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African Union

Pedagogical Use of The General History of Africa Project

REVIEW OF THE CONTENTS OF THE GENERAL HISTORY OF AFRICA

Scientific Coordination

Prof. DOULAYE KONATÉ Chairman of the Association of African Historians (AAH)

SUMMARY REPORT

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FOREWORD The general synopsis of the eight reports of the Review of the Contents of the General History of Africa (GHA) was conducted by Doulaye KONATE, scientific coordinator of the Review in collaboration with:

• Issiaka Mandé • Faranirina Rajaonah • Ibrahima Thioub

The authors of the reports on the various volumes, the synopsis of which is presented below, include: Augustin F.C. Holl and Innocent Pikirayi Volume I Felix Chami and Babacar Sall Volume II Idrissa BA and Penda Mbow Volume III George Abungu and Alexis Adandé Volume IV Issa Saibou and Elisée Soumonni Volume V Jerome Mumbanza and Samuel Salo Volume VI Olukoju Ayodeji and Faranirina Rajaonah Volume VII Lily Mafela and Bahru Zewde Volume VIII

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Review of the Contents of the General History of Africa (GHA) Context

In the context of the implementation of the Project on “the pedagogical use of the General History of Africa”, the person in charge of the project approached the President of the Association of African Historians (AAH), one of the partner associations in the project, to envisage the possibility on calling upon colleagues to conduct a review of the contents of the eight volumes of the General History of Africa.

As stipulated by the project scientific committee, the task involves an accurate and update assessment of the General History of Africa in preparation for the regional conference on the elaboration of common contents and pedagogical material for Africa’s primary and secondary schools

Discussions that were engaged in for producing this review within a tight schedule in regard to the scale of the task, led to the adoption of a formula based on individual contracts which were established between UNESCO and the various readers selected by the persons in charge of the project, on the basis of suggestions made by the president of the AAH appointed to ensure the scientific coordination of the review (cf. Terms of reference).

Method

Preparing a list of potential readers to be proposed to UNESCO proved to be a laborious task for various reasons. Firstly, the time allotted for conducting the study was very dissuasive as the reviewing process required the readers to postpone the activities they had planned in their calendars. The choice of candidates was all the more complicated insofar as it had to comply with a number of criteria that were difficult to combine. We managed as much as possible to combine the criteria of competence with considerations of geographical, linguistic and generational representation. Our concern was to encourage “diagonal views” in regard to the various skills in the analysis of the various volumes.

Obviously, for reasons referred to above, this was not achieved in all cases. For example, the absence of our colleagues from North Africa in this team of 16 readers, as well as that of our Portuguese-speaking colleagues, in spite of all our efforts.

The readers were divided into “pairs” per volume according to their competence, each pair having to produce a joint account of the assigned volume (a list of the readers is given in the foreword).

The various “pairs” of readers organized their work as they thought fit and conducted the task in compliance with the terms of reference. Their texts were submitted to the Coordinator who made observations, which could or could not be taken into consideration by the reader.

The eight final reports were submitted to the coordinator and used for drafting a general synopsis. The survey lasted from mid-March to 19 May 2010. May we take this opportunity to thank those of our colleagues who accepted to embark on this arduous task and who

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worked under considerable pressure, as revealed by some of the reports. All the colleagues accepted to work before having even signed their contract with UNESCO. Most of them began their task on the basis of their own volumes or by consulting works available in the documentation centres, that is to say, well before having received the copy of the volume which UNESCO had allocated to them. This provides some indication of the interest displayed by the colleagues for this reviewing process and the scale of the sacrifices they made.

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Preface by A.M. M’Bow A. M. M’Bow’s preface is not a mere presentation of aims but a fundamental GHA text insofar as it defines the objectives and the stakes involved while outlining some of the main contributions of the publication.

A. M. M’Bow’s argument focuses on a number of points which result from the assessment he makes of the image attributed to Africa through Western historical knowledge. He then outlines the origin of the Project, indicates the scientific aims on which it is based, and calls for the work to be widely disseminated so as to be used for pedagogical purposes.

1) The denial of history

The slave trade and colonization produced an image of Africans and a particular concept of their past, of their “being in the world” and of their future. In spite of the publications of several authors including L. Frobenius, M. Delafosse and Arturo Labriola, considered to be pioneers, M’Bow places emphasis on the heritage of the Hegelian concept of universal history in colonial historiography. This linear concept of the history of humanity in fact excludes African societies. The alibi referred to for justifying such exclusion is the absence of written documents. What was accepted for ancient Greece, namely the exploitation of the Odyssey and the Iliad (an oral work par excellence) as a source of history, was refused in the case of Africa whose oral traditions were spurned.

In fact, the history of Africa only existed on the basis of the continent’s encounter with Europe and that history as such appeared therefore as an appendix to European history.

The refusal to acknowledge that Africans had the possibility to “create original cultures” was raised as a challenge which only renunciation of preconceived ideas and a renewal of methods could actually dispel.

2) The image of a fragmented continent

The dominant perception of Africa was that of a continent composed of juxtaposed subsets. North Africa, known as “white” and sub-Saharan Africa, known as “black” were thought to have lived separately on account of an insurmountable obstacle, namely the Saharan desert. Ancient Egypt and Nubia were also thought to have evolved independently from the rest of the continent. Consequently, Africa was not considered to be an historical entity.

While each of the regions of Africa possesses its own originality, those regions have nevertheless maintained uninterrupted exchanges between each other. North Africa, for example, was a bridgehead between the Mediterranean world and sub-Saharan Africa, and as for the margins of the Sahara, they have always been fluctuating.

Egypt and Nubia have an interwoven history and share many cultural aspects with sub-Saharan Africa.

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The wretched of the earth

Racial stereotypes linked to the slave trade and to colonial domination have distorted the very basis of African historiography. Use of discriminatory categories, for example, establishing white superiority and the “essentialisation du nègre” have distorted this historiography. In fact, Africa had to fight against two-fold enslavement, “economic and psychological”.

The hierarchy established among races as featured in colonial historiography served to justify colonial domination and “the civilizing mission”.

Changes that occurred after the Second World War, particularly the entry of African States onto the international scene, contributed to making this situation evolve.

In this particular context, “the Africans themselves felt the profound need to re-establish the historicity of their societies on solid foundations”. This was one of the main stakes involved in the General History of Africa project. The methodological innovation required gave great importance to African sources, particularly the oral tradition (which requires a systematic critical approach for satisfactory exploitation).

Stages in the conception and the production of the General History of Africa

The aim of the project was to establish theoretical and methodological foundations for a History of Africa thereby making it possible to understand the “development of the various peoples in their socio-cultural specificity”. Implementation of this project comprised several phases.

From 1965 to 1969, UNESCO set up a vast programme for the collection of traditions and unpublished manuscripts, and the inventory of archives which led to the publication of a “guide to the sources of African history” in nine volumes.

From 1969 to 1971, a series of working meetings of expert groups took place in Paris and Addis Ababa in order to devise the publication. English, French and Arabic were chosen as languages for preliminary publications with plans for translation into Hawsa, Yoruba, Peul and Lingala, as far as African languages are concerned, and German, Spanish, Swedish, Portuguese and Russian, as far as European languages are concerned.

The third phase was that of the effective production of the drafting project under the responsibility of a scientific committee comprising 32 members, two-thirds of whom were Africans and one third were researchers from other regions.

The approach adopted was fundamentally interdisciplinary and respectful of the differences of points of view among experts.

Among the numerous questions which the contributions from authors of this work have contributed to clarifying, Mr M’Bow quotes that of the historical unity of Africa and relations between the continent and other continents, notably the Americas and the Caribbean, the resistance of slaves deported to America and participation in the various struggles for

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national liberation, the relations between Africa and Southern Asia via the Indian Ocean and the “African contribution to other civilizations in the interplay of mutual exchanges”.

Mr M’Bow concluded his preface by expressing a wish that the General History of Africa would be widely disseminated in many languages and “that it would serve as a basis for the elaboration of children’s books, school textbooks and radio and television broadcasts”.

Africans (young people, school children and adults) could therefore acquire a better knowledge of their continent’s past, “a more accurate understanding of its cultural heritage and its contribution to the overall progress of humanity”. As such, the General History of Africa would contribute “to fostering international cooperation, to strengthening solidarity between peoples in their aspiration for justice, progress and peace”.

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Volume I

The General History of Africa

Methodology and Prehistory of Africa

Director of the Volume: J. Ki-Zerbo

Volume I comprises 819 pages divided into 28 chapters dealing with methodology and regional approaches to African prehistory from the Plio-Pleistocene period to the end of the 16th century AD.

The volume comprises 28 chapters in addition to a preface by A. M. M’Bow, an introduction and a conclusion. As for all the other volumes, there is a list of the members of the International Scientific Committee for the General History of Africa at the end of the publication together with summary biographies of the various contributors. There is also a general bibliography and an index.

