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the journal of the asian arts society

of australia

TAASA Review

3 EDITORIAL

Josefa Green, Editor

4 THE 8TH ASIA PACIFIC TRIENNIAL OF CONTEMPORARY ART

Tarun Nagesh

7 KALPA VRIKSHA: CONTEMPORARY INDIGENOUS AND VERNACULAR ART OF INDIA AT APT8

Abigail Bernal

9 UNDERGLAZED JOSEON PORCELAINS: THE CULTIVATION OF A KOREAN

NEO-CONFUCIAN AESTHETIC

Penny Bailey

12 INDIGO: THE FASCINATION WITH BLUE

Margaret White

14 RELICS AND MONUMENTS OF BUDDHIST KASHGAR

Marika Vicziany & Angelo Andrea di Castro

18 THE AGA KHAN MUSEUM, TORONTO

Leigh Mackay

20 MODERN ART OF SOUTHEAST ASIA AT THE NATIONAL GALLERY SINGAPORE

Phoebe Scott

22 COLLECTOR’S CHOICE: TWO TIBETAN TSAKLI

Boris Kaspiev

24 State of Play AND CONTEMPORARY CHINESE ART AT THE WHITE RABBIT GALLERY, SYDNEY

Sabrina Snow

26 BOOK REVIEW: BUDDHIST ART OF MYANMAR

Charlotte Galloway

27 INTRODUCING DR STEPHEN WHITEMAN, LECTURER IN ASIAN ART HISTORY,

SYDNEY UNIVERSITY

Josefa Green

28 RECENT TAASA ACTIVITIES

30 TAASA MEMBERS’ DIARY: SEPTEMBER - NOVEMBER 2015

31 WHAT’S ON: SEPTEMBER - NOVEMBER 2015

Compiled by Tina Burge

C O N T E N T S

Volume 24 No. 3 September 2015

2

A FULL INDEx OF ARTICLES PUBLISHED IN TAASA REVIEW SINCE ITS BEGINNINGS

IN 1991 IS AVAILABLE ON THE TAASA WEB SITE, WWW.TAASA.ORG.AU

TSUNAMI, 2015 (DETAIL), JABA CHITRAKAR, VEgETABLE COLOUR ON

MILL MADE PAPER. COURTESY: THE ARTIST. SEE PP7-8 IN THIS ISSUE.

TAASA REVIEW

THE ASIAN ARTS SOCIETY OF AUSTRALIA INC. Abn 64093697537 • Vol. 24 No. 3, September 2015 ISSN 1037.6674 Registered by Australia Post. Publication No. NBQ 4134

editoriAL • email: [email protected]

General editor, Josefa Green

PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE

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Published by The Asian Arts Society of Australia Inc. PO Box 996 Potts Point NSW 2011 www.taasa.org.au

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E D I T O R I A L

Josefa Green, Editor

3

T A A S A C O M M I T T E E

For the eighth Asia Pacific Triennial of Contemporary Art (APT8), opening in Brisbane in November, the TAASA Review is featuring two articles. The first is an overview by Tarun Nagesh, Assistant Curator, Asian Art, highlighting some of its key works and themes. Abigail Bernal, Assistant Curator, Contemporary Asian and Pacific Art, provides a more focused article on one particular multi-artist project featuring artists from indigenous or rural based communities in India whose art practices have been ephemeral and generally made for a context other than a museum. An example of their often bold and colourful work can be seen on the front cover of this issue.

Textile traditions are also often intrinsic to the life of indigenous communities. At her Sydney TSG presentation on 9 June and in her article, Margaret White explores the place of indigo dye across many traditional communities in Southeast Asian and West Africa, covering both the symbolism and myth surrounding the use of natural indigo and the complex technical processes involved in the art of preparing the indigo and dyeing yarn.

Sabrina Snow continues our focus on contemporary art with her review of the most recent exhibition, State of Play, at the White Rabbit Gallery, placing it in the context of the Gallery’s previous 12 exhibitions and the philosophy behind the White Rabbit art collection as a whole.

The philosophy behind the National Gallery Singapore, opening in November this year, is discussed by Phoebe Scott, currently a curator at NGS. She points out that, while national galleries throughout Southeast Asia have important collections of their own country’s modern artworks, this Gallery will be significant for offering a permanent regional platform where the art histories of these countries can be viewed side by side, uncovering new relationships and leading to new avenues for exhibition and research.

A different sort of Museum is covered by Leigh Mackay, namely the Aga Khan Museum in Toronto, which opened in late 2014. This is the latest showcase for displaying the rich artistic heritage of the Islamic world, following a number of major renovations of Islamic collections over the last 10 years such as at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY and the V&A in London, as well as Qatar’s new Museum of Islamic Art, which opened in Doha in 2008.

Our two other major articles in this issue cover historical topics.

Penny Bailey’s article on Joseon period porcelains from Korea explains why we see a radical shift in artistic taste in the early years of the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910) from the celadons of the previous Goryeo dynasty, in particular favouring the quieter elegance which characterises much of Joseon’s largest ceramic genre of white porcelains (baekja). She walks us through the evolution of these porcelains, from pure white to iron-painted and cobalt-blue decorated wares, and finally the revival of underglazing in copper in the 18th century.

For those that missed her lecture as part of TAASA’s Archaeology in Asia series, Relics and Monuments of Buddhist Kashgar by Marika Vicziany and her colleague Angelo Andrea di Castro of Monash University’s Kashgar Research Project, will be of particular interest. They make a convincing case for placing Kashgar at the centre of Buddhist studies in western China. From the evidence they have accumulated to date, they believe that archaeological work in this area will confirm Kashgar as one of the major and earliest entry points for Buddhist and other religious ideas into China.

Finally, this TAASA Review offers a number of shorter pieces which we hope will be of interest to readers. As so often, we draw on the knowledge of our members - in this case, Boris Kaspiev, Convenor of TAASA Victoria, who writes about two tsakli in his collection - small ritual paintings from Tibet, dating to the 13th – 14th century.

A stimulating book review is provided by Burma expert Charlotte Galloway, who critiques the catalogue of the recent exhibition Buddhist Art of Myanmar held at Asia House, New York in February 2015. Finally, I report on a very enjoyable conversation I had with Dr Stephen Whiteman, Lecturer in Asian Art History at Sydney University, where we discussed his work and his views on the future of Asian art studies in Australia.

As usual, we have a great deal of recent TAASA activities to report and, as we race towards the end of the year, a symposium on Asian jewellery will be held on 19 September in Sydney, as well as a range of activities in Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane. We can also look forward to relaxing and sociable end-of-year events in all three cities: please see the details in the TAASA Members’ Diary.

GiLL Green • PRESIDENT

Art historian specialising in Cambodian culture

Ann ProCtor • VICE PRESIDENT

Art historian with a particular interest in Vietnam

todd SundermAn • TREASURER

Former Asian antique dealer, with a particular interest in Tibetan furniture

dy AndreASen • SeCretAry

Has a special interest in Japanese haiku and tanka poetry

SIOBHAN CAMPBELL

Lecturer, Indonesian Studies, Sydney University with an interest in Balinese art

JOSEFA GREEN

General editor of TAASA Review. Collector of Chinese ceramics

BORIS KASPIEV

Private collector of Asian art with a particular interest in the Buddhist art of the Himalayan region

MIN-JUNG KIM

Curator of Asian Arts & Design at the Powerhouse Museum

JAMES MACKEAN

Collector of oriental ceramics

NATALIE SEIZ

Assistant Curator, Asian Art, AGNSW with an interest in modern/contemporary Asian Art

CHRISTINA SUMNER

Former Principal Curator, Design and Society,Powerhouse Museum, Sydney

SANDY WATSON

Collector of textiles with an interest in photography and travel

MARGARET WHITE

Former President and Advisor of the Friends of Museums, Singapore, with special interest in Southeast Asian art, ceramics and textiles

TAASA AMBASSADOR

JACKIE MENZIES

Emeritus Curator of Asian Art, Art Gallery of NSW. President of TAASA from 1992 – 2000

STATE REPRESENTATIVES

AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY

MELANIE EASTBURN

Curator of Asian Art, National Gallery of Australia

QUEENSLAND

TARUN NAGESH

Assistant Curator, Asian Art, QAGOMA

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

JAMES BENNETT

Curator of Asian Art, Art Gallery of South Australia

VICTORIA

CAROL CAINS

Curator Asian Art, National Gallery of Victoria International

4

ontemporary art practices in the Asia-Pacific continue to grow, adapt and

change at a rapid rate, reflecting not only the most recent artistic trends, but the political, economic and social structures from which they emerge. The Asia Pacific Triennial of Contemporary Art (APT) has represented the art of the region since 1993, and this November marks the eighth instalment of the exhibition. This iteration presents over 80 projects from a region that extends from Samoa to Turkey, along with a diaspora and production methodologies that traverse the world. Following the 20 year anniversary celebrated in 2012-13, APT8 brings together new trends and emerging artists alongside senior and pioneering figures and specially developed focus projects.

APT8 spreads through the entirety of the Gallery of Modern Art (GOMA) as well as a majority of the recently heritage-listed Queensland Art Gallery (QAG). Occupying the central spaces of both buildings are major installations drawing on one of the themes threading through the exhibition: the use of everyday objects and vernacular processes. In the QAG watermall, a space that has become iconic for the APT staging major works by the likes of Cai Guo-Qiang, Ai Weiwei and Yayoi Kusama, Korean artist Haegue Yang installs a striking abstract form in homage to Sol LeWitt, constructed from over 1000 venetian blinds. This hangs nearby two other object-rich installations: Iranian trio Ramin Haerizadeh, Rokni Haerizadeh and Hesam Rahmanian who amass illustrations, street theatre, re-creations of Persian poetry and painting and their own art collections; and Choi Jeong Hwa, known for his enormous, brightly coloured sculptures fashioned from domestic and everyday plastic objects.

In the core of GOMA, Indian artist Asim Waqif creates his most ambitious work to date, an interactive structure that traverses levels and bears the influence of the artist’s background in architecture and interest in Queensland vernacular building materials. Waqif is part of a significant contingent of Indian artists in APT8, and each represents practices outside the established art centres of Mumbai and Delhi. Desire Machine Collective is a duo from Assam, known for their slow-paced, cinematic films, and together with Prabhakar Pachpute’s site specific charcoal drawings inspired by the coal-mining region of his hometown,

they provide glimpses of parts of India rarely seen. Meanwhile a major focus project for this Triennial explores the great breadth and vitality of art from some of the more remote parts of India in Kalpa Vriksha: Contemporary Indigenous and Vernacular Art of India.

While APT is known for works in a wide range of media, APT8 will offer a rich breadth of painting practices, born from a diversity of traditions and techniques. Following the first research trip conducted by QAGOMA to Mongolia, a suite of works by some of the leading Mongol zurag painters exposes this fascinating form. Mongol zurag is a revival of a painterly idiom developed during the Mongolian independence movement of the early 20th century. Characterised by its ultra-fine brushwork, flattened perspective and themes drawn from everyday life, Mongol zurag synthesised Tibetan Thangka painting with classical Chinese painting and Liao dynasty equestrian art to express the ideals of secular nationalism.

Re-emerging as the country sought to reconstitute its national identity in the late 1990s, Mongol zurag has been taken up by a passionate new generation who have found within it a means to address the unprecedented urbanisation and uncertain economy of their homeland. The rich textures of these paintings resonate with Nepalese-born Tibetan artist Tsherin Sherpa’s bold compositions. Trained by his father, a master Thangka painter, Sherpa deconstructs the

traditional imagery, challenging the strict discipline in figuration and exploring abstract qualities inherent in Thangka designs.

Kathmandu-based Hit Man Gurung represents the emerging generation of Nepali artists and their strong sense of social activism. Gurung’s realist paintings investigate the effects of the mass labour migration of young Nepali men to the Middle East and the shocking conditions and numerous work-place deaths. Like many young Kathmandu artists, Gurung was heavily active in relief efforts following this year’s earthquakes, and a new painting created for APT8 has allowed him to respond to these experiences.

A new series of works by Thai artist Navin Rawanchaikul captures his signature movie-poster like panoramas of figures, and reflects on 20 years of his career, including participating in APT2 in 1996 and his trips to assist renowned Thai artist Montien Boonma in Australia in the early 1990s. Liu Ding and Duan Jianyu are artists at the forefront of new waves in Chinese contemporary art. Both of these artists maintain highly conceptual approaches while borrowing and challenging historical motifs; Liu Ding is interested in testing principles of social realism in the context of China’s new art market and Duan Jianyu’s large-scale paintings present incongruous scenarios drawing on a wide range of sources from European art history, classical Chinese painting, and imagery of rural life.

C

T H E 8 T H A S I A PA C I F I C T R I E N N I A L O F C O N T E M P O R A R Y A R T

Tarun Nagesh

TA A S A R E V I E W V O L U M E 2 4 N O . 3

RUBBER MAN, 2014, KHVAY SAMNANg, CAMBODIA B.1982. DIgITAL PRINT ON COTTON RAg PAPER, ED. 1/3 + 1AP, 80 X 120CM.

QUEENSLAND ART gALLERY | gALLERY OF MODERN ART FOUNDATION,QUEENSLAND ART gALLERY COLLECTION

5TA A S A R E V I E W V O L U M E 2 4 N O . 3

The complex geopolitics of the region are echoed by artists that explore a sense of place – investigating meanings of belonging, ownership, relationship to land and occupation of space, and how these respond to change. Three Cambodian artists contemplate the meaning of their homeland while representing different echelons of the country’s contemporary art world. Khvay Samnang is one of the leading artists of the younger generation, widely known for his performative photographs in which he unravels controversial private development in Cambodia; Anida Yoeu Ali represents both a returning diaspora and a Muslim Khmer community through her visually arresting Buddhist Bug videos that document Cambodia while embodying ideas of ‘otherness’, and senior artist Leang Seckon’s embellished paintings deal with the Khmer Rouge occupation alongside mythological meaning and contemporary life in Cambodia.

The photographic series Blood Generation by Taloi Havini and Stuart Miller reflects the people of Bougainville’s ongoing grief over the loss of their land as the result of mining interests. These poetically capture the generation born into the conflict that began in 1988 surrounding the contested land of Panguna between local landowners, the Papua New Guinean government and Australian owned mining company, Conzinc Rio-Tinto of Australia Limited. Indigenous Australian artist Gunybi Ganambarr meanwhile draws on the materiality of mines, using rubber conveyor belts and other found materials from mining sites to meticulously

incise detailed designs, alongside a unique approach to larrakitj (poles). On a charmingly small scale, Lahore-based artist Risham Syed paints landscapes of her home city, to depict transitory urban development, executed in the detail of a skilled miniaturist. Thai artist Paphonsak La-or found an unexpected connection between his surroundings in Chiang Mai, with that of the Tohoku region in Japan. His picturesque landscapes suggest sinister issues beneath the surface – the military governance of his country compared with the nuclear fallout in Japan. Photographer Lieko Shiga’s installation is also imbued with the 2011 disasters in Japan. She returned to Japan in 2008 and by chance became the official photographer for the small town of Kitakama in Miyagi prefecture. When Kitakama was destroyed in the 2011 Tsunami, Shiga gathered, cleaned and sorted over 30,000 photographs that had washed ashore. Her powerful Raisen Kaigan or ‘Spiral Coast’, an immersive installation of large-scale photographs propped on plinths, reflects on experiences in the aftermath of the Tsunami.

