aristotle's finite number of truths
as well as his concepts regarding large universal truths. In the Scottish
Common Sense Realist's perspective, truth existed beyond language, apart
from the signs used to express it (Berlin Writing 21). Rhetors swayed from
classical attempts to communicate truth in exchange for attaining a desired
response from the audience. The purpose of written or oral discourse in this
model was to appeal to experience in order to gain the assent of the will (8).
Supporters of SCSR adhered to Locke's assertion that the will was the
"principle determinant of action" (Golden 9, 10). Advocates of SCSR-most
notably Hugh Blair and George Campbell--became the controlling voices in
eighteenth-century American writing classes.
Hugh Blair
Hugh Blair (1718-1800) was the most popular SCSR rhetor of the
seventeenth century. Born in Edinburgh, Blair received his M.A. degree from
the University of Edinburgh in 1739 and accepted his first pastorate in 1742.
By 1758 his eloquent preaching ''won his appointment to the most prestigious
pulpit in Scotland, the High Church at St. Giles" (Go!den 23). Blair embarked
on his teaching career in 1760. Due to the widespread acclaim of his lecture
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series, George Ill named Blair the first Regius Professor of Rhetoric and
Belles Lettres at the University of Edinburgh in 1762 (24). The circulation of
ill-construed class notes led Blair to publish his lectures on the eve of his
retirement in 1783. His text, Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, provided
a practical guide to rhetoric. It was printed in sixty-two complete editions and
fifty-one abridgments during its first century of circulation (140).
In Lecture I, Blair recognized rhetoric as the most highly cultivated art
form in the civilized world (Blair 30). This belletristic bias appealed to the
American nationalistic desire to develop a cultural identity and foster a
"unique American poetic voice" (Berlin Writing 25). Blair's lectures also
served as the primary text for American literary studies courses through 1835
due to his inclusion of literary criticism.
On a whole, Blair sought to provide a practical means to propagate
rhetorical development. Therefore, his text proved to be more instructional
than theoretical in nature. He maintained a firm grounding in SCSR. Blair
argued that rhetorical precepts grew for the principles of human nature. He
also held to the empirically based assumption that individuals gained
understanding through observation and personal experience. Blair's primary
contribution to education--using literature to study composition--stemmed
from this assumption. Since all understanding was experientially based, a
person was unable to properly compose without first reading and
understanding the compositions of others. Blair firmly maintained that a
student who mastered the "principles of literary criticism ... [would] have
mastered the principles necessary to produce a text" (Berlin Writing 8).
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In keeping with this perspective, invention existed outside the realm of
rhetoric. Blair claimed that invention came only "from a thorough knowledge
of the subject, and profound meditation." He further stated, "I am afraid it is
beyond the power of !!rt to give any real assistance" with invention (Berlin
Writing 26). In fact, Blair offered very few suggestions to enhance the writing
process outside of his interest in style.
This obsession with style led Blair to create practical methods for
maintaining English "purity". He stressed perspicuity and precision as key
issues to attaining an eloquent style (Blair 66). The chapter entitled
"Directions for Forming a Style" covered six points on style development.
First, familiarity with the subject was essential. Since imitation was not a part
of the composing process, prior knowledge was of utmost importance. Next,
he prescribed frequent practice in composition. Third, he belabored the
necessity of being acquainted with the writings of others. Points four and five
warned students not to imitate others' style and admonished them to adapt
their style to the audiences' needs. He concluded with a warning not to
become engrossed in the issues of style "as to detract from a higher degree
of attention to the thoughts" (86).
Blair's pedagogical contributions proved to be more long standing than
his instructions on composition. He saw the educator's mission as two fold-
to discipline the student through drills and exercises and to give general
principles to which the student must strictly adhere. Consequently, Blair
emphasized memorizing and translating in the practice of speaking and
writing English because "mental discipline" could be strengthened like
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muscles through exercise (Berlin Writing 31). His insistence on frequent
writing assignments and integration of literature into composition studies
dominated approaches to teaching writing in the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries. Blair's practical teachings were profoundly influenced by
the theoretical notions of his contemporary and friend, George Campbell.
George Campbell
George Campbell (1719-1796) was born in Scotland and attended
Marischal College prior to his ordination in 1746. In 1759 Campbell became
Principal of Marischal and was elected Professor of Divinity in 1771.
Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric was more theoretically oriented than
Blair's text and profoundly influenced his contemporaries. 4 After its
publication in 1776, it reached the public through twenty-one major editions
(Golden 139, 140).
Campbell saw rhetoric as science, based on a scientific body of
principles, grounded in human nature. He recognized "certain principles in
our nature, which, when properly addressed and managed, give ... aid to
reason" (Campbell 205). Campbell labeled these four principles or faculties:
understanding, imagination, memory and passions. He asserted that an
argument must first and foremost be understood by the audience.
Information was therefore shaped by the "capacity, education, and attainment
of the hearers" (205). When describing imagination, Campbell referenced
"those qualities in ideas which gratify fancy, are vivacity, beauty, sublimity,
[and] novelty" (206). For an orator's success, the understanding and
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imagination had to tap into memory, thus making the necessary associations
to produce convictions.
Note that Campbell viewed these faculties as functioning
independently of one another. Each had to be influenced by a separate, but
equally mechanistic, real world stimuli. So, a speech could not venture into
persuasive discourse until the understanding, imagination and memory had
been tapped. "If it is fancy which bestows brilliancy on our ideas, if it is
memory which gives them stability, passion doth more, it animates them"
(210). Campbell made the passions of primary importance to his rhetoric.
Discussion of the passions comprised eight of twelve sections in Chapter VII
of the Philosophy of Rhetoric.
Campbell's mechanistic view noted real world principles which
correlated to each of the mental faculties. He then suggested which
approaches were best suited to address these various principles. This gave
rise to one of the earliest arguments for forms of discourse. "[E]xposition
appeal[ed] to the understanding; narration, description, and poetry to
imagination; argumentation to reason; and persuasion to all of these, but
especially to the emotions and the will" (Berlin Writing 7, 8). He also asserted
the value of oral delivery to better influence the emotions and will.
Knowledge was extralingual in this mechanistic faculty psychology.
Truth was discovered through careful observation and meaning was located
in the sensory experience itself. Consequently, Campbell was consciously
opposed to Aristotelian logic, focusing instead "on a 'knowledge of things'
gained by examining nature" (Berlin Writing 20). Like Blair, invention was
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taken out of Campbell's rhetoric and arrangement was barely·addressed. He
claimed that rhetoric's primary concern was "with shaping the message
discovered outside the composing process so that it had the desired effect on
the audience" (21). This "message" could be learned through sensation,
memory and imagination, as noted earlier, but could only be reproduced
through concrete language (23). This led to his emphasis on style,
sprinkling his text with terms like perspicuity, energy, and vivacity (8).
Campbell's concern then moved from conveyance and style to proper
usage. He realized usage was a matter of social custom and considered it
"under three heads: reputable use, national use, and present use" (Berlin
Writing 23). Stressing the need for grammatical purity, Campbell also
devoted a section to the woes of barbarisms, solecism and impropriety. Bliss
Perry, Professor of English at Harvard from 1907 to 1930, observed that
Campbell's "idea of correctness ... was an impossible and sterile idea; it
strove for a correctness which never existed on sea or land" (Brereton 302). s
Though not as popular as Blair, the theoretical and psychological
nature of Campbell's text laid the groundwork for the coming rhetoric,
Current-Traditionalism. In the meantime, Blair and Campbell enjoyed
widespread success from the early 1800s through the Civil War period. Their
texts were the standard curriculum in American college writing classrooms
during this time. Following the war, Samuel P. Newman and Henry Day rose
to influence. Berlin recognized these rhetoricians as "American Imitators" of
Scottish Realism because their views and practices were so closely aligned
with Blair and Campbell's. "The Americans who ventured into the field--
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primarily clergymen, since American colleges were run by clergymen-were
operating within a pervasive [SCSR] paradigm" (Berlin Writing 35). Still, their
texts escorted Scottish Realism into the classroom and played a crucial role
in secondary and college level curriculum through the 1880s.
Scottish Common Sense Realism
in America
The noetic field at the base of SCSR complimented the postbellum
academic community by accommodating prevailing societal expectations.
Historian Carl F. Kaestle states that the ideology of mid-nineteenth-century
America "centered on republicanism, Protestantism, and capitalism"--what he
terms "native, Protestant ideology" or traditional, Protestant ideology (127,
128). These three sources of belief were so "intertwined" and "mutually
supporting" that, Kaestle assents, "it [is not] useful or accurate to use them as
separate sub-headings for areas of belief and conduct" (127). Ironically,
those who opposed any feature of this tri-structural ideology were accused of
undermining the entire system and, thereby, hastily dismissed.
This "blessed trinity" undergirded ideals of individualism, societal
morality, economic prosperity, the supremacy of euroamerican culture, and
the "grandeur of American destiny" (Kaestle 128). Conformers to this
ideology were "promised meritocracy, education, material progress, and
cultural superiority" (134). Kaestle asserts that the "cosmopolitan" strain of
this movement advocated "government action to provide schooling that would
be more common, more equal, more dedicated to public policy, and therefore
more effective in creating cultural and political values of Protestantism,
Oesch 20
republicanism, and capitalism" (135). SCSR was cradled snugly beneath
these unwritten social mandates.
The interdependent nature of this ideology, and its adherence to
Hume's theory of cause and effect, contributed to a reductionist mentality.
Empirically based, this view claimed that:
From the perception of individual things, the mind readily
advances to the thought of classes of things: detecting
throughout the world resemblances and contrasts, laws and
principles, causes and effects; it begins to group things together,
to generalize, to discover qualities essential and qualities
accidental, to form, in a word, scientific conceptions of things.
(Berlin Writing 66)
Reductionism resolved that "everything is correctable" if properly submerged
in traditional, Protestant culture. Consequently, each problem that stood in
the way of America's "manifest destiny" could be resolved through governmental
intrusion, adoption of the capitalistic work ethic or a good dose of religion.
The inter-reliance of this system was due to the nature of the
supporting noetic field. This common foundation contributed to accentuating
likenesses between parties, despite their obvious differences. Kaestle traces
the correlations explaining that:
Oesch 21
Protestant Christianity favored republicanism, republicanism
emphasized individual industry, industry required private
property, private property provided opportunity, which spurred
initiative, which in turn fueled progress, which demonstrated
the superiority of Protestant culture. (134)
Therefore, citizenship, hard work, success, wealth and eternal bliss were
proclaimed as part of the chain-reaction promise of traditional, Protestant
ideology. This set a precedent for the spirit of national expansionism which
sparked the Mexican War, Indian Wars, and heated the flames that led to the
Civil War. Many deemed it "the will of God" for the United States to attain
control of all of North America. This expansionist mentality was spurred on
by a free economy and booming industrial opportunities that situated America
as the "New Canaan."
To further illustrate this point, Kaestle quotes from Thomas King's
1850 sermon honoring capitalism (railroad expansion), God and family.
Providence had another and higher use for those iron tracks and
flying trains. After the mercantile heart had devised and
secured them, God took them for his own purposes; he used
them to quicken the activity of men; to multiply cities and
villages, studded with churches, dotted with schools and filled
with happy homes and budding souls; to increase the wealth
which shall partially be devoted to his service. (133)
Ironically, the recitation of these and similar values by preachers, politicians
and educators inevitably contributed to the continued marginalization of
Oesch 22
Indians, Jews, African-Americans, poor whites and others excluded from this
paradigm. The unseen paradox beneath traditional, Protestant ideology was
the ongoing exclusion of individuals outside white, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant
circles. Even those who recognized this paradox often resorted to actions
which were culturally biased. Well-intended missionaries, philanthropists and
educators stepped in to abolish any racial barriers by stressing the equality of
all humanity, then called for mass conformity and cultural assimilation.
Supporters of de-culturalization efforts often referred to Lewis Henry
Morgan's theory of social evolution to justify rash assimilation efforts.
Morgan was the most recognized anthropologist in late nineteenth
century America. His promotion of social evolution was widely accepted "as
the general explanation of human development" (Hoxie 17). This view
described the movement of human history from "simplicity to complexity."
Morgan taught that "societal development occurred in three stages-
savagery, barbarism, and civilization--and that all people could be placed in
one of these levels" (17, 18). His theory further intimated that societies who
did not advance, would move toward extinction--thus the popularized
reference to Indians as the 'Vanishing Americans."
While social evolution did not necessitate an inequity among the races,
it placed highest value on democratic-capitalistic, "civilized" ideals. Thereby,
Native Americans, African Americans, and other members of the underclass
were prodded into educational programs designed to speed their
advancement up the social evolutionary scale. Educational supporters were
compelled to lead those from "underdeveloped" cultures on this treacherous
Oesch 23
journey, firmly believing that failed efforts would result in the literal death of
an ethnic enclave. Thus, cultural genocide was the salient aim of schools
programs for Native American, as well as African American, children.
By the early 1880s, institutions catering to the und~rclass frequently
integrated Calvin Woodward's new theories of manual education. Woodward
was a professor at Washington University in St. Louis when he published his
theories espousing the use of vocational training to instill habits of learning.
He advocated "symmetrical training" which included exposing students to
"habits of work and concentration that could be transferred to academic
areas" (Hoxie 68). In keeping with the spirit of SCSR, his approach did not
negate the value of liberal arts education. In fact, Woodward suggested that
a blending of vocational and academic instruction would enhance intellectual
endeavors by honing a student's ability to reason or use "common sense."
One could speculate that Woodward's theory also influenced programming at
Indian schools in the 1880s.
While most institutions continued to offer only vocational or academic
tracks (not both), government funded Native American boarding schools
found it beneficial to blend the two. The students attended class a portion of
the day, then participated in vocational training. During their on-the-job
training, students assisted with the daily operational needs of the institution
and produced mercantile products sold to help fund programming. This
approach to Native American education, proposed and implemented by
Richard H. Pratt, was heralded as the key to minority assimilation. Initially
implemented at the Carlisle Indian School, it became the model for over
Oesch 24
twenty-five off-reservation Native American boarding schools as well as
influencing the Hampton school which educated ex-slaves.
However, by the last decade of that century, the popularity of Pratt's
"educational experiment" was beginning to wane. Some educators who
opposed this system stated that it was unrealistic to provide minorities with
any knowledge that did not have direct correlations to manual employment.
These argued that even if these students had the capacity to learn, which
was widely disputed, they would never be accepted into white-collar positions
due to prejudices againstthe Native American peoples. One opponent of
minority education efforts noted, "If you give them so much education, they
won't want to pick crops for a living" (Cardenas 380).
As a consequence of this change, William Hailman, Commissioner of
Indian Affairs in 1894, promised to replace Pratt's holistic approach with a
vocationally oriented curriculum. He initiated this project by pledging to
replace "schoolroom pedantry" with "really vital work" (Hoxie 180). Yet this
re-evaluation of educational programming did not appear to be the result of
isolated change. On the contrary, disillusionment with Pratt's idealistic
educational views seems to have been indicative of a shift away from
traditional, Protestant ideology.
The Fall of Scottish Common Sense Realism
Following the postbellum period, American higher education started to
undergo tremendous change. "Most schools began to see themselves as
serving the needs of business and industry. Citizens demanded it, students
demanded it, and, more important, business leaders--the keepers of the
Oesch 25
funds--demanded it" (Berlin Writing 60). Colleges filled positions traditionally
held by clergymen with men of affairs. Many of these leaders responded to
the needs of a growing economy by catering to a new, scientific world view.
Thus, educators began preparing students for this life, rather than the next
(58, 59, 61 ).
These changes in socio-political conditions preceded the shift to
Current-Traditional rhetoric. While the new noetic field embraced Scottish
realism, it rejected the Scottish educational model in favor of the new German
one (Berlin Writing 59). Transition to the new model necessitated a
redefinition of purpose and new curriculum. Educators who once stressed
mental discipline and breadth of exposure to train the mental faculties now
purposed to "individualize and specialize" (Berlin Writing 60, Leupp 121).
This approach emphasized an individual's ability to succeed when
unhindered by institutional indoctrination and time-consuming course work
unrelated to occupational pursuits. The result of this new "job oriented"
education was the elective system. Under this system, students had the
liberty to select their classes, and could limit academic exposure to areas of
personal interest. This contributed to the continuing emphasis on the
"meritocracy of middle class professionalism" by combining the individualistic
insistence on excellence with the capitalistic demand for numbers (Berlin
Rhetoric 36; Writing 60).
The elective system obviously led to the re-negotiation of disciplinary
boundaries. Departments were developed to address the sciences and other
new areas of study, while the study of rhetoric was sub-divided among
Oesch 26
several courses. Berlin noted this move as the "manifestation of the
assembly line in education" (Writing 62). Oratory and persuasion were
relegated to speech classes, later to be housed in Communication
Departments. Creative writing, poetry and other appeals to the imagination
and emotion were addressed by the literature division of the English
Department. Composition courses addressed the remaining faculties,
understanding and reason (Berlin Writing 59-63).