As indicated clearly under the title “Methodology and African Prehistory”, the volume is composed of two distinct parts dealing with two major themes which overlap. Several sections are involved.

Section I (Chapters 1 to 6) deals with the historiography, its trends and development.

Section II (Chapters 7 and 8) focuses on the oral traditions and their methodologies.

Section III (Chapters 9 to 16) deals with a wide range of subjects extending from archaeological methods and dating techniques to historical linguistics and the classification of African languages, physical and human geography, paleoclimatology and the ethno-genesis of migrations.

After the preface by A. M. M’Bow, referred to earlier, the objective and general scope of the project are summarized by B. A. Ogot. He states that the aim of the project is to produce high-level knowledge on the history of Africa, as an entity, and to place emphasis on trading and relations between the different parts of the African continent.

This history highlights the ideas, civilizations, institutions and societies which need to be described from within as a veritable contribution to the world’s cultural heritage.

In his general introduction to the volume, which is also that of the whole series of volumes, Professor J. Ki-Zerbo asserts from the outset that Africa possesses a history, before recalling the objectives of the project of writing a general history of Africa and the theoretical and methodological challenges raised by such an important venture.

According to Professor J. Ki-Zerbo, the specific difficulties of African history are to be found in the observation of the physical reality of the continent. The African continent would seem

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to turn its back on the rest of the world and is only loosely linked to the rest of the ancient world by the Suez Canal and the Sinai. The geographical configuration of the continent interspersed with deserts, forests and marshland makes this isolation even worse. The “vastness” of the continent and the dispersal of its populations in a natural environment that is both generous (fruit, crops and minerals) and harsh (epidemics and endemics) constituted an obstacle to a level of demographic concentration required for the major qualitative changes to take place in the economic, social and political fields. The black slave trade between the 15th and the 20th century contributed to depriving Africa of the human resources and the stability required for creativity in various domains. Recalling the words of F. Braudel, according to whom “civilization is the daughter of many”, Professor J. Ki-Zerbo considers that “the isolation of Africa is a limiting factor for the continent on the road to a degree of progress”.

This point of view is discussed by the authors of the Review who refer to the results of a variety of research work such as the highlighting of complex societies and, more particularly, urbanization in West Africa from 200 BC onwards, or elements testifying to banana cultivation in Central Africa (Southern Cameroon) in 500 BC. This shows that the equatorial forest did not constitute an obstacle.

The sources of African history grouped into three categories (written, archaeological and oral) are subsequently analysed without any mention in this particular introduction of Egyptian hieroglyphics, which constitute the earliest written sources of the continent.

The introduction emphasises the importance of oral traditions as authentically African sources for studying the history of the continent. These oral traditions do present an internal point of view of the historical processes, and their exploitation, on account of their very nature, raises challenges of a methodological nature.

The contribution made by other disciplines to the drafting of the history of Africa such as linguistics and cultural anthropology (on condition that it is not bound by evolutionist postures in its approach to Africa) is amply backed up by convincing examples.

Chapter 15 pp 283-294 (2000 edition) which deals with interdisciplinarity and its use in the volume is an extension of the reflection undertaken in the introduction. On the basis of a reminder of the domain and the investigation techniques issued from a series of disciplines (some of which have long been considered auxiliaries to history), the idea of this chapter is to make adequate use of knowledge acquired on various aspects of the past in order to ensure a better comprehension of the history of the continent.

The debate on historiography and sources

The first three chapters, written by J. D. Fage, Boubou Hama and J. Ki-Zerbo review the various aspects of African historiography, its development, current trends, its contribution to general history and the importance of history in African societies.

The development of African historiography (Chapter 1 – J. D. Fage) reveals the various

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historiographical traditions which have succeeded each other in Africa and their main features, notably in the various sub-regions (southern, western, central and eastern). North Africa, as an entity belonging to the Mediterranean world, had previously been presented through Greek and Roman sources.

For sub-Saharan Africa, three major periods have been highlighted:

- The period before the 15th century AD is marked by the writings of Arab authors who had sporadic contact with societies in sub-Saharan Africa, Ethiopia, the eastern coast of Africa and Bilad Al Sudan (country of the blacks) to the west.

The development of trans-Saharan trade, a major phenomenon, encouraged throughout the Middle Ages the circulation of information between the two shores of the Sahara and throughout the Dar-Al-Islam.

Many Arab authors from the Mediterranean and the Middle East provided precious information on the various regions of sub-Saharan Africa. In spite of their inadequacies, these direct or second hand testimonies contributed to making Africa better known. Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) born in Ifriqiya, can be considered as the first African historian thanks to his major work, the Muqqadina.

Local chronicles written in Arabic were also produced in West Africa and East Africa. Those from Timbuktu, Tarikh El Sudan and Tarikh El Fetash, written from the 16th century onwards, are works of an historical nature. The Kano and Kilwa chronicles are essentially transcriptions of local traditions.

- From the 15th century onwards, the accounts of European sailors and traders were to replace the gradual drying up of Arab sources. These European sources provide interesting descriptions of the Atlantic coast of West Africa, the Congo, Angola, the Zambezi Valley and neighbouring territories, as well as Ethiopia.

- In the 18th century, historical knowledge of Africa was built essentially around the question of the trans-Atlantic slave trade. This scandalous trade did considerable damage to the human status of black Africans.

Hegel asserted that Africa was an anhistoric continent and his idea was followed by many others (Hugh Trevor-Roper).

- European expansion in Africa in the 19th century (the French conquest of Algeria in 1830, and British occupation of Egypt in 1882) led to the predominance of colonialist approaches to African history.

Fage provides an in-depth analysis of the influence of Europeans (travellers, colonial historians, anthropologists and linguists) on African historiography. He also explains how Africa was excluded from an illustrious historical collection such as the Cambridge History of the British Empire (1929-1959).

Colonial historiography was based essentially on Hegelian clichés according to which

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Africans had no history and if they did it was not worth studying.

The extension of the European education system in Africa, modernization movements in Islam and the emergence of a nationalist movement provided a foundation for local historical approaches in Arabic, English and French.

- From 1960 onwards, African historiography could boast of its first professional historians who were to contribute to bringing into question colonial historiography widely influenced by Hegelian theories.

The role of history in African societies

Chapter 2: B. Hama, J. Ki-Zerbo

This chapter starts with a very strong assertion: “Men are historical animals”.

According to the authors, every aspect of daily life is a part of historical processes which govern its course.

The specific experience of each society fashions its history. Three basic ideas announced in the introduction to the chapter are developed:

1) the assertion according to which the African conception of time is mythical and social; 2) Africans are well aware that they are the actors of their own history; 3) the African conception of time is an authentically historical one.

Numerous examples throughout African history are referred to in order to illustrate the interwovenness of mythical and social events in historical time.

The Review of the content of this chapter refers to the “essentialism” that it confers on “Africans” as a category.

Recent trends in African historical research and the contribution to history in general

The contribution by P. D. Curtin examines changes that have occurred in the writing of African history from the colonial to the post-colonial period. A feature of this trend has been an attempt at deconstruction and decolonization of history. African nationalists have contributed substantially to this calling into question through the elaboration of a methodology for the collecting of information other than that provided by the archives. In this context, a new impetus has been given to the collection and exploitation of oral traditions. The teaching of African history at school has also been a source of motivation for historical research which can initiate new traditions.

Chapters 4 to 9 deal with sources and techniques used in African history

In this context, Théophile Obenga provides an overview of the sources and techniques specific to African history (Chapter 4). This chapter deals with supplementary sources useful for the writing of African history by putting emphasis on the natural sciences. The author shows, for example, the role of dating techniques in understanding the origins of the history

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of humanity in East Africa, particularly in Kenya, the Omo valley, Ethiopia, and the Olduvay gorges in Tanzania, the discovery of which have made Africa the cradle of humanity. Methods such as palynology (the analysis of plant pollen) can help to reconstitute extinct environments and to provide information on climate change which occurred during the distant periods of prehistory. This contribution highlights in particular what interdisciplinarity has to offer in furthering knowledge of the African past.

Chapters 5 and 6, on the basis of an evaluation of written sources prior to the 15th century (H. Djait) and those produced after the 15th century (Hrbek), deal with the epistemological issues related to their use. This evaluation adopts a regional approach while listing the various categories of sources.

Before the 14th century, such sources were essentially the hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt, Greek, Carthaginian and Latin sources and those written in other European languages.

After the 15th century, sources became more numerous, more complex and extended over more areas. Africans wrote in their own languages in Arabic script. Consequently, European sources gradually superceeded Arab sources and were disseminated during the 18th and 19th centuries in the wake of European expansion.

The consequences of regional disparities in the distribution of these different sources are discussed in the text of these chapters.

The oral tradition is the subject of an in-depth analysis as to its nature, its various forms and the social frameworks that influence its production (Jan Vansina).