A major collaborative project fuses the underpinnings of belonging and connections to place, with the dynamic role of performance – another major thread running through APT8. Yumi Danis (We Dance) is a project exploring contemporary performance in Melanesia. It is co-curated with Ni-Vanuatu author and musician Marcel Meltherorong and involves ongoing collaborations between 15 dancers and musicians from across the region who took part in a 2014 creative exchange in

Ambrym, Vanuatu. Meltherorong has worked with Kanak artist Nicolas Molé to create an innovative multi-media installation, exploring connections between different cultural groups across the Pacific, activated through dance, music, spoken word, drawing and theatre.

Performativity is conveyed in various modes throughout APT8, crossing disciplines of music, dance and visual art as well as investigating how artworks and audiences can perform. Another collaborative project has been developed by New Zealand artist Rosanna Raymond, a founding member of the influential performance group the Pacific Sisters. Raymond’s ongoing project SaVAge Klub, responds to the late 19th century London gentlemen’s club of the same name, appropriating its anti-establishment ethos and museum-like club rooms to create a space for ‘savage’ activations by contemporary Pacific artists. For APT8, Raymond creates a SaVAge Klub in GOMA, inviting Australian and Pacific artists to participate in a range of performances and activities that extend her examinations into Pacific identities and cultural appropriation.

Celebrated artists of the region contribute to a discourse surrounding how artworks perform and how the body is used within them, from the pioneering kinetic works of the late New Zealand artist Len Lye and a 12 hour performance staged on the opening weekend by Melati Suryodarmo, to a body of new paintings by Australian artist Juan Davila and a powerful image by Japanese photographer Yasumasa Morimura. These works set the pace in explorations of performativity, from live and participatory projects to artists who use the body to question constructions of identities, such as siren eun young jung, Richard Bell, Super Critical Mass, Christian Thompson, Justin Shoulder and Bhenji Ra, Angela Tiatia and Hetain Patel.

As apparent in previous APTs, a strong sense of social activism and political criticism is palpable throughout the exhibition. These call upon a broad range of concerns and are expressed through various devices, but draw attention to the fact that artists working in

YELLOW HELMET AND GRAY HOUSE (FROM ‘I HAVE TO FEED MYSELF, MY FAMILY AND MY COUNTRY’ SERIES), 2015 (DETAIL), HIT MAN gURUNg,

NEPAL B.1986. SYNTHETIC POLYMER PAINT ON CANVAS, DIPTYCH: 152.4 X 243.8CM (OVERALL).COURTESY: THE ARTIST

UNTITLED 4 (FROM ‘LAHORE’ SERIES), 2015, RISHAM SYED, PAKISTAN

B.1969. SYNTHETIC POLYMER PAINT ON CANVAS ON ALUMINIUM,

10.2 X 15.2CM. COURTESY: THE ARTIST AND PROJECT 88

6 TA A S A R E V I E W V O L U M E 2 4 N O . 3

these parts of the world feel a responsibility to represent the political, psychological, social and economic concerns of their communities. Representations and rituals pertaining to faith play a significant part in works by a number of APT8 artists. Young Australian artist Abdul Abdullah premieres a new body of work which continues his investigations into the perceptions of Islam in Australia, while Turkish filmmaker Köken Ergun, and Pakistani animator and illustrator Haider Ali Jan depict Shiite rituals performed in Istanbul and Lahore respectively, to address aspects of the communities in which they occur.

Forms of protest and dissent draw attention to the mass demonstrations in Asian nations in recent history. These include Kiri Dalena revisiting archival newspaper photographs of protests leading up to Ferdinand Marcos’s long military dictatorship that began in 1972, Sharon Chin collecting and overlaying political party flags in her hometown of Port Dickson, and a visually arresting video by Guangzhou artist Zhou Tao who juxtaposes images of his hometown with that of demonstrators on the streets during the Occupy Bangkok protest in early 2014.

In addition to Mongolia, APT8 presents projects from regions that the exhibition has had little

engagement with in the past. This has resulted in a significant representation of works from Myanmar including Po Po, a senior artist and pioneer of conceptual and performance art since the late 1970s, who has continued to find ways to produce works under wavering political and social conditions. Nge Lay’s installation The Sick Classroom is perhaps the most ambitious contemporary work to emerge from Myanmar in recent times, and alongside large toy-like sculptures by emerging artist Min Thein Sung, these capture the excitement of Burmese contemporary art now reaching out to the world.

Artists from central Asia speak the vernacular of the culturally and historically complex region in which they live. Georgian collective Bouillon Group creates a light-hearted performance that combines the devotional gestures of various religions of the world into an exercise routine; Kyrgyz duo Gulnara Kasmalieva and Muratbek Djumaliev present a vision of A New Silk Road, tracking the trade of scrap metal leaving their homeland bound for China, with cheap factory goods coming the other way; and Kazakh couple Yelena Vorobyeva and Viktor Vorobyev offer glimpses of the past, probing the collective memory of Soviet governance by drawing over their portraits from official

documents, creating subtle subversions to reclaim national identity.

The APT8 opening weekend features a broad program of live performances, artist talks and panel discussions, inviting participants and audiences from around Australia and the world. Following the weekend a conference draws upon speakers associated with the exhibition and invited international guests, to continue the discourse around the exhibition and the broader context of practices emerging from the Asia Pacific. In a part of the world that continues to experience rapid change, APT8 presents a diverse range of voices and ideas, offering a platform to exchange and challenge the ideas that surface around us, ideas that manifest the excitement, complexity and uncertainty of contemporary life in the region that surrounds us.

Tarun Nagesh is Associate Curator, Asian Art at

Queensland Art gallery / gallery of Modern Art. He

is part of the curatorial team for APT8 which will run

from 21 November 2015 – 10 April 2016.

TOMORROW, 2014, NOMIN BOLD, MONgOLIA B.1982. gOUACHE, OLD SCRIPTURE SHEETS ON

COTTON194 X 144CM. PURCHASED 2015 WITH FUNDS FROM ASHBY UTTINg THROUgH THE QUEENSLAND

ART gALLERY | gALLERY OF MODERN ART FOUNDATION, QUEENSLAND ART gALLERY COLLECTION

LET’S WALK, 2009, HAIDER ALI JAN, PAKISTAN, B. 1983. DIgITAL PRINT ON CANVAS,

114.3 X 76.2CM. QUEENSLAND ART gALLERY | gALLERY OF MODERN ART FOUNDATION,

QUEENSLAND ART gALLERY COLLECTION


multi-artist project for APT8, Kalpa Vriksha: Contemporary Indigenous and Vernacular

Art of India features artists from indigenous or rural based communities in India, who extend practices that were ephemeral and transitory, or made for a context other than a museum. The project investigates how ancient techniques and subjects are still being employed in their individual practices, as well as how these have evolved and become an instrument to express contemporary concerns. Concentrating on a small group of younger generation artists, it incorporates narratives of spiritual and historical significance as well as of everyday life, through a range of painting and sculptural devices drawing on the traditions of Warli, Gond, Mithila, Kalighat, Patachitra painting and Rajwar sculpture.

‘Kalpa Vriksha’ is a Sanskrit term for a divine or wish-fulfilling tree. The attribution of spiritual significance to objects from the natural world is common across many cultures. Kalpa Vrikshas are mentioned in Sanskrit scriptures describing the creation of the earth, but the term is also applied to numerous actual trees in India, of different species depending on local belief systems. The Kalpa Vriksha’s capacity to transverse boundaries between the everyday and the mythical, ancient and contemporary, as well as its diverse geographical manifestations, is an appropriate metaphor for the art forms in the exhibition.

In the mid to late 20th century, many of these locally-specific art forms began to adapt as external interest and knowledge increased. Artists were given access to non-ephemeral materials and their art works shown to a broader audience in gallery or museum contexts. This development was facilitated by artist and curator Jagdish Swaminathan through his museum Bharat Bhavan in Madhya Pradesh, established in 1982, while government agencies encouraged artists to produce decorative or domestic items for sale, to enable poor communities to support themselves.

These art forms have only recently begun to enter into the larger discourse on contemporary art in India, rather than a museological, ethnographic or anthropological one, although there have been a few ground-breaking exhibitions by curators such as Jyotindra Jain, Gulammohammed Sheikh, and Chaitanya Sambrani since the late 1980’s. The Warli and

Gond people are indigenous communities of central India. Warli painting is rumoured to date back to 2,500 BCE, and was customarily made only by women on mud walls to record auspicious and ceremonial occasions. Artists painted with rice paste, and used geometric forms and iconography to convey the significance of local landmarks, their daily lives and their beliefs. Balu Ladkya Dumada and Rajesh Chaitya Vangad’s stunning, large scale paintings further extend the Warli visual language. Dumada was the first student of renowned painter Jivya Soma Mashe (one of the first artists to use modern materials), and his The God appears in the form of a crane bird 2010 illustrates a folk tale, with multiple dimensions

of time existing on the same plane. Vangad’s paintings address subjects from rural life, but also themes such as the effects of pollution on bio-diversity, and incorporate modern buildings, means of transport and other symbols of contemporary life.

The Gonds are one of the largest groups of indigenous peoples of India. Their artworks were based on songs and stories, and characterised by animistic themes and intricate patterning. Gond painting has a more ambiguous origin than Warli painting, and is sometimes attributed to the innovation of artist Jangarh Singh Shyam (1962-2001), who was the first Gond artist to transfer his

A

K A L PA V R I K S H A : C O N T E M P O R A R Y I N D I G E N O U S A N D V E R N A C U L A R

A R T O F I N D I A A T A P T 8

Abigail BernalTSUNAMI, 2015, PUSHPA KUMARI, BIHAR, INDIA B.1969. INK ON ACID FREE PAPER, 61 X 46CM. COURTESY: THE ARTIST


mural works to paper and canvas. Venkat Raman Singh Shyam is the nephew of the Jangarh Singh Shyam and he continues to experiment with and extend the Gond motifs and subjects. In 2008, Shyam witnessed the Mumbai terrorist attacks of that year at the Taj Hotel and created a series based on his experiences. These works depart from the stories with which he grew up, but Shyam maintains that while they have a more ‘contemporary’ appearance, they are also related to traditional stories and nature.

Pushpa Kumari was raised in the village of Madhubani in the Mithila region by her grandmother, Mahasundari Devi, a well-known painter and one of the earliest Mithila artists to gain recognition. Like Gond and Warli painting, Mithila paintings were created as murals, primarily for the internal walls and floors of dwellings. It was first ‘discovered’ in the 1930s after a severe earthquake tore open buildings, exposing the beautiful painted walls inside. Linked with marriage and social ceremonies, it has strong themes of sexuality and the union between male and female. Kumari draws on this iconography to address contemporary historical and social issues often relevant to women, such as infanticide, dowry deaths, and sexuality. Her brother-in-law Pradyumna Kumar learnt from Kumari, and is one of a few emerging male artists to practice this traditionally female art form. His works illustrate both contemporary and customary themes, from the sacred Mango tree which was part of a pre-wedding ceremony, to problems of pollution.

In contrast to the often hidden Mithila works, both Patachitra scrolls and its offshoot, Kalighat painting, were created for a public audience. APT8 includes a group of vertical scrolls by the Chitrakar (‘picture-makers’) community in West Bengal. Known as pats

or patachitra, the scrolls were intimately associated with itinerant storytelling and song. Historically, pats were cloth scrolls on which mythological or epic stories were painted as a sequence of frames, and were carried from village to village with the artist slowly unrolling them frame by frame and singing. This mobility has enabled the form to exist and expand, as Patua artists have continued to create scrolls addressing very contemporary social issues and stories, and the scrolls are still used as a way to share news between villages.

There are six artists in the exhibition who paint themes and subjects from stories of local Bengal deities, ‘the plight of the girl child’, the Asian tsunami, the Gujarati earthquake, the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Centre, and religious conflicts between Hindus and Muslims. Although Chitrakar artists now use mill-made paper, the material process of creating the scrolls begins with the extraction of natural dyes from local flowers, leaves, minerals and spices. Pats were traditionally created only by men, but now female artists have become some of the most prolific artists.

Kalam Patua was born into the Patua community of scroll makers in West Bengal, but taught himself the Kalighat style of watercolour painting, which draws on conventions taken from scroll paintings and miniature painting. It developed in the vicinity of the Kali temple in Kolkata in the mid-19th century, to illustrate the Hindu pantheon, and responded to topical social and political events, as well as local gossip. Kalighat painting was intended for a larger audience and departs from the linear, narrative style of the scrolls to focus on single scenes, with graphic, simplified forms and often satirical, social or autobiographical content.

There are few artists painting in the Kalighat mode today, and Patua’s style is highly unique. His autobiographical series focus on scenes of his childhood, or the history of the postal system where he has worked for most of his life. These beautifully painted works show the excitement and poetry of the post office in Patua’s imagination; in one, love blossoms in the middle of sorting and stamping letters, in another, a mail-runner from an earlier time is attacked by a leopard.

Traditionally Rajwar people created simple geometric designs to decorate newly white-washed and repaired houses for a post-harvest festival. A self-taught artist, Sonabai (c.1930-2007) used similar materials of painted clay, but totally transformed the reliefs, revitalizing and building upon the customary practice to create colourful and vibrant figures of humans, animals, and nature and patterned decorative screens and reliefs. She was kept in isolation from the outside world for over 15 years and created the sculptures in order to keep herself and her young son entertained. When she was finally permitted to re-enter the community, the local villagers were amazed and inspired by her transformed house, which exists today as a remote yet adored museum. Sonabai’s work was shown in APT3 in 1999.

For APT8, Sonabai’s son Daroga Ram and three artists who were trained or influenced by her, have created a range of sculptural works, representing how this unique art form has continued to grow, diversify, and inspire, while remaining rooted in the community and local materials.

Abigail Bernal is Assistant Curator, Contemporary

Asian and Pacific Art, Queensland Art gallery /

gallery of Modern Art.

AUTOBIOGRAPHY – LOCAL TRAIN, 2012, KALAM PATUA, WEST BENgAL, INDIA B.1962.

WATERCOLOUR ON PAPER, 38 X 56CM. COURTESY: THE ARTIST

BARARSINGHA – MANGO TREE OF LIFE, 2015, PRADYUMNA

KUMAR, BIHAR, INDIA B.1969. INK ON ACID FREE PAPER, 61 X 45.7.

COURTESY: THE ARTIST


ollowing the toppling of Korea’s Goryeo dynasty (918–1392), the nascent Joseon

(1392–1910) state adopted the example of its closely allied Ming dynasty in China (1368–1644) in installing Neo-Confucianism as the governing ideology. This shift away from Goryeo’s predominantly Buddhist worldview impelled dramatic changes in Korea’s social, political, and cultural spheres. In the arts, patronage moved from the monasteries to the imperial court, where early legislators commissioned objects conveying a sense of dynastic legitimacy, political authority and monarchic dignity (Kim 1993:35-36).

Accordingly, in the early years of the dynasty the elaborate ornamentation featured in many of Goryeo’s celebrated celadons (cheongja) was jettisoned in favour of the quieter elegance which characterises much of Joseon’s largest ceramic genre of white porcelains (baekja). Although initially baekja wares were produced only for the court, as Neo-Confucianism gathered momentum their use spread to the scholarly (yangban) and commoner classes (Kwon 2014:37). Extant objects in the diverse canon range from everyday utensils and accoutrements for the scholar’s study to the many ritual objects that accompanied Neo-Confucian birth, burial, marriage, and ancestor worship ceremonies.

Like the earliest Goryeo celadons, which hewed closely to China’s Song dynasty (960–1279) prototypes, Joseon’s baekja tradition derived from porcelains produced at China’s imperial Jingdezhen kilns in the Yuan (1271–1368) and contemporaneous Ming dynasties. The establishment of the ‘ceramic route’ (the maritime equivalent of the ancient silk roads) in the Song dynasty had not only helped to open up new avenues of trade in the coveted Chinese porcelains, but also facilitated the transfer of technologies that were crucial for the foundation of the Korean porcelain industry in the early decades of the dynasty.