The German model relegated Scottish Common Sense Realists'
philosophy into compartmentalized concepts. Once these theories had been
reduced to bite-size pieces, they could be antiseptically dissected. That
which was deemed excessive was discarded, leaving only a bare mechanism
to operate the intricacies of language, writer/speaker and reality. This "bare
bones" mentality was at the center of current-traditionalism.
Current-Traditional Rhetoric
Current-Traditionalism may be called the first truly American rhetoric. a
It began at Harvard in 1891 when a Board of Overseerers was asked to
evaluate the English A course. The Board concluded that Freshmen writing
skills were deplorable. These findings were printed in the Harvard Reports
and focused on the most obvious surface issues of students' texts: spelling,
grammar, usage, and even handwriting (Berlin Writing 61 ). These reports
dramatically shaped conceptions about composing and influenced the texts
of Sherman Hill, Barrett Wendell and John Franklin Genung.
Oesch 27
Current-Traditional rhetoric, like SCSR, located reality in the external
world. Thereby, reality could be discovered and validated through scientific
methodologies. In this paradigm, truth was observable and existed "prior to
the individuals perception of it" (Berlin Rhetoric 36). Therefore, current
traditionalism, often referred to as the scientistic approach, served as a
"rational and empirical appeal" to the appropriate faculty (Berlin Writing 66).
It also accepted the mechanistic faculty psychology indicative of SCSR, but
"removed ethical and all but the most elementary emotional considerations"
from the rhetorical domain (63). Consequently, this approach limited the
scope of appeals to the understanding and reason. The highest
manifestations of these appeals were found in exposition and argument.
To successfully create an expository or argumentative appeal, the
writer was to "rid self of the trappings of culture which distort perceptions" and
operate as an objective, detached observer (Berlin Writing 63). This
information, collected through inductive methods, was to be reported (not
interpreted) in a straight-forward style. Invention, in the Aristotelian sense,
did not play a role in composition because science observed rather than
invented meaning. The audience was also disregarded. An objective writer
should not be swayed from the truth to accommodate the audience. Style ·
was the key to good composition (63, 64).
To attain the correct style, a writer was to recreate an experience
through a logical appeal to the appropriate faculty--reason or understanding.
"Sign and thing were arbitrarily connected, and the writer's task [was] to
select the sign that best captured and contained the thing in-itself'
Oesch 28
(Berlin Writing 63). Therefore, "good" style could be summed up as finding
the "best" words to match an observed phenomenon.
Barrett Wendell's text, English Composition, best situated the current
traditional emphasis on style. In the Introduction, Wendell, allocated Style as
the "term which shall express the whole subject under consideration" (3). He
further noted, "As critics of style we must not concern ourselves with
substance ... and confine ourselves to considering how [the writer] has
expressed it" (x). After relegating all of composition studies to a discussion of
style, Wendell addressed the three necessary components of style. These
components included: clearness, the text must be understandable; force, the
ability to hold one's attention; and elegance, the part of style that pleases
taste (193-272). Close attention to style obviously echoed Blair and
Campbell's concern for perspicuity and precision. These issues were
consistently addressed by A. S. Hill and Genung as well as Wendell. Like the
rhetoric of their predecessors, current-traditionalists' preoccupation with style
led to the discussion of modes of discourse: narration, description, exposition,
and argument.
Ironically, current-traditionalists swayed from Scottish Realist's
infatuation with persuasion as the highest form of rhetorical art. Genung
recognized persuasion as one of the modes of discourse, then banished it
from the rhetorical domain. He claimed that persuasion necessitated "close
contact of personal presence" and presupposed a speaker in close proximity
to the audience (Berlin Writing 67). This limitation to an oral model excluded
Oesch 29
persuasion from Genung's writing based rhetoric. A. S. Hill also dismissed
the importance of persuasion by listing it as a sub-class under argument.
Meanwhile, Wendell eliminated persuasion and the rest of the modes from
his text, choosing instead to focus on the building-blocks of style: words,
sentences and paragraphs.
In keeping with the mechanistic, faculty psychology of current
traditionalism, Wendell stated that "words are the names by which good use
has agreed that we shall describe ideas" (41 ). Emulating Campbell, he noted
the woes of using Barbarisms and/or Impropriety, then stressed careful
consideration of the denotation (thing named) and connotation (thing
suggested) of words selected. Next, Wendell defined a sentence as a "series
of words so composed as to make good sense" (76). Further elaboration
included strict grammatical correctness; principles of Unity, Mass and
Cohesion; and, again, the effects of both connotations and denotations. The
paragraph was the third structural necessity addressed. Adopting Alexander
Bain's position, Wendell claimed, "A paragraph is to a sentence what a
sentence is to a word" (120). 1 He stressed maintaining central ideas,
placing key points "conspicuously," and the "unmistaken relation of one
sentence to the. next" (viii).
A. S. Hill and Genung also accentuated the essentials of word,
sentence and paragraph construction. The topic of arrangement was central
to this discussion. While invention was deemed outside of the composing
process, the inventio of management or arrangement was of primary concern
to issues of unity and coherence. a Practical teachings on arrangement
Oesch 30
were included. Students were encouraged to "select a subject, narrow a
thesis, make an outline of the essay, write the essay and edit it for
correctness" (Berlin Writing 74). This approach relied on an empirical view of
rationale to insure the logical order and progression of ideas.
Donald Steward quoted Richard Young's summarization of "the most
salient features of current-traditional rhetoric" as:
Emphasis on the composed product rather than the composing
process; the analysis of discourse into words, sentences, and
paragraphs; the classification of discourse into description,
narration, exposition, and argument; the strong concern with
usage (syntax, spelling, punctuation) and with style.
("Some History Lessons" 16)
The reductionist tendencies of current-traditionalism were not only telling of
changes in college writing classrooms, but positivistic trends in American
society. This surge of scientifically and technologically based ideologies had
a profound influence on late nineteenth-century educational systems-
including government funded, Native American educational programs.
Oesch 31
Chapter Two
This Chapter will examine Native American education from 1879 to
1918. Special emphasis will be given to Richard Henry Pratt and his
educational philosophy. This will include close attention to the political, social
and educational influenpes which affected the founding of the Carlisle Indian
School in 1879. Due to the vital roles played by Bureau of Indian Affairs
(BIA) officials, a chart listing administrations and corresponding legislation
can be found in Appendix A, page 114.
In recent years, numerous authors have examined the plight of Native
Americans attending the government boarding school system. A variety of
aspects have been considered including failed assimilation efforts and socio
political factors influencing these institutions. Notable historians such as Jon
Reyhner, Jeanne Eder, Fredrick Hoxie and Francis Leupp have addressed
key political and educational figures contributing to the Indian educational
system. Yet David Wallace Adams' text, Education for Extinction: American
Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928, published in 1995,
is one of the most comprehensive resources on off-reservation Indian
boarding schools. Wallace provides a thorough consideration of R. H. Pratt,
the inception of his Carlisle experiment and also examines anthropological
theories prevalent in the nineteenth century.
At the onset of this chapter, it is important to point out that the Carlisle
School's opening appears to have been symptomatic of the United States
Government's attempts to address the century old "Indian Problem" through
Oesch 32
"Americanized" education. Evidence suggests that Pratt's efforts were
overseen by the BIA and were heavily influenced by Congress and the
War Department.
Government Policies
In 1866, several Native American leaders meeting with Washington
officials were given a prophetic glimpse of the future. "The Great Spirit has
decreed that nothing will stop this glorious clearing of land and building of
cities all over the country" ('World Apart" 14). This proclamation, spoken by
Secretary of Interior Columbus Delano, warned of the coming wave of white
settlers. What Delano did not foresee was the trail of inhumane government
policies, broken treaties and senseless slaughter that would be left in the
wake of westward expansion.
After years of vicious fighting, the United States government turned to
a more subtle weapon--education. Peace keepers saw themselves as
trading education for land (Reyhner History of Indian Education 40).
Thereby, monies to fund Native American education were designated in
treaties and incorporated into annuities. U.S. officials guaranteed tribal
leaders that education would bring equality, prosperity and peace. Yet what
was promised to insure the salvation of a people necessitated the death of
their culture.
The tendency to view education as the solution to tribal/ U.S.
governmental conflicts evolved out of previous encounters between Christian
missionaries and Native Americans. Education was initially espoused as a
civilizing force by Catholics and Protestants. Their evangelical fervor led to
Oesch 33
the establishment of numerous schools for Native American children and
adults. Missionaries' successes contributed to the government's educational
interests. In 1819, Congress passed the Indian Civilization Act providing
partial funding to those, including church affiliates, willing to work as
educators among the Indians (Reyhner History of Indian Education 27). This
Act marked the beginning of the government's financial commitment to Native
American education.
Finances proved to be a key motivating factor. Through countless
conflicts and the loss of both Native American and Anglo lives, the
government had discovered that educating Indians was notably more cost
effective than fighting them (Dawes 29). Officials felt that "by educating the
children of these tribes in the English language ... differences would
[disappear], and civilization would [follow] at once" (Atkins "English
Language" 198). This cultural genocide was simple, cost efficient and also
more palatable to traditional, Protestant ideologies than perpetuating the
mass slaughter of the Indian Wars.
Research suggests that nineteenth-century political generosity toward
Native American education often masked the U. S. obsession with westward
expansion. Establishment of the trans-continental railroad and telegraph
seemed to testify to the taming of the vast frontier. One final obstacle
remained--"barbarous" natives. Education was promoted as the ticket to
"civility." Yet achieving U.S. "manifest destiny" necessitated not only the
civilization of, but also the relocation of eastern tribes. s
Oesch 34
The Bureau's relocation efforts were vindicated by Chief Justice John
Marshall. In 1831 Marshall had declared that Native Americans were "in a
state of pupilage; their relation to the United States resembled that of a ward
to his guardian" (Hoxie 214). Thus, the BIA emerged as counsel and
executor overseeing tribal monies, land and other peripheral issues while
continuing to serve as negotiator between the U. S. and its "wards." 10
Statesmen of that day rarely, if ever, addressed the complex
motivating factors behind the founding of reservation schools. They also
appeared to overlook conflicting agendas at work within the BIA-that is,
functioning as Indian advocate while operating under the guise of the War
Department. Yet some opposing interests apparently were noted. As a
result, in 1849, the BIA was passed from the military department to the newly
developed Department of Interior. This move made a logical division
between the BIA and the War Department, yet the two appear to have
continued close collaborations on Native American educational issues until
the early 1900s.
In 1867 the Peace Commission, appointed by President Grant, called
for what has been interpreted as "cultural, and specifically linguistic,
genocide" (Reyhner "History of Indian Education" 41 ). They suggested that
"schools should be established, which [Native American] children should be
required to attend; their barbarous dialect should be blotted out and the
English language substituted" (Atkins "English Language" 198-99). The
Peace Commission proceeded to assert:
Oesch 35
Through sameness of language is produced sameness of
sentiment and thought; custom and habits are molded and
assimilated in the same way, and thus in process of time the
differences producing trouble would gradually [be] obliterated.
(Report of the Indian Peace Commission 199)
The government's educational goal was to take native children, subsisting in
"blind ignorance, the devotees of abominable superstitions, and the victims of
idleness and thriftlessness" and assimilate them into mainstream, white
culture (Reyhner "History of Indian Education" 45). Henry Teller, Secretary of
Interior, 1882-85, declared that the Indian should be "compelled to enter our
civilization whether he will or whether he wills it not" (Hoxie 52). One official
further asserted that educators could,
Impress on the minds of the Indians the friendly and benevolent
views of the government towards them and the advantages to
them if yielded to the policy of the government and cooperating
with it in such measures as it may deem necessary for their
civilization and happiness. (Layman 123)
Consequently, BIA schools were established to teach Indian children to
speak English and to embrace the culture of their "friendly" European
conquerors.
These educational and fundamentally ideological debates were often
informed by the leading anthropological theorists of that day who "accepted
social evolution as the general explanation of human development" (Hoxie
17). Lewis Henry Morgan's categorization of Native Americans as barbarous
Oesch 36
thereby justified "the idea that cruel policies such as removal or punitive
warfare were unavoidable steps along the road to progress" (18).
Government boarding schools, like the proposed Carlisle Indian School, were
thus seen as a necessary and inevitable step for Native Americans to avoid
extinction by becoming assimilated into "a civilized society."
Due to declining birthrates among tribes and increasing concern
among humanitarians for the 'Vanishing Americans," Secretary of Interior
Carl Schurz asserted that civilizing Native Americans was "an absolute
necessity, if we mean to save them" (Hoxie 14). He also mocked earlier calls
for civilization or extermination.
The thought of exterminating a race, once the only occupant of the
soil upon which so many millions of our own people have grown
prosperous and happy, must be revolting to every American who
is not devoid of all sentiments of justice and humanity. (14)
Mounting hostilities in the west, including the annihilation of Custer's troops in
the 1876 Battle of Little Big Horn, had sparked Schurz's address of the
century old dictum, "The only good Indian is a dead Indian" (Pratt Battlefield
134). Yet his attack on extermination sympathizers also served as a ploy to
ward off War Department encroachments to regain control of the BIA. In
addition, he appeased inter-departmental hostilities by accommodating
military officials with his new Civil Service proposal. This proposal provided
positions for Army personnel in peace times by integrating them into BIA jobs
(Reyhner History of Indian Education 45).
Oesch 37
Surviving documentation suggests that the continued interaction
between these two governmental branches was mutually beneficial. The War
Department wished to maintain a heavy hand in Indian affairs, while the BIA
needed an inexpensive work force to serve in remote school settings.
Consequently, many BIA school teachers and administrators were "often
poorly trained" commissioned military men "fresh from the Indian wars"
(Hirschfelder 95). As would follow, most Native American schools were
operated on a military model and provided highly disciplined environments to
assist in the transformation from ''young savages" to civilized Indian-Americans.
The Carlisle Indian School was no exception. Pratt founded the school
in the twelfth year of his military commission. His history as a preacher, small
town businessman, and army lieutenant brought an interesting blend of
experiences to the classroom.
Richard Henry Pratt
R. H. Pratt was born in 1840 in Logansport, Indiana, bordering the
Western frontier. Following the murder of his father, Pratt left school at the
age of thirteen and worked as a "printers devil," later apprenticing as a
tinsmith to support his mother and three younger brothers (Utley ix). He also
had strong religious convictions and was ordained by the Presbyterian church.
In 1861 Pratt was drafted to serve in the Civil War. Following four
years of conflict, he settled back in Logansport with his wife, Anna Laura
Mason (Hoxie 54). After two years of financial frustrations,
twenty-seven-year-old Pratt closed his failing hardware store and joined the
army. He was commissioned to the western frontier as Second Lieutenant to
Oesch 38
the Tenth United States Calvary-a "newly organized regiment composed of
Negro enlisted men with white officers" (Utley x). Pratt's association with the
Presbyterian church may have influenced his commission. It appeared that
men with religious or philanthropic ties were most frequently placed in charge
of minority troops due to their presumed civil sensibilities.
For the next eight years Pratt served in Indian Territory and Texas
battling various Native American tribes, eventually contributing to the collapse
of the Southern Plains tribes. Pratt was involved in a number of campaigns
and smaller skirmishes, during which his superiors noted that he could deftly
organize and deploy allied Indians scouts (Hoxie 54; Utley xi). Pratt's
battlefield career ended in 1875 when he was selected to accompany
seventy-two Kiowas, Comanches and Cheyennes-ringleaders of the Red
River war fighting--to Fort Marion in St. Augustine, Florida (Fritz 164, Hoxie
54). These warriors were to be held as prisoners of war for an undetermined
period of time.
Fort Marion
The time Pratt spent with the prisoners in St. Augustine played a major
role in the development of his pedagogy. In fact, there is evidence to suggest
that Pratt's educational theories were formulated around his experiences at
Fort Marion.
After their arrival on May 21, 1875, the following months in Florida
proved to be difficult for both the prisoners and Pratt. Initially, aid was
commissioned from nearby St. Francis Barracks. These infantrymen guarded
the Native Americans and were apparently very cruel and irresponsible. The
Oesch 39
guards limited prisoners to a small, boarded-up area at the center of the fort,
kept them in shackles, and deprived them of shelter from the Florida sun "so
that their only view was up toward the sky" (R. H. Pratt Battlefield 117-18).
The tremendous heat and humidity coupled with limited movement proved to
be a hotbed for disease and depression. 11 Pratt reacted to this harsh
treatment, providing suitable quarters, U. S. military uniforms and a hair cut
for his prisoners. 12
Following this incident, Pratt seemed to become more aware of his
liberties as warden. Originally, Pratt's orders had been vague. He was
simply "instructed to oversee the incarceration of the Indians" (D. W. Adams
39). In time, he began to realize the freedom he enjoyed in the absence of
any direct supervision from military superiors. In light of the leniency
extended to him, Pratt gave in to a nagging idea-he would attempt to civilize
his savage prisoners.
First, Pratt developed a program whereby select prisoners served as
guards rather than relying on Infantry recruits. Native American guards
proved to be more dependable and much more effective with fellow
prisoners. As a result, the U. S. soldiers were soon relinquished of their
duties and replaced by fifty inmates who guarded themselves without any
"material mishaps" during their incarceration (Pratt Battlefield 118-120).