The methodology of collecting and evaluating oral traditions is described and discussed, particularly with regard to chronologies. The oral tradition which is not merely an evocation of the past is analysed as a living heritage, the complexity of which is related to the traditions that reflect a certain concept of humanity and its place in the universe. This vision of the world is to be found in the various cosmogonies (bamanan-peulh…). The main vectors of the oral tradition which, in West Africa, are craftsmen grouped together in a caste, are described, as well as the symbolism that surrounds them.

Chapter 9, by Z. Iskander, deals with the contribution of archaeology through a detailed presentation of archeometry and its techniques, together with radiometric dating and conservation methods to the reconstitution of the past.

Three chapters are devoted to the relationship between linguistics and history (Chapters 10-12)

In Chapter 10, P. Diagne focuses on the mutual relationship between linguistics and history. He explores and discusses the various types of classification of languages, and the phonological reconstructions and ethno-cultural relations. He also deals with certain auxiliary sciences of linguistics, such as typological analysis, and onomastics which are important in the cartography of certain language groups. Diagne also shows the importance

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of linguistics for African historical science.

D. Olderroge, who deals with migrations and ethnic and linguistic differentiations, shows the impact of the various European linguistic schools on the study of African languages and the writing of African history. The German school, for example, propagated the theory of Hamitic languages according to which African cultures were influenced by the peoples of Asia.

Greenberg (Chapter 12.1) deals with the classification of African languages. His classification, which revises prior work on linguistic groups in Africa, highlights four major families: Afro-Asiatic, Niger-Kordofanian, Nilo-Saharan, and Khoisan.

In Chapter 12.2, Dalby warns against simplification in the current classification of African languages. He identifies two regions with greater linguistic affinity containing 80% of African languages: that of the North, which corresponds to Greenberg’s Afro-Asiatic family and that of the South, which corresponds to the Niger Congo or the Niger-Kordofanian

Chapters 13 to 17 describe the physical and geographical frameworks involved in the study of the African past.

Chapter 13, by Diarra, provides a diachronic view of Africa from early geological times up to the present day. It deals with geological characterization, and the influence of ancient climates. This chapter covers the bioclimatic and biogeographical environments and concludes with an evocation of the mineral riches of Africa.

In Chapter 14, Al Mabogunge studies once again natural resources and refutes all geographical determinism whereby “peoples just as much as individuals have been and will continue to be the architects of their own future “(page 346).

In Chapter 15, the director of the volume, J. Ki-Zerbo, studies the challenges raised by interdisciplinarity in historical research in general and in Volume I in particular. The chapter describes the way in which the various sources, archaeological, rock art, imported artefacts, the oral tradition, mnemotechnical linguistic means, and the natural sciences implemented in studying African history, are mutually complementary.

Chapters 16.I and 16.II describe the chronological framework of the “pluvial” and glacier phases of Africa. This chapter reveals the broad trends in climate change during the Pleistocene and Holocene periods.

Chapters 17 and 18 focus on the early hominids and on studies on the origin of humans.

In the double chapter (17) Y. Coppens deals with the general paleontological context of human evolution while L. Balout emphasizes the lithic (ie. stone) technology. Y. Coppens establishes the genealogy of the major primates and the hominids leading to the emergence of Homo, thereby sketching the history of human paleontological research. A parallel presentation of the principal discoveries in East and South Africa on such sites as Olduvay, the Omo Valley and the Afar Valley point to Africa as the cradle of humanity.

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In Chapter 18, R. Leakey examines the contexts, chronology and main features of fossil remains which have enabled the history of the ancestors of modern man to be traced. They testify to the fact that Africa was the cradle of humanity. Most of these fossils are to be found in East Africa (in the lacustrine areas, in faulted areas of the Rift Valley, and in southern Africa in the caves).

Modern humans, Homo sapiens, emerged some 100,000-200,000 years ago and colonized the whole planet, as the sole representative of the Homo species on earth. Pre-sapiens species are classified according to two lineages: Homo and Australopithecus who made use of stone tools.

Chapters 17 and 18 include a glossary of technical terms, figures and tables illustrating the skulls and jaws of various types of Australopithecus.

Chapters 19 to 26 provide a glimpse of prehistory by region: Eastern Africa, Southern Africa, Central Africa, North Africa, the Sahara, West Africa and the Nile Valley from the earliest times of the Plio-Pleistocene period at the beginning and middle of the Early Stone Age to the last period of the Late Stone Age.

These regional presentations describe the development of human behaviour and culture as can be detected from the hominid/hominine fossils, flaked stone tools and human and animal bone remains.

The eight regional syntheses provide a broad chronological framework for the entire continent. The main phases are the Olduwayan in the East, the South and certain areas of the North, and the Acheulian. The Middle Stone Age, or middle Palaeolithic in North Africa and the Sahara, were remarkable for their regional diversification. The end of the Stone Age, Terminal, and Epipalaeolithic or Mesolithic, according to the area, displays the same broad features. These phases were marked by an improvement in blade technology which led to the production of bi-facial points used as spear heads, and subsequently the invention of the bow and arrow (Mesolithic technology) and grinding material frequently to be found on Late Stone Age sites. This would suggest more systematic processing of plants and minerals in order, for example, to produce red ochre used in rupestrian art.

This was followed by three thematic syntheses dealing with rupestrian art in Africa, the emergence, development and expansion of agriculture and the appearance of metallurgy.

In Chapter 26, J. Ki-Zerbo deals with African prehistoric art.

After having located the main areas with the presence of rupestrian art in Africa (the Sahara, part of North Africa and Southern Africa), he endeavours to analyse the difficulties of dating these engraved or painted representations on the walls of caves and rock shelters.

The author then examines the genre, styles, motifs and symbolism of these representations which he considers to be an illustrated version of the earliest book of African history. J. Ki-Zerbo also questions the various theories which only view rupestrian art as a result of external influences, although he does not himself deny the possible existence of such influences. Egyptian influence on sub-Saharan art is also refuted. The origin of Saharan art

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together with that of Southern Africa are analysed in very critical terms.

In Chapter 27, R. Porteres and J. Barreau deal with the emergence of the development and expansion of agricultural techniques. Their analysis rests on the research of N. I. Vavilov who identified eight centers of origin of cultivated plants including that of Ethiopia in Africa.

Without bringing into question the importance of the Middle East (particularly the Fertile Crescent) in the Neolithic revolution, the authors show that other regions in the world also played an important part in human efforts to domesticate animals and cultivate plants. They point to changes in Africa through the exploration of the natural environments and ecosystems on the basis of which they can retrace the origins African agriculture.

In Chapter 28, by J. Vercoutter, which can be seen as a complement to the chapter by F. Debono on the recent prehistory of the Nile, deals with the emergence of food production and the advent of iron metallurgy. Its title “the invention and dissemination of metals and the development of social systems until the 10th century BC” would appear inappropriate in regard of the contents. The chapter deals with models of cultural development from the Neolithic of the 3rd millennium BC up to 500 respectively in Lower and Upper Egypt. The advent of metallurgy is only dealt with in the last two pages of the chapter and the greater part of the continent is ignored.

The chronology of precious metals such as gold and silver and even copper is described with regard to the length of the Nile (4th millennium BC). Bronze entered the scene during the 2nd millennium with iron (meteoritic) from 1580 BC onwards. Iron production is thought to have intensified during the Napata period, culminating in Meroe in the last centuries of the 1st millennium BC. According to the author, this development had a considerable impact on the dissemination of iron technology in sub-Saharan Africa.

In addition to the inappropriate nature of the title, most of the hypotheses put forward in this chapter on iron are largely obsolete.

The conclusion of the volume by its director bears a quite evocative title: “From primitive nature to liberated humanity”. It will be recalled that the introduction to the volume began with the assertion of the existence of an African history. The conclusion reached by the director of the volume insists on the fact that Africa is the cradle of humanity.

The creation and recreation of humanity which occurred in Africa is still of the order of the day: there is a central nature of Africa which was lost only during the last 2000 years. J. Ki-Zerbo’s final statement: “in other words, in a certain way, the prehistory of Africa has not yet been completed” establishes a feeling of continuity within African history.

Critical analysis of the contents of the volume

In general terms, the assessors acknowledge the validity and interest of the contents of this volume in spite of the obsolescence of the publication. It is nevertheless necessary to envisage, in the context of a revision of these volumes, the restructuring of the way the chapters are organized and an updating of certain data.

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The restructuring proposed could consist in defining new more coherent sections which would group connected subjects together. Consequently, the following sections could be created:

- “Environments of Africa” devoted to the geography, geology and early and present climates of Africa.

- Historiography which would deal with the history of historical research by placing emphasis on regional developments. It would include the history of research on primates and languages.

- Technology: this section which is a particular feature of archaeology could also include the arts and take account of craftsmanship related to stone, wood, pottery, metallurgy and architecture.