Many early baekja wares align so closely to the exacting standards of the Yuan and Ming potters, in fact, that it is difficult to distinguish them from works made at Jingdezhen. A number of contemporary documents attest to their enormous popularity, including the anthology Yongjae chonghwa by the scholar Song Hyeon (1439–1504), which reveals that baekja wares were used to the exclusion of all other ceramics in the court

of King Sejong (r.1418–1450). Joseon’s official historiography, Joseon wangjo sillok (Annals of the Joseon Dynasty), also documents the 1425 manufacture of a consignment of baekja wares large enough to supply ten banquet tables at the behest of China’s Emperor Hongxi (r.1424–1425) (Itoh 2000:28).

The subdued elegance of baekja wares was directly fuelled by Neo-Confucian orthodoxy, as emphasis was placed on adopting aesthetic parameters reflecting the ideals of purity, integrity, and moral pragmatism. Accordingly, excessive colouring and embellishment were generally considered antithetical to the ideology’s aims. No attempts were made from the mid-dynasty, for example, to emulate the spectacular overglazed polychrome wares produced in Qing China (1644–1911), despite the enthusiastic adoption of the technique in other Asian countries such as Japan and Vietnam.

The preference for simplicity not only sustained the preeminent position of undecorated white porcelains for the duration of this extraordinarily long dynasty, but also prompted the Joseon potters to seek out understated modes of decoration in the only pigments that could withstand the extreme temperatures required to fire porcelains – cobalt-blue (cheonghwa), iron-brown (cheollhwa) and copper-red (jinsa). Iconographical schemes range from sparsely rendered foliage to profusely patterned landscapes –justified by their rich metaphorical meanings commensurate with

the Neo-Confucian worldview. For example, the Chinese motif ‘Three Friends of Winter’ – comprised of the blossoming plum (purity and loftiness), bamboo (modesty and loyalty) and pine (steadfast courage) – was a popular commission among the Neo-Confucian literati for its association with scholarly perseverance and integrity (Mino 1991:32-33).

The advent of Joseon underglazing occurred in the second half of the 15th century, when potters began to embellish porcelain wares with iron pigment in limited quantity. This technology was almost certainly imported from Song China, where it was used at several southern kilns in designs similar to those found on Goryeo celadon wares (Itoh 2000:69). The demand for iron-painted works was somewhat overshadowed, however, by the clamour for cobalt-blue decorated wares, which came into vogue after Chinese works were brought to the Joseon court by Ming envoys and Japanese and Ryukyuan travellers.

Chinese potters had attained the technical expertise to produce these high quality blue-and-white wares by the early 14th century. The most sought after works were produced at Jingdezhen, where the coveted ‘Mohammedan blue’ cobalt (so named because it was imported from the Middle East at double the price of gold) was employed in detailed designs to spectacular effect. Under the patronage of Emperor Xuande (r.1426–1435), the wares reached a technical and aesthetic excellence that is widely

F

U N D E R G L A Z E D J O S E O N P O R C E L A I N S : T H E C U L T I V A T I O N O F A K O R E A N

N E O - C O N F U C I A N A E S T H E T I C

Penny Bailey

DRAGON JAR, KOREA, 17TH CENTURY, PORCELAIN PAINTED IN UNDERgLAzE IRON. COLLECTION OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF KOREA


considered the global pinnacle of the genre. When problems at Jingdezhen between 1436 and 1465 stymied production, however, the coveted Ming wares became increasingly unobtainable in Korea (Deuchler 2006:7).

In response to the interruption in supply, the Annals indicate that under the reign of King Sejo (r.1455–1468) Korean potters inaugurated their own blue-and-white tradition in emulation of the sophisticated Chinese wares. Due to the prohibitive cost and difficulty in obtaining the Mohammedan blue pigment, however, the court intensified efforts to locate a native source. In 1463, cobalt was finally discovered at Suncheon in Jeolla Province, and a painted porcelain vessel promptly dispatched to the monarch. However, as the local deposits failed to yield sufficient quantities or the desired quality, the practice of importing from China continued, sustaining the position of cobalt wares as luxury commodities.

The Annals of the succeeding monarch, King Yejong (r.1468–1469), contain detailed records of the aspirations of the yangban class to acquire these wares (Itoh 2000:109). Their quests were dampened, however, with the 1485 publication of Kyeongguk daejeon (The Great Code of Administration), which prohibited ‘high and low officials’ from

obtaining any blue-and-white wares other than wine cups. Although this restriction must have been enacted to secure the best cobalt for palace use, officials were ultimately unable to curtail the procurement of a wide range of cobalt-decorated wares among yangban collectors (Deuchler 2006:7-8).

The chaos that ensued after the Japanese (1592–1597) and Manchu incursions (1627 and 1636), and then the fall of Ming China (1644) led to the nadir of the Joseon ceramic industry. As Korea’s borders were all but closed to foreign contact, a heightened sense of patriotism imbued many facets of Joseon life. The artworks of this period reflect a growing sophistication in conceptualisation and technique alongside a flowering sense of freedom and energy ignited by the resurgence of interest in indigenous styles.

In porcelain production, potters enthusiastically explored new forms, techniques, and decorative schemes, building a rich repertoire of works that was less reliant for patron approval on formulaic regularity or refinement than it was on strong and dynamic expressions of the quotidian. Concerns of previous generations such as uneven glaze coverage, and markings which were not the result of contrivance (such as those arising from the circulation of wood ash in the kiln) attained a newfound following

among consumers. Although the demand for cobalt-decorated wares remained high, breaks in supply lines prompted potters to turn to readily available iron-oxide to conjure dynamic, uninhibited and naïve designs. The dragon motifs of this period (symbolising the ultimate power of imperial rule), for example, exhibit a vitality, humour and warmth that is not evident in the Ming-inspired versions produced earlier in the dynasty (Roberts & Brand 2000:86).

The 18th century was also a time of prosperity and flourishing in the arts. In particular, King Yeongjo’s (r.1724–1776) accession to the throne heralded an era of social rejuvenation which lasted well into the 19th century. In porcelain production, one notable development was a resurgence in the use of cobalt as supply lines were reopened. In spite of the court’s repeated efforts to maintain the exclusivity of cobalt-decorated wares, they quickly proliferated through the social classes. A record dating to 1711, for instance, indicates that blue-and-white wares had become so easily obtainable that they were found even in rural commoner households (Kim 1993:56).

In strong contrast to the exuberant underglaze iron designs of the previous century, the cobalt-painted iconography of this era depicts elegant landscapes, flowers, and foliage in thin, linear brushstrokes that accentuate the

JAR, KOREA, FIRST HALF OF THE 18TH CENTURY. PORCELAIN PAINTED IN UNDERgLAzE COPPER.

COLLECTION OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF KOREA

BEVELLED VASE, KOREA, FIRST HALF OF THE 18TH CENTURY. PORCELAIN PAINTED

IN UNDERgLAzE COBALT. COLLECTION OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF KOREA


beauty and opacity of their white glazes. Frequently featured on slightly asymmetrical bevelled vessels, the designs proved extremely popular among consumers of all social classes. Their stylistic transformation away from the more complicated motifs of many earlier cobalt wares is thought to reflect the radical changes taking place in the indigenous style of landscape depiction which became known as ‘true view’ painting (Itoh & Mino 1991:125-26).The other notable advancement in porcelain underglazing in the 18th century was the revival of underglazing in copper. While some scholars maintain that the technology was first developed in China and then transferred to the peninsula (Nakao & Koyama, cited in Itoh 2000:25), many believe that it was invented by Goryeo potters around the mid-12th century, antedating Chinese (Yuan) use by at least a century (Kim 2003:19; Mino 1991:29; Gompertz 1963:6-7). Although the technique was not popularised until the 1700s, the earliest known Joseon use is in a set of epitaph plates dated to 1684. Documentation in Joseon’s Annals actually points to much earlier use, but there

are no extant objects to corroborate this record. Compared to cobalt- and iron-decorated wares, copper wares were produced on a much smaller scale due to the intractable nature of the pigment, which was extremely susceptible to atmospheric variations in the kiln. In oxidised kilns (where oxygen is allowed to flow freely), copper converts to a green or grey colour, or in extreme cases, may vaporise altogether. Even in the reduction kilns favoured by the Joseon potters (where the flow of oxygen is restricted), copper runs or congeals into blotches of reddish-brown or black if the firing temperature is insufficient (Itoh 2000:133). This baekja jar is an excellent example of a successfully fired work displaying the deep, elegant hue highly sought after by Joseon consumers.

Towards the end of the Joseon period, the arts were propelled by the enlightened rule of King Jeongjo (r.1776–1800), who enacted various reforms to stimulate Joseon’s Neo-Confucian development. Porcelain production was favourably impacted by his unusual

receptiveness to increased contact with Qing China, experiencing prolonged prosperity under the Emperor Qianlong (r.1736–1795). Although in general terms the potters of late Joseon avoided the earlier slavish imitation of Chinese wares, the resurgence of cultural importation from the continent reignited interest in Chinese aesthetic conventions, prompting yet another spike in demand for blue-and-white wares.

The simple foliage works of the middle period were subsumed by a more diverse and ornamental vocabulary which allowed the potters to explore vigorous new forms of decorative expression. Most notably, their advanced skills are artfully displayed in the rare porcelain works which simultaneously feature underglazed decoration in iron, cobalt and copper. The low success rate of firing all three pigments together led the potters to employ them more commonly in paired combinations of cobalt and iron or copper. This work, which features Korea’s indigenous ten longevity symbols in dextrously rendered cobalt and copper, attests to the accumulation of expertise acquired by the Joseon potters in their remarkable repertoire of underglazed porcelain ceramics.

Penny Bailey is a Korea Foundation Postdoctoral

Research Fellow at The University of Queensland. Her

doctoral thesis examined Mingei (Folk Craft) Movement

founder Yanagi Soetsu’s research into Joseon dynasty

ceramics during Korea’s colonial period (1910–1945).

The author wishes to thank the Korea Foundation for its

generous grant to conduct this research.

REFERENCESDeuchler, M, 2006. ‘Connoisseurs and Artisans: A Social View

of Korean Culture’, in Yun Y & Krahl R. (eds.), Korean Art from

the Gompertz and Other Collections in the Fitzwilliam Museum,

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp.3-11

gompertz, gStgM., 1963. Korean Celadon and Other Wares of

the Koryo Period, Faber and Faber, London

Itoh, I., 2000. Korean Ceramics from the Museum of Oriental

Ceramics, Osaka, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Itoh, I. & Mino, Y. (eds.), 1991. The Radiance of Jade and the

Clarity of Water: Korean Ceramics from the Ataka Collection,

Hudson Hills Press, New York

Kim, H., 1993. ‘Exploring Eighteenth-Century Court Arts’, in Kim

H (ed.), Korean Arts of the Eighteenth Century: Splendor and

Simplicity, Weatherhill, New York, pp.35–57

Kim, K., 2003. Goryeo Dynasty: Korea’s Age of Enlightenment,

918–1392, Asian Art Museum, San Francisco

Kwon, S., 2014. ‘Ceramics and Ritual Vessels of the Royal

Household’, in Woo H (ed.), Treasures from Korea: Arts and Culture

of the Joseon Dynasty, Philadelphia Museum of Art, Los Angeles,

pp.36–43

Mino, Y., 1991. ‘Koryo and Choson Dynasty Ceramics’, in Itoh I

& Mino Y (eds.), The Radiance of Jade and the Clarity of Water:

Korean Ceramics from the Ataka Collection, Art Institute of

Chicago, Chicago, pp.27–35

Roberts, C. & Brand, M. (eds.), 2000. Earth, Spirit, Fire: Korean

Masterpieces of the Choson Dynasty, Powerhouse Publishing, Sydney

JAR, KOREA, 19TH CENTURY. PORCELAIN PAINTED IN UNDERgLAzE COBALT AND COPPER. COLLECTION OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF KOREA


T

he quest for one of nature’s rarest colours, indigo blue, once dubbed ‘blue gold’

and perhaps the oldest known dye, led to indigo being treasured as one of the world’s most valued commodities. Indeed, the story of indigo is a complex and fascinating one linking virtually every known culture.

The word indigo, derived from the Greek term from India, refers to the fact that much of the indigo exports originated from that subcontinent. Indigo’s blue colouring may be extracted from the leaves of hundreds of species of the indigo plant, a perennial growing in tropical, subtropical and temperate climates. Indigo cultivation probably existed in the Indus Valley some 5000 years ago. From at least the late 9th century, indigo spread eastwards from India in the form of cotton goods to Southeast Asia and westwards towards the Middle East.

The discovery of a direct sea route from Europe to India in 1498 marked a crucial turning point in the fortunes of indigo, leading to increased European trade with India, China, Japan and the Indonesian Spice Islands. British commercial cultivation and production of indigo began in the 16th century in India and had become large scale by the

18th century, fuelling the textile industries of the Industrial Revolution. In 1900, the economic value of indigo equalled that of all other dye stuffs made at that time. A process for manufacturing synthetic indigo was discovered in 1897 so that by 1910, synthetic indigo usage had soared and production of natural indigo dye had fallen by 90%.

Everything connected with indigo is surrounded by immense curiosity and awe. Considering the skill, patience and complexities of dyeing with indigo-bearing plants, it is remarkable to find its early use by diverse and geographically separate civilizations (Balfour-Paul 2012:4). Throughout all pre-industrial cultures, the art of preparing the indigo and dyeing yarn was an elevated and often secretive profession. Thanks to a specific series of chemical reactions which occur during processing, a substance called indoxyl is produced which can be used both as a dyestuff for cloth or yarn or a blue pigment for paints and inks.

To obtain the dye, composted and crushed indigo leaves are covered with water and maintained at 25°C. After a few hours, the leaves and added organic materials begin to ferment. A thick layer of bubbles with an

indoxyl bearing scum forms at the top of the tank. To maintain the vat’s alkalinity, it is ‘fed’ daily to keep the vat ‘alive’ for days or months for repeated dyeing.

As soon as the liquid tastes ‘sweet’, smells ‘right’ and is dark blue in colour, it is siphoned into another vat at a lower level, leaving the plant material behind. The solution is left to rest

T

I N D I G O : T H E F A S C I N A T I O N W I T H B L U E

Margaret WhiteBLACK H'MONG DRESSED IN INDIGO DYED CLOTHES,

SAPA, VIETNAM, 1999. PHOTO: MARgARET WHITE

INDIGO DYED FUTON COVER OF CRANE AND TORTOISE-SYMBOLS OF LONgEVITY, KASURI, WEFT IKAT RESIST TECHNIQUES, JAPAN, EARLY 20TH C. PHOTO: MARgARET WHITE


and the insoluble indigo settles to the bottom of the tank as a bluish paste. The water is then drained away and the suspension filtered to remove impurities and to stop further enzymic reaction. In many tropical and subtropical areas, it is this damp indigo paste that is used. It can also be dried to produce indigo ‘cake’ which is cut into cubes or formed into balls making its transportation easier. Dyeing with natural indigo is still considered the most difficult of all dye materials and yet it is the most versatile. Uniquely, indigo does not need a mordant to make the dye colourfast. Cotton, wool, silk or bast fibres are dipped into the indigo dye bath to soak and upon being withdrawn the blue colour develops on contact with oxygen in the air.