Next, Pratt instituted a training program for the prisoners following a
military regimentation. They quickly acquired the skills taught. It seemed that
the expedience with which they learned these duties may have served as a
Oesch 40
springboard for Pratt to pursue more intellectually stimulating forms of
instruction. Later, community volunteers began teaching English;
then they progressed to teaching a variety of subjects including basic math,
geography and debate. In return, the Native Americans taught archery and
demonstrated tribal culture through drawings and dance exhibitions.
Pratt expanded this prison experiment by encouraging local merchants
to employ his prisoners. He proposed that the work would help the Indians
pass their time in captivity. These "civilized warriors" polished sea pearls and
strung beads for minimal wages. Monies earned could be spent at local
shops or placed in individual savings accounts which had been opened by
Pratt to help foster the ideals of capitalism. "Soon the Indians were making
canes and bows and arrows, painting scenes of traditional Indian life, and
receiving the full amount when items were sold" (D. W. Adams 41 ).
By the second year of captivity, prisoners were hired out as orange
pickers, baggage handlers and horse trainers. Pratt taught that with
obedience came freedom and felt that the work program exhibited his
teaching. An editorial letter, printed in the New York Daily Tribune, agreed.
"captain Pratt's success is due to the fact that he has taught these Indians to
obey; that he has encouraged them to labor; he has given them, in its best
sense, a Christian school" (Pratt Battlefield 164 ).
Subsequently, the Indians, clad in neatly pressed military uniforms,
became a familiar sight to the residents of St. Augustine. Numerous tourists
also visited the fort to watch the prisoners perform well-timed military drills
and examined other aspects of Pratt's experiment. Thereby, the Native
Oesch 41
Americans not only added to the local economy, but became a notable
addition to the community. The prisoners even gained special recognition
from the Mayor for helping exterminate a raging fire which had threatened the
downtown area.
After three years of imprisonment the warriors were released to return
home. Seventeen of Pratt's "noble savages" instead chose to attend the
Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute near Old Point Comfort, Virginia
(Evelyn Adams 52). Pratt accompanied the prospective students from St
Augustine and spent three months observing and participating in the school's
programs. The Hampton Institute had been founded in 1868 by General
Samuel Chapman Armstrong, a Congregationalist minister who had also
commanded minority troops. Armstrong's intent was to provide practical
education for ex-slaves. The school was based on an "industrial model which
gave black children [an] ... 'education for life"' (Reyhner History of Indian
Education 71).
Exposure to these formal educational efforts "heightened [Pratt's]
evangelical view of his work" and bolstered his educational theory that
Indians could be taught as easily as white or black men. It is important to
note that if Pratt had "interpreted his orders narrowly, the Fort Marion affair
might have simply become an interesting but minor ineident in the story of
Indian-white relations" (D. W. Adams 39). Instead, this bold experiment
gained the attention ofa nation and situated Pratt as the "singlemost
important figure on the Indian education scene" for the next twenty-five years
(51). Plus, the programs implemented at Fort Marion became the framework
Oesch 42
around which boarding schools' curriculums would later be structured.
Indeed, Pratt's "idea" gave birth to formal, off-reservation, Native American
educational efforts.
Meanwhile, skeptics were doubtful of Pratt's progress with the
tribesmen at St. Augustine, questioning an "Indian's ability to throw off the
trappings of savagery and absorb the teachings of the white man" (Utley xii).
Others questioned the validity of a pedagogy developed while in charge of
Indian prisoners and mockingly jested that Pratt had stumbled upon his
educational theory of Native American educability (Evelyn Adams 51). 13
Pratt's Response to Opposition and Government Policies
Due to "Pratt's uncompromising nature and his tendency to adhere to
absolutes," he had "nothing but disdain for those who criticized his methods"
(D. W. Adams 51). During his service on the battlefield, Captain Pratt had
seen first hand the confusion and conflict caused by poorly implemented
government policies. He sharply criticized the "scant and lax methods" of
"politically appointed superiors, ignorant of Indians and what was best for
them" (Pratt Battlefield 179). Many other military officials shared Pratt's
disdain for the bureaucratic "Indian system." In a meeting with Pratt, General
Sherman confessed, "Most of our dangerous duty on the frontier in
suppressing Indians was forced upon us by the maladministration of these
incompetents" (240).
Pratt's text, Battlefield and Classroom, listed numerous indictments
against government officials and their sightless policies. He recalled
situations where Indian beef rations were diseased, annuities were
Oesch 43
mismanaged and funds were misappropriated. Pratt was also one of the few
men who questioned the duplicity of roles-supreme conqueror verses
benevolent guardian-played by the U. S. government.
The dual system of civil and military control over the Indians was
full of vexatious complications and lack of harmony. The army
was witness that the government through its Indian Bureau was
sadly lacking in keeping its treaty obligations, which goaded the
Indians to rebel against being reservated ... plainly portending
disaster to them, for the white man's advantage. (31)
Insightfully sympathetic to the plight of Native Americans, Pratt observed, "It
was perfectly human for the Indians to attempt to maintain their freedom [by
fighting] ... when it was the only door of escape available." He further
exonerated warring tribes and military officials by claiming, "The responsibility
for what happened was therefore not on the aggressive or resisting units, .but
in the quality of government supervision which precipitated the conflicts" (33).
Thus, blame for the injustices of the Indian Wars, removal, and reservation
system was placed on the heads of nameless faces in a self-perpetuating,
bureaucratic hierarchy.
Pratt vocally opposed all government policies that supported tribal
systems. This included hostility toward the reservation system, reservation
schools and the government's recognition of tribes as independent nations.
The "reservation system worked at 'colonizing' Indians," whereas Pratt would
work to "individualize them" (D. W. Adams 53). Therefore, he assertively
promoted the Americanization of each Indian. Pratt claimed that his efforts
Oesch 44
were rooted at the heart of the democratic system-the Declaration of
Independence. He stated that the self-evident truths, " 'that all men are
created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable
rights' ... meant nothing unless it included the native Indians" (Battlefield 268).
Pratt's plan to "include" Native Americans incorporated providing off
reservation educational opportunities with granting United States citizenship
to all tribal members. He contended that this would bring Indians into contact
with euroamericans, thus speeding their desire to "change from aboriginal to
civilized life" (Battlefield 269). Pratt's ultimate goal was to see Native Americans
scattered among white communities and assimilated into the dominant culture.
Pratt consistently condemned Indian officials for ignorantly imposing
"what they felt was best" on Native Americans. Yet, paradoxically, he never
questioned his own ability to do so. An obvious product of traditional,
Protestant ideologies, Pratt concluded that his approach provided the only
feasible answer to the vexing Indian problem. He fought desperately to see
these plans were carried out, recognizing the Carlisle classroom as his
battlefield. In a letter to President Rutherford B. Hayes, Pratt wrote:
I know I am at this time 'fighting' a greater number of 'the
enemies of civilization' than the whole of my regiment put
together, and I know further that I am fighting them with a
thousand times more hopes of success ... Here a Lieutenant
Oesch 45 .
struggles to evolve order out of a chaos of fourteen different
Indian languages! Civilization out of savagery! Cleanliness
out of filth ... and see that all the interests of his government
and the Indian as well are properly protected and served.
(Battlefield 251)
In this last, great Indian War, Pratt was coming for the children
(D. W. Adams 333).
Founding Carlisle
In the Spring of 1879 he initiated this plan by meeting with Washington
officials and requesting the use of the abandoned barracks at Carlisle,
Pennsylvania to house the school. Secretary of Interior, Carl Schurz, was
supportive of Pratt's educational experiment "to test the feasibility of
educating Indians in boarding schools located far from tribal and parental
influences" (Hirschfelder 95). Secretary Schurz worked in cooperation with
Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Ezra A. Hyat, and Secretary of War, G. W.
Mccrary, to secure use of the barracks and funding for Pratt's project. 14
Pratt's timely appeal for the establishment of an off-reservation
boarding school not only complemented Schurz's personal conviction that
Indians could be educated, it also accommodated War Department concerns.
First, it did so by placing a military officer in charge of the project. Second,
officials noted that the children's presence in the east would guarantee the
good behavior of their families (Pratt Battlefield 220). Pratt's appeal also
opened the door for the 1882 government authorization approving the use of
Oesch 46
abandoned military forts and stockades for schools, as well as the continued
commission of military officers as teachers and administrators (Hirschfelder 95).
By slightly revising the phrase "the only good Indian is a dead Indian,"
Pratt's motto for Native American education became: "Kill the Indian in him
and save the man" (R. H. Pratt "Advantages of Mingling" 35). "He [had]
convinced [his fellow countrymen] that different skin color and different
cultural background did not automatically produce an inferior being" (Utely
xvii). According to Pratt'.s memoirs, he also believed that the only differences
between Native Americans and whites were the civilizing forces that he felt
were innate to education.
Further, Pratt claimed that complete assimilation of Native American
children was only possible if they were devoid of tribal influences and
"environed ... in the best things of our civilization" (R. H. Pratt Battlefield
213). At the 1883 Baptist World Convention the pulpit chairman jokingly
noted that although Pratt was not Baptist, "In Indian matters he is a good
enough Baptist for us to listen to." Pratt, an ordained Presbyterian, began by
replying, "In Indian civilization I am a Baptist, because I believe in immersing
the Indians in our culture and when we get them under, holding them there
until they are thoroughly soaked" (335). He set out determined to accomplish
this task.
After another meeting with Commissioner Hayt, Pratt was directed to
recruit 120 students, seventy-two of whom were to be acquired from the
discontented branches of the Sioux Indians at the Rosebud and Pine Ridge
Agencies. Pratt objected to being sent to these hostile factions who had "not
Oesch 47
yet taken up the school idea"; but Hayt "was insistent that [he) must go to
Spotted Tail and Red Cloud, because the children would be hostages for the
good behavior of their people" (Pratt Battlefield 220). 15
On his first recruiting trip, Pratt reported to have traveled nearly 1,000
miles by train and boat, enduring the final 100 miles to the Rosebud
reservation in a two-seated spring wagon (Battlefield 220-222). There he met
with the leading chiefs and requested their cooperation with government
educational efforts. Pratt debated with Spotted Tail, stating, "You signed that
[treaty), knowing only what the interpreter told you it said ... Because you
were not educated ... [the Black Hills) have passed from you" (223). After
assuring his loyalty and friendship to the tribal leaders, the chieftains
encouraged sixty-six children to return with Pratt.
At Pine Ridge another sixteen children committed to attend the school
and two others "sneaked aboard" the Missouri river boat that transported the
children. This brought the total to eighty-four Sioux children in Carlisle's
inaugural class of 136 pupils from four tribes. Pratt reported that the Sioux
responded in a celebratory mode, sending their children adorned in their
finest clothing and giving gifts to their envoys as well as fellow tribal members
(Battlefield 224-29).
Students' First Weeks at Carlisle
When the train arrived in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, the Indians were
greeted by throngs of onlookers eager to see the "young savages." The New
York Daily Tribune reported that the incoming pupils were as foreign "to the
ways of civilization as so many freshly captured wolves" (D. W. Adams 49).
Oesch 48
After the children were marched through town to their new home, the Carlisle
Indian School, they were superficially "transformed" from their tribal ways.
Boys were provided U. S. military uniforms and their hair was cut, while girls
were given "proper'' dresses and their previous "Indian" clothing destroyed.
Students were then given "Americanized" names to replace those given by
their families. These were selected from either the girl's or boy's list on the
black-board (American Experience; Standing Bear). 1e This outward
transformation was captured by before and after photographs which were
widely circulated as a testimonial of Pratt's successes. By the end of the first
academic year, Pratt's "immersion technique" was viewed as a huge
success. The Board of Indian Commissioners enthusiastically supported these
efforts, stating:
The progress of the pupils in the industrial boarding schools is
far greater than in day schools. The children being removed
from the idle and corrupting habits of savage homes are more
easily led to adopt customs of civilized life and inspired with a
desire to learn. (Reyhner History of Indian Education 46)
This added an aura of validity to Pratt's claim that "Indians were like other
people and could be as easily educated and developed industrially"
(Pratt Battlefield 214). Homer Price, Commissioner of Indian Affairs during
the Teller incumbency, was very impressed with Pratt's de-culturalization
efforts (Prucha Americanizing 295). He claimed that,
Oesch49
... some time in the near future ... with the aid of such
industrial, agricultural, and mechanical [boarding] schools as
[are] now being carried on, the Indian will be able to care for
himself, and be no longer a burden ... to the Government.
(Hoxie 59)
School Days
Carlisle students entered a completely foreign environment. In an
attempt to counter Native American nomadic lifestyles, they were placed on
highly regimented, military schedules. 11 Some educators believed that
introducing the children to "habits of discipline" structured to compliment the
"American work ethic" would transform them into "socially productive
citizens." Consequently, students awoke to trumpet reveille at 6:00 AM and
proceeded through a tightly scheduled day of chores, classes, calisthenics
and religious services. The curriculum included math, sciences, history and
an emphasis in English. Vocational training varied from tinsmithing (which
Pratt taught), to sewing, and included periodical ·instruction from visiting
professors in fields such as electricity and chemistry.
Pratt was so pleased with the students' progress in the various
subjects and vocations that he encouraged officials to open other boarding
schools following his half day of academics, half day of work, schedule. In
1883, eighteen off-reservation boarding schools had been opened. By the
turn of the century, over one-third of the 17,708 students in Indian boarding
schools were attending campuses modeled after Pratt's Carlisle programs
(D. W. Adams 55, 57).
Oesch 50
These educational efforts were proclaimed as the "means, above all
others, [by which) the Indians would be turned into patriotic Americans"
(Prucha Americanizing 191). Encouraging Native Americans to become
active citizens was a far cry from the 1818 House Committee on
Appropriations dictum that "either ... those sons of the forest should be
moralized or exterminated" (Hirschfelder 94). This devaluing of Native
American cultures pervaded the political and educational atmosphere and
informed approaches to literacy instruction at government boarding schools,
including Carlisle. "Above all, Pratt sought to equip the children with an ability
to speak, read, and write the English language, for this was the most vital
prerequisite to a satisfactory adjustment to the white man's world" (Utely xiii).
English Education
Carlisle came to strictly abide by an English Only policy. Earlier,
however, Pratt's memoirs imply that he had indulged in various forms of bi
lingual instruction. He hired an interpreter from the Rosebud Reservation to
assist the students and himself with the awkward silences encountered
during the first months at Carlisle (Pratt Battlefield 200-229). Commissioner
of Indian Affairs, J. D. C. Atkins, deemed such accommodations
inappropriate, expressing his disapproval of any catering to tribal languages.
Atkins based this assertion on the 1880 Indian Bureau's regulation stating that,
"All instruction must be in English ... and the conversations of and
communications between pupils and with the teacher must be, as far as
possible, in English" (Atkins "English Language" 199). Thus, English
instruction was placed at the center of Indian school curriculum.
Oesch 51
Mandatory use of the English language also served as the driving
force behind a cultural "wedge" intended to separate Native Americans from
their ancestral ties. Indians were viewed as "a savage people speaking [a]
strange jargon that [settlers] did not understand" (Dawes 25). Therefore,
overcoming the language barrier was seen as a primary factor for Native
American assimilation into mainstream society. Even reform sympathizer
William Strong advised that Indians "should not maintain their own language"
(39). Views on English language proficiency may be summarized best by
Commissioner Atkins when he asserted,
Every nation is jealous of its own language, and no nation
ought to be more so than ours, which approaches nearer than
any other nationality to perfect protection of its people. True
Americans all feel that the Constitution, laws, and institutions of
the United States, in their adaptation to the wants and require
ments of man, are superior to those of any other country; and
they should understand that by the spread of the English
language will these laws and institutions be more firmly estab
lished and widely disseminated. Nothing so surely and
perfectly stamps upon an individual a national characteristic
as language. (Atkins Annual Repottxxi-xxiii)
Because of widespread acceptance of this ethnocentric view, it became "a
matter not only of importance, but of necessity that the Indians acquire the
English language as rapidly as possible" (Atkins "English Language" 200).
Oesch 52
Atkins proceeded to clarify that "the main purpose of educating [Native
Americans was] to enable them to read, write, and speak the English
language" (200).
Ironically, the BIA's English Only mandate was in conflict with
nineteenth century educational research. Secretary Schurz had been notified
that Alfred L. Riggs, a successful administrator, was "of the opinion that first
teaching the child to read and write in their own language enables them to
master English with more ease" (Repott of the Board of Indian Commissioners
77). Nevertheless, in 1886, Commissioner Atkins reiterated that students
"should be taught the English language only" threatening the withdrawal of
federal financial support and the removal of Indian students from offending
institutions. This measure went one step further to forbid giving "instructions"
in the student's native tongue.(Atkins "English Language" 189-91).
Under these more extreme regulations students who were caught
conversing, singing or storytelling in any language other than English were
chastised. Sometimes this punishment included public humiliation (the most
abhorrent form of retribution among some tribes) or whippings (Reyhner
History of Indian Education 10). One student recalled "getting a stroke of a
leather strap with holes in it" every time he spoke "Indian" (50). Pratt's
approach to discipline may have differed from traditional corporal forms
(Battlefield244; D. W. Adams 141).
Pratt's memoirs noted that the students took pride in being able to
endure great pain. Therefore, Pratt found it more effective to embarrass or
publicly humiliate students who had broken campus regulations.