- Aspects of African cultures: would focus on various modes of subsistence such as the gatherers, pastoralism and farming.

- Regional studies of African history: the Review raises the long-standing debate on the use of the term “prehistory” which “remains largely Euro-centric”.

According to the assessors, as for the rest of world history, the volume betrays a certain prejudice in terms of gender. A new edition should give more attention to women.

Chapter 9 of the volume requires a complete overhaul in terms of content, archaeology being a discipline of the humanities which cannot be reduced merely to archeometry. A separate chapter could be devoted, for example, to African historical and archaeological heritage.

Criticism with regard to “race” and racial type in regard to certain contexts such as that of South Africa would require refinement in a new chapter. There is still a need for far greater comprehension of the concepts of “race” and language.

The relationship between anthropology, linguistics and history would deserve far longer study which would take account of research such as that of Christopher Ehret (1982) and Williamson Kay (1998).

As regards the origins of humans, the revised edition should draw attention to the sites as well the maps of regions where new fossils were most recently found. New data based on recent research in Southern Africa (Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia and Chad) could help to improve our comprehension of Africa as the cradle of humanity.

As regards regional studies, it is necessary to associate the Sahara with North Africa and the Nile valley. The Sahara, the Sahel and the Savannah regions of the south should also be studied in consequence, even more so as the results of research (on domestication and recent agriculture) demonstrate that these regions have been in regular contact with each other.

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Pedagogical recommendations for Volume I

- The themes to be retained should take account of general issues which concern Africa as a whole. In that regard, textbooks should include the contribution of archaeology to an understanding of Africa’s past.

1) A presentation of fossil humans (Chapter 18) would indicate the paleontological origins up to the emergence of modern humans;

2) Data could be taken from Chapter 13 and updated for an introduction to the physical geography of the continent and from Chapter 16 regarding the paleoclimatology of Africa;

3) Regional syntheses should be adapted through a coherent chronological approach. Chapters could be devoted to the following themes:

- Cultural origins: Traditions and manufacture of early tools

The chronological dating techniques could be explained in coloured figures with diagrams.

- Early modern humans and regional traditions: hunters specializing in gathering.

- Early farmers and herders in ancient Africa: presentation of updated information on the appearance of agriculture and stock breeding.

- Early artists and craftsmen in ancient Africa; a presentation could be made of updated information on African rupestrian art and the appearance of metallurgy.

- Archaeology as a cultural heritage and its relations with the identity of populations.

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Volume II

The General History of Africa

Ancient Africa

Director of the Volume: G. Mokhtar

Volume II of GHA has 29 chapters and an introduction of 28 pages.

From the outset, the readers acknowledge the professionalism, skills and awareness that governed the drafting of the volume. While recognizing the soundness of the volume as a whole, they pointed to various cases of updating that would be required for the pedagogical use of certain chapters.

This volume is a chronological extension of the first volume and covers the period extending from the end of the Palaeolithic to the advent of Islam.

The volume gives meaning to the concept of ancient African history. Nevertheless, it does not bring to an end the debate on the chronological frameworks of African history.

There are no “ad quo et ad quem” landmarks for the ancient period in Africa taken in its totality. This matter is referred to in the introduction.

Evidence suggests that the authors of the various chapters (particularly the regional studies) included in the ancient history of Africa so-called Neolithic or quasi-Neolithic cultures which developed in different areas with or without a system of State control.

A study of the work brings to light two particular regions:

• A first region composed of the lower and middle Nile Valley and Mediterranean Africa. In this instance, the abundance and variety of documentation (discovered archaeological texts) would suggest that one can speak of the history of cultures and civilizations (Egyptian, Kushite, Axumite, Carthaginian and, to a lesser degree, Lybian).

These documents are both of internal and external origin (Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Assyrian).

• A second region which covers the greater part of Africa, and knowledge of lifestyles since the end of the Palaeolithic, is based essentially on archaeology.

Accordingly, it cannot be said as far as this region is concerned, according to Babacar Sall, that regarding the study of ancient cultures and civilizations, archaeology cannot provide explanations for some of the essential aspects of life of which knowledge depends on the use of the concept of history (relationships regarding property and production, the system of the distribution of property and economics).

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Priority is given to a regional approach to these various cultures and civilizations. As regards construction, one of the main features of Volume II is the weakness in the linking between the various chapters.

In the prospect of pedagogical use of the work, these chapters could be reorganized with a view to greater chronological coherence.

Chapter 1, drafted by Cheikh Anta Diop, entitled “Origin of ancient Egyptians”. The author seeks to give greater depth to the history of African societies in general and Negro African in particular. The civilization of the Pharaohs is reintegrated within the Negro African sphere.

The term “origin” raises problems in historical terms. Babacar Sall would prefer “provenance”. The author studies the racial membership of the communities that had become the ancient Egyptians and the Negro African character of the civilization they had created. The author presents carefully formulated arguments of a palaeoanthropological, iconographical, biological (melanin test), osteological, textual and philological order. He also makes uses of parallelisms based on an ethno-linguistic approach.

For several years, study groups have pursued research and attempted to explore the perspective opened up by the work of C. Anta Diop through various publications (ANKH Revue d’Egyptologie, Paris; Journal of African Civilization; New Brunswick Cahiers d’étude Caribéens Antilles Guyane).

In the second chapter, “Pharaonic Egypt”, A. Abu Bakr presents the overall development of the history of the kingdom of ancient Egypt. This overview which highlights the salient features by providing markers for this lengthy history does not analyse the history of the dynastic period, an unavoidable aspect in any study of the civilization of the kingdom of Egypt. This presentation of the major periods of the history of the kingdom of Egypt (pp 83-186) needs to be “sharpened” on account of the central role played by Egypt in African history.

All these subdivisions need to be integrated therein with their respective features. The formation of the kingdom of Egypt should start from the formation of the early ethno-clanic entities while integrating all the phases from the early empire – 2900-2200 (3rd-6th dynasties) – up to the 27th dynasty which was Persian and the 29th dynasty which was Greek (cf. Michel Dessoudeix, Chronique de l’Egypte ancienne, 2008).

Chapter 3 by J. Yoyotte deals with the society, economy and culture of ancient Egypt. While the economic framework of the relatively stable kingdom is quite adequately portrayed, the analysis of that society is less convincing. The author omits, for example, to refer to the very egalitarian nature of Egyptian society, even in the face of death. Conversely, slavery was never institutionalized there.

Chapter 4 by Abd El Hamid Zayed deals with the relations between Egypt and the rest of Africa. While very informative in terms of historical facts, this text produces a degree of confusion. It does not give accurate indications of periods in relations between the lower Nile Valley and other parts of Africa before the emergence of the kingdom of Egypt and does not indicate historically proven relations and contacts between the kingdom and certain

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parts of Africa (example of West Africa dealt with by B. Wai Andah, Chapter 24).

In Chapter 5, under the title of “Legacy of Egypt”, Rashid El Nadoury analyses what Egypt conveyed to cultures and civilizations in post-Pharaonic times. In the wake of studies by M. Bernal, the study should take account of the contents of “Black Athena: the Afro-asiatic roots of classical civilizations” (1987).

Chapter 6, “Egypt in the Hellenistic period”, deals with the development of the kingdom of Egypt under Greek domination at the end of the 6th century BC.

According to Babacar Sall, Helenistic Egypt “was an encounter and a dialogue of cultures and civilizations on a stretch of African land”. Written language developed. Young Egyptians had Greek tutors.

This particular feature of the Hellenistic period owes much, according to Babacar Sall, to the long-established contract between Greeks and Negro Africans (cf. centrality of the Eurybate black in Homer’s writings) in Greece first of all and on the African continent (the Naucratis trading posts and the colonies of Cyrenia and Barké).

According to an ancient tradition, scholars came to acquire sophisticated knowledge on African soil (Th Obenga; Egypt, Greece and the School of Alexandria, Paris, Harmattan, 2005).

In Chapter 7, S. Donadoui considers Egypt’s development as a Roman colony from 30 BC onwards. The main feature of this policy was deliberately to stifle the Egyptian civilization, particularly after 380 AD, which is not referred to by the author. Among the facts worth noting, mention should be made of the fire in the Alexandria library, the assassination of priests in Alexandria and the closure of temples in 391. Roman domination in Egypt and North Africa (with famous wars of resistance) should be seen from an African point of view as the earliest cultural aggression against Africa.

Chapters 8, 9, 10 and 11 could be grouped together under the title “the Nile and Nubio Sudanese corridor in antiquity: identity and history”. These chapters deal with the geographical and environmental factors related to the human and historical aspects of the Nubio-Sudanese States: Kerma and Koush, Napata and Meroe.

Chapter 12 traces the process of early evangelization of Nubia. While the history of the origin and development of those States is adequately related, the author does not emphasize the use that Rome made of the Christian faith in order to refashion those societies. It was for this reason that the Christian kingdoms in the Middle Nile Valley were created.