The symbolism and myth surrounding the use of natural indigo in the textiles of some traditional Southeast Asian and West African communities illuminates why the indigo process remains an integral part of ritual, identity and status today. Woven indigo blue/black ulos feature as part of a complex system of gift exchanges at both weddings and funerals of the Toba Batak of Sumatra. These special, rectangular warp ikat patterned cloths signify a link between the wearer and the spirit world and are essential wear at ritual events. The spirits of the dead are kept

from the dyers’ indigo pots with oaths and protective screens as physical and spiritual dangers are perceived. If a person dies, the dyers rush to cover their indigo vats.

In Lampung, Sumatra, indigo was one of the key dyes used on the famous ceremonial ship cloths or palepai. The boat motif, thought to represent the journey through life in ceremonies, reflects ancient beliefs. The full symbolism of the palepai is lost to the present generation but it has been suggested (in Balfour-Paul 2012:183) that the blue ship represents the earthly realm as opposed to the sacred sphere of the red ship. The presence and number of these cloths also indicates the rank of the local ruler.

According to legend, the women of Tenganan in Bali weaving the protective, prestigious geringsing or double ikat cloth are not permitted to grow or dye with indigo because of the perceived spiritual and physical dangers. Thus, indigo is grown and provided by dyers from surrounding villages. Work in the village halts when these sacred cloths are being woven. Interestingly, indigo is over dyed with morinda red and the indigo component is completely hidden. This rich, red brown is said to resemble dried human blood (Maxwell 2003:145).

Maxwell (2003:144) also traces the secrecy that still surrounds the use of indigo on the island of Savu. Two sisters, Greater Blossom (Hubi Ae) and Lesser Blossom (Hubi Iki), believed to be the ancestors of Savu’s matrilineal society, were about to receive the secret from their mother on how to obtain beautiful indigo blue. However, one sister hoping to cheat the other crept out to steal the fluid at the top of the pot without realising the active precipitate lies at the bottom of the pot. It is believed that the thieving sister and her descendants could never match the intensity produced by the other sister.

On the island of Sumba, where an unlucky death is also called a ‘blue death’, traditional burial rites were exceptionally elaborate. Ritual demanded that a corpse should be wrapped in up to 100 indigo–dyed warp ikat shrouds. In the west of the island, so heavy is the demand for these cloths that blue-handed women are highly respected as this reflects their proficiency. A piglet is sacrificed before the dyeing process begins and the term for indigo dyeing and pregnancy are the same.

Supernatural beliefs concerning indigo also remain in insular Southeast Asia. Mary Connors (2001:16) observed that Lao women work with dye in a corner of the village

to avoid monks and newly pregnant or menstruating women in case their presence affects the strength of the dye. This is important as the production of the richest dye colours enhances a family’s prestige and processing the dye is often a family secret.

Among the Tai-Lao people living in northeast Thailand (Esarn), the indigo dyer will only pass on her secrets after her intended successor has performed an elaborate respect ceremony. The indigo-dyed ikat cloth known as mudmee produced here is subject to similar beliefs concerning the proximity of monks or menstruating women (Maxwell 2003:145).

In Burma and Vietnam and along the southern borders of China, ethnic minorities such as the Hmong and Miao continue the custom of producing plain or embroidered indigo cloth, as well as indigo cloth patterned by hand-drawn, rice paste resist (laran). These textiles are intended to attract suitors by showcasing women’s skills.

In Japan, indigo probably came from China together with Buddhism by way of Korean artisans in the 5th century (Balfour-Paul 2012:94). Following the introduction of cotton and indigo cultivation, the importance and use of indigo increased during the Edo period (1603-1868). Simple, indigo-dyed cotton garments became ubiquitous in rural areas. Among the various domestic furnishings, the futon cover was particularly prized. They were usually made of indigo-dyed kasuri (ikat) cloth with designs symbolising happiness and longevity. The Japanese also slept under mosquito nets dyed blue, a colour soothing in itself and which was believed to repel insects and snakes. The love for indigo (ai) endures, with indigo growers and dyers accorded status as National Living Treasures.

The high regard in the 21st century for indigo dyeing as a living art is not just confined to traditional Southeast Asian or West African communities but is shared by all those who admire the skill needed to obtain those wonderful intense hues of blue. Margaret White is a former President of the Friends

of Museums, Singapore with a special interest in

Southeast Asian art.

REFERENCESBalfour- Paul, Jenny, 2012. Indigo: Egyptian Mummies to Blue

Jeans, Firefly Books, British Museum, London

Connors Mary F., 2001. Lao Textiles and Traditions, Images of

Asia, OUP

Maxwell, Robyn, 2003. Textiles of Southeast Asia Tradition,

Trade and Transformation, Periplus, Singapore

INDIGO RESIST- DYED STRIP WOVEN COTTON BEDCOVER,

MALI, AFRICA, CONTEMPORARY. PHOTO: MARgARET WHITE


uddhism was one of many religions which were practised in the oasis of

Kashgar. At the western crossroads of the southern and northern Silk Road between China, Central Asia and Europe, Kashgar was a multicultural society even during the time when its Buddhist monuments were built from around the 3rd to 9th century CE: it also included Zoroastrians, Hindus, Nestorian Christians (Syrian Church) and people following shamanism and animistic beliefs. This complexity must be kept in mind when discussing the Buddhist remains of Kashgar.

Whether Kashgar had a royal centre which, like Angkor in the 12th – 13th century under Jayavarman VII, was also Buddhist in nature, is not yet known. Certainly, the ruined monuments of Kashgar include forts and possible royal centres such as Khan-oi but we do not know when these were built or the religious preferences of the rulers.

Illustrated here is a gilded Tumshuk Buddha, found by German ‘Turfan’ Expeditions between 1905 and 1914. Tumshuk, thanks to the exploits of Albert von Le Coq, Pelliott and others, is well known by international art critics who since the early 20th century have admired the collection of artefacts and manuscripts in the misnamed ‘Turfan’ collection of the Museum of Asian Art in Berlin and in the Guimet Museum in Paris. Von Le Coq commented on this gilded Buddha head in his published report of 1922-1926 (vol. 1, Plate 42a, 28) and other authors published reports in the 1970s and 1980s. In other words, knowledge about the importance of Tumshuk has been well established for almost 100 years.

By contrast, it is ironic that appreciation of the cultural importance of Kashgar, less than 200 kms south of Tumshuk, is lacking. Our research re-positions Kashgar to the centre of Buddhist studies in western China, a place it deserves despite the shocking neglect of the treasures of that oasis city. We would like to propose that the serene, 11 cm long, 5th-6th century gilded head of the Tumshuk Buddha provides an example of the hidden treasures that could be found in Kashgar, if only Kasghar were to be systematically excavated and studied.

The hidden treasures of Kashgar remain just that – hidden or in a few cases only recently discovered. An example of the sophisticated pottery of the Kashgar area is also illustrated

here, discovered at excavations on the Yawaluk site 30 years ago. Known as the ‘Jar with Three Handles’ it dates from the 6th century and displays Sogdian stylistic elements. The medallions decorating the midriff are distinctively Persian or Bactrian in style and speak to the exchange of goods, people, ideas and styles between Afghanistan/Persia, the Hindu Kush and Kashgar (Watt et al. 2004: 190-191).

According to the former Director of the Kashgar Museum who found the vase, its method of construction is typical of the Buddhist period

in Kashgar (Qadir 2007, and interview in Kashi, June 2014). Sogdian émigré communities had been established in this area from the Kushan period (1st to 3rd centuries CE) and the merchants who formed the core of these communities brought with them Buddhist monks (Vicziany and Di Castro, forthcoming 2015). From the 6th century these monks were followed by Manichaean preachers (de La Vaissière 2011) who added another layer of complexity to the religious character of Kashgar.

The jar was initially displayed in the local Kashgar museum but as its importance was

B

T H E H I D D E N T R E A S U R E S O F B U D D H I S T K A S H G A R

Marika Vicziany and Angelo Andrea Di Castro

HEAD OF BUDDHA, 5TH - 6TH C., TUMSHUK. SOURCE: HäRTEL, HERBERT AND YALDIz, M., 1982, ALOnG ThE AnCIEnT SILK ROuTES.

CEnTRAL ASIAn ART FROM ThE WEST BERLIn STATE MuSEuMS, THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK.


JAR WITH THREE HANDLES AND STAMPED DECORATION, KASHgAR, YAWALUK SITE,

SOgDIAN, C. 6TH CENTURY, 57 CM. SOURCE: WATT ET AL. 2004

recognised it was relocated to the Xinjiang Museum in Urumqi a few years ago. International appreciation came in 2004-2005 when it was exhibited at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (Watt et al. 2004: 190-191). Despite its significance and the possibility of finding more treasures of this quality, excavations of Dakiyanus/Yawaluk have been sporadic, very short, unsystematic and typically not driven by research objectives but attempts to salvage pieces of Kashgar’s past.

The last excavation in late 2000 lasted only 18 days. The current Yawaluk site, located on the right hand side of the National Highway 314 that crosses the Chakmak River, is part of the original site which was much larger and incorporated the site now called Dakiyanus on the left hand side of the highway on the road from Kashgar to Urumqi via the town of Artush some 43 kms to the north (Qadir 2007; Qadir 2014). Despite the limitations, Qadir and his team were able to confirm that the two sites on either side of Highway 314 belonged together, that both dated from between 200 and 800 CE, and that both reflected predominantly Buddhist characteristics displayed on many clay tablets, pottery pieces and birch bark manuscripts with Brahmi script.

On the basis of many temple decorations found on the western Dakiyanus side, they surmised that this was the location of a Buddhist temple and that the eastern side, characterised by many millstones, had a much longer history of settlement (Qadir 2014). A comparison between our own photos of the area and google satellite images with the maps drawn by the French explorer Paul Pelliott in 1906 highlights the extent to which modern infrastructure development has degraded the integrity of this site (Di Castro, Vicziany and Zhu, forthcoming 2015).

Despite its neglect, Kashgar may well represent one of the major and earliest entry points for Buddhist and other religious ideas into China. Other archaeological sites of Xinjiang, strung along the northern-eastern route from Kashgar to Urumqi and Turfan are likely to have been reached much later, yet they have attracted the greatest amount of excavation, research and conservation effort.

The objective of Monash University’s Kashgar Research Project is to place Kashgar back into the centre of attention, as it once was when the British, Russians and Chinese fought to control this crossroad as part of the ‘Great Game’ between 1813 and 1945. Our research goes beyond the traditional focus by European and Chinese scholars on ancient texts and relics and seeks to reconstruct the total human

and natural environment in which the relics and monuments were located. In defining and dating the evidence about human settlement patterns and water/land usage we have also started to build a comparative model showing how the challenges of Kashgar’s oasis environment differed from the monsoon climates of Angkor, Bagan and Anuradhapura.

We were inspired in this work by the comparative study of monsoon Southeast Asia by Roland Fletcher (2012: 285-320). Our model has allowed us to generate some hypotheses about the differences: while tanks and canals in Kashgar remain an important feature of rural and urban areas today, we have found no evidence so far for the massive water storage systems that defined the buddhist sites of monsoon South and Southeast Asia.

Underground springs from the Tianshan and Pamir mountains provided a gentler and more regular supply of water to the rivers of Kashgar and also facilitated the construction of what appear to be relatively uncomplicated karez wells that were fed by underground water through capillary action.

In April 2013 and June 2014 we discovered the remnants of three lines of karez on the outskirts of Kashgar with 48, 7 and 3 wells respectively (Di Castro, Vicziany and Zhu, forthcoming 2015). None of these have been excavated or dated. Di Castro located the karez through a careful study of satellite images which we then verified by ground inspection. When were these built and by whom? Are we looking at the remnants of a more extensive irrigation system from Buddhist times or


were they built later? We found evidence suggesting that the nearby Chakmak River may have shifted no less than three times: were these irrigation projects responding to these changes? If so, then historically the town of Kashgar may have also shifted three times.

The Buddhist sites of Kashgar take the form of a disparate series of scattered stupas and monasteries that were most likely also the focus of human settlements. From the monastery on Haizilaitimaomu Mountain near Upal in the southwest to the stupa of Mori Tim northeast of Kashgar is a distance of some 70 kms while some 40 kms separate the site of Yawaluk/Dakiyanus in the northwest from the grassy mound of the stupa of Topa Tim in the east. Visible from Yawaluk/Dakiyanus is a fifth buddhist site, namely the caves of the ‘Three Immortal Buddhas’ (Di Castro, Vicziany and Zhu forthcoming 2015). no reliable dating of these five sites exists, so we cannot say whether they represent successive or co-terminal settlements.

The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang visited Kashgar in c.644-645 CE and reported that there were ‘several hundreds of Sangharamas’ or Buddhist settlements which probably included temples, monasteries, gardens and cultivated areas. Certainly the soils adjacent to the Mori Tim site are very old, and it is here that the remains of karez are to be found. But again, without thorough scientific analysis of the soils and karez, we can say nothing about the age of this material evidence.

Xuanzang reported that the Sangharamas had some ‘10,000 followers’ and specialist libraries housing many Buddhist manuscripts (Vicziany

and Di Castro, forthcoming 2015). How these people and facilities were distributed and the kind of economy that supported all this activity remains unknown. There was also a large floating population of passing merchants, pilgrims, warriors and soldiers of fortune – all of which needed to be supported.

Kashgar’s Buddhist structures are seriously eroded, covered by salty sands or destroyed as a result of a long history of continuous invasion and warfare. There are no impressive above ground structures of reflected royal or religious glory that we find in Angkor, bagan or Anuradhapura. None of this has dented our hypothesis that Kashgar was probably one of the earliest Buddhist sites of Central Asia and the possible entry point for Buddhism from the Indian sub-continent into the region. Whatever impressive structures might have existed here were pounded by men, horses, donkeys and camels into the dry soils of an oasis civilisation fed by the glacial meltwaters of the highest mountains in the world. Kasghar is also a region of many sandstorms and local legends speak of old cities covered by the sands of the Taklamakan desert.

Despite such hazards, the extant height of the Mori Tim stupa is 11.582 m (Di Castro 2008: 261). This is the most famous stupa in Kashgar, although it is also neglected. Unlike the Sunday market of Kashgar, it is not a favourite with visitors simply because they have no idea why it is important or where it stands. Taking into account the disintegrated top portion of the stupa and the missing umbrella (chattra) it would have originally been much higher, visible from a long distance because it sits on high land (Di Castro 2008: 261).

Next to Mori Tim is a second stupa, some 10.363 m high and between them the outline of other structures that had associated purposes - perhaps residences, meditation rooms, workshops or rooms for storing and cooking food (Di Castro 2008: 263-269). By comparison, the stupas of Anuradhapura from 340 BCE onwards ranged from 10 to 106 m in height, with the earliest stupa, Maha Saeya (c.243 BCE) measuring 13.5 m (Coningham and Gunawardhana 2013: 465,14).

Topa Tim, another stupa located some 10 kms to the south of Mori Tim, was re-discovered by Abdurëhim Qadir as recently as 2003 (Di Castro, Vicziany and Zhu, forthcoming 2015). Its circular base suggests that it could be the oldest stupa in this part of China and Central Asia but it is increasingly being compromised by agricultural and road developments. High resolution satellite images of the Topa Tim area show that a new, wide road now passes between this stupa first described by Stein and the nearby mound (probably the remains of a monastery) (Di Castro, Vicziany and Zhu, forthcoming 2015). During our field observations in 2013 and 2014 we photographed fragments of a stucco figurative frieze scattered on the disturbed ground.