Oesch 53
He held Saturday night meetings that facilitated his system. At the beginning
of each meeting, students who had spoken "Indian" were to stand and
confess their offenses (Standing Bear). Under extreme duress, one young
woman could not bear carrying her offense until the appointed time. She wrote:
Dear Sir Capt. Pratt:
I write this letter with much sorrow to tell you that I have
spoken one Indian word. I will tell you how it happened:
yesterday ... before I knew what I was saying I found that had
spoken one [Sioux] word, and I felt so sorry that I could not eat
my supper ... and the tears rolled down my cheeks. I tried
very hard to speak only English.
(D. W. Adams 141)
--Nellie Robertson
Although Pratt's Saturday night meeting served as a confessional, it
was originally designed to help develop facility in English. At these meetings
students would answer prompts with phrases they had memorized in class.
For example: Pratt, "How shall we solve the Indian problem?" Assembly,
"Abolish the reservation system! Abolish the reservation system!" Then
Pratt or another Carlisle affiliate would deliver a speech to coincide with the
slogan memorized (Gilcrest 52, 53).
The meetings may have had some affect on students' oral English
skills; but, it is more likely that the ideologies inherent to the memorized
slogans or imbedded within the evening's sermon had a greater influence on
Oesch 54
the students. Propaganda of this nature laced many of Carlisle's programs,
from the Saturday night meetings to the school motto: "God helps those who
help themselves" {Pratt Battlefield 323).
In light of the "civilizing forces" at work within this system, some
"students' uncanny ability to dutifully go through the motions of compliance
while inwardly resisting" was particularly unnerving to educators {D. W.
Adams 231). Estelle Brown, a teacher at Crow Creek, described her Indian
students as "mute, graven images." Although she could overlook her own
"inability to understand their mentality," she was "unable to cope with their
refusal to respond to my efforts" {D. W. Adams 231). The children's
"muteness" seemed to have embodied their refusal of Americanized education.
Seemingly unaware of any flaws within his pedagogy, Pratt continued
constructing programs "guaranteed" to assimilate his students. The Outing
Program was one of his favorite creations. It was designed to further
enhance students' English skills while introducing them to euroamerican
home life.
The Outing Program
The outing program placed Carlisle students in the homes of local
families during holidays and summers. Many of these families were Amish
and operated small farms. Pratt required that prospective host homes submit
both application and references to qualify for a student placement. Once
placed, students worked for minimal wages plus room and board. They were
allowed to spend a small percentage of their earnings and the rest were
Oesch 55
placed in individual bank accounts to be withdrawn upon graduation from
Carlisle (Standing Bear).
Rationale for this program was provided by Pratt's philosophy that
Native Americans must be separated from their cultural ways to become
civilized. He attempted to keep children away from their families for spans as
Jong as three years. Pratt felt sure that exposure to typical American
households would squelch the children's desires to return to the reservation-
or go "back to the blanket."
This innovative program also assured opportunities for students to
utilize skills acquired in Carlisle's vocational classes and introduced them to
the "capitalistic work ethic." Secretary Schurz supported Pratt's outing
system, stressing the necessity of placing Native American children:
In immediate contact with the towns, farms, and factories of
civilized people, living and working in the atmosphere of
civilization ... [where] there are various shops and ... [farms] for
the instruction of the boys, and the girls are kept busy in the
kitchen, dining-room, sewing-room, and with other
domestic work. (Hoxie 19)
Indian Reform Movement advocate William Strong further asserted that
through programs of this nature, Indian children would adapt to "the trades
and employments of civilized life ... [and] the Indian problem would be
solved" (41). This rampant optimism undergirded Pratt's outing program.
These "successful" integration attempts were heralded as the means by
which each Native American could learn "to stand on his own" (Dawes 29).
Oesch 56
Yet, the outing system served a multiplicity if less innocuous
purposes, most of which benefited white families at the expense of Native
American students. First, area farming profited because these placements
provided the community with an inexpensive labor force. This greatly
contributed to the local economy. Student workers supplied excellent short
term laborers, especially during planting and harvesting seasons.
Next, the successful nature of this program insured additional visibility
for and promotion of the Carlisle school. Temporary infiltration of capable
Native American youth into local communities appeared to vindicate Pratt's
educational theories proving that Indians could be educated and "cease
being a disturbing element in society" (Schurz 15). Pratt received local, state,
and national attention applauding his outing system, thereby promoting his
educational experiment.
On one hand, Pratt's utilization of child labor was abhorrent. On the
other hand, child labor laws had not been passed and Pratt's operation
appeared to have been self sustaining rather than profit oriented. In fact, the
Fair Labor Standards Act, regulating child labor practices, was not passed
until 1938. This was following two earlier Supreme Court rejections of laws
regulating child labor--in 1918 and 1922. Yet, issues regarding child labor
practices were only one drawback to Pratt's program.
The outing system's most detrimental influence may have been the de
culturalization of Native American students. Pratt's memoirs suggest that his
program was intended to serve as a chasm between Carlisle students and
their heritage. Therefore, students were separated from any semblance of
Oesch 57
their ancestral ties. Supporters of de-culturalization efforts again referred to
Morgan's theory of social evolution to justify investments in the individual
Native American while despising their "savage" culture.
While addressing the Lake Mohonk Conference, an Indian rights
gathering, William Strong also promoted the physiological separation of
Native Americans from tribal associations. Strong stated,
I am one of those who think it desirable that the Indians should
be dispersed or diffused throughout our population; that they
should not be preserved on reservations ... but be brought
into contact with the better portions of our communities ...
where they might be brought under good influences,
and ultimately Americanized. (Hoxie 39)
Despite the practicality of Pratt's outing program and lengthy exposure to
euroamerican values, many Carlisle graduates wished to return to distant
reservations to live with their families.
Caught Between Two Worlds
Jobs on the reservations were scarce, so the returning tribal member
often faced a life much like the one prior to departure, with one exception.
Children away at boarding school missed out on years of training in skills
valued by their tribe. One chief stated that students returning from the white
man's school could not track game, fight or understand proper behavioral.
expectations. Navigating this difference was immensely difficult--few
succeeded. The majority of students ended up caught between two worlds.
Oesch 58
Upon returning home, one Iroquois student was halted by these words:
"What have we here? You are neither a white man nor an Indian. For
heaven's sake, tell us, what are you?" ('World Apart" 14). Most returnees
were warmly welcomed back into their families, but struggled to find
employment where they could use their trade school or academic training.
Other students rejected tribal ways and were ashamed of how their families
lived--some even refused to speak in their native tongue. Well educated with
few options, Carlisle graduates were often rejected in a predominately Anglo
society and unfitted for life with their families.
Collapse of Holistic Educational Approach
Skepticism flourishes when Pratt's de-culturalization efforts appeared
to be failing. Graduates from the Carlisle School frequently returned to their
reservations and "went back to the blanket" (Oswalt 578). Pratt's
philosophical fall from favor was countered by stronger, more opinionated BIA
officials. Administrators such as John H. Oberly, Thomas J. Morgan and
William N. Hailman developed their own educational proposals to address the
continuing Indian problem. They also had the power to impose these
programs on Indian schools across the country. These new pedagogies
impacted issues that ranged from filling empty dormitories to regulating
classroom curriculum.
Oesch 59
Maintaining Enrollment Quotas
Multiple factors contributed to the vast numbers of students channeled
into boarding schools in the late 1880s and early 1890's. Several include: 1)
government legislation demanding compulsory school attendance of Native
American children; 2) laws permitting the withholding of rations to gain
consent from parents for children to attend boarding schools; 3) per student
school funding; and 4) little regulation of boarding school recruitment efforts.
In 1892 compulsory attendance requirements were approved giving
Indian agents the "right" to accost Native American children. Naturally,
families hid their children from these empowered truant officers. To counter
parents' unwillingness to comply with the national mandate, an 1893 Act was
passed that approved the withholding of food rations to gain consent from
parents opposed to relinquishing custody of school age children (Hirschfelder
96). Competition for the relatively small numbers of available children was
often fierce. This was further complicated by "per-capita funding" incentives.
Young Indians were sought out, captured, placed in wagons or on
trains and shipped to the school of their reservation agents choosing. This
created a trail of horrors and hatred between Native Americans and the
salvation promised them through education. Families that continued to
conceal children were literally starved. Heinous crimes against these
impoverished peoples flourished under the guise of educational
enhancement until the 1893 Act was repealed on August, 15, of the following
year (Hirschfelder 96).
Oesch 60
Due to these rash abuses, Congress outlawed the withholding of
rations and prohibited sending students out of state without parental consent.
Yet many institutions relied on deceitful tactics to boost attendance. These
may have resulted from corruption rampant in the BIA, compulsory
attendance legislation and limited available funding. The competitive nature
created by government policies may be best exemplified by a Sioux father
who asked a missionary teacher: "How much will you give me if I let my boy
go to your school? That other teacher says he will give me an overcoat!"
(Leupp 131 ).
It appeared that Pratt rejected deceitful recruitment tactics. Instead,
Pratt recruited students by sending junior administrators or teachers
accompanied by older Carlisle students to western reservations.
Subsequently, the Carlisle School had more than ample numbers to secure
government subsidies. This was probably due to the nation-wide prestige
gained by Pratt's pilot project. As early as 1890over1,000 students were
being educated in the old army barracks, the majority of whom were elite,
tribal leaders' children.
New Curriculum
In-spite of Carlisle's high visibility, approval of Pratt's efforts waned in
support of a more vocationally oriented curriculum. Initiation of these
programs began as early as 1888 under the Cleveland administration.
Commissioner of Indian Affairs, John Oberly proposed that boarding schools
be constructed on reservations. These were to follow Pratt's half day class,
half day work schedule. Oberly also requested that a special series of
Oesch 61
textbooks be devised by Indian office experts for use in this national system.
Incumbent President Benjamin Harrison then selected an educational expert,
Thomas Jefferson Morgan, to serve as Commissioner and enact Oberly's plans.
Contrary to Harrison's expectations, Morgan dramatically amended
Oberly's proposal. In 1891, Morgan instituted his own educational agenda
which promoted public school integration. Additional per-capita funding was
promised to schools willing to accommodate Native American students,
provided that fair and equal treatment be guaranteed. Morgan's
Superintendent, Reverend Daniel Dorchester, pushed for the 1892 and 1893
compulsory attendance acts to insure that Indians attended these
predominately white schools. This produced the rash recruitment tactics
which plagued Indian families.
Turmoil of this nature continued as BIA administrators often disagreed
on the methodological approaches best fitted to speed assimilation efforts.
Programs also lacked a cohesion of vision as each successive Commissioner
enacted his own idealized curricular plan. This placed Native American
educational policies in a state of perpetual flux until the emergence of a self
perpetuated, bureaucratic system. This foundling bureaucracy rose to power
in the late 1890s under the McKinley administration. Led by Commissioner of
Indian Affairs, W. A. Jones, and Indian School Superintendent, William N.
Hailman, national school reform programs promised to replace "schoolroom
pedantry" with "really vital work" (Hoxie 190).
Roosevelt followed McKinley in 1901, selecting Jones to serve another
four-year term as Commissioner. Jones announced, "the groundwork of all
Oesch 62
instruction in Indian schools is the systematic inculcation of the principles of
work." Estelle Reel, who had assumed the responsibilities of Superintendent
in 1898, produced a new curriculum which "infused academic coursework
with practical, job-related applications" (Adams 315). Thereby, commitment
to vocationally oriented programming came to the forefront of instructional
concerns. Outlook magazine chastised past government officials for
exposing Native American children to "the same sort of book education ...
as [was] set before white children" (Hoxie 194). Reel's programming
accommodated these ethnocentric views. Yet, her curriculum so drastically
amended previous plans that Thomas Morgan attacked her program as a
"discredit to the whole Indian school system" (197).
Despite the efforts of earlier "liberal educators" like Pratt, who
supported a more holistic approach to Native American instruction, by 1902
instruction of Native American students in literature or the arts was seen as
"seed sown on stony ground" (194). The Carlisle school "no longer worked to
transform the children who arrived there," but began concentrating
educational efforts only on English literacy instruction and the training of
farmers and factory workers (Hoxie 194; Fritz 164-166).
During Roosevelt's second term, he appointed Francis E. Leupp as the
new Commissioner of Indian Affairs and Reel was reinstated for one final
term as Superintendent. Leupp joined Reel's vocational crusade with one
profound philosophical difference. In his first Annual Report, Leupp "attacked
believers in racial equality'' (Hoxie 198). He concluded that minorities were
hereditarily inferior, claiming "Nature's Work" had placed the white man as
Oesch 63
"lord" over other races. Psychologist G. Stanley Hall perpetuated these
bigoted assertions by contrasting the races to life cycles, noting "some races
never mature" (199).
Leupp's motto for Native American education was "individualize and
specialize," creating an assembly-line mentality in government funded Native
American schools. Leupp jeered,
Now, if anyone can show me what advantage will come to this
large body of manual workers from being able to reel off the
names of the mountains in Asia, or extract the cube root of
123456789, I shall be deeply grateful. (D. W. Adams 315)
Native Americans were viewed as only needing enough English education to
read local newspapers or understand property contracts and enough math to
avoid being cheated by grain dealers or store owners.
Incoming officials such as Cato Sells and Harvey Pearis built on the
ideological foundations of their predecessors. Thereby, a complex
bureaucracy matured, nurtured by an intermingling of political and
educational agendas. Consequently, "by 1916 all but a few select schools
followed a curriculum divided_ into four levels--primary, prevocational, junior
vocational, and senior vocational'' (D. W. Adams 315).
By the time it was closed in 191 B to be used as an Army
"rehabilitation program for veterans of World War I," the Carlisle Indian
School had evolved into a trade school specifically chartered to "prepare
students for the mechanical trades and apprentice them to Ford Motor
Company" (Evelyn Adams 53, Hoxie 204). These drastic changes in
Oesch 64
curriculum at government boarding schools marked the disillusionment of
educators and government officials who had trusted in literacy education to
serve as the catalyst for Indian assimilation.
Pratt's Fall from Grace
Although Carlisle had been operating at full capacity (1,200) from the
mid-1890s though the turn of the century, Pratt's philosophy fell victim to
Jones' thriving bureaucracy. It has also been noted that Pratt's career met
much the same fate. In 1903 Pratt was "summarily retired by President
Theodore Roosevelt" even though he was two years below the mandatory
retirement age (Pratt Battlefield 337). As editor of Battlefield and Classroom,
Utely noted that this forced retirement has been ascribed to a previous feud
over Civil Service reform, dating back to a time when Roosevelt headed the
Civil Service Commission. Nonetheless, Pratt remained as Superintendent of
the Carlisle Indian School as a dispatch of the Department of Interior. He
was conferred the rank of Brigadier General for Civil War service and was
honorably discharged in 1904, officially ending his military and classroom
career. In his later years, Pratt remained active in Indian affairs issues while
compiling a history of his military career. Pratt lived to see a portion of his
ambitions met as Indian veterans of World War I obtained citizenship in 1919.
Regrettably, he died just two years prior to the 1924 Curtis Act which
declared all Native Americans to be citizens of the United States (D. W.
Adams 146).
Oesch 65
Pratt's final speech as a commissioned military officer reportedly
proclaimed, "Better, far better, had there never been a Bureau. Then self
preservation would have led the individual Indian to find his true place, and
his real emancipation would have come speedily'' (Pratt Battlefield 336).
Pratt never realized that his plans for Indian education perpetuated the
bondage of the people he fought so desperately to liberate. Native
Americans would continue battling for equality and freedom of cultural
expression, despite the efforts of well-intended reformers, into the later part of
the twentieth century.
Oesch 66
Chapter Three
Native American educational histories have become widely discussed
in recent years for various reasons including the resurgence of tribal cultural
awareness. In his essay "Ethnography as Narrative," Edward M. Bruner
attributes this resurgence to a change in historical narratives. Previously,
many viewed Native Americans' conditions at present as disorganized, the
past as glorious and the future as assimilation. More recent paradigms see
the present as the resistance movement, the past as exploitation, and the
future as cultural resurgence. 1a In light of this change in ideologically
weighted models, numerous historians have begun re.evaluating the means
by which American Indians were exploited. Countless wars, language
barriers, inter-tribal hostilities and the removal of eastern tribes into western
territories had devastating affects on tribal life. 1e Yet, pieces of their native
cultures survived despite such oppositions. Education proved to be a more
divisive tool.
Educational reformers of the late 1880s proposed new techniques to
expedite the genocide of native cultural ways. Through Americanized
education, native Indians often became liminal figures even within traditional
tribal structures. To gain a perspective on this phenomenon, numerous
modern researchers have investigated the oppressive effects of government
boarding schools, the relationship of government intrusion to educational
trends and the often conflated motives of Native American school reformers.
Although "tidy" summaries remain elusive, exploration of the proposed
altruistic, yet often self-serving, motives of reformers may lend a more
Oesch 67
productive critique of nineteenth-century Native American educational
ideologies.
The final chapter of this thesis proposes to embark on this endeavor
by considering the ideologies at play in the work of one Native American
school reformer-Richard Henry Pratt. This exploration will include discussion
of the propositions that compose an ideology, the rhetorical functions
inherent to each, and consideration of who believed or promoted these views.
