REVISION SESSION

Prepared by;Mrs. Saidatul

Biomedical Electronic ProgramUniversity Malaysia Perlis

Topics;

• The Human Body: An orientation• Cells and Tissues• Blood• The Cardiovascular System• The Respiratory System• The Nervous System

Tuesday 2pm – 4pm

• The Human Body: An orientation• Cells and Tissues• Blood• Cardiovascular System

Wednesday 2pm-3pm

• The Respiratory System• The Nervous System

Human Anatomy : An Orientation

The Human Body: An Orientation

• Anatomy- Study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts

• Physiology- Study of how the body and its parts work or function

Anatomy—Levels of Study

• Gross anatomy- Large structures- Easily observable

• Microscopic Anatomy- Very small structures- Can only be viewed with a microscope

Levels of Structural Organization • Integumentary

- Forms the external body covering- Protects deeper tissue from injury- Helps regulate body temperature- Location of cutaneous nerve receptors

• Skeletal- Protects and supports body organs- Provides muscle attachment for movement- Site of blood cell formation- Stores minerals

• Muscular- Produces movement- Maintains posture- Produces heat

• Nervous- Fast-acting control system- Responds to internal and external change- Activates muscles and glands

• Endocrine- Secretes regulator hormones- Growth- Reproduction- Metabolism

• Cardiovascular- Transports materials in body via blood pumped by heart- Oxygen- Carbon dioxide- Nutrients- Wastes

• Lymphatic- Returns fluids to blood vessels- Cleanses the blood- Involved in immunity

• Respiratory- Keeps blood supplied with oxygen- Removes carbon dioxide

• Digestive- Breaks down food- Allows for nutrient absorption into blood- Eliminates indigestible material

• Urinary- Eliminates nitrogenous wastes- Maintains acid-base balance- Regulates water and electrolytes

• Reproductive- Produces offspring

Necessary Life Functions • Maintain boundaries• Movement

- Locomotion- Movement of substances

• Responsiveness- Ability to sense changes and react

• Digestion- Break-down and absorption of nutrients

• Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body- Produces energy- Makes body structures

• Excretion- Eliminates waste from metabolic reactions

• Reproduction- Produces future generation

• Growth- Increases cell size and number of cells

Survival Needs• Nutrients

- Chemicals for energy and cell building- Includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals

• Oxygen- Required for chemical reactions

• Water- 60–80% of body weight- Provides for metabolic reaction

• Stable body temperature• Atmospheric pressure

- Must be appropriate

Interrelationships Among Body Systems

• Homeostasis- Homeostasis—maintenance of a stable internal environment - A dynamic state of equilibrium- Homeostasis is necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain life- Homeostatic imbalance- A disturbance in homeostasis resulting in disease

Maintaining Homeostasis • The body communicates through neural and hormonal

control systems• Receptor

- Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)- Sends information to control center

• Control center- Determines set point- Analyzes information- Determines appropriate response

• Effector- Provides a means for response to the stimulus

Feedback Mechanisms

• Negative feedback- Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms- Shuts off the original stimulus, or reduces its intensity- Works like a household thermostat

• Positive feedback- Increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther- In the body this only occurs in blood clotting and during the birth of a baby

Cells and Tissues

• Active Transport Processes• Passive Transport Processes• Mitosis (PMAT)

- Stages of Mitosis• Meoisis

Body Tissues

• Primary Types– Epithelial Tissue– Connective Tissue– Nervous Tissue– Muscle Tissue

√ Cuboidal, Squamous, Columnar.. Location?√ Example for each type

BLOOD

• The only fluid tissue in the human body• Classified as a connective tissue• Components of blood

- Living cells - Formed elements

- Non-living matrix - Plasma

Physical Characteristics of Blood

• Color range- Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red- Oxygen-poor blood is dull red

• pH must remain between 7.35–7.45• Blood temperature is slightly higher than body

temperature at 100.4°F• In a healthy man, blood volume is about 5–6 liters or

about 6 quarts • Blood makes up 8% of body weight

Blood Plasma • Composed of approximately 90% water• Includes many dissolved substances