In addition to those sites defined by buddhist structures, we have three ancient urban settlements in Kashgar - Shule some 20 kms to the north of modern Kashgar, Khan-oi some 5 kms from Topa Tim and Eskishahar, on the southern outer rim of modern Kashgar (Di Castro, Vicziany and Zhu, forthcoming 2015). Were these urban centres developed sequentially or where they contemporaneous and how, if at all, are they related to the

SATELLITE IMAGE SHOWINg OLD AgRICULTURAL FIELDS AROUND THE MORI TIM STUPAS WITH THE DOTTED

LINE OF KAREz RUNNINg THROUgH THE MIDDLE. THE STRAIgHT LINES ARE OLD IRRIgATION CHANNELS.

THE TWO STUPAS AT THE MORI TIM SITE WITH A CLOSE UP

VIEW OF ONE KAREz WELL. PHOTO: A.A. DI CASTRO


Buddhist sites? The scattered nature of these three urban areas and the five buddhist sites is certainly suggestive of what Fletcher has called ‘low-density, agrarian based urbanism’. However, without any dating or scientific study, we cannot be sure.

In the last few months Kashgar has become the focus of national and international attention because it will form a critical part of the newly declared official Chinese infrastructure project called ‘One Belt One Road’. This strategy seeks to rebuild the old ‘Silk Roads’ to reconnect China to its western and southern neighbours by land and sea. It provides an unprecedented opportunity to document and preserve the Buddhist heritage of Kashgar. Trade and

tourism could make significant contributions to the economic prosperity and stability of this part of western China. However, a large investment of effort and money is also needed into scholarly research that can help Kashgar to reclaim its place in the cultural relations of China, Central, South and Southeast Asia.

There is an urgent need to minimise the risk of missing this opportunity by too great a focus on the economics of trade and development. In working with Chinese and Australian scholars, Monash University’s Kashgar Research Project hopes to contribute to a balanced growth strategy in which cultural objectives are as important as economic ones. Our methodologies are informed by the latest approaches and technologies being applied to the study of Angkor, Bagan and Anuradhapura. Manuscripts and relics need to be located within a broader understanding that pays careful attention to the dating, scientific study and holistic analysis of human settlement patterns, water and land management practices and the political-monastic environment that gave rise to Buddhist Kashgar.

Professor Marika Vicziany is the Director of Monash

University’s Kashgar Research Project and Dr Angelo

Andrea Di Castro is the Deputy Director.

REFERENCESConingham, R. and gunawardhana, P., 2013. Anuradhapura: Vol.

III: The hinterland, B.A.R. International Series 2568, Oxford

de La Vaissière, É., 2011. ‘Sogdiana iii. History and Archaeology’,

in Encyclopaedia Iranica, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/

sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology

Di Castro, A.A., Vicziany, M. and zhu, Xuan (forthcoming 2015).

‘The Evolution of the Kashgar oasis: the archaeological and

environmental record’, in Peter Jia (ed.), From Cattle to Camel

Trains: the development of the Silk Roads, The China Studies

Centre, University of Sydney, Brill, Leiden

Di Castro, A.A., 2013. ‘Stupas and Wine: The Artistic Traditions of

the Kashgar Oasis’, TAASA, Vol. 22, no. 4, 7-10.

Di Castro, A. A., 2008. ‘The Mori Tim Stupa Complex in Kashgar

Oasis’, East and West, IsIAO, Rome, December, Vol. 58, nos. 1-4,

257-282

Fletcher Roland, 2012, ‘Low-density, agrarian-based urbanism:

scale, power, and ecology’, in Michael E. Smith (ed.), The

Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies, Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge

Qadir, A. et al, 2007. ‘The 2000 Brief Report on the Excavation

of Yawaluk, Kashgar’, Cultural Relics of Xinjiang, Vol. 67-68,

nos. 3-4, pp. 54-57. English translation from Chinese by Monash

Kashgar Research Project

Vicziany, M. and Di Castro, A. A. (forthcoming 2015), ‘The Kashgar

Oasis: Reassessing the Historical Record’, in Peter Jia (ed.), From

Cattle to Camel Trains: The Development of the Silk Roads, The

China Studies Centre, University of Sydney, Brill, Leiden.

Watt, James C Y et al., 2004. China: Dawn of a Golden Age,

200-750 A.D., The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

The Kashgar Research Project is seeking partners

and collaborators from business, government,

museums and NgOs. Please contact:

[email protected]

A FRAGMENT OF STUCCO AT THE TOPA TIM SITE SHOWINg ITS

SIzE RELATIVE TO A LONg MARKER PEN. PHOTO: A.A. DI CASTRO


evotees of Islamic art have been well served over the past ten years with the

opening or refurbishment of major collections on public display. London’s Victoria and Albert Museum re-opened its Islamic gallery in 2006 after major renovation, and two years later Qatar’s huge new Museum of Islamic Art opened in Doha. Copenhagen’s extensive C.L. David Islamic space was refurbished in 2009, and in 2012 New York’s Metropolitan Museum of Art opened its reorganised and renamed Islamic galleries. Later that year the Louvre in Paris unveiled a spacious two-level Islamic wing.

The latest showcase for the rich artistic heritage of the Islamic world is the Aga Khan Museum in Toronto, Canada, which opened in late 2014 in the city’s north east. The Museum and adjacent Ismaili Centre were financed from the immense wealth of the Aga Khan, the 49th Imam of the Nizari Ismailis, a Persian branch of a Shi’ia Muslim sect founded in the 8th century CE; his followers call him His Highness. The Museum catalogue says the Aga Khan chose Toronto because of its pluralistic social fabric and its proximity to the US border, providing an opportunity to reach a potential audience of millions.

The airy two-storey building was designed by award-winning Japanese architect, Fumihiko Aki. It covers 4,730 sq m landscaped parkland, complete with gardens, tree-lined pathways and a reflecting pool, all linking the building to the nearby Ismaili Centre. The main architectural theme is light - a metaphor for both Knowledge and The Divine, according to the Museum catalogue, Pattern and Light. The long outer walls are clad in white Brazilian granite that changes colour in different light conditions. Internally, the building is suffused with indirect light from a central courtyard walled with patterned glass and from lantern windows in the ceiling.

The permanent collection occupies much of the extensive ground floor, along with meeting rooms, educational facilities, a spacious auditorium with a high dome that admits natural light, and an excellent restaurant. The upper floor is devoted to temporary exhibitions and features a gallery overlooking much of the collection on the ground floor.

The collection was assembled by the Aga Khan and his family, most of it long before

wealthy Middle Eastern collectors began snapping up the best material at international auctions, doubling, then trebling prices. It spans more than 1400 years across a range of Muslim cultures: Spain, North Africa, the Middle East and Turkey to Iran, Central Asia, India and western China. Muslim Southeast Asia barely appears; luckily we have Kuala Lumpur’s magnificent Museum of Islamic Arts Malaysia in our neighbourhood.

The objects in the collection presumably reflect the tastes of the Aga Khan and family members who collected them. Their focus appears to be on the Arab Middle East and Iran, but Ottoman Turkey and Mughal India are also represented by choice pieces.

The Toronto offering is an ‘anthology’ rather than a comprehensive survey, with several of the pieces representing the pinnacle of Islamic art. There are ceramic and metal utensils, costumes and carpets, scientific and medical implements and texts, religious objects such as Qur’ans and mosque lamps, illustrated manuscripts of folk tales and poetry. More finely-wrought examples, such as illuminated manuscripts and richly-ornamented brasses, glazed ceramics and ornate carpets (all represented here), were commissioned by ruling and merchant elites as luxury goods denoting wealth and status.

More than 100 items are on show, representing all the media that Muslim artisans used over the centuries, from wood, metal and ivory to glazed ceramics, glass and paint on paper. Decorative techniques include sometimes ingenious re-workings of geometric and arabesque patterns and profuse displays

of fine Arabic script. We clearly see artistic echoes of the cultures Islam interacted with, such as Roman mosaic tiling and floral patterns of Chinese art.

The ceramic arts are represented by fine Iznik ware, a white ground dish from Khorasan with elongated Arabic calligraphy around the rim, lustreware and more. One exceptional object is a 10th century dish from Nishapur in eastern Iran. Almost 35 cm in diameter, it is dramatically decorated with wide splashes of green, ochre and brown glazes over a white slip background that has been incised with bands of small curls or spirals. Intriguingly, the splashes look partly random and partly controlled. In her catalogue article, Ruba Kana’an, Head of Education and Scholarly Programs at the Museum, notes that such splashware may have been influenced by imports from Tang dynasty China (618-907), as probably were Islamic blue-and-white ceramics.

Amongst the rich variety of worked metal items, mostly of brass or bronze alloys and inlaid with gold or silver, one item that stands out is a charming replica of a beggar’s bowl (kashkul) made of engraved brass. Dating from mid-Safavid Iran (late 16th century), this boat-shaped piece, with open-mouthed dragon heads at either end, symbolises the Sufi mystic’s renunciation of worldly possessions and reliance on alms for his existence. Ms Kana’an suggests it was used ceremonially in a Sufi lodge. Inscribed along the rim in slanting nastaliq script are allegorical Persian verses about the Prophet Muhammad, his son-in-law Ali (revered by Shi’ites) and the ‘friends of Allah’, which generally refers to Sufi mystics.

T H E A G A K H A N M U S E U M , T O R O N T O

Leigh Mackay

D

THE AGA KHAN MUSEUM’S FRONT FAçADE WITH REFLECTINg POOL AND PART OF THE FORMAL gARDENS. PHOTO: IMARA LIMITED


The permanent collection is particularly strong on the arts of the book, especially those of the 15th century Timurid and 16th century Safavid schools. They include elaborately decorated Qur’ans, illuminated scientific and literary manuscripts, pages of graceful calligraphy and paintings on paper. They are displayed to allow sufficient light for close inspection while protecting them from fading.

The collection’s paintings on paper represent one of the largest assemblages of such works in private hands and was formed by the Aga Khan’s late uncle, Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan. He began buying pre-17th century Persian and Mughal miniatures at auction when they cost a pittance by today’s prices. They include 10 folios from one of the most famous of Persian manuscripts: a Shahnama (Book of Kings), the beloved epic by 11th century Persian poet Ferdausi, prepared in Tabriz around 1532 for the Safavid Shah Tahmasp I (1524-76). Experts estimate the original volume’s 248 painted images, exquisitely rendered in watercolours, ink, gold and silver, required more than a dozen miniaturist painters and at least two master calligraphers.

The intact volume was long owned by the Rothschild family in Paris, but was sold at auction in 1959 to American bibliophile, Arthur A. Houghton Jr. for US$259,000. He began breaking it up, donating many individual paintings to museums and selling others, including the 10 in the Aga Khan collection. These include the carefully composed illustration of an early episode of the Shahnama: Sindkht Brings Gifts to the Court of Sam. It features vibrant colours and finely drawn costumes, animals and plants. The remains of this Shahnama is now held in a Teheran museum, which quietly swapped a de Kooning painting for it. (See TAASA Review, Vol. 21, No. 1, March 2012, p. 26).

no Islamic collection is complete without fine, hand-illuminated Qur’ans, especially those made in the early years of the faith, or under the artistic flowering of the Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal dynasties. Rulers and wealthy patrons commissioned and distributed these sumptuously decorated and bound Qur’ans to mosques as acts of piety. The Museum displays several complete volumes as well as individual folios.

A number of folios, copied on parchment in elongated Kufic script without embellishment, typify the Qur’ans prepared within a few hundred years of the Prophet’s death. By the 11th century, parchment had given way to paper (made from pulped rags) and Kufic to other scripts. bindings of

leather or stiffened board and individual pages were often elegantly decorated with geometric and arabesque designs in gold and coloured inks. A particularly fine example of the later Qur’ans in the collection is one copied and decorated in formal style in 1804 on the island of Sulawesi, Indonesia. As well as twisting frames around the text, the pages have marginal markers of various shapes that indicate interesting points in the text, and copious marginalia in fine script explaining recitation, interpretation and grammar. Toronto already boasted a commendable collection of Islamic and Asian art in its

Royal Ontario Museum (ROM) and the Textile Museum of Canada, with its display of Islamic carpets. The addition of the Aga Khan Museum has significantly sharpened the city’s intercultural profile.

Leigh Mackay holds a Masters in Islamic Studies, has

lived in Iran and Indonesia and travelled widely in

other Muslim lands. He has long been an enthusiast

of the arts of Islam and is currently President of the

Oriental Rug Society of NSW.

QU’RAN, COPIED BY ISMAI’L B. ‘ABDALLAH, MAKASSAR, SULEWESI ISLAND, INDONESIA, 1804. INK, WATERCOLOUR AND

gOLD ON PAPER. FOLIO 34.5X21.5 CM. COLLECTION OF THE AgA KHAN MUSEUM. PHOTO:gERALD FRIEDLI

BEGGAR’S BOWL (KAShKuL), IRAN, LATE 16TH CENTURY. ENgRAVED BRASS. LENgTH 61 CM. COLLECTION OF THE AgA KHAN MUSEUM.

PHOTO:SEAN WEAVER


he National Gallery Singapore will open its doors to the public in November this

year. It will provide two dedicated permanent exhibition spaces, one for the art of Singapore and the other of Southeast Asia, from the 19th century to the present day, as well as a number of temporary exhibition spaces.

While national galleries throughout Southeast Asia have important collections of their own country’s modern artworks, National Gallery Singapore will be significant for offering a permanent regional platform where the art histories of these countries can be viewed side by side, uncovering new relationships and leading to new avenues for exhibition and research. As a curator in the Southeast Asia team of this institution since 2012, I have had the opportunity to participate in the development of the opening exhibition for the UOB Southeast Asia Gallery, as well as being able to witness the transformation of the physical space of the building.

The National Gallery is housed in two historic buildings: City Hall (completed in 1929), and former Supreme Court buildings (completed in 1939). While both buildings have had an important civic and historical significance for Singapore, the City Hall building is also notable in world history as the site where Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten formally accepted the surrender of Japanese forces on behalf of the Allies on 12 September 1945 concluding the Japanese Occupation of Southeast Asia. To house the new National Gallery Singapore, these two historic buildings were extensively renovated to be functional gallery spaces, and were also integrated into a single building through the use of link bridges, a shared atrium and basement space.

The architectural design for the conversion was the work of Studio Milou Architecture, France, and CPG Consultants, Singapore, who were announced as the winners of an international architectural design competition in 2008. Whilst some of the interior spaces were substantially remodelled, others preserve the existing spatial and architectural quality where original fittings, finishes and ornaments will remain visible in the gallery spaces. The layering of exhibition spaces into the historic architecture of the National Gallery has been a challenge, not only for curators but also for the architects and exhibition designers who have been engaged throughout the process.

The UOB Southeast Asia Gallery, which will occupy the former Supreme Court building, is housed almost entirely in historic spaces which retain much of their former character. The curatorial team has worked to align, as far as possible, the architectural spaces with the artwork to be displayed. This gallery is conceived as a permanent space for the display of Southeast Asian art, and the opening exhibition will remain substantially in place for five years. The curatorial narrative for the inaugural hang in this space takes a chronological approach, grouping art from the different countries of Southeast Asia together, to facilitate the exploration of both parallel experiences and disparities.

Each of the broad time periods has also been loosely identified with a theme, which attempts to highlight the major impulse toward art-making in the region at that time. Thus, the section pertaining to 19th and early 20th century art in Southeast Asia is themed as Authority and Anxiety, and explores the role of art production in asserting cultural authority in a period of social instability, brought about by the widespread colonization of the region in that period. Artists from Southeast Asia who studied in European art centres in the 19th century, such as Raden Saleh (c. 1811 – 1880, Indonesia) and Juan Luna (1857 – 1899, Philippines) will be among the artists featured in this section. This section also acknowledges the protean character of art at that time, which cannot be confined to the Eurocentric categories of ‘fine art’ like painting and sculpture, but overlaps with a wider domain of practice including craft, map-making, photography and draftsmanship.