To accomplish this task, rhetorical and socio-political information from
Chapter One will be contrasted with educational trends and Pratt's
experiences as documented in Chapter Two. Correlations between these
materials will provide valuable insights into the complex motivations and
intrinsic ideologies which fused to compose Pratt's educational philosophy.
While it may be difficult, or impossible, to reconstruct an indisputable
model of Pratt's ideology, recognizing the relationships between historical
situations, Pratfs formal expressions (letters, speeches, publications), and his
"workaday world" will create a reflection of his social outlook. Due to the
"mirror-like quality" of this outlook, it will "reflect the moral and material
aspects of [Pratt's] understanding" which, in turn, will indicate his ideological
stance (Apter 15). The "interpretive task" of this thesis is, then, to try to
distinguish between Pratt's sincere convictions, his forced acquiescence to
governmental policies, and other incidental correlations. Luckily, Pratt's
memoirs are not laced with politically correct sensibilities. His dogmatic
assertions and directive commentary on a wide range of issues insure ample
materials from which to navigate the murky waters of the interpretive domain.
Oesch 68
Ideology Defined
Since this endeavor is rooted in a specific perception of the term
"ideology," it is imperative to define its scope of reference for the purposes of
this project. As briefly mentioned in the Introduction, Clifford Geertz essay
"Ideology as a Cultural System" will provide the background for a working
definition of ideologies. Geertz claims that ideologies are "maps of
problematic reality and matrices for the creation of collective conscience" that
"render otherwise incomprehensible social situations meaningful" (64).
Recognizing the noetic tenets of an ideology helps explain its often
intangible, yet overpoweringly influential nature. This nature is more
concretely noted through observances of social actions. Martin Seliger writes
that an ideology expresses "sets of ideas by which men posit, explain and
justify ends and means of organized social action" (Kaestle 124). Carl F.
Kaestle summarizes these points by noting that "ideology is the aspect of
formally expressed culture that defends and explains social institutions and
social relations" (125).
Kaestle's essay provides a concise definition of ideology which
acknowledges its theoretical complexities and practical manifestations. He
summarizes ideology as:
A set of compatible propositions about human nature and
society that help an individual to interpret complex human
problems and take action that the individual believes is in his or
her best interest and the best interest of society as a whole.
(Kaestle 125)
Oesch 69
Therefore, to gain insight into Pratt's ideology, one must reconstruct
compatible sets of propositions regarding his perceptions of human nature
and society. This framework can be built though reflection on major rhetorical
movements for clues into his views on human nature, and consideration of
socio-political trends which will reflect his social outlook.
Rhetorical Movements:
Scottish Common Sense Realism and Pratt
Conceptions of human nature are at the base of rhetorical studies.
Also, since rhetoric is at the center of all a culture's activities, it serves as an
indicator of change in society (Berlin Writing 1,2). Consequently, careful
consideration of nineteenth-century rhetorical movements can shed light on
the noetic fields influencing Pratt's perceptions of human nature. It may also
clarify rationale for the decline and eventual rejection of Pratt's projects by the
early 1900s.
No movement was more widely embraced in the mid-1 BOOs than
Scottish Common Sense Realism (SCSR). As established in Chapter One,
Scottish Common Sense Realists' perception of human nature was
profoundly influenced by Locke's theory that the mind was made up of two
major faculties: the understanding and the will. This led to the development
of a mechanistic, faculty psychology as espoused through the texts of
George Campbell and Hugh Blair. Campbell recognized "certain principles in
our nature, which, when properly addressed ... give aid to reason" (205).
These "principles" were listed as understanding, imagination, memory and
passions and could be best influenced through an emotionally charged
Oesch 70
argument. Behind this notion was a belief that the human faculties would
respond in an "appropriate" and predictable manner when information was
presented. For example, if someone successfully argued that a stove was
hot, the "common sensical" response would be to avoid touching the stove.
Pratt's memoirs imply that his views were in keeping with this element of SCSR.
Pratt was convinced that government officials, and all other sensible
U.S. citizens, would support his boarding school program if they had a clear
understanding of his plan. Pratt wrote, "It was surely only necessary to prove
Indians were like other people and could be as easily educated and
developed industrially to secure the adoption of my views" (Battlefield 213-
214). He relied on speeches and publications to thereby "prove" the validity
of his educational project. The Carlisle School published several promotional
newspapers to circulate knowledge of the students' progress-presupposing
that "surely" people would respond positively once these successes were known.
Pratt also utilized other mediums to "secure the adoption" of his views.
Apparently believing that a "picture was worth a thousand words," Pratt
provided photographs as proof of the validity of his educational philosophy.
Students' photo sessions were strategically executed just following the
exhausting journey from their reservations to Carlisle. Unbathed and
disoriented, these students were haphazardly arranged and then
photographed. These pictures showed them in their tribal attire and depicted
them as bewildered, dirty savages. Later, the same students, neatly clad in
school uniforms and sporting the latest hair styles, modeled for a second
photograph. These "before and after'' shots were widely circulated as a
Oesch 71
testimony of the miraculous transformations which occurred at Carlisle.
Pratt's memoirs include a letter to Congressman T. C. Pound stating:
I send you today a few photographs of the Indian youth here.
You will note that they came mostly as blanket Indians ... I am
gratified to report that they have yielded gracefully to the
discipline ... [of] our school rooms ... Isolated as these youth
are from the savage surroundings of their homes, they loose
their tenacity to savage life, ... and give themselves up
to learning all they can. (Battlefield 248)
Audiences, like Pound, who viewed this dramatic change were expected to
induce (through Locke's associative principle) that these examples were
indicative of the civilizing forces Pratt's plan could bring to each Native
American child. In a speech at the 1893 Lake Mohonk Conference Pratt
declared:
If this [civilized] condition has been reached in only one or two
cases, it is sufficient to indicate [or induce] that it may be
repeated in all their cases ... how weak, foolish and silly [of] us
not to adopt at once the simple, common-sense means
{boarding school education} by which they rose.
("Remarks" 278)
Scottish Common Sense Realism's grounding in a mechanistic, faculty
psychology and theories of induction provided the basis for such notions.
Oesch 72
Pratt and Notions of "Truth"
Pratt also had tendencies toward other characteristics of this rhetorical
model. According to SCSR, truth was extralingual and could be acquired
through "a 'knowledge of things' gained by examining nature" (Berlin Writing
20). Thus, truth, and thereby knowledge, was discoverable through careful
observation with meaning existing in the sensory experience itself. Pratt
appears to have agreed with this idea that experience was the key to "true"
knowledge. Pratt valued personal experience above all other forms of
learning. This perspective was revealed through his attitude toward those
posing as Indian affairs experts who had never spent time among the Native
Americans. Jn the following excerpt from Pratt's text, he attributes credibility
to a missionary, Sheldon Jackson, because of his experiences among the
Sioux while subtly derailing the views of an east coast minister.
Dr. Jackson was strongly in sympathy with the Carlisle
movement, realizing by obseNation and experience the vast
benefits it would be to the Indian peoples ... Dr. Sunderland,
being in Washington and observing things from that standpoint,
had ideas which were best expressed by his statement that he
would build a wall as high as the sky around every Indian
reservation. (Battlefield 276) (italics added)
This acceptance of experience as the key to truth was also
demonstrated in other venues of Pratt's life. For one, Pratt believed that his
own experiences with the plains tribes gave him the authority to speak on
their behalf. Pratt wrote, "I hope to make plain the righteousness of my Jong
Oesch 73
contentions and the result of my experiences along this line" (Battlefield 100).
To better situate this claim, he spent the next one-hundred pages citing his
experiences with Native Americans including his relationships with allied
scouts, work with the prisoners at St. Augustine, and encounters between
tribesmen and "incompetent" government officials.
Note that Pratt never questioned the ethics or morality of his
conclusions inferred during these experiences. This further implies that Pratt
viewed his interpretation of personal experiences as indisputably "true." It
may also demonstrate his compatibility with SCSR's citation that truth was
observable through encounters with the material world.
Pratt also denied credibility to his opposition by pointing to their lack of
"real life" encounters with tribesmen. Francis Paul Prucha, editor of
Americanizing the American Indians, noted that "Pratt struck back
intemperately at his opponents" (277). He consistently vindicated his own
positions by reciting personal experiences with the Plains tribes while
admonishing others for speaking from experiential ignorance. Pratt even
prescribed a remedy to this situation suggesting that the BIA move its
headquarters to Indian territory.
I advocated placing the Bureau of Indian Affairs on the Sioux or
Navajo Reservation, in direct contact with its responsibilities ...
and demand that it. . . [lead a] charge into the promised land of
our American citizenship ... to prove the impotence of the
Bureau to conclude its job. (Battlefield 283)
Oesch 74
Pratt's accusations were probably well founded. Noted historian Jon Reyhner
concurred stating, "Of course, many of the policy makers in Washington had
never been west of the Mississippi" (History of Indian Education 41 ). These
"policy makers" lack of experience remained a point of contention throughout
Pratt's tenure as an administrator at Carlisle. Pratt's continued accentuation
of the value of experience also influenced his educational philosophy.
Pratt's Educational Philosophy
Next, Pratt's educational philosophy appears to also have been rooted
in the idea that experience leads to true knowledge. But in this case, the
"truth" he most frequently advocated was the supremacy of euroamerican
culture. Just as Pratt was convinced that government officials would "surely"
support his plan once duly informed, he firmly believed that Native Americans
would abandon their cultural ways once they experienced "the best things of
our civilization" (Pratt Battlefield 213). In his 1891 address to the Friends of
the Indians at the Lake Mohonk Conference Pratt explained, "[Indians]
opportunities to see and hear and know are so limited that they are not to be
blamed if they make little progress in the arts of civilization" ('Way Out" 272).
Notice again that he associated experiences, seeing and hearing, with an
ability to grasp the "arts of civilization." Pratt later claimed, 'We make our
greatest mistake by feeding our civilization to the Indians instead of feeding
the Indians to our civilization" ("Advantages" 268). Consequentially, he
demanded that children be provided the opportunity "to see and thus to learn"
the white man's ways (Battlefield 214).
Oesch 75
Carlisle's Outing Program stemmed from the belief that experience
was the key to truth, knowledge and civility. Pratt best described his
propaganda laden programs when he announced:
Carlisle fills young Indians with the spirit of
loyalty to the stars and stripes, and then moves them out into
our communities to ... demonstrate to the nation that he is a
man. ("Advantages" 268)
This quote refers to the outing system and the duplicity of "experiential" roles
it fulfilled. First, it immersed Native Americans in white culture, supposedly
assuring that they would embrace civilized life through this exposure.
Acceptance of euroamerican values further implied a rejection of tribal
associations.
Next, the outing program provided an opportunity for eastern families
to have firsthand experiences with these "transformed savages." Several
presuppositions were considered inherent to these experiences. For one,
host families were to infer from encounters with their Carlisle student that
Native Americans could be successfully educated and successfully integrated
into communities. Secondly, from this knowledge, families were to grasp the
corresponding truth that Native Americans could become "useful citizens"
(Pratt Battlefield 215). Pratt stated that hosts' reactions to student workers
proved this to be true. "The whites learn that Indians can become useful men
and that they have the same qualities as other men. Seeing [Carlisle
students'] industry, their skills and good conduct, [hosts] come to respect
them" ('Way Out" 274).
Oesch 76
Pratt's Curricular Approaches and SCSR
Not only was Pratt's educational philosophy rooted in concepts
consistent with SCSR, his curricular approaches were as well. Many of the
classroom practices at Carlisle were in keeping with the theories of Hugh
Blair and George Campbell. For example, Blair stressed using literature as a
tool to learn proper form and style through imitation (Berlin Writing 8). Pratt
incorporated concepts of imitation into lessons by having students write
letters home modeled after sample letters. Each week he read several
students' compositions at the Saturday night meetings as examples of very
good or very poor writing.
Blair and Campbell also emphasized memorizing and translating to
gain more advanced writing skills (Berlin Writing 31). They saw imitation and
repetition as keys to the memorization process. Forms of this emphasis were
integrated into Carlisle's programs through the memorization of transcribed
passages and slogans which were recited in unison at the Saturday
meetings. Pratt also used methods correlating to these theories when he had
students trace letters of the alphabet and later words, building up to the
transcription of sentences (Gould 4). It was assumed that these sentences
would be more easily memorized following numerous transcriptions.
Memorized sentences could then be written or recited as a demonstration of
students' language proficiency.
Next, to further develop solid writing skills, Blair had stressed the
importance of drills and exercises as well as the memorization of general
principles. Blair justified these by claiming that the mind could be
Oesch 77
strengthened like "muscles through exercise" accentuating the importance of
frequent practice (Berlin Writing 31 ). Consequently, the use of drills,
exercises, and classroom recitations were customary at Carlisle. In My
People the Sioux, Luther Standing Bear recalled one instance when he was
asked to read a passage for his classmates. He mentioned feeling
uncomfortable as he stood to read this segment. Later this discomfort turned
to embarrassment as he was compelled to repeat the same process seven
times. At that Saturday's meeting, Pratt related this incident to the entire
student body, noting that Luther had read the text without a single error
seven consecutive times.
Regarding writing style, both Blair and Campbell stipulated that
students begin with a focused thesis and write on a narrow subject, not
embarking on broad or general discussions (Blair 86, Campbell 206).
Surviving letters, articles and essays written by Carlisle students strictly
adhere to this model--despite their frequently rough grammatical structures.
Blair then added that teachers were to read and correct the written pieces
and return them to students to be rewritten correctly. This method of
instruction also appears to have been a standard process at Carlisle.
While many of these methods of writing instruction are standard
practices in twentieth-century classrooms, they were relatively new
approaches in the 1800s. For that matter, attempting to educate minorities
was considered a revolutionary concept in Pratt's time and was generally
overseen by religious, rather than governmental, representatives. As argued
in Chapter One, these perspectives were influenced by the work of
Oesch 78
nineteenth-century Scottish educators. In most other countries only clerics,
clergymen, and the upper echelon were thought to have any uses for skills
such as reading or writing (Horner 85). Those who were allowed or could
afford to attend school generally had a basic knowledge of reading and
writing---often in several languages--prior to enrollment. Educators were to
develop and hone these skills through instruction in classical languages,
philosophy and theology (87,88). Teachers relied on lectures, usually
presented in Latin, to advance student's knowledge base. In turn, students
most frequently demonstrated mastery of concepts through oral debates and
defenses (88). In contrast, by the 1700s, Scottish educators had begun
giving lectures in English, supplementing readings with writing assignments,
and incorporating written exams to test students proficiency (87). Their
methodologies set the stage for American educational efforts in the 1800s.
Although this brief glance at educational histories is rudimentary and
overly simplified, it reinforces claims regarding Pratt's adherence to SCSR.
Likewise, it demonstrates that correlations between Scottish educators and
Pratt's curriculum were more than mere coincidence. The fact that other
schools were also incorporating such techniques simply exemplifies the
sweeping acceptance of SCSR in nineteenth-century America. Further,
these connections support the assertion that Pratt's educational experiment
was more than a well scheduled, off-handed epiphany. 20 His proposal
coupled innovative instructional approaches with anthropological, sociological
and educational theories of the 1800s to form a promising solution to the
nation's Indian problem.
Pratt's Compatibility with
Nineteenth-Century Intellectual Movements
Oesch 79
At the forefront of Pratt's innovative ideas were Calvin Woodward's
new theories of manual education. A professor at Washington University in
St. Louis, Woodward's theories espoused the use of vocational training to
instill habits of learning. This included "symmetrical training" that exposed
students to "habits of work and concentration that could be transferred to
academic areas" (Hoxie 68). Pratt believed that labor programs at St.
Augustine proved the benefits of integrating academics with employment
opportunities. He adopted this type of approach providing both industrial and
academic training at Carlisle. The Outing Program, Pratt's most acclaimed
innovation, was gleaned from a culmination of his own belief in cultural
immersion and labor programs compatible with Woodward's theories.
Pratt's memoirs indicate that he also agreed with the theories of
renowned anthropologist, Lewis Henry Morgan. Morgan's theories of social
evolution stated that cultures progressed from savagery to barbarism to
civilization. His theory appears to have stemmed from Locke's tabula rasa
concept. According to Morgan, individuals were born as blank slates and
then encoded through interactions within their societal systems. These
peoples, as a whole, then evolved into more complex societies until
becoming fully civilized. According to Morgan's theory, most Native
Americans had advanced from savagery to barbarism and needed to
progress toward a civilized state or face eminent extinction. Morgan's
categorization of Native Americans as barbarous thereby justified "the idea
Oesch 80
that cruel policies such as removal or punitive warfare were unavoidable
steps along the road to progress" (Hoxie 18). Therefore, government
boarding schools, like the Carlisle Indian School, were seen as a necessary
and inevitable step for Native Americans to become assimilated into "a
civilized society" and, thus, avoid extinction.
Pratt concurred with Locke and Morgan's views noting, "It is a great
mistake to think that the Indian is born an inevitable savage. He is born a
blank, like the rest of us" ("Advantages" 268). He proceeded to express the
importance of "civilized" cultural influences, claiming:
Transfer the infant white to the savage surrounding, he will grow
to possess a savage language, superstitions, and habit.