- Nutrients- Salts (electrolytes)- Respiratory gases- Hormones- Plasma proteins- Waste products

• Plasma proteins- Most abundant solutes in plasma- Most plasma proteins are made by liver- Various plasma proteins include

• Albumin—regulates osmotic pressure• Clotting proteins

- help to stem blood loss when a blood vessel is injured• Antibodies

- help protect the body from pathogens

Formed Elements

• Erythrocytes - Red blood cells (RBCs)

• Leukocytes - White blood cells (WBCs)

• Platelets • Cell fragments

Hematopoiesis

• Blood cell formation• Occurs in red bone marrow• All blood cells are derived from a

common stem cell (hemocytoblast)• Hemocytoblast differentiation• Lymphoid stem cell produces

lymphocytes• Myeloid stem cell produces all other

formed elements

Control of Erythrocyte Production

• Rate is controlled by a hormone (erythropoietin)• Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a response to

reduced oxygen levels in the blood• Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback from

blood oxygen levels• Controlled by hormones

- Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and interleukins prompt bone marrow to generate leukocytes- Thrombopoietin stimulates production of platelets

Hemostasis • Stoppage of bleeding resulting from a break in a blood vessel• Hemostasis involves three phases

- Vascular spasms- Platelet plug formation- Coagulation (blood clotting)

• Vascular spasms- Vasoconstriction causes blood vessel to spasm- Spasms narrow the blood vessel, decreasing blood loss

• Platelet plug formation- Collagen fibers are exposed by a break in a blood vessel- Platelets become “sticky” and cling to fibers- Anchored platelets release chemicals to attract more platelets- Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug

• Coagulation- Injured tissues release tissue factor (TF)- PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with TF, blood protein clotting factors, and calcium ions to trigger a clotting cascade- Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin (an enzyme)

• Coagulation - Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into hair-like molecules of insoluble fibrin- Fibrin forms a meshwork (the basis for a clot)

• Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes• The clot remains as endothelium regenerates• The clot is broken down after tissue repair

Undesirable Clotting

Thrombus• A clot in an unbroken blood vessel• Can be deadly in areas like the heart

Embolus• A thrombus that breaks away and floats freely

in the bloodstream• Can later clog vessels in critical areas such as

the brain

Bleeding Disorders

Thrombocytopenia• Platelet deficiency• Even normal movements can cause

bleeding from small blood vessels that require platelets for clotting

Hemophilia• Hereditary bleeding disorder• Normal clotting factors are missing

Cardiovascular System

Anatomy of Heart

• Valve• Chamber• Structures• Blood flow through aortic and semilunar

valve for right and left side.

Systemic and Pulmonary Circulations

• Systemic circulation– Blood flows from the left side of the heart

through the body tissues and back to the right side of the heart

• Pulmonary circulation– Blood flows from the right side of the heart to

the lungs and back to the left side of the heart

Heart Contractions

The heart : Cardiac Cycles

Atrialcontraction

Mid-to-late diastole(ventricular filling)

Ventricular systole(atria in diastole)

Early diastole

Isovolumetriccontraction phase

Ventricularejection phase

Isovolumetricrelaxation

Ventricularfilling

Left atriumRight atrium

Left ventricleRight ventricle

The Heart – Cardiac Output• Cardiac output (CO)

– Amount of blood pumped by each side (ventricle) of the heart in one minute

• Stroke volume (SV)– Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one

contraction (each heartbeat)– Usually remains relatively constant – About 70 mL of blood is pumped out of the left

ventricle with each heartbeat• Heart rate (HR)

– Typically 75 beats per minute

• CO = HR SV • CO = HR (75 beats/min) SV (70

mL/beat)• CO = 5250 mL/min• Starling’s law of the heart—the more the

cardiac muscle is stretched, the stronger the contraction

• Changing heart rate is the most common way to change cardiac output

• Arterial supply of the brain• Fetal circulation• Hepatic Portal Circulation

Arterial Supply of the Brain

Fetal Circulation

Hepatic Portal Circulation

THANK YOU