This section of the exhibition is partly housed in a former courtroom, one of the few spaces in the gallery in which the original fixtures – such as the prisoner’s dock, barrister’s tables and judge’s bench – have been entirely preserved. The formality of this setting enhances the curatorial themes of authority, representation and exchange. The challenge for designers and curators was to integrate showcases into the room’s existing structure without making permanent alterations: a challenge that led to some ingenious physical solutions, such as the insertion of showcases into the existing bookshelves (which once housed legal volumes) and a clamping system to position showcases atop the existing benches.

The curatorial narrative then moves to art made between 1900s and 1940s, highlighting the period in which art academies, as well as informal structures like exhibiting societies, were first established in the region. Examples of the synthesizing stylistic currents which emerged in Hanoi and in Bali in the 1920s and 1930s are featured here. At the same time, this period ushered in the beginnings of a reaction to academic training and practice. Artists like Hendra Gunawan and Victorio Edades, who contested the dominance of academic painting in their respective homelands of Indonesia and the Philippines, are among the artists featured in this space.

The next series of galleries house the bulk of the Southeast Asia collection, with artwork from the 1950s to 1970s. These galleries offer different perspectives on the art produced during the decades of decolonization, from the impetus to document the suffering of the

T

M O D E R N A R T O F S O U T H E A S T A S I A A T T H E N A T I O N A L G A L L E R Y S I N G A P O R E

Phoebe Scott

NATIONAL GALLERY SINGAPORE FAçADE, 2015. PHOTO COURTESY OF MINISTRY OF CULTURE, COMMUNITY AND YOUTH, SINgAPORE


Japanese occupation and various anti-colonial rebellions, to the desire to connect with global artistic trends like abstraction. The polarized dynamics of the Cold War period are also evident in the divergent artistic directions represented in these galleries.

The final section of the UOb Southeast Asia Gallery presents works from the 1970s to the early 2000s, documenting artists’ turn against conventional and academic definitions of the ‘art object’, as well as new social commitments, as artists used their work to unpack gender, class, ethnic and institutional biases. The Southeast Asia narrative concludes with the current global moment, where contemporary artists work in an increasingly internationalised art world.

The collection of the National Gallery Singapore is in large part an inheritance from the existing Singapore National Collection, which has been actively collecting the modern art of the region for some time. Of particular importance is the role of Singapore Art Museum which from its very opening exhibition in 1996 – Modernity and Beyond: Themes in Southeast Asian Art – declared a regional orientation. Singapore Art Museum will not be displaced by the National Gallery, but will continue to develop its focus on Southeast Asia through emerging and contemporary artists.

National Gallery Singapore curators have also been making new acquisitions to deepen the collection’s holdings. At the same time, the Gallery has relied on collaborations with other national museums and private collections across Southeast Asia to access many key works of Southeast Asian modern art. Through the support of regional partners,

we will be able to display some important long-term loans in the inaugural exhibition.

Aside from the two permanent galleries dedicated to art in Singapore and Southeast Asia respectively, the changing exhibitions of the Gallery aim to bring modern and contemporary art from outside Southeast Asia into dialogue with the art of the region. The first major international exhibition will be co-curated with France’s Centre Pompidou.

This exhibition aspires to reframe the history of modernist painting. Rather than working from the idea of ‘influence’ or using art-historical movements and terms that stem from a Western context, the exhibition will draw connections between the formal, conceptual and social preoccupations of European and Southeast Asian modern painters, exploring how shared concerns were manifested in different local contexts. Small bodies of work (on average five artworks each) from artists in the collection of Centre Pompidou will be showcased alongside bodies of work from artists from Southeast

Asia. It is hoped that this exhibition, along with the displays in the permanent galleries, will inspire a new sense of excitement about the modern art of the region, and act as a prompt for further research and exploration.

The UOB Southeast Asia Gallery will be open to the public from 24 November, 2015. As well as the contribution by academics, scholars and curators from outside the Gallery, I would like to acknowledge the work of the current team of curators working on the opening exhibition of the Southeast Asia Gallery: Lisa Horikawa, Syed Muhammad Hafiz, Clarissa Chikiamco and Adele Tan, under the direction of Low Sze Wee. The collaborative exhibition with Centre Pompidou will be opening in 2016.

Phoebe Scott is currently a curator at the National

gallery Singapore. Previously, she completed her PhD

at the University of Sydney on the subject of modern

Vietnamese art.

NEWLY-BUILT ATRIUM CONNECTINg THE CITY HALL AND FORMER SUPREME COURT BUILDINgS, 2015.

PHOTO COURTESY NATIONAL gALLERY SINgAPORE

LANDSCAPE OF VIETNAM C. 1940, NgUYEN gIA TRI (B. 1908,

VIETNAM; D. 1993, VIETNAM). LACQUER ON BOARD. COLLECTION

OF NATIONAL gALLERY SINgAPORE, IMAgE COURTESY OF THE

NATIONAL HERITAgE BOARD.


hile much has been published about the thangkas of the Himalayan region,

tsakli have received less attention. Tsakli are the small ritual paintings most commonly associated with Tibet, although they originate from and are (or were) used throughout the Himalayan region.

Tsakli are used in initiation and evocation rituals, and Bardo ceremonies associated with progressing from death through transitional stages to the afterlife. They are painted in mineral pigments on card or primed cloth, and usually have script on the reverse which may indicate the ritual for which the tsakli is used, the name of the deity or image depicted, the placement of the tsakli when the cards are laid out as a mandala, or the number of the card in the set. They also frequently show some of the words to be spoken by the officiant at that part of the ritual. As tsakli are small and portable, they sometimes depict ritual items (such as a flayed elephant skin) which a lama may need but which are not easily obtainable or transported.

Tsakli are sometimes confused with miniature thangkas and consecration paintings. Like the larger paintings, miniature thangkas depict a central deity or symbol surrounded by a hierarchy of other figures, whether protectors or those relating to the lineage of the thangka. Miniature thangkas were often housed in a gau (portable shrine) and when not being carried by their owner, were placed on a domestic altar. Consecration paintings are usually small (postage-stamp size) and were placed within stupas or bronze figures as a part of their consecration (Leonov 1992: 100-109). While a tsakli usually depicts a single subject, it does not stand on its own like a thangka, and ritually forms part of a larger set.

Most of the tsakli we see are from dispersed sets. While we can tell whether tsakli belong to the same set through their style, subject matter, composition, the text on the reverse, or the consistent marks of wear where a lama has handled them over many years in the same way, we also have to be aware that damaged tsakli were repaired or replaced. Repair may include gluing a new backing to the tsakli, or entirely copying a worn card with one painted on different material by a different artist.

Tsakli were also attached to textile banners for display in temples. While tsakli have now

often been detached from their banners, one can frequently see the supports and stitching on the tsakli that show us how it was used.

The two tsakli illustrated can be dated to the 13th to 14th century on account of their style, the orthography of the text on reverse, and their similarity to other published examples, in this case from the collection of Gerry Virtue (Pal/Meech-Pekarik 1988:160, 162 and Virtue 2003:14-15). These two tsakli are from a much larger set and while none have been published, others from the set have appeared on the market from time to time. The two featured are numbered 27 and 30 and depict Bon masters. Bon is a Tibetan religious tradition that traces its history back to pre-Buddhist practices. While Bon has absorbed many Buddhist practices and doctrines (and to some extent vice versa), practitioners consider it to be distinctly different (Powers and Templeman 2012:100).

In these tsakli, the figure in the white cloak is holding a shang, or bon ritual bell; the figure in the yellow cloak is holding in his right hand a kundika (water sprinkler) used for purification, and a phurba (triple-bladed ritual dagger) in his left. The style of their headwear is one found in similar tsakli from Mustang, a Tibetan cultural area in northern Nepal.

The text to the reverse of the tsakli of the figure in the white cloak reads: “(This figure

represents) He who is known as ‘The One who is Non-Diverse [in his practice] and Whose Prayers are All-Accomplishing’ and whose secret name is ‘Suppressor of Demons’. Homage to Him!”

The text to the reverse of the figure in the yellow cloak reads: “This figure represents the Great Acarya (spiritual master) ‘Master of the Phurba’ and whose secret name is ‘Sprouting Shoot of the Letter Ho’. Homage to Him.” (Templeman 2006).

What makes such tsakli elusive is that the meaning of such images and text cannot be fully realised without a spiritual guide or teacher (Kerin 2009: 90). However, these jewel-like miniatures can be appreciated on many levels and reveal a lesser known aspect of Himalayan culture.

Boris Kaspiev is a collector of Himalayan art.

REFERENCESKerin, M., 2009. Artful Beneficence. Rubin Museum of Art, New York

Leonov, g., 1992. The Rite of Consecration in Tibetan Buddhism,

Arts of Asia September-October 1992, Hong Kong

Pal, P. and Meech-Pekarik, J., 1988. Buddhist Book Illuminations.

Ravi Kumar, New York

Powers, J., and Templeman, D., 2012. historical Dictionary of

Tibet. Scarecrow Press, UK

Templeman, D., 2006. Personal correspondence.

Virtue, g., 2003. TAASA Review, Vol 12 No 1 March 2003

W

C O L L E C T O R ’ S C H O I C E : T W O T I B E TA N T S A K L I

Boris Kaspiev

TWO TSAKLI, TIBET, 13TH - 14TH CENTURY. MINERAL PIgMENT ON CARD, SCRIPT ON REVERSE. COURTESY: BORIS KASPIEV COLLECTION


tate of Play is the latest exhibition of Chinese contemporary art this year to be

showcased from the White Rabbit collection. It is the 13th in a series of exhibitions held since the White Rabbit Gallery opened in 2009, all of which have been highly successful in engaging the Sydney public’s interest in the challenging social and other issues inspiring Chinese artists today.

The collection has focused on works from the post 2000 period, a time following on from the art of political satire of Mao Pop and Cynical Realism of the 80s and 90s. The White Rabbit’s acquisition policy concentrates on sourcing works from artists, often young and unknown, who offer new and vibrant interpretations of contemporary China. When the Director, Judith Nielson, opened her private gallery, her stated aim was to show a different side of contemporary Chinese life to the Australian public and to showcase artists who might not be seen in the West. The works of artists sought out by the White Rabbit Gallery reflect an explosive creative energy, at once humorous and poignant, uniquely unconstrained and imaginative, daring and ambitious.

The choice of name for the Gallery - ‘White Rabbit’ - reflects the Gallery’s curatorial philosophy. Like Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland, Chinese contemporary art is often not what it seems: its inner significance not always obvious, its meaning often subtle. A number of the Gallery’s past exhibitions, such as Beyond the Frame (2011), Down the Rabbit Hole (2012) and Double Take (2012) work on this sense of fantasy. In Beyond the Frame, the work Calm by the Madeln art collective seems at first to be just a room sized pile of rubble – only after long and close scrutiny does it appear to be gently, very gently, rising and falling, undulating, or even ‘breathing’. What we expect to see is not always what we do see.

In Down the Rabbit Hole, Ai Wei Wei’s 500 kg pile of tiny sunflower seeds look deceptively ordinary, yet a close look reveals each seed has been hand formed from clay and fired into porcelain. The mound of seeds is also a metaphor for the Chinese people: a huge mass in which individual identity is concealed. In the most recent State of Play exhibition, Liang Tao’s work Luofu Dream: Pink, Pink ventures into overt suggestive fantasy which holds a double meaning. The viewer has to come to terms with preconditioned responses when

confronted with a bed, at once pink and pretty and yet sinister and aggressive, even phallic. beauty is superficial, therefore ‘wicked and decadent’, yet we cling to its imagined promise because we prefer it to the ugly truth.

The works in the show Reformation (2014) may have been inspired by everything from Daoism and calligraphy to global issues of commerce, urban decay, and religion, but the critic Luise Guest has called it “A Chinese Dream”. Her comment refers particularly to the video work by Yi Lian called Undercurrent, where a child sleepwalks through a night landscape. Sleepwalking is a metaphor for living in today’s China, where everything is changing and developing so fast that, like for Alice in Wonderland, the world you see when you wake up is not the world you knew when you fell asleep.

Life in China today reflects the turbulence of the modern globalised world and all its preoccupations with materialism and individualism. The works at the White Rabbit reflect the struggle of contemporary Chinese artists to find a new role in a country recently free from rigid socialist constraints of authority and collective living.

The post-Mao era produced a wave of creative freedom which left artists searching for a new sense of direction and identity. Many artists, such as those represented in State of Play, turn to the realm of the self, of fantasy, dreams and idealism to find this. They flirt with creative experimentation on many levels, reflecting on imagination, often working from memories of childhood innocence and adolescent anxieties, sometimes engaging in ambiguous adult games of sexuality and pretense. Underpinning these flights of imagination and nostalgia is often a sense of unease, a sinister undercurrent. Many of these artists grapple with their past to make sense of their modern lives and its many contradictions, determining meaning for themselves as their sense of self is squeezed between the values of a childhood in a China in transition, and those of modernity in a globalised world.

Yu Xiao, in her work Never Grow Up no.1, provides a refreshing analysis of the interaction of herself as adult woman with her nostalgic memory of childhood. Her photo-shopped self-portrait with glossy lips and made up eyes, emphasises an adult idealisation of the carefree beauty of childhood, yet it contrasts with the dark ominous skies, which suggest a

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S ta t e o f P l a y A N D C O N T E M P O R A R Y C H I N E S E A R T A T T H E W H I T E R A B B I T

G A L L E R Y, S Y D N E Y

Sabrina SnowNEVER GROW UP NO.1, 2008, YU XIAO, CHINA. CHROMOgENIC COLOUR PRINT, 100X100CM. WHITE RABBIT COLLECTION


sense of anxiety about the future. The little girl seems stripped of her dreams before they even happen. Bu Hua’s Beauty No.3, on the other hand, which shows a little girl smoking, brash and vivid in the cartoon-like inkjet green and simple outlines, confers a simple message: life is harsh, it has to be faced head on with all its contradictions – in all its yin and yang.

In the 2013 show Serve The People, first used as a Communist party propaganda exhortation by Mao at the 1942 Yan’an Forum, its curator Edmund Capon proposes that artists of today ‘serve the people’ by “liberating their spirits and giving shape to their anxieties, confusion and ambitions”. He chooses three threads to unite the works in his show - fear, anarchy and hope. The pain and fear of the past, the anarchy and destruction often inherent in change, the hope and optimism for the new China - these themes also permeate many White Rabbit shows, yet a delightful sense of the ridiculous, characteristic of contemporary Chinese art, so often enliven them.

The meaning of tradition is re-visited in works in the Gallery which refer to scholarly ink painting and the traditional format of ink landscapes. In the context of the show Smash Palace (2013), which echoes Mao’s exhortation to “Smash the Four Olds” – customs, culture, habits and ideas – the ‘smashing’ taking place now relates to the dramatic and fast changes being brought about by globalisation and modernisation. In Yang Yongliang’s Infinite Landscape, a digital animation in the traditional form of a vertical mountain and water landscape, the mountains are in fact piles of skyscrapers, and freeways criss-cross the image.

In State of Play, Yang Yongliang presents an inverted perspective in Cigarette Ash Landscape: instead of an uplifting vision of

mountain peaks and winding rivers where the enlightened scholar communes with nature, he portrays layers of high rise apartment blocks furled into a cigarette-like coil disintegrating downwards into a pile of ugly sterile ash. The implications are obvious – in China people are destroying not only nature’s beauty with urban degradation, but killing themselves through addiction to nicotine. In its starkness and balance of shades and shapes, this work has a haunting, reverberating beauty.