Transfer the savage-born infant into the surroundings of
civilization, and he will grow to possess a civilized language
and habit. These results have been established over
and over again beyond all question. ("Advantages" 268-269)
Pratt's categorization of Native Americans' cultures as "savage" and white
culture as "civilized" exemplifies his predilection toward social
evolutionary theories. Paradoxically, this ethnocentric view also illustrated
his belief in racial equality.
Throughout his writings Pratt acknowledged the equality of all
humanity citing the Declaration of Independence to validate his claims. He
wrote, "our Constitution forbids that there shall be 'any abridgment of the
rights of citizens on account of race, color, or previous condition"'
("Advantages" 262). His thrust toward equality also lead him to question the
Oesch 81
commissioning of "Negro and Indian" troops, promoting, instead, the
integration of military service"men (7). In the opening chapter of his text,
Pratt noted, "One thing the Major and I discussed freely ... [was] the
fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to the Constitution then pending ...
which affirmed that 'all men are created equal"' (7). Pratt also consistently
affirmed the government's responsibility to promote human rights issues,
including those regarding Native American educational opportunities. 21
Herbert Welsh, the first Chairman of the Board of Indian Commissioners and
founder of the Indian Rights Association, once remarked, "General Pratt was,
in my opinion, the greatest moral force effecting the great change that has
taken place in the minds of our citizens touching the Indians" (D. W. Adams
1, 9; Prucha Americanizing 277).
Pratt's championing of civil rights issues was also in keeping with post
Civil War sentiments. Many abolitionists had turned their attentions to Indian
rights issues following the War. Harriet Beecher Stowe was among those
supportive of Pratt's work. Stowe assisted with efforts to educate the
prisoners at St. Augustine during her winter stay near Fort Marion (Pratt
Battlefield 154-155). 22
Pratt's perspectives were not only compatible with Woodward's,
Morgan's and nineteenth-century notions of equality, but with the spread of
Calvinism that accompanied the great revivals of the Eighteenth and
Nineteenth Centuries. As a Presbyterian minister, Pratt himself was a
proponent of Calvinistic doctrines. The complimentary nature of SCSR and
Calvinism also seemed to meld with concepts of manifest-destiny, as noted
Oesch 82
earlier. Pratt's assertion, "Inscrutable are the ways of Providence" was
indicative of SCSR and Calvinism's refusal to question the spiritual.
Meanwhile, this assertion espoused the unquestionable inevitability of the
mysteries of God's will. The apparent refusal to question circumstances
(because God was in control of American progress) fed reductionist
tendencies which claimed that all problems could be solved through a healthy
does of Christianity, education or governmental programming.
The naive notion that "for every problem, there is a solution" found tidy
answers through the implementation of "ideologically correct" government
programs. Consequently, when hostile tribes impeded westward progress,
United States troops quelled the resistance. When fighting became too
expensive, treaties insured peace. As expansionists desired Native
American territories, past treaties became cumbersome, so they were
broken. Angry tribes were quieted through interment to relatively small tracts
of land. When officials discovered that the reservations were unsuited for
providing adequate food sources, rations were provided. After reservated
tribes neglected "white man's ways," education was assuredly the key to
assimilation. Simple answers, rooted in manifest-destiny doctrines, promised
quick-fix, sure solutions for the continuing "Indian problem."
By 1890, Pratt's educational project emerged as the embodiment of
the government's new "quick-fix" philosophy. At the root of Pratt's emphasis
was English literacy instruction. Officials claimed that, "English language
capability is fundamental to Indian progress" (Reyhner History of Indian
Education 117). The Board of Indian Commissioners also stated that Indians
Oesch 83
must acquire "our own vernacular [English], the language of the greatest,
most powerful, and enterprising nationalities beneath the sun" (Prucha
Americanizing 200).
English Only Mandates
The BIA teaching manual claimed, "It is evident that the first step in
any program of instruction must be to develop in the children the ability to
speak, understand, and think in the English language" (Reyhner History of
Indian Education 110). As stated in Chapter Two, government regulations
strongly reinforced this point. In fact, the 1887 Commissioner of Indian
Affairs declared:
No books in any Indian language must be used or instruction
given in that language to Indian pupils in any school where this
office had entered into contract for the education of Indians ...
The instruction of Indians in [their] vernacular ... will not be
permitted in any Indian school. .. You will see that this
regulation is rigidly enforced. (Atkins "English" 202).
English only supporters found vindication for their mandates in the
theories of noted ethnologist John Wesley Powell. 23 As the successor of
Lewis Henry Morgan, Powell reportedly set the terms for informed
discussions of Indian affairs in the 1880s. Like Morgan, Powell supported
social evolution and proposed that the debt owed the first Americans could
"be paid only by giving the Indians Anglo-Saxon civilization, that they may
also have prosperity and happiness under the new civilization of this
continent" (Hoxie 24).
Oesch 84
To achieve this purported "happiness," Powell argued that Native
Americans should be separated from "everything most sacred to Indian
society" (Hoxie 24). Thus, his theories justified "the Removal," separating
tribes from their lands; boarding schools, separating children from their
families; compulsory school attendance policies, dictating Native Americans'
educational options; and English only regulations, separating students from
their first language.
SCSR Ties to the English Only Movement
The government's English only mandates may have been influenced
by Campbell's text Philosophy of Rhetoric. Campbell had recognized usage
under three distinct categories: reputable use, national use, and present use.
He also called for a rejection of linguistic impurities and barbarisms (Berlin
Writing 23; Brereton 303). Although Campbell was actually referring to
"incorrect" or "poor" language uses that flourished with the rise of the middle
class when he referenced "barbarisms," his rules appear to have been
inappropriately expanded to include an intolerance for any language other
than English (Brereton 302). Campbell's preoccupation with standard usage
was indicative of Carlisle's classroom methodologies as well as nineteenth
century proponents of the English only literacy movement.
Many of Pratt's contemporaries also viewed English literacy education
as the key issue influencing Indian assimilation. Thus, numerous political
figures stressed the necessity of absolving Native American languages.
These officials generally emphasized that tribal acceptance of the English
language was a necessary phase for social evolutionary progression.
Oesch 85
The most well documented promoter of "English Only" literacy
education was Commissioner of Indian Affairs, J. D. C. Atkins. He situated
his argument by noting the civilizing forces inherent to the English language:
"The first step to be taken toward civilization, toward teaching the Indians the
mischief and folly of continuing in their barbarous practices, is to teach them
the English language" (Atkins "English Language" 203). He reinforced this
view by claiming, "No unity or community of feeling can be established
among different peoples unless they are brought to speak the same
language, and thus become imbued with like ideas of duty" (Atkins Annual
Report 23). Atkins also noted, "To teach Indian school children their native
tongue is practically to exclude English, and to prevent them from acquiring it"
(Atkins "English Language" 201). He clarified these points by asserting that
"their barbarous dialect should be blotted out and the English language
substituted" (198-99).
Likewise siding with Atkins and other cultural evolutionists, Pratt
assumed it was for the greater good of these indigenous peoples to be freed
from "savagery" through language instruction. Pratt's rationale for
emphasizing English literacy education appears to have been based on his
encounters with warring tribes during his western military campaigns. In an
early experience with the plains tribes, he observed that an intertribal peace
had occurred among the "linguistically connected" Pawnee and Witchita
tribes (Battlefield 99). If Pratt had applied the inductive method to his
observation, he would have concluded that linguistic connections played a
Oesch 86
role in the allied relationship between Indian nations. Therefore, he may
have inferred that language similarities preceded peaceful cohabitation.
On another campaign, Pratt had recognized "Comanche" as the "court
language of our southwest Indians" (10). His recollection of the experience
implied that the camaraderie instilled by this common language provided an
avenue for peace talks and a bond which led to confederations and unified
tribes. Whether or not this was actually the case cannot be determined from
the remaining documentation. However, the concept that a common
language promoted peaceful cohabitation was implicit in his earliest
educational venture with the prisoner-students at St. Augustine. Pratt noted
of this endeavor:
Promoting English speech was among the earliest and most
persistent of our efforts in order to bring the Indians into best
understanding and relationship with our people. (Battlefield 121)
This passage itself insinuates that the acquisition of English speaking
capabilities would ease tensions by instilling an "understanding" of
euroamerican and speeding peaceful "relationships."
Regardless of the root of Pratt's philosophy, he plainly stipulated the
value of English education in his earliest Carlisle recruiting trip. Pratt had
thus admonished Spotted Tail while visiting the Rosebud Agency:
Your ignorance against the white man's education will more and
more hinder .and restrain you and take from you ... as long as
you are so ignorant and unable to attend to your own affairs.
(Battlefield 223)
Oesch 87
Note, first of all, that Pratt labeled Spotted Tail, Chief of the Burle
Sioux, "ignorant" because he was unable to speak or write English. In this
instance, literacy equaled competency. This comments on the tendency of
"literate" peoples to create the criteria used to determine what constitutes
"literacy" and to deem those outside of these criteria as uneducated or "ignorant."
Valuing Literate over Oral Cultures
In his essay "Literacy, Orality, and the Functions of Curriculum,"
William A. Reid recognizes the ongoing conflict between notions of literacy
and orality. He demonstrates the tendency of "literate" groups to define
reality in literacy-based, objectified terms whereby oral perspectives are
undermined and a connection is established between "levels of attainment in
literacy and access to positions of authority" (13-15). Donald Rothman notes
that colonial figures often "express the naive belief that literacy in and of itself
will be liberating" (123). Pratt blindly adhered to the notion that literacy was
liberating, not only from "ignorance," but also from poverty and discrimination.
Pratt told Spotted tail:
Cannot you see that it is far, far better for you to have your
children educated and trained as our children are so that they
can speak the English language, write letters, and do the things
which brings to the white man such prosperity, and each of them
be able to stand for their rights as the white man stands for his?
(Battlefield 223).
In this passage it becomes more evident that Pratt embraced a world view in
which the "literate claim authority to set the terms of survival and success"
Oesch 88
(Knoblauch 75). Therefore, Pratt equated literacy with freedom, power,
salvation, and success.
Second, note the direct correlation between education and literacy.
This line of thinking assumed that all those who were educated would acquire
literacy skills and thus overcome "ignorance." By supporting such notions,
Pratt promoted' a "pernicious half-truth" substantiating the unquestionable
importance of literacy in "absolutionist and ethnocentric terms" (Knoblauch
75). In his essay "Literacy and the Politics of Education," C. H. Knoblauch
recognizes the inclination of early educators to "sacrifice the humanizing
understanding that life can be otherwise than the way we happen to know it"
(75). Pratt is a prime example of unevaluated prejudice toward others based
on his own culturally laced notions of literacy.
Many Americanized notions of literacy included ideals of proficiency
that required thinking in English as well as speaking English. Numerous
politicians, educators and philanthropists forwarded this concept of English
literacy proficiency. At Carlisle, Pratt too accentuated the importance of
thinking in English. He stated that one of the primary goals of the outing
program was to compel his students "to think in English" ('Way Out" 274).
Other educators concurred with this ambition.
John Simon stated, "There is a close connection between the ability to
think and the ability to use English correctly" (340). Simon added the
following rationale for his claim: "The person who does not respect words and
their proper relationships cannot have much respect for ideas--very possibly
cannot have ideas at all" (344). Due to ethnocentric views compatible with
Oesch 89
Simon's ideas about language, English proficiency remained a primary issue
in government mandates regulating early Native American education.
English Only Conflict
Ironically, the government's "English only" mandate was in conflict with
nineteenth century educational research. Secretary of Interior Schurz had
been notified that Alfred L. Riggs, a successful administrator, was "of the
opinion that first teaching the children to read and write in their own language
enables them to master English with more ease" (Report of the Board of
Indian Commissioners 77). Consequently, Riggs promoted bi-lingual
instructional approaches. Many educators agreed with Riggs stressing that
successful teachers learned native tongues (Reyhner History of Indian
Education 49).
The Friends of the Indians also debated the English only mandate.
The use of native languages in the classrooms was the central issue at the
1887 Lake Mohonk Conference. These philanthropists determined that
instructions given in "Indian" were essential to teaching English. It was noted
that most instructors "use the [native] vernacular to teach the English, to
convey the idea of good English." One representative asserted, "How are
you going to teach the Indian the word 'soul' or 'God' or 'heaven,' or any
invisible thing without it? ... you have to use the native language to convey
the idea" (Proceedings 100). Yet despite such notable opposition,
government mandates stood firm.
Just four years following Rigg's plea to Schurz, J. D. C. Atkins ignored
the voices of educators and philanthropic groups with this beguiling remark:
Oesch 90
"So far as I am advised, there is no dissent [regarding English only
mandates] either among the lawmakers or the executive agents who are
selected under the law to do the work" ("English" 199). This tendency to
reject conflicting evidence and publish only complimentary information was
telling of the bureaucratic system that flourished under what Pratt termed "a
permanent double-headed Bureau oligarchy" (Pratt Battlefield 293). Thus,
English only mandates continued well into the twentieth century.
Repercussions of English Only Mandates
Possibly the most devastating repercussion of language restrictions
was the silencing of Native American school children. Research suggests
that students-including those at Carlisle--may have spent years in virtual
silence due to three major factors. First, they kept silent to avoid corporal
punishment for speaking in their native tongue. Second, they were afraid of
being humiliated for misusing the English language. In many tribes, jeering
laughter was more insultingly detrimental than harsh words or physical
altercations. Third, silence may have provided a subversive avenue for
rejecting the "white man's" education. In her research of Indian school
children, Janice Gould has concluded that students "actively and passively
resisted the process of forced assimilation" (10). One could only imagine the
dismay of the school teacher who received the following poem from her Native
American pupil:
If I do not believe you The things you say Maybe I will not tell you That is my way
Maybe you think I believe you That thing you say, But always my thoughts stay with me My own way.
(D. W. Adams 231)
Oesch 91
Students may have relied on such subversive uses of English to maintain
their own identity while enduring massive de-culturation efforts.
English Literacy Education--A Politically Situated Entity
In Right to Literacy, Beth Daniell notes that "the use of language and
literacy generally tells us more about the social and political relations in a
particular situation" than do the progressive claims of national leaders
(192). Therefore, careful examination of Pratt's uses of English literacy
training should provide insights into other complex, motivating factors. To
begin, correlations between Pratt and more widely recognized proponents of
literacy education may prove enlightening.
Pratt's recognition of literacy education as the key to assimilation was
similar to that of Joseph Stalin who was born in the year of Carlisle's
conception, 1879. Stalin's educational model positioned literacy education as
a systematic program to homogenize the indigenous population. Stalin used
literacy to promote "massive industrialization and forced collectivization, a
tool in the creation of a centralized state, rather than a means of human
liberation" (Daniell 192).
Pratt's use of English education had been founded on much the same
purpose, to create a homogenized society. His approach was threefold.
Pratt's first goal was to end inter-tribal hostilities. He suggested, "Schools
should put all tribes together to destroy antagonism" (Prucha Americanizing 226).
Oesch 92
Once tribal differences had been resolved, he wanted to decimate tribal
identities. Pratt and J. D. C. Atkins were in total agreement on this point.
Atkins stated, "The object of greatest solicitude should be to break down the
prejudices on tribes among the Indians; to blot out the boundary lines which
divided them into distinct nations, and fuse them into one homogenous mass"
("English" 199). Atkins added, "Uniformity of language will do this-nothing
else will." This mass, homogenized through a common language, English,
could then be labeled "Indian" rather than continuing tribal differentiations.
The third step in Pratt's plan went one step beyond Atkins'. Pratt
wished to assimilate all'"lndians" into euroamerican society. Consequently,
Native American cultural differences could be absorbed into the "great
American melting pot." The oppressive reality which was institutionalized
through his efforts-including Carlisle, the outing system, and a network of off
reservation boarding schools-is especially ironic in light of his professed
intentions to liberate these indigenous peoples.
Politically Charged Notions of Literacy
Pratt also neglected to reflect on how "literate" systems were
perpetuated. Knoblauch states that concepts of literacy are politically
charged and reaffirmed by fellow "literate" participants. He states:
People who are measured positively by the yardstick of literacy
enjoy their privileges because of their power to choose and
apply that instrument on their own behalf, not because of their
point of development or innate worthiness. (75)
Oesch 93
Pratt, on the other hand, believed firmly in his "innate worthiness." Verified
by his standing as a literate American, a military officer and a Presbyterian
minister, he seemed to have been unaware of the oppressive, imperialistic
agendas at work in the midst of his "benevolent" scheme. 24
Two other basic questions Pratt neglected to consider were his notions
of liberty and freedom. Consumed by a thoroughly Americanized world view,
Pratt did not see that his idea of freedom differed dramatically from those of
recently conquered Indians. He neglected to grasp simple correlations
between past events and the Indians' current plight. For example, Pratt could
have found similarities between eighteenth-century America and the Indians'
right to educate their own children. After the liberation of the confederate
states from English rule, colonists' desired to express their freedom through
divergent forms of education, government, and commerce. Likewise,
Scotland fought viciously to maintain educational autonomy. Why would Pratt
have thought that Native Americans should have been any different in their
desire for educational independence? Pratt's lack of critical reflection upon
such examples-as well as his unreflective notions of literacy--heaped
intellectual enslavement on the very people he sought to liberate.