Chapters 13, 14, 15 and 16 deal with the history of the kingdom of Axum. This entity enjoyed exceptional longevity. Born during antiquity, it lasted until the early modern period before being invaded by the Galla.

Chapter 17, entitled the “Protoberbers” is based on a postulate which is that of the assimilation between the Libyans of Greek and Berber texts.

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The historical foundation for such assimilation remains questionable with regard to the current state of research. A study of the way the Berber world was built should, if it is to be relevant, take account of the Mechtoids and the migratory phenomenon which led several waves of Eurasian populations to settle on the southern shores of the Mediterranean basin (G. Camps and M. Fantav, les Berbères: identités et Histoire, 1982).

Chapter 18, written by B. H. Warmington, focuses on Carthage. The descriptive study is interesting but the fact remains that Carthage evolved at the periphery of the socio-political impetus which focused on Africa in the period of antiquity.

Chapter 19 deals with the Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa.

As regards the Roman period, A. Mahjoubi attempts to identify the human communities referred to in the Graeco-Latin texts (Getules, Garamantes). There are no sound historical grounds for their identification with the Berbers.

The chapter presents a page of Roman history without undue emphasis on resistance to Roman policy based on overexploitation.

In Chapter 20, Pierre Salama tackles the Sahara during classical antiquity. This text of philological erudition does not give the Sahara the place it deserves in the history of Africa. The author has given priority to relations between the Sahara and the Graeco-Roman world. In the opinion of many Hellenists, recourse to Graeco-Roman sources alone does not suffice to construct the history of the Sahara.

Consultation of G. P. Murdock’s “Africa, its peoples and their cultural history”, 1959, would have ensured a more accurate focus for Salama’s analysis in antiquity.

Chapters 21 to 29 are devoted to regional studies. The ancient history of Africa began with communities that produced their own food. The chapters on the various regions and on specific transversal themes explore the dynamics at work.

Chapter 21 entitled “Introduction to the end of the prehistory of sub-Saharan Africa” by M. Ponanski raises a series of problems which will be debated in the following chapters. M. Ponanski emphasizes the unity of Africa in spite of the geographical constraints which typify certain areas such as the Sahara which, nonetheless, has never been an obstacle to inter-African relations.

He also recalls the cultural continuity which is a feature of Africa beyond its differences. Change was particularly remarkable and no region experienced any stagnation. He therefore contests the concept of a “black continent” or a “cul-de-sac”. While M. Ponanski’s ideas bring into question a number of preconceived ideas on Africa at the time of writing, other ideas have been questioned in the light of new discoveries.

The debate is about the advent of new technologies such as iron technology (the fate of early technologies in various regions), and the history of population in relation to population movements, links between migration and the “dissemination” of new technologies, the endogenous nature of cultures and civilizations and the question of foreign influences.

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• Iron metallurgy

One of the most hotly disputed issues in the chapters devoted to regional studies is that of iron metallurgy (Chapters 21 to 29) on account no doubt of the links established between iron metallurgy and the development of agriculture and the formation of complex societies. Numerous discoveries made in various regions have helped to renew the paradigm that privileged the “dissemination” of this technique from various centres (Egypt, Axum, Meroe) via North Africa during the early centuries of Christianity.

Today, the results of numerous excavations attest to the indigenous invention of iron metallurgy at dates that go back to the 1st millennium BC, 400 BC in Nigeria, 200 BC in Jenné Jeno (Mali) and 400 BC in the great lake region.

These discoveries should help to update information on the Iron Age in Chapter 27 on southern Africa and Chapter 29 on the societies from southern Africa to the Sahara at the beginning of the Iron Age.

- The advent of iron technology is not synonymous with the abandonment of the use of stone objects. Ponanski believes that the Stone Age tradition continued in certain parts of Africa up to the end of the 1st millennium AD. This prolonged use of ancient technologies in Africa does not have any link with ethnic identity according to Félix Chami.

- Regional studies attest to the precocity of plant domestication in the context of more or less extensive and relatively permanent human settlements. In West Africa, for example, in areas including Mali, Mauritania and Senegal, rice cultivation could date back to the 4th millennium. These activities were combined with hunting, fishing and the gathering of molluscs.

• The history of population

Migrations, a distinctive phenomena in Africa, are analysed in Chapters 22 and seq. together with their supposed or proven consequences. One of the most controversial migrations with regard to dates, itineraries and consequences, is that of the Bantu.

Félix Chami refutes the thesis according to which the Bantu locutors of West Africa were brought to populate the rest of sub-Saharan Africa. A debate is also centred on the thesis according to which “Bushmen” or Khoisan dominated eastern, central and southern Africa as submitted by J. Sutton in Chapter 23 entitled “East Africa before the 7th century”.

The hypothesis according to which the ancient Swahili coastline was populated by “Kushites” developed by A. Sheriff (Chapter 12) is unconfirmed.

As regards the population of the Island of Madagascar (Chapter 28) studied by Vérin, the arguments relating to two migrations (South-East Asia and Africa) are based essentially on linguistic studies.

Vérin defends the existence in Madagascar of an ancient African “genotype” and therefore

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an early mixture of Austronesians and Africans. Félix Chami expresses reservations as to the servile status attributed to the Africans by Vérin. This idea, according to Chami, is based on an old colonial prejudice according to which Africans are confined in a particular role, namely that of servility, even during the period of antiquity.

Regional studies have integrated the impetus of social development in ancient Africa. The Nile Valley appears as a context for the development of the cultures and civilizations of ancient Africa.

Research has gradually revealed spheres without any known state control. This is true, for example, of archaeological research on Djenné Djéno, a city whose origins date back to the 3rd century BC and whose development is linked to its propitious immediate environment as well as to trading relations with more distant regions.

Recommendations for the pedagogical use of Volume II

1. In general terms

For the use of Volume II in teaching, it should be recalled first of all that, for the period of antiquity, the history of Africa was dominated by that of the Nile Valley where socio-political organizations were set up which left the most numerous traces.

To highlight African history by establishing comparisons with the history of ancient Europe dominated by that of the northern shores of the Mediterranean basin should be avoided.

The overall title of prehistory should be confined to the Palaeolithic period for teaching purposes. For the subsequent period, reference can be made to the ancient cultures and civilizations of Africa. The teaching of the Egypto-Kushite civilizations, belonging to the aforementioned group, could be subdivided as follows:

1) Aspects of civilization and Pharaonic Egypt

Chapter 3 of the 1980 edition could serve as a basis. The three points to be remembered in this instance would be the basis of the development of the economy in Egypt; the administration of Egypt; and the study of the sciences, arts and techniques. A fourth aspect could focus on “daily life in Egypt”.

2) Egypt in the world

This heading could include the legacy of ancient Egypt. An additional item could be entitled “Relations between the kingdom of Egypt and certain regions of Nilotic Africa and areas beyond the Nile Valley” (cf. Chapter 13).

2. In relation to the various chapters:

On the basis of Chapter 1, the history of political bodies created by the blacks began in the ancient kingdom of Egypt (Ghana is still taught in African schools as being the earliest known black State) made up at the end of the 1st millennium BC. On the basis of arguments

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developed by C. A. Diop, it is possible to assert, according to Babacar Sall, that the authors of African civilizations and the kingdom of Egypt were black.

Chapter 2 would need to include an analysis of the process which nurtured the advent of the kingdom of Egypt.

The role of violence is described in the protohistorical documents and should be highlighted in this process.

Chapter 3 should be combined with Chapters 4 and 5 under the title “Ancient Egypt in time and space” which would deal with the following aspects:

- Egypt: economy, society and daily life;

- relations between ancient Egypt and certain African regions;

- the impact of ancient Egypt on the post-Pharaonic civilizations in black Africa.

The question of techniques used in Egypt is one of the most attractive for the public at large. A study of this theme could show the central nature of black Africa in the development of the sciences and their dissemination (Chapter 3).

Chapter 5, dealing with Egypt in the Hellenistic period, should be exploited. Emphasis should be placed on the fact that this period experienced a genuine cultural dialogue between Egyptians and Greeks. Greek written documents show the picture which the Greeks had of Africans, particularly Ethiopians.

Chapter 7 (Egypt under Roman domination) should be combined with Chapter 19 (the Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa) under the heading “the first major cultural aggression. The dialogue of cultures during the Hellenistic period was followed by an authentic cultural shock during the Roman Era”.

Chapters 8, 9, 10 and 11 provide aspects whereby it is possible to study the following:

a) the pre-Kushite era marked by a multitude of political entities: Wawai, Irthet, Sétou and Yam. The so-called Kerma kingdom (in present-day Sudan) appears as the hallmark of pre-Kushite Nubia;

b) the Kush kingdom which lasted 24 centuries. Major innovations which occurred during the Meroitic period deserve to be taught. They include the development of an alphabetical writing system (Meroitic), the accession of women to supreme power and the famous Candaces of Kush.