Despite the confrontational aspect of many of these works, the viewer is struck by their undercurrent of experimental playfulness. In State Of Play, Dong Wen Sheng’s Dahlias and Mayflowers, and Yang Yongliang’s Cigarette Ash Landscape provide witty and clever references to traditional and scholarly artistic values, reinterpreted with a modern psychological orientation. In Dahlias and Mayflowers, a naked man and woman are shown with flower pots transcribed with poetry and painted landscapes sprouting from their heads. These inscriptions conjure up the traditional Chinese artistic symbolism for nature’s bounty, the beauty of spring and the promise of good fortune; the man’s tattoo suggests a Buddhist tantric deity, Vajrakala,

who represents the fight of good against evil, eternal wisdom against earthly delusion and ignorance. The man and woman are rendered bare and vulnerable; they are but bit parts and transients in the greater scheme of transcendental existence

State of Play pursues themes evident in past shows at White Rabbit, such as that of identity in the turbulent world of China today, of urban decay, materialism, sexuality, and they are interpreted with a characteristic Chinese sense of humour and imagination. However the artists in this show play unique artistic games exploiting the tensions between the bright side of play and its undercurrent of anxiety and discord; between the individual and the collective; between tradition and modernity. They do so with a lively sense of experimentation in style and media and technical accomplishment. State of Play takes its place in a long line of exhibitions at White Rabbit reflecting the inherent energy in the constantly evolving creativity of Chinese contemporary art.

Sabrina Snow has an MA in Asian Art History and a

longstanding interest in Chinese art. She was formerly

a guide and VisAsia coordinator at the AgNSW and a

member of the TAASA Management Committee.

CIGARETTE ASH LANDSCAPE, 2013, YANg YONgLIANg, CHINA. PIgMENTED INKJET PRINTS, CARDBOARD,

PAPER, WIRE, POLYURETHANE FOAM, CIgARETTE, 507X43X43CM, BASE 250X250CM. WHITE RABBIT COLLECTION

DAHLIAS, 2014, DONg WENSHENg. HAND COLOURED gELATIN

SILVER PRINT, 80X68CM. WHITE RABBIT COLLECTION


Buddhist Art of Myanmar

Sylvia Fraser-Lu and Donald Stadtner (eds)

Yale University Press, 2015

RRP USD65, paper over board, 272p,

colour illustrations

In February 2015 the exhibition Buddhist Art of Myanmar opened at the Asia Society Museum in New York. With loans from Myanmar and private and public collections in America, this was the first major exhibition in the USA to focus solely on Burmese art. Curated by well-known researchers of Myanmar art history, Sylvia Fraser-Lu and Donald Stadtner, both co-edited this accompanying publication.

This is more than a catalogue, offering ten short informative essays followed by 71 full page colour images of works with facing text, and the whole stands well outside of the exhibition context. Fraser-Lu and Stadtner have selected topics that allow the reader to gain a sense of the complexities of Burmese culture beyond simply an art historical frame.

Fraser-Lu and Stadtner open with an introduction to Myanmar’s history and archaeology. Very useful in providing context for what follows, it is a shame that mention isn’t made of the successful UNESCO listing of the Pyu Ancient Cities in June 2014, though I note the publication may have already been in press. There are a couple of inaccuracies: the text suggests the first director of the Archaeological Survey of Burma, founded in 1902, was Emil Forchhammer who died in 1890. Forchhammer was the Archaeological Survey of India’s first head of archaeology in Myanmar, appointed in 1881. Gordon Luce is noted as a founder of the Burma Research Society in 1910, though according to bibliographic sources this pre-dates his graduation from Cambridge and travel to Burma in 1912.

Essays cover the topics Foundation Myths (Patrick Pranke and Donald Stadtner),

Inscriptions and Chronicles (U Tun Aung Chain), Buddhism and its Practice in Myanmar (Patrick Pranke), Myanmar in the Outside World (Jacques Leider), The Buddha’s Smile: art of the first millennium, (Robert Brown and Donald Stadtner), Ancient Pagan: a plain of merit (Donald Stadtner), After Pagan; The art of Myanmar (Sylvia Fraser-Lu), Buddhist image replication in Myanmar(Adrian Proser), Art Power and Merit: the veneration of Buddha images in Myanmar Museums (Heidi Tan). Stadtner brings his expert knowledge and previous publications to bear in his contributing chapters, the foundation myths contextualise some of the more unusual imagery we find in Myanmar and reinforces the important role of narrative and legends.

I was particularly drawn to Leider’s contribution which addresses issues associated with Myanmar historiography. He draws attention to the often unfavourable colonial reports of Myanmar affairs, which portrayed the country as an inward looking nation with little interest in engagement with the rest of the world. This inaccurate picture was perpetuated during the 20th century and still appears in populist reporting on Burma affairs. We are usually told that the Burmese court’s inability to negotiate with the British was a result of their isolation. Focussing on China, Leider very clearly communicates Myanmar’s successful and complex ‘international relations’ skills leading up to the colonial period and proffers a much more nuanced scenario than that perpetuated in colonial histories.

It was a little disappointing to see in Stadtner and Brown’s essay that the myth that the Pyu were unknown until archaeologists unearthed material at Sri Ksetra in 1900s continues. This chapter contains information that is already superseded or open to question in the light of research undertaken in the last 12 months. One example is the dating of Sri Ksetra, with confirmed archaeological dating now indicating the city was developing in the 2nd century, not the 6th-7th as stated. The dating of Pyu burial urns is also being questioned as epigraphists revisit assumptions made by earlier scholars. These changes do not detract from the text, rather they serve to highlight how quickly things are changing in Myanmar.

Stadtner’s expertise in Indian and Burmese art come to the fore when discussing Pagan and he

presents an engaging narrative connecting the art of Pagan with India and other neighbouring countries. Fraser-Lu, an expert in Burmese arts and crafts, manages to condense the following 700 years of history into a short essay that again gives us an understanding of the complexity of Burma’s history and how this impacts on its visual cultures.

Proser and Tan address aspects of Buddhist practice related to Buddha images. Proser’s insight into replicated images helps us appreciate why some temples have literally hundreds of buddha figures of the same type. Likewise, Tan puts Buddhist imagery in a contemporary cultural context that helps explain their role and purpose, with a particular focus on pagoda museums.

The objects selected offer a snapshot of Myanmar’s Buddhist art history across most media (stone, wood, cloth, paper, metal, lacquer, terracotta). The image quality is excellent. I query some of the dating, such as an 11th century date for a Pagan period image (cat.14) when the text suggests otherwise, and other images of similar style are 11th-12th century (cat.15). Dating of Buddhist imagery from the Pyu cities and Bagan is still without consensus and broader date ranges would be more consistent. I am being pedantic here, and this is merely a reflection of how much we still have to discover about Myanmar and its history. While some may criticise the seemingly random selection of works, I stress that Burmese art is simply like that. I also appreciate that the curators were limited in their selections.

Buddhist art in Myanmar is an excellent addition to the corpus of Myanmar art publications. The essays are intelligently written with an educated audience in mind and clearly voice the experience and knowledge of all authors. Each essay has endnotes, and the accompanying maps, chronology, glossary and bibliography serve as strong reference sources. I hope this signals the start of further publications that explore this fascinating country’s rich visual culture.

Charlotte galloway is a Lecturer in Asian Art History

and Curatorial Studies at the Centre for Art History

and Art Theory at the Australian National University,

specialising in the art of Burma.

B O O K R E V I E W: B U D D H I S T A R T O F M YA N M A R

Charlotte Galloway

TA A S A R E V I E W V O L U M E 2 4 N O . 3 27

met Stephen Whiteman at his Sydney University office to discuss his scholarly

interests, his current work at Sydney University and his views on the future of Asian art studies in Australia.

It has been just a year since Stephen took on the position of Lecturer in Asian Art History, and while his academic background in Chinese art history stretches from the Song to the Qing Dynasties, it is the early 18th century which seems to attract him the most as a relatively young field for serious study by historians of Chinese art.

Stephen holds degrees in the history of art and architecture, Asian history, and East Asian studies from Brown University (Providence, Rhode Island, USA), where he earned his AB, and Stanford University, from which he received his MA and PhD. Before coming to Sydney, Stephen taught art and architectural history of Asia at the University of Pennsylvania, Middlebury College, and the University of Colorado. He has been a research fellow in Garden and Landscape Studies at Dumbarton Oaks in Washington, DC, and was most recently the A. W. Mellon Postdoctoral Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts at the National Gallery of Art, also in Washington.

An interest in the depiction of Chinese landscape and gardens is a common thread through Stephen’s academic work. This has taken him from his undergraduate studies on Song dynasty literati landscape painting to graduate and post graduate work on Ming & Qing garden history, and even included a stint as Curator of the New York Chinese Scholars’ Garden on Staten Island, NY. His current research focuses on the visual culture and built environment of the Kangxi emperor’s gardens and palaces in the early 18th century.

As he put it at our interview, Stephen’s broad interest is in exploring how the natural world around us reflects human experience, in particular, the interaction between the reality of a place as it existed in a particular period and its artistic representation. The design and construction of imperial landscapes, for example, reflect the imperial culture of the time, providing an insight into how imperial power and authority was expressed.

His current major project, now nearing completion (and publication), examines

one particular garden in the Kangxi era, the emperor’s imperial garden at Chengde, Bishu shanzhuang, or the ‘Mountain Estate to Escape the Heat’. The final shape of this particular garden was established in the late Qianlong period, a state of development that now disguises the fact that the garden’s design and construction altered significantly over time. Using a cross disciplinary approach drawing, for example, on disciplines such as cartography and astronomy, Stephen has been building a picture of how the garden altered over time, in turn reflecting the shifting priorities and viewpoints of its successive imperial masters.

In this way, Stephen believes that art historians can contribute to a deeper understanding of broader historical, cultural and social issues. He notes that there has been relatively little written on the background to the imperial art produced in Kangxi’s reign, in part due to the lack of available archival material and because the formal academy system so evident in the Emperor Qianlong’s reign was not yet established. His methodical analysis of one important garden landscape created in this period aims to fill this gap.

We also talked frankly about the current state of Asian art studies in Australia. Stephen expressed optimism about the strength of Sydney University’s commitment to this field, with his own appointment building on the path breaking work of Professor John Clark, recently retired from the Department of Art History.

The current interest in most universities and cultural institutions is strongly focused on contemporary Asian art, perhaps disproportionately at the expense of historical studies. Stephen pointed out that the two strands need not be exclusive to one another: as John Clark previously advocated, contemporary Asian art cannot be understood without a foundation in history and language.

Stephen believes that there is strong public interest in Asian art, sustaining dedicated galleries, significant original exhibitions, specialist organisations (such as TAASA!), arts festivals and numerous exchange programs. He also points out that student enrolments are high whenever Asian art topics are offered for study at the University.

There is a great deal of diverse and valuable work on Asian art in Australia at the moment, though its impact, in Stephen’s view, may be somewhat lessened for being diffused across universities, art institutions, and associations. It is for this reason that he, together with ANU colleague Dr Olivier Krischer, are organising a workshop at the University of Sydney, ‘Asian Art Research in Australia and New Zealand: Past, Present, Future’; scheduled for 15 October 2016, it is free and open to the public.

As the organisers have put it: “This project seeks to bring together scholars and curators from across institutions, fields, and practices to better understand the particular historical developments that have come to constitute the study of Asian art in Australia and New Zealand. Together, participants will investigate the historiography of Asian art in Australia and New Zealand and assess our achievements and the current state of the field, so as to better consider future directions.”

Sydney University, Stephen maintains, is now positioned to build something very unusual in the field: a comprehensive art history department interested in articulating a ‘global history’ of art, focused on the early modern to modern period. While art history studies would be transnational (and not just Asian), his hope is that the Asian art component will continue to grow through teaching, research, public programming, and an additional staff member in Asian art through an endowed chair. More importantly, however, he sees strength in Asian art research– whether at Sydney, Melbourne, ANU or anywhere else – as benefitting the field everywhere, and hopes that initiatives he and colleagues in the field are undertaking will help expand the field in years to come.

I N T R O D U C I N G D R S T E P H E N W H I T E M A N , L E C T U R E R I N A S I A N A R T H I S T O R Y,

S Y D N E Y U N I V E R S I T Y

Josefa Green

I


TAASA IN SYDNEY

TAASA Archaeology in Asia Lecture SeriesCasting for the King – The Royal Palace Bronze Workshop of Angkor1 June 2015Martin Polkinghorne, Research Fellow in the Department of Archaeology, Flinders University of South Australia began his talk by giving an overview of the valuable work being undertaken by Sydney University archaeologists who have excelled in exploring patterns of occupation at Angkor through the use of new technology such as LIDAR. This is a remote sensing technique combining radar and laser technology, which can assist in visualising surface features not easily identified at ground level (for example because most sites are covered by jungle).

Martin discussed how his own work at Angkor has focused on exploring its material culture – how Angkor was built and the craft economy that made this possible. His search for indicators such as extant raw materials, quarries, workshops and unfinished sculptures led him to uncover a workshop northeast of the palace at Angkor Thom which suggested (for example by a fragment of wall furnace) that this was a foundry, the first bronze sculpture workshop found in Southeast Asia.Josefa Green

Urbanising the Inner Asian Steppe: Tang architectural influence on the Eastern Uighur KhaganateUighur-Tang China Architectural Exchange6 July 2015Dr Lyndon Arden-Wong presented the last of the five presentations in this very well attended series.

His archaeological researches, leading to a recently awarded PhD, concentrate on a geographical area initially explored by renowned Russian explorers in three waves commencing in the late 19th century through to the 1920s. The focus of their attention was the remains of Uighur settlements to the southwest of Lake Baikal in modern day southern Russia and central northern Mongolia. Modern methods of investigation such as LIDAR (see above) have greatly extended these early archaeological investigations.

The major site discussed in this talk was a 32 sq.km area named Karabalgasin. Its most significant structure is a temple with its entrance to the east leading into what are thought to be a series of reception halls and walkways. Only a minute number of artefacts such as inscriptions or murals have been found. Roof tiles have, however, been found in relative abundance and Lyndon Arden-Wong discussed their characteristics from a structural and decorative point of view. These plus the construction methods of the walls, the orientation of the temple complex and feng shui attributes has led to the suggestion that Tang Chinese models influenced this Uighur structure.

The presenters in this series, Marika Vicziany, Bob Hudson, Alison Betts, Martin Polkinghorne and Lyndon Arden-Wong are distinguished in their fields and TAASA has been privileged to have their participation. Their presentations shone a light on the dedication needed to pursue the discipline of archaeology. Geographical, political and strategic hurdles, let alone physical hardship, present a challenge which these scholars have overcome with outstanding results. Gill Green

TAASA visit to the Chinese Bible, Yang Zhichao (2009)SCAF 10 July 2015At the invitation of Dr Gene Sherman, 18 TAASA members gathered for a special viewing of Yang Zhichao’s Chinese Bible installation, presented by its curator, Dr Claire Roberts. This was one of the works in the recent exhibition Go East drawn from Gene and Brian Sherman’s contemporary Asian art collection, the rest on display at AGNSW.

At first glance, the physical extent of Yang Zhichao’s 3,000 ‘found diaries’ installation is almost overwhelming. Claire’s explanation of how the artist collected the diaries, their historic context, and their content, helped us to understand how the artist was able to transform these objects into a powerful work which offers an intimate insight into the thoughts, lives and circumstances of their owners. She also described the practical and conceptual challenges faced in installing this complex work– and how she resolved these.