Further, the curriculum incorporated by Pratt at Carlisle cultivated the
devaluing of Native Americans' oral systems. Reid notes this intrinsic link
between 'literate' behavior and [school] curriculum." He states,
Oesch 94
The work of the curriculum, then, is not to introduce to modernity
those who would otherwise lack the ability to make sense of
their world, buy actively to destroy, or at least severely modify,
the cultural and intellectual resources they [the illiterate] already
possess. (15)
Pratt boldly affirmed his intentions to use Carlisle's curriculum to fulfill just
such a purpose. In fact, Pratt's motto "Kill the Indian in him, and save the
man" suggested his desire to decimate every trace of "lndianness"--albeit oral
traditions or hair styles--from his students ("Advantages" 261). Pratt then
decidedly clarified, "Carlisle has always planted treason to the tribe and
loyalty to the nation at large" (Battlefield 268). This "loyalty" included
acceptance of white man's education and "Americanized" notions of literacy.
Knoblauch asserts, "The concept of literacy is embedded, then, in the
ideological dispositions of those who use the concept, those who profit from
it, and those who have the standing and motivation to enforce it as a social
requirement" (Knoblauch 74). Consequently, Pratt's concept of literacy was
tellingly revealed through his curricular focus on English instruction and his
willingness to divisively separate children from their cultural heritage.
Evidence reveals that Pratt supported an ethnocentric, Americanized view of
literacy which devalued difference-linguistic or cultural--and sought to create
a homogenized nation, "Under God with liberty and justice for all" (that is, "all"
who conformed to his social outlook). The question then. resurfaces, what
was Pratt's social outlook and how can his educational practices shed light on
the systematic nature of his agenda?
Oesch 95
In the Introduction to this thesis, Kaestle was quoted as challenging
researchers to examine the ideologies of school reformers. It is ironic, then,
that his essay "Ideology and American Educational History" sheds light on the
dominant ideology, or social outlook, to which Pratt appears to have ascribed
traditional, Protestant ideologies.
Traditional, Protestant Ideologies
The socio-political strains and advancements of 1800s "set the stage
for the rise of systematic (political, moral, economic) ideologies" (Geertz
"Ideology" 64). The most prevalent of these ideologies in the nineteenth
century was what Kaestle termed traditional, Protestant ideology. As
examined in Chapter One, traditional, Protestant ideology "centered on
republicanism, Protestantism, and capitalism" creating a system that stressed
the ideals of individualism, societal morality, and economic prosperity
(Kaestle 127). Kaestle stressed that these three sources of belief were so
tightly fused that those who questioned any aspect of this "blessed trinity"
were accused of undermining the entire system (128). Therefore, Pratt's
inability to reflexively evaluate his educational plan may be attributed to the
very nature of traditional, Protestant ideology.
In his essay "Official English: Another Americanization Campaign,"
Joseph Leibowicz points out:
Because language issues can easily be loaded with otherwise
unsavory or unacceptable agendas, elements of the
Americanization movement were able to transfer language from
a shield against linguistic chaos into a sword against
nonlinguistic difference as well (107).
Oesch 96
Leibowicz continues, "The apparent solicitude for the national language
exhibited by many Americanizers was a mask for racial, economic, and
political hostility toward users of other tongues." So, in keeping with
traditional, Protestant ideology, the Americanizers' promotion of English
education included presuppositions regarding capitalism and republicanism.
Consequently, education was not an end in itself; but, as Secretary of Interior
Schurz stated, "Education for patriotic American citizenship" (7).
Likewise, Pratt's acceptance of English only education agendas was
dramatically infused with "Americanized values" consistent with traditional,
Protestant ideology. Leslie and James Milroy attribute the political factors
inherent to literacy education to the nature of language, noting that "language
is embedded in a social matrix" (51). This implies that concepts of language
usage are also rooted in societal expectations. Milroy and Milroy proceed to
note that societies, such as Pratt's, may equate a decline in proper usage
with a "sliding morality" (53). In fact, this appears to have been indicative of
Pratt and other nineteenth-century educators who were so wrapped up in
traditional, Protestant ideology that they equated speaking English with
embracing Christianity, capitalism, and U.S. citizenship.
Regarding this "sliding morality," in the essay "Ideology and
Discontent," David E. Apter notes that the "vaguest of ideologies can be
made to shine in the reflected glow of moral indignation" (16). America's
traditional, Protestant ideology was no exception. Accordingly, many
Oesch 97
reformers, including Pratt, despised "savage" languages, communal cultural
practices, "heathenish" religions, and "primitive" traditions.
Proponents of this ideology responded most indignantly to the
communal cultures indicative of Native American tribes. "The Indian must be
imbued with the exalting egotism of the American civilization so that he will
say 'I' instead of 'we' and 'this is mine' instead of 'this is ours"' (Atkins
"English" 200). The purpose of this "egocentric" focus was to promote
capitalistic ventures. In fact, manifest-destiny dogma promoted this idea that
God had ordained capitalism. Merrill E. Gates, President of Amhurst College
and a member of the Board of Indian Commissioners in 1884, stated, "Nay by
rations dealt out whether needed or not ... we have taken from the
compelling instruction that grows out of [God's] laws, 'if a man will not work,
neither shall he eat!"' (47). Henry L. Dawes concurred claiming that whites must,
Take [the Indian] by the hand and set him upon his feet, and
teach him to stand alone first, then to walk, then to dig, then to
plant, then to hoe, then to gather, then to keep. The last and the
best agency of civilization is to teach a grown up Indian to keep.
(Dawes 29)
Here Dawes clearly associated the concept of "keeping" with capitalistic
ventures such as farming, land ownership, and financial savings.
Many euroamericans also despised tribal religious practices and other
"heathenish" ways. Moreover, this self-righteous indignation fueled concepts
of moral superiority. Reformers flaunted the superiority of new ideas over
tribal "oral" traditions by constructing a utopic vision of the future. This vision
Oesch 98
insured total assimilation, whereby peace and prosperity in the nurturing
womb of an industrial paradise were promised to those who would conform to
"American" ways.
Pratt situated himself as a prophetic messenger of this promise to the
lndians--hence his recognition as the "Red Man's Moses" (Eastman). He
vowed to lead them from the savage wilderness into a land flowing with the
milk and honey of capitalistic progress. Pratt cited a belief in human equality.
and the Declaration of Independence as rationale for these "well intended"
goals. Apter notes that "Ideology helps to make explicit the moral basis of
action" (17). In retrospect, one may assert that traditional, Protestant
ideology fueled Pratt's "moral crusade" to liberate Indians from "the throes of
barbarism." His proposals met the needs of both politicians and
philanthropists while providing a "white-washed" version of hope to Native
Americans. Pratt's plans also offered definitive answers--answers that were
rooted deep in the heart of this developing nation's ideology.
The Ideology of Development
Apter notes that "ideologies employed in development seek to
transcend negativism and to define hope in programmatic terms" (16). Pratt's
Carlisle experiment embodied Apter's description. He confronted the
negatives of war by offering a peaceful solution. He denounced conceptions
of racial inferiority by acknowledging cultural inferiority. He re-channeled
opposition to Native American schooling expenses by noting the cost
effectiveness of education in contrast to conflict. By so doing, Pratt
transcended much of the "negativism" directed toward Native Americans.
Oesch 99
Pratt then offered hope embodied in "programmatic" terms through off
reservation, government funded, Native American boarding schools. Pratt
avidly promoted this concept and Carlisle was conceived. Completely
compatible with traditional, Protestant ideology, this project matured giving
birth to a nation-wide network of twenty-five schools modeled after Pratt's
pilot project. For fifteen years Pratt enjoyed the ideological compatibility of
his project to dominant trends. Then, subtly and mysteriously, things
changed. This change signaled more than simple disillusionment with Pratt's
plan, it was indicative of a shift in the ideological posturing of a nation.
The Rise of Current- Traditionalism
Current-Tr~ditionalism followed at the heels of SCSR and seemed to
emphasize the n:iost mechanistic features of Campbell and Blair's work.
Berlin noted that this new rhetoric flourished as most schools began to view
themselves as educating to serve the needs of business and industry.
Therefore, public school _curriculum was devised to meet the individualized
demand for excellence and a capitalistic demand for numbers. Across the
country, trade schools became more prevalent as an alternative for those
less interested in fields requiring post-secondary schooling.
Native American educational programs underwent much the same
phenomenon. The BIA gleaned only the most superficial features from
Pratt's programs to form a new curriculum. This marked the movement from
a holistic instructional approach to a vocational orientation. As this
transformation proceeded, instruction of Native American children in
geography, literature, and the arts was seen as seed sown "on stony ground"
.·
Oesch 100
(Hoxie 194). This stream-line approach may be attributed to the increasingly
mechanistic features of Current-Traditionalism.
Current-Traditionalism was a scientistic approach promoting a
detached, observant method of writing. This implied that writers could
separate themselves from socio-political ties and objectively report "the truth"
from the obvious facts observed. This approach to writing removed the
ethical and most of the emotional issues from the text and focused on an
appeal to reason.
In much the same manner, Indian educators began situating
themselves as educational professionals rather than emotionally invested
crusaders, as Pratt and his peers had professed to be. This new, more
logical approach to Native American education had varying affects on the
Indian school system. First, morality debates seemed to subside as racial
equality issues fell from the spotlight. During this time, many philanthropists
began focusing attention on women's rights, overseas tensions, and alcohol
sales. Almost simultaneously, a resurgence of racism flourished to the extent
that Commissioner of Indian Affairs; Francis E. Leupp, publicly attacked
believers in racial equality (Hoxie 198). Corroborating officials noted that it
was "Nature's work" that the Indian remain a savage and the whites serve as
"lord" (Hoxie 199). Other researchers, professing to have removed ethical
and emotional issues from clouding their perspective, determined that Native
Americans were "hereditarily inferior" (199).
Oesch 101
Consequentially, Current-Traditionalism appears to have had
devastating affects on Native American education. By the early 1900's,
Indian boarding schools no longer focused on blending educational and
vocational instruction, instead specializing in industrial studies. Carlisle was
no exception. English acquisition and vocational training emerged as the
curricular focus; and, by the time it closed in 1918, Carlisle students
specialized only in mechanical trades and apprenticed at the Ford Motor
Company. For years Congress resisted closing the twenty-five schools
modeled after Pratt's plan because they "represented significant economic
boost to the economies of the cities where they were located" (Hoxie 104).
Yet as international military efforts increased, financial support was
transferred from education to war efforts. These, and other, drastic social
changes marked the end of Pratt's domination of Indian educational issues as
well as the end of his career at Carlisle.
Closing Comments
Nineteenth-century Indian educators, including Pratt, and their
methodologies have come under particular scrutiny in recent years. In
retrospect, early Native American educational strategies were intolerant of
difference, overly reductive and inhumanely unjust. The atrocities committed
against the Native American peoples under the guise of government funded
education were appalling. Yet it seems a little too easy to criticize and
condemn these educators from the comfort of a 100 year buffer.
Oesch 102
In lieu of heaping criticism upon criticism, this project purposed to examine
the socio-political and ideological influences that prepared a society to readily
accept Pratt's ethnocentric notions of Indian education.
It would seem unobservant not to notice that the practices Pratt
instituted at Carlisle were in keeping with modern theories of the late 1 BOOs;
or that prevailing ideologies permeated the intellectual atmosphere creating
an environment in which Pratt's proposals would be embraced. Pratt's
educational views also aligned with governmental ambitions to "make [the
Indian] a safe and useful factor in our body politic" (Pratt "Advantages of
Mingling" 35). Further, this thesis affirmed that Pratt's ideas themselves were
embedded in the dominant rhetorical, educational and ideological theories of
his time.
Therefore, critical evaluation of the societal tenets that may open
people to ethnocentric and exclusivist views seem to prove more fruitful than
the simple derailing of voices trapped within these ideologically constructed
frames. While we cannot neglect the injustices brought upon the Native
American peoples by educators like Pratt, examining rhetorical and
ideological components of his educational philosophy can shed light on future
endeavors instead of simply glaring back into the darkness of the past's
atrocities.
Oesch 103
Notes
1 While Scottish schools were studying English literature, Oxford and
Cambridge were concentrating on Greek and Latin studies and deemed
English literature, or folk literature, undeserving of serious consideration.
Cambridge did not introduce an English literature course until 1904.
In contrast, Edinburgh announced William Edmonstone Aytoun as the first
English Literature Department Chair in 1845. Harvard followed suit
presenting Francis J. Child as its first English literature chair in 1876. This
illustrated the American tendency to comply with Scottish educational
trends and implies that these two countries held similar ideological aims
(Horner 86).
2 Horner further asserted, 'When humanists fail to take seriously the
general liberal arts part of their educational program and fail to see rhetoric at
the heart of the arts education, they abrogate their commitment to
democracy" (94).
3 Hume's obsession with emotional appeal went far beyond Locke's
tendency to see the will as the prime motivating force in human nature.
Consequently, Hume's theories were often points of conflict and concern
for the three major proponents of SCSR--Blair, Campbell and Whately. In
fact, Campbell's Dissertation on Miracles was a "treatise designed to
Oesch 104
answer the skepticism of Hume" (Golden 139). Meanwhile, Blair defended
Hume against charges of heresy (Golden 23).
4 Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric was composed over a fifteen-year
period. Campbell endured a rigorous composing process including
multiple drafts, submissions to friends, critical responses and numerous
revisions.
s In Brereton's collection, Perry proceeded to note his disdain for
Campbell's stringent grammatical system asserting, "It was an attempt to
cultivate taste by a negative process." He went on to state, "The tone of
this censure is curiously like the red-inked comments of their present-day
[1935] descendants" (302). This also seems to recognize the
foundational structures Campbell created for Current-Traditional rhetoric.
s The term "current-traditional rhetoric" was first coined by Daniel
Fogarty (1959), but it became widely recognized by composition
professionals through the work of Richard Young. His article "Paradigms
and Problems: Some Needed Research in Rhetorical Invention" (1978)
characterized the salient features of current-traditional rhetoric as quoted
on page 31 of Chapter One from Donald Stewart's article.
1 Bain was the first to recognize the paragraph as a small theme,
consisting of an opening introductory sentence, several supporting points,
Oesch 105
and a conclusion (Mulderig 95-97). His "paragraph theory" dates back to
1866, but has influenced modern classrooms as well as modern theorists
(Connors 64). Mulderig notes that "Bain anticipated Frank D'Angelo's
recent comment that the rhetorician must 'relate the structure of thought to
the structure of discourse"' (99). This is a reflection of the psychological
nature of Bain's work. Bain, a renown psychologist, combined theories of
psychology and rhetoric to explore the sequences of mental phenomena
and how these could be traced through writing patterns.
8 The inventio of management was first investigated by Richard
Whately (1787-1863). Whately is often listed along with Campbell and
Blair as a notable influence behind Scottish Common Sense Realism.
He diverted slightly from their stances by reviving Aristotelian rhetoric
including deduction and an amended approach to invention-the inventio of
management. His texts, Elements of Rhetoric (1828) and Elements of
Logic (1826), were widely circulated and served as standard text in many
American writing classrooms through the advent of the twentieth-century.
Logic enjoyed even more popularity than Rhetoric, going into its ninth
edition by 1850. Yet, it was his Rhetoric which gave him fame and
influence (Golden 273). For more information see: Berlin Writing 28-31
(rhetorical theory); Golden 273-276 (concise biography); and WhatelyE/ements of Rhetoric.
Oesch 106
9 During ''the Removal," missionary schools were temporarily suspended
and re-opened in new locations with additional funding from "substantial
treaty annuities" set aside for educational purposes (Evelyn Adams 35).
Many treaties, drafted by the War Department, included clauses requiring
that a portion of the tribal annuities be invested in education. The
Bureau's educational system was borne through the combined efforts of
missionary educators who often served in these schools; the
Commissioner of Indian Affairs; and War Department officials. Funding
for these schools was propagated through treaties mandating the
education of young Indian children.
10 Native American education came to the forefront of BIA concerns in
1870 when $100,000 was budgeted for the development of new schools
(Reyhner History of Indian Education 44 ). This also influenced the 1873
repeal of the Indian Civilization Act which deterred funding to church
affiliated Indian schools (27). With this repeal, the BIA became
increasingly involved in the direct operation of Native American
vocational education and boarding schools.
11 The possibility of dying within sight of the Atlantic ocean held a special
horror for these Native Americans, many of whom believed that their spirit
had to cross four rivers to get to the "other world." The ocean would have
Oesch 107
posed an insurmountable obstacle to their happiness in the next life
(American Experience).
12 Cutting their hair was especially reprehensible and frightening to the
Cheyennes who saw this as a sign of mourning and death.