Chapter 12 (on the evangelization of Nubia) could, for pedagogical purposes, put emphasis on the role that Africa played in asserting the Christian faith. A study of the Christianization of Nubia could also serve as a transition for the study of the kingdom of Axum converted to Christianity in the 4th and 5th centuries AD.

Chapters 13 to 16 on the history of Axum could serve as pedagogical notes, provided the

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somewhat confused analysis were simplified.

Chapter 17 (which deals with the Berbers) should be used with caution on account of the complexity of identity problems in the countries in which the Berbers are a component part of the population.

As regards the history of Carthage (Chapter 18), Babacar Sall believes that it should not be given too much importance in the teaching of the history of Africa in antiquity.

The text of Chapter 20 on the Sahara should only serve in pedagogical terms as a mere entry in an introduction to the historical study of the Sahara.

Following the rereading of the chapters devoted to regional studies (Chapters 21 to 29), Felix Chami recommends that most of them be rewritten in the light of new (particularly archaeological) discoveries. He insists on the need to explain to African students the changes in paradigms that have occurred or are in progress in the overall approach to African history together with the reasons for such changes. African history has, in the past, been written with very few available data and on the basis of paradigms influenced by “racial prejudice” which are not necessarily perceived by most African historians. Historians such as C. A. Diop have brought into question these erroneous paradigms and have called for them to be replaced for the writing of African history. Teaching must elicit a critical attitude among young people in regard to the way African history has been presented in the past and is still presented today.

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VOLUME III

The General History of Africa

Africa from the 7th to the 11th century

Director of the Volume: M. El Fasi Co-Director: I Hrbek.

The Review of this volume was conducted by Penda M’Bow and Idrissa Ba in reference to the UNESCO Edition NF A 1990, 954 pages.

The volume, which comprises 28 Chapters, focuses on the birth and expansion of Islam, its hegemony over all the shores of the Mediterranean basin and the strength of its penetration into sub-Saharan Africa.

There is evidence of much overlapping and repetition in the chapters, although the overall approach seeks to be chronological and regional.

The first four chapters deal with the advent of Islam and the development of the Muslim civilization leading to the creation of a major State in the Mediterranean after the conquests between the 7th and 8th centuries and the development of a new culture within that ensemble. This Muslim civilization which, at its zenith, was in fact the synthesis of several traditions of populations converted to Islam, encouraged a new social order based on scientific, artistic and technological creativity.

The Islamic world had a considerable impact on the social dynamics of Africa. Islamization, and trade remained closely linked throughout the centuries. Consequently, the coexistence of a social system produced by Islam, on the one hand, and African traditions, on the other, encouraged interactions between the Muslim world and African cultures.

Beyond the question of Islam as such and its expansion, Hrbek redefines the geopolitics of the time by indicating exactly what place Africa occupied therein. The importance of trade and the role played by the populations of African origin in the Indian Ocean and the new Muslim world are thereby highlighted.

In Chapter 2, “the advent of Islam and the development of the Muslim empire”, El Fasi and Hrbek define the Muslim religion (its genesis and relations with other Abrahamic religions) and recall the biography of the prophet Muhammad. Reference is also made to the way Islam considered non-Muslims, the grandeur and decadence of the caliphate and the preponderance of the Turks at the end of the 11th century. The geopolitical context was modified by the rise of new forces (Zirids, Arabs and Seljuks). Changes that occurred were also economic, social and spiritual in nature, particularly with the development of Sufism.

Chapter 3 deals in two complementary sections on the Islamization of North Africa (M. El

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Fasi) and the dissemination of Islam in sub-Saharan Africa (I.Hrbek).

As regards North Africa, the author makes a distinction between Egypt, a former Byzantine province in which various forms of Christianity were in conflict) and the Maghreb. The progress of Islam benefited from numerous religious disputes and the continual arrival of Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula. Judaism, Christianity and traditional religions cohabited in the Maghreb. The Arab conquest was faced there with strong resistance from the Berbers. The legendary action of Ukba Ibn Nafi was a turning point in the Islamization of the Maghreb, even if this process progressed in a contrasted fashion as Christianity remained dominant in the Sahili, the southern regions and the Mzab. The major phases of Islamization of the region are indicated from the conversion of the numerous Berber tribes (the defeat at Al Kahina in 703) up to the completion of Islamization throughout the Maghreb in the 10th century. A feature of this trend was the occurrence of dissidence (Kharidjites) and heresies (a new religion among the Barghawata).

In sub-Saharan Africa, with the exception of a few regions under Arab colonization (eastern Sudan), the role of the Arab invaders in Islamization was limited.

The Islamization of western Sudan occurred before the total conversion of the Maghreb populations. According to Al Zuhuri, the part played by Ibadite tradesmen who had settled in Tadmeka since the 9th century was very significant in the introduction of Islam. The Ibadites who ruled in Sijilmassa were present in other localities particularly along the road linking Libya to the Lake Chad basin. This early Islam remained superficial and influenced by the remnants of the Berber and African religions.

The first converts were among tradesmen, as trade was closely linked to Islam in Africa. The converted tradesmen (Wankara, Dioulas and Diankankés) lived in communities within their own specific areas.

They were to be followed in the adoption of Islam by the chiefs and their immediate entourage (King Tekrour, Chief Dya Kossoi in Gao / 1009-1010 and the King of Malal).

It was both in the internal as well as the external interests of the States to join Islam (particularly in view of the requirements of trade in North Africa). Nevertheless, the way the local sovereigns practised Islam was sometimes somewhat unorthodox.

Change was to come with the Almoravids who were to impose orthodox Islam to the detriment of the Kharidjites. Nevertheless, it was essentially the local tradesmen (Wankara and Dioula) who successively contributed to disseminating Islam in sub-Saharan Africa. In the 15th century, Islam gained strength in many regions of Western Sudan (Kano and Katsina) thanks to the influence on the local political leaders of the reforming preacher, Al Maghîlî. In the 16th century, Islam was quite well established in Western Sudan, from the Atlantic as far as Lake Chad. In Nubia and Northern Sudan, Islamization followed a permanent process linked to the proximity of Egypt and the arrival of Arab nomads and tradesmen.

In the Horn of Africa, Islam penetrated Ethiopia via the islands of Daklat and Zayla. From the 8th to 11th century, Islam reached the shores of the gulf of Aden on the eastern coast of Africa and the Comoro islands. In Madagascar, Islam established itself in a contrasted

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manner.

Islam as a social system in Africa since the 7th century (Chapter4)

Dramani Issouffi analyses Islam as a religion and a component of spiritual and social culture integrated into Black African civilization. The author analyzes relations between Islam, the African populations and their cultures. He describes the success of Islam in Africa thanks to its dogma and dialectics which contribute to profound unity and cultural diversity. After having recalled the obligations of Islam, he refers to some of the reasons that facilitated its adoption by the Africans, including the liberty of adhesion (through an individual act of faith) to the community (Uma).

African Islam, dominated by Malekism, was marked by the appearance and development of mystical currents, notable Sufism.

The relations that Islam entertained with various African cultures experienced a variety of developments. After a period of tranquil coexistence (11th century) during which Islam progressed in Africa in a relatively peaceful manner, social and cultural tension appeared after the 11th century, nurtured by the pressure of Muslim legal scholars whose prescriptions were resisted by local cultures.

African sovereigns benefited from the cities and their Muslim administration for strengthening their power and, in some regions, the adoption of Arabic script and techniques involved an ”Arabization” of the elite, the effects of which were felt particularly in genealogical terms. As regards the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the author notes an interruption in the dialogue between Islam and African cultures, which led to hostile reactions to Islam, of which one of the most radical was that of Soni Ali (1466-1492).

The political fragmentation and social disintegration that followed the rule of Askia Mohamed (1493-1528) and Askia Daoud (1549-1582) heralded the decline of the Songhai.

Social integration on the basis of Islam only occurred much later during the 18th and 19th centuries.

An analytical criticism of these first four chapters, focusing essentially on Islam and its expansion in Africa, brings to light a number of inadequacies: the rather superficial nature of Chapter 1 which tackles too vast a subject. The absence of maps and iconographical documents is the major weakness of this article.

Chapter 2 deals more with the genesis of Islam from the biography of the Prophet up to the development of the religion rather than the role played by Africa in Muslim society. The choice adopted here was to structure the history of Africa around the importance of Islam.

As regards Egypt, Chapter 3 does not bring to light the role of the conquests (those led by Amr, for example), nor the reasons for Arab immigration. The complexity of the Islamization process in Africa can no doubt account for the fact that certain regions have been more closely studied than others. More judicious use of Arab sources would perhaps help to

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highlight the role of trans-Saharan trade.