This was a rare opportunity to get up close and very personal with an artwork and the viewers came away with a much deeper appreciation of its complexities.Gill Green

TAASA TEXTILE STUDY GROUP, SYDNEY

Sharing your Passion: The Allure of Indigo 9 June 2015Following Margaret White’s previous presentation on indigo textiles, enthusiastic TAASA members gathered around the table to show and discuss their favourite indigo treasures, both old and new, from different Asian countries, as well as a couple from Africa and the Pacific. Some pieces members had designed or made themselves using indigo cloth, others had been collected on members’ many travels, or passed down by family members.

R E C E N T T A A S A A C T I V I T I E S

LYNDON ARDEN-WONg PRESENTINg AT THE uRBAnISInG

ThE InnER ASIAn STEPPE LECTURE

TAASA PRESIDENT gILL gREEN WITH TAASA MEMBERS

SHEBA gREENBERg AND HARVEY SANDERS AT THE

ARCHAEOLOgY IN ASIA LECTURES

(L-R) MOONYEEN ATKINSON, SHEILA SIPPEL, MARgARET MCALEESE AND

LENORE BLACKWOOD AT THE TSg SYDNEY EVENT, ALLuRE OF InDIGO

TA A S A R E V I E W V O L U M E 2 4 N O . 3

Among the pieces shown – an old batik cloth with a garuda motif from Indonesia, a woven shoulder cloth from West Timor, a modern knotted scarf using torn silk waste from India, and a rare late 19th or early 20th century Miao panelled skirt, as well as an exquisitely embroidered Miao festival jacket and matching pleated skirt, all from Guizhou, China. Then a Japanese child’s winter Kasuri design padded kimono, a contemporary Lao silk scarf with a readapted traditional design from Carol Cassidy’s workshop in Vientiane and also a calendered indigo embroidered piece from one of the minority groups of Vietnam.

The versatility of indigo was certainly demonstrated! It can be dyed in various shades, the thread woven on different looms and many traditional and contemporary designs created, and the cloth calendered, pleated, stitched and embroidered. Dianne Schultz-Tesmar

TAASA CERAMICS STUDY GROUP, SYDNEY

A Survey of Thai ceramics25 May 2015TAASA members in two groups, each restricted to 10 people, had the opportunity to closely examine some Thai ceramics at the archives of the AGNSW. Ably led by Matt Cox, Assistant Curator, Asian Art, and collector, John Yu, members enjoyed a chronological overview of ceramics from the Ban Chiang period (c.2nd century BCE) of northeast Thailand and other northern kilns of Kalong, Paan and Phayao, and from the later southern sites of Sukhothai and Sawankhalok. Although many of the earthenware and stoneware ceramics from 12th -16th c. were made for domestic and ritual use, they were also traded with neighbouring Southeast Asian countries via maritime routes, particularly when China’s ceramic trade was halted around the 15th c. Bodies ranged from more heavily potted clays to very finely crafted pieces. Glazes were mainly underglaze (iron brown or black) with some celadon glazes. Decoration was either delightfully freehand style or carefully incised.Margaret White

TAASA IN VICTORIA

Preview of Mossgreen’s Autumn Auction Series11 June 2015TAASA members joined other guests at a special preview of Mossgreen’s Autumn auction. We were able to view and handle a fascinating and eclectic range of ceramics, jades, bronzes and other decorative items. TAASA appreciates Mossgreen’s hospitality for this event.

Walk through of exhibition Gods, Heroes and Clowns: Performance and Narrative in South and Southeast Asian Art25 June 2015 Carol Cains, Curator of Asian Art, led members on a tour of the NGV’s exhibition. Carol’s commentary brought the exhibition to life, with its complex narratives, traditions and images, especially those from great Hindu epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. Some of the works on display had never previously been exhibited, and were specially conserved for this exhibition. See Carol’s article in the June 2015 issue of TAASA Review.

Private viewing of Russell Howard’s collection of Southeast Asian manuscripts6 August 2015TAASA members and friends were again privileged to visit Russell Howard’s home, this time to view his collection of manuscripts, mainly from Thailand and Burma, dating from 19th to mid-20th century. While Russell has only been collecting these for around two years, the collection is impressive in its size, scope and quality. We viewed manuscripts depicting subjects ranging from traditional Buddhist scenes, to horoscopes, the diagnosis and treatment of diseases such as smallpox, images of different kinds of elephants and cats, as well as books

from which a client would choose the design for a tattoo.

Many manuscripts are made of paper, while others are of richly decorated lacquer. When unfolded, some manuscripts are more than five metres in length, with extensive text and vivid illustrations on both sides. Manuscripts were often wrapped in textiles and tied with fabric ties, which all add to the beauty and complexity of the items on display.

Little has been published on the manuscripts of Southeast Asia, and not many museums have focussed on this area of collection. Russell generously shared his deep knowledge, experience and passion for these exquisite manuscripts, and we came away with the sense of having participated in something rare and special.Boris Kaspiev

TAASA IN QUEENSLAND

Otsukimi Full Moon Viewing1 August 201530 TAASA QLD supporters gathered to watch the full moon rise over the Brisbane River and were entertained by Brisbane based koto player Takako Nishibori. After dinner, guests read Haiku poems composed for the occasion, with TAASA member Dana McCown chosen for best composition.

TAASA QLD Ceramics Interest Group18 August 2015TAASA members met at a member’s home, and after hearing about Penny Bailey’s recent ceramics based trip to South Korea, swapped stories about ‘mystery objects’ from their collections. The best story was from Sam Aherne, with a Chinese piece with intriguing links to Marco Polo!

JOHN YU WITH TAASA MEMBERS EXAMININg THAI

CERAMICS AT THE AgNSW'S STORAgE FACILITY

VIEWINg SOUTHEAST ASIAN MANUSCRIPTS FROM RUSSELL HOWARD'S

COLLECTION BY TAASA VIC MEMBERS

TAASA QLD MEMBERS WIN LEE, ANNE KIRKER AND BOB KIRKER

HAVE AN IMPROMPTU KOTO LESSON FROM TAKAKO NISHIBORI.

PHOTO: JOHN PRYKE

29


TAASA IN NSWTAASA Symposium: The Magic of Metal: Jewellery Traditions in AsiaSaturday 19 September 2015, 10am – 1pmUNSW Art & Design (COFA), Paddington, SydneyLecture theatre EG02

The focus of this symposium is jewellery crafted from metal by peoples of mainland Southeast Asia and Korea. The objects themselves, the traditional techniques by which they were crafted and how contemporary craftsmen adapted these techniques will be explored. The forming of collections - the challenges and hazards - will contribute an illuminating narrative to these presentations.Speakers: Wendy Parker (UNSW Art & Design), Truus Daalder (Collector and major lender to A Fine Possession exhibition at PHM), Min-Jung Kim (Curator Asian Arts & Design, Museum of Applied Arts & Sciences).$45 members: $50 non-members. Refreshments available.

Enquiries and bookings: Jillian Kennedy at [email protected] or tel: 02 9958 7378Please note new date.

TAASA TEXTILE STUDY GROUP, SYDNEYThe TSG now meets in the Annie Wyatt Room at the S.H. Ervin Gallery, Observatory Hill in Millers Point from 6.00 – 8.00pm.

Light refreshments provided. $15 members, $20 non-members. The venue is in close proximity to Wynyard Station and parking is available on site. Email enquiries to Marianne Hulsbosch at [email protected].

The TSG will be meeting on Tuesday 13 October and Tuesday 10 November. Topics to be advised.

TAASA IN VICTORIATAASA end-of-year party and viewing of private collectionThursday 12 November 6-8pmJoin us for TAASA’s end of year celebration and a viewing of the Asian art collection of Boris Kaspiev, with its focus on Himalayan and Mongolian art, Asian textiles, Chinese funerary ware and recent acquisitions. At the viewing, Dr David Templeman and Dr Andrea Di Castro will introduce their recent book Asian Horizons, published in honour of the great scholar of Asia, Professor Giuseppe Tucci.

Cost: $20 members, $25 non-members. Numbers limited. Refreshments will be provided. The St Kilda address will be advised on registration.RSVP: [email protected] by 5 November 2015

Member viewing of Exhibition Blue: Alchemy of a ColourSunday 6 December 2015, 2 – 3pmA tour of the NGV’s exhibition with Carol Cains, Curator of Asian Art. Blue: Alchemy of a Colour will explore how artists have created works in the blue and white palette using a wide range of methods and styles, to produce unique and exquisite works of art. Blue reveals the fascinating metamorphosis of pattern, form and motif stemming from the global trade of these works, and the tales told through the use of this colour in ceramics, textiles, woodblock prints and paintings.

The exhibition focusses on works from the NGV’s Asian collection and includes Persian, Chinese, Japanese and Vietnamese ceramics, indigo dyed textiles from China, Japan, Southeast Asia, Central Asia and India, and works from Egypt, England and Italy.This is a free event but bookings are essential. RSVP: [email protected] by 27 November 2015.

For further information on TAASA Victoria events contact Boris Kaspiev on 0421 038 491.

TAASA IN QUEENSLANDTAASA QLD Textile Interest GroupSaturday 5 September from 2pmAn afternoon of talks and hands-on practical demonstrations of hand died textiles. Examples of Indian Telia Rumals - natural dyes in ikats - will be shown, with participants invited to make a small sample in a dye bath, using Japanese dyeing techniques. The afternoon - which includes an afternoon tea and talks about textiles of Southern India will be led by Dana McCown.Free of charge. Enquiries to Mandy Ridley at [email protected] UQ Art Museum Artist Self Portrait PrizeFriday 13 November from 6pmThis year’s curated show includes works from Australian based Asian Artists including Lindy Lee and Guan Wei, and after the opening, please join TAASA QLD supporters afterwards for a meal at Hawken Village. RSVP to Sushma Griffin at [email protected] TAASA QLD Ceramics Interest GroupTuesday 1 December, 7pmOur end of year gathering will look at the world of Blue and White. Enquiries to James MacKean at [email protected]. Location with RSVP.

TAASA MEMBERS’ DIARY

SEPTEMBER – NOVEMBER 2015

TAASA End of Year Party and BazaarTuesday 1 December 6-8pmS.H. Ervin Gallery, Observatory Hill, Sydney.Featuring the return of the TAASA Bazaar, with Asian related books, journals and artefacts of all kinds. Clear out your cupboards – donations gratefully accepted by contacting: [email protected]

Further details to come but put this date in your diary!


W H A T ’ S O N : S E P T E M B E R - N O V E M B E R 2 0 1 5

A S E L E C T I V E R O U N D U P O F E X H I B I T I O N S A N D E V E N T S

Compiled by Tina Burge

ACT

Myth + Magic - Art of the Sepik River, Papua New GuineaNational gallery of Australia, Canberra

7 August – 1 November 2015

Myth + Magic brings together pieces from the Sepik River that are held in Australian collections and the National Museum and Art Gallery of Papua New Guinea. The exhibition features sculptures, masks and other objects made for ritual and performance purposes in a time when spirits and ancestors were integral to daily life.For further information go to: www.nga.gov.au/exhibitions

NSW

James Nguyen: Exit Strategies

4A Centre for Contemporary Asian Art,

Haymarket Sydney

4 September - 10 October 2015

An exhibition by Vietnamese-Australian artist James nguyen that reflects upon the artist’s experience of living in a factory in SW Sydney with his family during the 1990s in an effort to save a failing textile business. Commissioned by 4A, Nguyen’s new body of work explores the complexities of familial relationships as migrants in an adopted country.

QUEENSLAND

The 8th Asia Pacific Triennial of Contemporary Art (APT8)The Queensland Art gallery,

gallery of Modern Art, Brisbane

21 November 2015 – 10 April 2016

This APT will include works by over 80 artists from over 30 countries throughout

Asia and the Pacific. Reflecting the latest creative developments in our region, the 8th APT will include performance, video, kinetic art, figurative painting and sculpture. Major new commissions include a sprawling structural installation of found materials by India’s Asim Waqif and an elegant suspended sculpture by South Korea’s Haegue Yang. In addition, artists from Mongolia, Nepal, the Kyrgyz Republic, Iraq and Georgia will be represented for the first time.

The special focus projects in APT8 are Kalpa Vriksha: Contemporary Indigenous and Vernacular Art of India and the Melanesian performance project Yumi Danis (We Dance), which emerged from a creative exchange in Ambrym, Vanuatu, in 2014.

In addition to the exhibition itself, APT8 encompasses APT8 Live, an ongoing program of artist performances and projects; a conference as part of the opening program; extensive cinema programs; publication, and activities for kids and families.For further information go to: www.qagoma.qld.gov.au/whats-on/exhibitions/apt8

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

Gond Paintings from the Collection of Barrie and Judith Heaven Art gallery of South Australia, Adelaide

Now showing until 8 November 2015

The paintings of the Gond people of central India are exhibited for the first time at AGSA. The Gond people are the largest tribal group in the world and their homelands are in central India. Over a millennium, or longer, Gond’s agrarian society evolved a distinctive aesthetic and religious identity in which ancient indigenous spirituality merged with more recent Hindu traditions.

Gond villagers traditionally painted the walls of houses with talismanic symbols, including forest deities, sacred animals and plants, using natural pigments. The artists first adopted the use of synthetic colours on canvas in the early 1980s. A feature of the brilliantly coloured paintings is the complex decorative patterns inspired by natural designs, such as seen in woven fibres, plant foliage and fish scales, which are unique to each artist.For further information go to: www.artgallery.sa.gov.au

More Ink than Ocean: The art of writing in IslamArt gallery of South Australia, Adelaide

7 August 2015 – 27 March 2016

Presents 1,000 years of Islamic calligraphy from Iran, India and Indonesia. Among the highlights is the magnificent illuminated manuscript, ‘Mathnavi’ of Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi (1641), and the work of the famous calligrapher, Muhammad Hussein Kashmiri (d.1620), on whom the Indian emperor, Akbar the Great, bestowed the title ‘The Golden Pen’. For further information go to: www.artgallery.sa.gov.au

VICTORIA

Gods, Heroes and Clowns - Performance and Narrative in South and Southeast Asian ArtNgV International, Melbourne

1 May – 4 October 2015

Explores visual and performance art inspired by the many narratives that pervade South and Southeast Asia. Works include storyteller’s cloths, shrine and temple hangings, manuscripts and paintings, masks and puppets.

Blue - Alchemy of a ColourNgV International, Melbourne

15 November 2015 – 16 March 2016

Cobalt blue pigment and indigo blue dye are two of the most distinctive and influential colourants employed by artists, particularly across Asia. The exhibition explores blue and white, revealing the metamorphosis of pattern, form and motif stemming from global trade, and their use in ceramics, textiles, woodblock prints and paintings.

Includes Persian, Chinese, Japanese and Vietnamese ceramics, indigo dyed textiles from China, Japan, Southeast Asia, Central Asia and India.For further information go to: www.ngv.vic.gov.au

Lecture: Valour, Myth and Pageantry: The Horse in Indian Art

NgV International, Thursday 15 Oct, 11am

Carol Cains, Curator of Asian Art, explores the varied roles of the horse in Indian courtly life and mythology as illustrated in the NGV exhibition The Horse. Free event.

Malu PLAQUE, 19TH

CENTURY, PAPUA NEW

gUINEA, EAST SEPIK

PROVINCE, WOOD. NgA

COLLECTION. PURCHASED

1977, ACQUIRED FROM

ANTHONY FORgE 1977

Review_13_2_2004_June

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