13 Henry E. Fritz implied that Pratt did not have a formal strategy for his
educational efforts at St. Augustine. He wrote that industrial training was
provided "in preference to the dullness of simple confinement" (164). Still
others question the impact of the prisoners successes while in Florida on
Pratt's future accomplishments. Evelyn Adams records that Carlisle was
proposed by E. A. Hayt due to "the satisfactory work of the Indians at
Hampton" rather than because of Pratt's instructional or lobbying efforts
(52). But in a letter from Hayt to Pratt he wrote: "You are entitled to the
credit of establishing the School. You found the empty barracks, you got
the consent of the Secretary of War to use them, you fussed around the
Interior Department until you got sufficient steam to propel the enterprise.
You got the children together, in fact did everything but get the money"
(Hoxie 266). This seems to summarize the extent to which Pratt was
responsible for the conception, birth and nurturing of the Carlisle Institute.
14 This fluency of communication between the Department of Interior
(Schurz) and the War Department (Mccrary) may have been symptomatic
Oesch 108
of the militaries' continued involvement in BIA affairs. Even as late as the
1900s, politicians and BIA officials had not addressed the conflict of
interests in the War Department's ties to Native American education. Nor
had they questioned the ethics of placing military personnel in charge of
Native American educational endeavors (Hoxie 56). Political back
scratching between these two departments carried over well into the
twentieth century.
1s There is contrary evidence as to what party originally claimed, or held to
the claim, that the Carlisle School students would be held hostage for their
parents compliance to government mandates. In his text, Pratt plainly
attributes this to Hyat and the "Indian Bureau administration" (227).
Meanwhile Reyhner, a leading historian in Native American educational
studies, attributes this to Pratt per the 1878 Annual Report of the
Commissioner of Indian Affairs (45). Fritz mediates these claims
by stating that Pratt did not hold the students as prisoners; but that he,
along with his fellow Presbyterians, had simply argued that the
presence of Indian children in the east would predicate the good
behavior of their elders at home (165-66).
1s Luther Standing Bear reported that these names were to be "pointed
out" with a large stick. He also noted that students were not told the
Oesch 109
"meanings" of these names. Although the names were haphazardly
distributed, students could change their name if they were so inclined.
Note the following letter as recorded in Pratfs text:
Dear Captain Pratt: I am going to tell you something about my name. Captain Pratt,
I would like to have a brand new name because some of the girls call me Cornbread and some call me Cornrat, so I do not like that name, so I want you to give me a new name. Now this is all I want to say.
Conrad.
Conrad's request was granted. Pratt included this letter to demonstrate
that he "encouraged their utmost freedom in coming to me at any
time with any of their personal matters" (Battlefield 293).
11 It is important to note that these educators, politicians and
philanthropists assumed that nomadic cultures did not have structure or
that these behaviors and habits were aimless and purposeless. It was
also ironic that those controlling Indian policy determined that "white"
culture was superior to Native American ways. Little, if any, surviving
documentation suggests that nineteenth-century educational or political
figures reflected on assumptions of euroamerican, cultural superiority.
18 Edward Bruner's "Ethnography as Narrative" explores the nature of
ethnographic discourse as story telling, asserting that stories give
meaning to the present as well as congealing a more elusive notion that
the present is the product of "relationships involving the constituted past
Oesch 110
and a future." The two dominant narratives (one viewing the past as
glorious, the new seeing the past as exploitation) provide meaning to the
present in an "ordered syntagmatic system." Bruner also notes that
anthropological stories are representations, not to be confused with
concrete existence. He concludes that stories are not ideologically neutral
and that Native Americans, as well as others, will continually be constructing
new theories reconsidering the past's dominant narrative (139-155).
19 In a video series entitled "The Native Americans" historians
attribute the founding of the unified thirteen colonies to Native American
influences. On July 4, 1744 the Indian Confederacy met with colonial
leaders and "admonished them to make a permanent peace" with one
another so that the tribes could deal with one government. Iroquois Chief
Gana-sedego was recorded as stating, 'We are a powerful confederacy
and by your observing the same methods our wise forefathers have taken
you will acquire much strength and power." Historians recognized that it
may have been a coincidence that the founding fathers decided to form a
confederacy, but stressed the irony of that decision when the colonies
were "surrounded by a sea of confederacies from New England to Georgia."
20 Henry E. Fritz implied that Pratt did not have a formal strategy for
his educational efforts. Fritz wrote that instructional efforts and labor
programs incorporated at St. Augustine were only provided "in preference
to the dullness of simple confinement" (164). Another author, Evelyn
Oesch 111
Adams, suggests that the founding of Carlisle was proposed by E. A. Hayt
rather than Pratt. Adams further directs credit for the founding of off
reservation Indian schools to Armstrong's work at Hampton rather than to
Pratt's lobbying efforts (52). But in a letter to Pratt, Hayt himself stated,
"You are entitled to the credit of establishing the School" (Hoxie 266).
While Pratt's involvement in the founding of Carlisle may be above
question, the purposeful nature of his pedagogy continues to be
mysteriously understated.
21 Pratt allowed his feelings regarding equality to color every aspect of
his military commission. He recalled a situation where he deemed a black
Private as the "cleanest drilled soldier" which resulted in him being
selected as "orderly" to the commanding officer for the day. Pratt's
commanding officer questioned his judgment in this selection and ordered
him to select a familiar white Private in the future. Pratt questioned, "That
is your order notwithstanding the rules?" He said, "It is." Pratt noted, "But
I was not to execute that order for that night the white soldier deserted.
He could not face the ridicule of his comrades at being beaten by a
Negro" (28-29). This passage seems to be indicative of the extensive
racism Pratt regularly confronted throughout his career.
22 Pratt seemed to record Mrs. Stowe's assistance with teaching effort
as a routine visit. She apparently wintered in St. Augustine and enjoyed
Oesch 112
spending time with Miss Mather (incidentally, he never recorded her first
name), Pratt's chief instructor at St. Augustine and later Carlisle. Pratt
reported an entertaining incident involving Stowe and Mather which
involved a language lesson. While attempting to teach the Indian
prisoners the "th" sound, Mather used the word "teeth." To exemplify this,
she removed her dentures to show them a complete set. The Indians
were horrified and began stating, "Miss Mather is no good"-meaning that
she was defective. Apparently Mather and Stowe found this situation
immensely humorous and shared a hearty laugh (Pratt Battlefield 154-155).
23 Pratt's memoirs note two rather negative encounters with John
Wesley Powell. The first claimed that Powell took credit for archeological
finds excavated by Pratt and his Indian prisoners at a Native American
burial mound near St. Augustine (Battlefield 130-131). The second
recounted Powell's interference with Pratt's display of traditional tribal
habitations at the Columbian Exposition (305). Pratt never directly
referenced Powell's theories in his text, nor did he offer any positive
comments regarding Powell or his work.
24 In his essay, Knoblauch accentuates the importance of recognizing
the social and political conditions that tend to drive notions of literacy. He
continues, "Possessing that understanding, educators in particular ...
may advance their agendas for literacy with somewhat less likelihood of
being blinded by the light of their own benevolence to the imperial designs
that may lurk in the midst of their compassion" (75). Knoblauch's
Oesch 113
observations add compelling insight into Pratt's notions of literacy
education. Because Pratt did not question social or political roles of
literacy agendas, he fell prey to an inappropriate vision of his own work,
whereby he saw himself as a selfless servant of the Indian peoples.
Oesch 114
Appendix A
Table of United States Government Officials, 1877-1920
Secretary Commissioner Superintendent Government
President of the of Indian of Indian Legislation/
Interior Affairs Schools Indian Educ.
I E. A. Hayt 1870- $100,000
""'" Rutherford Appointed 1877 budgeted for Native
""'" American (NA) co B. Hayes Carl Schurz -1880- lndustrtal Schools ....
I E. M. Marble Acting Commissioner 1871- Treaty
making period ends James A. S.J. Hiram Price
I Garfield Kirkwood -1882-1879- Carlisle .... Indian School co (Position Created: founded by co lnspectoroflndian .... -1881- -1881- -1881- R. H. Pratt
I Education) Chester A. Henry M. Hiram Price J. J. Haworth 1882- Unoccupied
Arthur Teller military facilities approved for NA
John H. Oberly boarding schools
I L. Q. c.
J. D. C. Atkins 1887- Dawes Act in Grover Lamar -1886- (heralded as the co John B. Riley "Indian's Magna Carta") co Cleveland ....
-1888-I -1888- 1890- Federal -1888-W. F. Villas John H. Oberly
S. H. Albro tuition offered to public schools educating NAs
I uame1 1892- Compulsory en Benjamin John W. ThomasJ. Dorchester co attendance of NA co Harrison Noble Morgan schools approved ....
I
uamel 1892- Federal
teachers placed in
Hoke Smith Dorchester Civil Service
I D.M. M Grover en Browning -1894- 1894- Prohibited co Cleveland sending NA stu-.... -1896- W. N. Hailman I dents out-of-state
D. R. Francis without parental consent (outlawed
vv.1'1. nanman withholding rations I to gain consent)
""'" William C. N. Bliss W.A. en co McKinley Jones -1898- 1895- NA students .... Estelle Reel can't be moved from I -1899-
E.A. school to school
without parental or Hitchcock student consent
I ..... 0 en .....
I
I II) 0 en .....
I
I en 0 en .....
I
I CW) ..... en "';'
I
""'" ..... en .....
I
Oesch 115
Table of United States Government Officials, 1877-1920 continued
President
William
McKinley
-1901-
Theodore
Roosevelt
Theodore
Roosevelt
William H.
Taft
Woodrow
Wilson
Woodrow
Wilson
Secretary of the
Interior
E.A.
Hitchcock
Hitchcock
Hitchcock
-1907-
James R. Garfield
Richard A.
Ballinger
-1911-
Walter L. Fisher
Franklin K.
Lane
Franklin K. Lane
Commissioner Superintendent Government of Indian of Indian Legislation/ Affairs Schools Indian Educ.
W.A. Estelle Reel 1901-Reel
introduces voca-Jones tionally oriented
curriculum
Jones Reel 1904- Pratt retired
1909-White children approved to attend
NA boarding schools Francis E. Estelle Reel if pay tuition
Leu pp Leupp's Motto:
Individualize and Specialize brought
"assembly-line" mentalilytoNA
schools
1916- Uniform Robert Harvey Peairs course of study
Valentine introduced at all federal NA schools
Undersells, Carlisle specialized in
mechanical trades and apprenticed students to the Ford Motor Co
Harvey Peairs 1917-Carlisle Cato Sells closed for use as a
World War I hospital base
April 23, 1924-Pratt died
1924- Curtis Act granted citizenship
Cato Sells to all NA
Until 1929 NA languages, dress
and hair styles were forbidden ingovn.
schools (Macgregor117)
JtUJl.,et~~~.,~ '~@;~t!i!~ ' ' ''•· •,
·. ', ., ' .
1 ~=-
"··' $ociq .. Poli~ical,'F~ct9rs !nfluencing, the Carlisle' ln'dian, ·s~hc;>o_I' "'o -••'-- •• ~• ·---''-'"1~~ ';o•- •~'•• n o ·"--· .,. '"''" ''"".1,..-,-1'.-I•
Carlisle Indian School
1879-Car1!slefounded by General Richard H. Pratt with 138 students from four tribes (84 Sioux from the Rosebud and Pine Ridge Reservations) Pr&!l'alherre:KMfhtJ~ht6n&S-lheAfaol
Outing System Instituted- lmlmtse NAh ~cutllnendhold'll'lem6-llrlillheytbomugNy~(Pratt335).
1890-0ver1,000studentsattended Cartisle-;."17-pnignt1H ottt.o pupil1 • •• ta~ ~fllanhdllycr:hools. TMdtirchnbeq, tr--1 &t:rm the idle and cotrUplinf1 habb al URglll home• - - •Nily lildlo lldoptthe ~ oldt.tliud life end lnapltwd'""' .... lDAlam"-Socd otlmian Commluloners ..._..,_ By 1001-Educators at Carlisle -no longerworked to transfonnthe children who mrived there• and began concentrating efforts on English literacy Instruction and the training of factorywortersand fanners (Hoxie 194,Frilz.164-168).
1694-CommlsslonerHallmann developed new a.miculum to•replace schoolroom pedantry"with•reaflyvltal wo111.•(Hoxie190),
Pratt'sReslgnationduetodisagreementswithlegislatorsregan:ling interdisciplin81)'educationofstudents vs. the move lO exduslvelylechnical Ins-Carlisle specialized In mechanical trades and apprenticed students to the FordMo!orCompany(Hoxle204).
191S-Csr1isleclosed/usedasanAmrj rehabllllationciteforveteransofWN1
' '·' . :Goverllmentaih
'Legisliltion 1&40. Bureau oflndlari Affliirs (BIA) transferred from War Dept io the· qep~Of'l!Jterfoi
1870-$100,000bUdgetediorNative Am_encah (NA)_llidUsbiiil-SchoO!_S ·1.871.._treafyni8k1n'gp8d0deri_ds_' --~ ; ,
,_:- - - . ·- ' _,
.1s8o- Maldate:M instructiOn or NA· StudS_ritSatQ:Ovemr:nenttiuideci • ' ", schools must be In Eilglish_
"Ai•pvage wiicMtnot~hbri(Nlltlvil ~JllllYmin ll'IM• bJkMliz«J ,.,. •. ~°"'~ u.-oni)' 11tema1Mletrl1totithlmby~trl
-.~~::..1~ BOantQflndlan Cornrrduion-: . '
:18oo.Fed~tiillionoffe~;p~~1-1c: '. ,,sch~s~U~tinli_,,NA~~eRts. <. ·:, ~ .:. 1e91~T.J;Morgan.C~1Ssioi4~r0t_ ~ lndJan Alfairs(CIA), initiated public ' Sc:hoollnteilration ~mpts-tai1~
1892-CompulsoryatteridSn~ofNA , schoolsapproved&enforced/ FEider811yfundedt€iachersPl~ln!he CilliJ8_,ervice
-, a94-Prohibited seridiilg NA studeflts · out-of.statewilhouiparental cOnsenif. .·Ou11aWedihewithho1~1ng ofretto'1Sto gain consent/by 1895-NAstudCnts couldnOiongerbetransfener'~ _ school to school withoutpatental or s!udentcon'sent -
191 a.;: Unlfonn course of Study ·introduced at all federall)'funded NA ,Sc:hoOls ·.-
Rhetorical Theory
Scottish Common Sense Realism: AltelllJ!ed to take kilo account d npedD of tuman behnlor-CheCORllOI)' mid l'llllonlll, !he dllcal, mid the eesltletlct cdohaed the 'total pe19«1;yetlhe llbove •tll~ feculds. weremedlaftcally concelved:fheyllrl~ lndependenlly of each oCher (62)
Romantic Rhetoric: Dmlocn11c rhetcric perauaslvdypreserrts truth (!.O).'the lhetar offen Ille whaleneu oflhe cialec:tical produc:tofldee and experience~ cmcrete uae of metaphor (51)1 Emfnon's rhetoric fll ~ <ialecticul(53)
Current-Traditlonal:Ac:ceptedthe meclmnls!lc facul!y psydlology, but JelTIO'o'Od elhlcal and 1111 but the nmst elemenlmy emodonal conslderalon tom the concem of rhelodcl Rhetork's Mlle mppeal 13 to undentllnd end reaonl hll1lest lllll'lllestallon bind In upollllon end ~wrlldc cirty 13 lo rid eelf of !he ~ of~lllatlhtar'lpercepllonami obfec!lve, detached obcenter(63)
NewRomantlcismf An affemetlve view: Rhelodc,kllheory llndpqdlce, must be balled one hol!&!IG recponse, k1volvlng !he total person, the elhlcel end •nlheUc: 1111 Wdll91her..tioo.i(Bt)
Theorists
Geolgec.m,.;.,o HUgh Blair • RJchard\Nhat01y
RalflhW!!lc!O~merson
· Adams sh~.Tnan Hii1-H~Mml BarrettV'leiidell-HarvaRI John Fraf1kllf1 Gooung~Amherst ,
• Fted~ewton$Cott..~_,;pe;ii6;~' .ntNn'o.pMo~&trumnol~ ~.w11(71) , J~phVdlemDeiiney GertrUdeBuck
.
We have wasted Paradox and Mystery on you, when all you wanted was Cause and Effect."
Christopher Fry
Other Influences
HenryTeller,Seaetaryoflnterlor 1882-85,promotedbeHefintheequily of-mankind" yet, paradoxically, noted !hat NAs should be •compelled to enter ourdvlllzation whetherhewitlor ... wllls It nor (Hoxie 52).
J. D. C. Atidns, Commissioner of Indian Affairs 1885-88, asserted "'the main purpose of educating them (Native Americans)wastoenablelhemtoread, wrile,andspeaktheEnglishlanguage:
Reformsympathlzer\/VilnamStrong advised that NA •should notmalnlaln thelrownlanguage.•
Educator/Administrator Alfred L. Riggs notified Secretary Schurz, "First teaching the children lO read and write In their own language enables !hem lO master English with more ease:
Calvin Woodward : His theory of manualeducatlonadvocated-symmebical training•exposlng students to 'habils of WOik and concen!rallon that could betrailsferred to academic areas• (Hoxle6B).
By 1901" lnslructlon of NA students In literature and the arts seen as •seed sown on stony ground" (leupp 194).
0. Oesc:WCCCC 19961L19/ PM5.0
Oesch 117
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