Chapters 5-25 deal with population movements and, more broadly, demographic history in a regional perspective. Evidence suggests that the history of some of these movements extends beyond the strictly chronological framework established for this volume (e.g. the expansion of the Bantu populations). Studies on specific themes shed some light on the population movements according to their motives and itineraries (Chapter 11 on the role of the Sahara and Saharan populations in relations between North and South. Chapter 14 on trade and trading routes in West Africa). The geographical subdivision adopted depends on the geopolitics of the period under consideration.

For the sake of convenience, we shall refer occasionally in this presentation to the five major sub-regions of Africa today and the Diaspora.

The peoples of Sudan: population movements Chapter 5: F. de Meideros

The term Sudan is used here for West Africa. First of all, the author analyses the sources which enable the study of movements and the settlement of peoples in the Sudanese area of Africa. He refers to several hypotheses, models which result from an analysis of the sources as to assimilation in an open area.

These hypotheses include that of the cultural primacy of certain groups of northern or eastern origin. The famous Hamitic hypothesis which draws a distinction between Hamitic shepherds (founders of the kingdoms) and black farmers, and its corollary, the “disseminationism” advocated by authors such as M. Delafosse, Palmer, etc.

Criticism of the Arab sources has been made in this regard on many occasions. Recourse to the oral tradition to make up for the inadequacy of Arab sources has helped to provide certain rectifications to various assertions.

Can one speak of the hegemony of the North in the relations it entertains with the territories of black populations?

There is an ancient phenomenon, as F. de Meideros responds, which consists “in defining the territory of the blacks from the North onwards” (p. 147). The range of Berber tribes together with their activities are a subject of study and, more specially, the Touaregs, astride the blacks and the Saharan world. On the basis of the exploitation of sources, written, oral and archaeological, the author has attempted to define the terrain on which African societies were structured and organized.

The Hamitic thesis and “disseminationism” cannot withstand analysis. The author reasserts the domination of the blacks over the Neolithic population of the Sahara which leaves no doubt as to the origins of the Ghana empire.

The emergence of Sudanese hegemonies is the result of the development of complex societies leading to the reaction of states organized as early as in the 1st millennium: Kanem, Ghana, Hawsa, Songhai and Tekrour.

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The prosperity of the Sudanese States was based on a mastery of technical processes (iron metallurgy) and the use of the horse and camel. A note by the reviewer of the volume focuses on the impact of iron production on sub-Saharan Africa.

Relations between the North and the territories of the South were marked by vicious conflicts for the control of trade and trading routes. The writings of Al-Bakri testify to an enhancement of the royal function and to religious tolerance. The kings displayed a degree of cunning in their transactions with the Arabs.

One of the major events in this development encouraged by Islam was the Almoravid movement in the 11th century.

The Almoravid Adventure I. Hrbek and J. Dévisse deal with the Almoravids in Chapter 13.

The article defines the term Almoravid as a distortion of Al Murâbitun which derives from the r-b t root which means “conducting the jihad in an equitable manner”. The factors underlying the birth of the movement and the life and work of its leader, Abdallah Yassin, are described in this chapter. The conduct of military action, together with the extension of the empire by Yassin’s successors, are also referred to.

One of the integration factors for the populations of the Sudan is the trading on various local, regional and international scales. In this regard, trans-Saharan trade played a vital role in population admixture.

In Chapter 14, “Trade and trading routes in West Africa”, J. Dévisse, one of the best specialists of this period, shows through the results of archaeological excavations “the existence of an economy based on local (as well as regional) trade“ without there being any need to refer to trans-Saharan influences” and a mastery of technology. The author analyses the role of the major “medieval” cities in connection with local, regional and trans-Saharan trade.

Trans-Saharan trade, as evidenced since the 8th century, reached a peak in the 10th century. The nature of the trade is analysed by the author as to flows, transport, transformation and quantity. Special attention is given to the part played by gold in this trade in terms of production, denomination, minting and quality. The control of trading routes in the North as in the South has always been a source of considerable rivalry and envy.

A study dealing with population movements in the Sudan would appear limited by the state of historiography. A critical assessment of all the sources relating to migrations is required for re-examining these various hypotheses.

As regards the Almoravids, the study does not take account of information provided by the oral (Moorish and Sudanese) traditions as to Almoravid origins and expansion.

Since 1990, research on the origins and decline of Ghana has somewhat progressed. The thesis regarding the violent destruction of Koumby Saley by the Almoravids has become highly controversial because of a trend towards refuting any burning of the city

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(cf. Bibliography, M’Bow-Ba report).

Chapter 6 by S. Lwanga-Lunyiigo and J. Vansina, “the Bantu peoples and their expansion”, is one of the most widely discussed issues in African history. The Bantu area as defined here covers the southern third of the African continent, extending from the Cameroon-Nigerian border to the west as far as the Somali-Kenyan coastline to the east, and from there on towards Port Elizabeth in the south (page 165). A particular feature is the number of languages derived from proto-Bantu, the cradle of which is either in the mid-Bénoué region (West Africa) or in the Shaba province (present day DRC). The first hypothesis would seem to be the stronger. Bantu expansion could have begun as early as in the Neolithic period (between -1000 or even -400) to extend until the year 1000 with extensions towards the North which were to last until the 19th century. A study of the early vocabulary of the Bantu language illustrates the lifestyles of the Bantu (farming practice regarding the yam, cereals, hunting and fishing).

The origins and expansion of the Bantu are dealt with essentially in this chapter on the basis of hypotheses put forward by linguists. The paucity of documentation is evident from the very limited nature of bibliographical references.

In the Nile Valley

In the chapter entitled “Egypt from the Arab conquest until the end of the Fatimid Empire” (Chapter 7), T. Bianqui traces the various phases in Egyptian history, from the Byzantine occupation up to the reign of the Fatimids in the 10th century. Egypt became a bastion of the Arab world as from the expeditions by General Amr, undertaken from Fayoum. Babylon took over from Alexandria as capital.

The rule of the Ummayads in Damascus heralded changes in Arab hegemony over the Red Sea, the appearance of new trading routes and remarkable cultural development. Arabic became the language of culture among Egyptians and Chalcedonians.

The presence of Yemeni soldiers in Egyptian cities contributed to the cultural integration of the local populations. The revolts of the Abassid caliphate initiated by the Christians and the Arabs of the Kabila were to bring about a period of anarchy.

The autonomy of Egypt, which was the result of centrifugal forces (Tulumids, Ikshidids and Kafur) was a prelude to the advent of the Mameluks.

Imperial Egypt emerged and developed until the 10th century under the rule of the first three Fatimid imams.

The author describes in great detail the evolution of the city of Cairo (founded by Djawhar) as a centre of attraction up until the agony of the Fatimid regime in the 11th century. In all, this chapter reveals interweaving patterns in the history of the Muslim empire under the Ummayads, the Abassids and that of Egypt.

With a view to the pedagogical use of this chapter, a distinction must be made between political and cultural events (particularly the development of techniques) which are closely

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interwoven. The importance of agriculture in Egypt is scarcely dealt with in this chapter. Regarding the same area, S. J. Jakobielski deals with Christian Nubia at the peak of its civilization (Chapter 8).

As already illustrated in Volume II, the history of Nubia is intimately related to that of Egypt. In this instance, the author presents the factors on which the prosperity of Nubia was founded (the unity of the kingdoms of Nobadia and Makura, and the establishment of profitable relations with Egypt through the Bakt, the pact of non-aggression) before referring to the prosperity of its cities and the artistic and craft development of which they are a feature. But what is most characteristic of Nubia is its Christianity of the monophysite tendency (with a plurilingual liturgy comprising Greek, Coptic and ancient Nubian).

North Africa

Chapters 9, 10 and 12 deal with the development of North Africa from the Arab conquest (7th century) until the end of Fatimid rule in the 11th century.

Chapter 9 by H. Monés entitled ”the conquest of North Africa and Berber resistance”, describes the major phases of the Arab conquest together with those of the subsequent resistance of the Berbers.

After two rectifications regarding the use of the term Maghreb and the circumstances of the Berbers on the eve of the conquest, the author highlights four major phases in the conquest of North Africa and refers to the stakes involved (apart from Islamization, namely the holding to ransom and the mastery and control of the trade routes).

The first phase from 663-670 occurred under the leadership of Ibn Hudaydj Al Sakuni, the commander-in-chief of the Arab army.

The year 670 marked a turning point with the appointment of Ukba Ibn Nafi at the head of the Arab forces who extended the conquest as far as Kawar, via the Fezzan. In 675, Ibn Nafi’s successor, Dînar Ibn Abû Al Muhâdjir convinced Kusayla, a Berber chief, to convert to Islam along with his own folk.

The return of Ukba Ibn Nafi in 683 was marked by new conquests, particularly those in the Aurès, the Tafilalet and on the Atlantic coastline.

Berber resistance manifested itself first through Kusayla who constructed a Berber kingdom combining the Aurès, the southern Constantinois and the greater part of Ifrikiya in 687-690. The second phase of Berber resistance was symbolized by a woman named Al Kahina who inflicted severe defeats on the Arab troops, particularly in 696. It was after her death that the conquerors set up the administrative organization of the territories concerned.

In Chapter 10 entitled “the independence of the Maghreb”, M. Talbi deals with the rebellion and independence of the Maghreb. This movement was aroused by the injustices endured by Muslim Berbers under the Ummayads. The revolt took place under the emblem of Karidjism which considered Ummayad rule as illegal. The Karidjists conquered virtually all of central Maghreb and set up various kingdoms; the kingdoms of Barghawâta, Tlemci, Bani

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Wassul (Sufrites) of Tripoli and Tahert (Ibadites).

In the 18th century, it was the opposing current, Shiism, which became dominant to the detriment of Karidjism (with the success of the Idrissids). In 800, Ifrîkiya obtained its independence from Harun Al Rashid and brought about the emergence of the Aghlabid kingdom (800-900).

In Chapter 12, “the advent of the Fatimids”, I. Hrbek defines firstly Shiism to which the Fatimids belong. The fundamental dogma include the attribution of the Imam governorship to the descendents of the Prophet and the thesis of the return of the Mahdi.

The Fatimid movement originated among the Ismaïliens (based in Syria) who considered Ismaïl to be the descendent of the Prophet who died in 761 as being the Mahdi. The Kutana Berbers helped the Dai (a missionary who had come from Salamiyya in Syria), Abd Allâh Al Shi’I, to vanquish the Aghlabides.

Power was subsequently placed in the hands of Imam Ubayd Allâh, the founder of the Fatimid movement. The Fatimid kingdom was gradually transformed between the 10th and 11th centuries into a vast empire extending from the Atlantic to Syria.

As regards the Arab conquests, various studies have shown how legend has taken over the figure of Ukba by attributing to him conquests which were not of his doing. Accordingly, T. Lewicki, in the same volume, provides another view on the scale of Ukba’s conquests, some of which would seem to be merely reconnaissance expeditions.

Chapter 11, “the Role of the Sahara and Saharan populations in relations between the North and the South”, written by T. Lewicki, should be related to Chapter 9. The author analyzes the role played by the Sahara in relations between Africa and the Sudan, between the 8th and 12th centuries.

After having defined the contours of the Sahara, limited to the east by the Nile and to the west by the Atlantic ocean, he describes the inhabitants as “peoples of Berber origin, cross-bred in some instances with black African blood”. Among the Berbers, he distinguishes between two main branches: the Sanâdja and the Zanâte. To the south of the Eastern Sahara, he locates “negroid populations” belonging to various groups such as the Zaghâwa, the Teda and the Dawa. This population includes several scattered Arab components.

Through a detailed analysis of the major axes, itineraries, resting places and termini, the author illustrates the important role played by the Saharan populations in trans-Saharan relations. The study is based essentially on Arab sources.

While this particular chapter (the longest in Volume III) provides an overall view of the major trans-Saharan trading axes, it does not contribute to locating the various localities referred to. It does not include any overall map.

Attempts at establishing the kinship between the Sanadja and the Touareg (Al Tawârik) by the authors of Chapters 9 and 11 diverge. H. Monès identifies them with the Tarka who, along with others (Lamtuna, Massûffe and Djuddala) make up the most significant Sanadjien

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Kabila. According to T. Lewicki, the Touaregs are descendants of the Sanadja.

The author accredits the view of Ibn Hawkal who claimed to have gone through Awdajhost in 951, which has been contradicted by Levtzion on the basis of an intertextual study showing that Hawkal had never been beyond Sidjilmassa where he collected information on the South.

The detailed description which the Arab authors of Thaghâza provide are more evocative of an ore mine than a salt mine.

It is regrettable that the description of the way the Sahara was populated is based almost exclusively on Arab sources. In fact, the black populations are scarcely mentioned in this description, with the exception of the Tubu in the eastern part of the Eastern Sahara, a brief reference to the Bafours likened by the author to a white population. More attention should be given to the Moorish and Sudanese traditions relating to these various groups.

In Chapter 15, D. Lange and B. W. Bakindo deal with the “region of Lake Chad as a crossroads”. The Lake Chad region became very early on an area of temporary settlement (before the Christian era) for nomad and sedentary populations fleeing the desertification of the Sahara (in the desertification phases including that of the 3rd millennium BC and that more closely documented in the 11th century). These various populations include the Zaghâwa, Tadji, (Djâdo) Teda Daza (Tubu), Bede, Kuri, Kotoko, Kanuri and Sao (Sao) grouped into various linguistic families.

There is evidence of agricultural and technological competence in the region as proved by many sites (the technique for producing iron known as early as 540 BC). It also experienced various political hegemonies including that of the Kanem (with the Zaghâwa and Sêfuwa dynasties) which maintained durable trade relations (including the slave trade) with the Muslim States of North Africa (Zirides and Hafsides).

The authors of the chapter devote a passage to the Almoravids (outside their particular subject) which, in its conclusions, differs from the text written by Hrbek and Dévisse on this subject (Chapter 13) (pages 488).

Chapters 16, 17 and 18, which are based essentially on the results of archaeological research, comprise linguistic studies and oral traditions which attempt to outline the way societies evolved in the Guinean area, according to various components, from the 1st millennium BC, but more specifically during the following millennium. The millennium which marked the advent of the Christian period, “known as the millennium of silence” according to T. Shaw (Volume I, Chapter 24) was perhaps the one during which a major change occurred in lifestyles.

In Chapter 16, entitled “the Guinean zone: overall situation”, T. Shaw describes the main features of the regions during that period and the overall trends of which local versions will be dealt with in subsequent chapters. All the studies focus on “a fundamental change” though gradual, which occurred during the 1st millennium, that is to say, during the transition from an economy based on hunting, gathering and fishing, to a lifestyle dominated by agriculture and stock breeding.

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This particular development is studied in Lower Guinea by B. W. Andah (Chapter 17) and in Upper Guinea (Chapter 17) in terms of the economy, subsistence, housing, trade, iron metallurgy and political activity.

In each of the sub-regions of the Guinean area, the study is based on linguistic groups identified through research. The assessors wondered whether Chapter 16 devoted according to the author himself “to a thousand years that preceded the 1st millennium in West Africa” was appropriate in such a volume. The definition of the Guinean area, in spite of the map on page 491, remains ill-defined. Doesn’t the attention given to megaliths and tumuli in the heartland of Senegambia lead the author to extend the Guinean area excessively?

The Horn of Africa: Chapter 20

In this chapter, T. T. Mekouria focuses on the development of the Axum kingdom which emerged at the end of the 1st century and enjoyed extraordinary development under the rule of Ezana in the 4th century.

In Chapter 21, E. Cerruli focuses on relations between Ethiopia and the Muslim world (therefore between Muslims and Christians) on either shore of the Red Sea. The Muslims gradually acquired control of the Red Sea at the expense of the Ethiopians in the wake of many conquests at the beginning of the Ummayad era, notably with the occupation of the Dahlak Islands. Muslim tradesmen settled in Enderde, thereby bringing about numerous Ethiopian conversions to Islam. In spite of the lock that the Christian State of Axum seemed to represent, various Muslim Sultanates were created thereby forcing Axum to extend southwards towards the Ethiopian plateau and even transferring its capital.

The period between the 13th and 14th centuries was marked by many confrontations between Axum and the Muslim sultanates, most of which were to the advantage of the Negus.

In Chapter 22, C. Erhet studies the development of societies “within eastern Africa”. He highlights two major groups: the Kushites and the Bantu. The non-Bantu, such as the Khoisan, were assimilated by the former. The lifestyles and religious beliefs of the various peoples are described and the author establishes a form of correlation between ethnic origin and the type of food production.

In the study on the Horn of Africa, no mention whatsoever is made of the Falasha. Contrary to what is announced in its title, Chapter 20 deals above all with Muslim expansion in Ethiopia.

Chapter 21: F.T. Masao and H.W. Mutoro: “the east African coast and the Comoro islands”

The authors focused on the area surrounding the eastern coast of Africa; a strip of land limited in the north by Somalia and in the south by Mozambique. The early origin and continuity of the settlement of populations in this area are proven by archaeology which points to the 1st millennium of the Christian era. Thanks to Arab sources, Chinese accounts and oral traditions, it is possible to reconstruct the major ethnographical aspects of this area such as the distribution of the main population groups: the barbarians (Somali) in the North,

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the land of the Zandj, and the land of the Sofala in the South.

Central Africa

Chapter 23 by D.W. Philipson entitled “central Africa to the north of the Zambezi”, focuses on a region virtually exclusively populated by Bantu populations at the beginning of the period under consideration. Nevertheless, the so-called Bantu of the early Iron Age or of the “industrial foundations of the early Iron age” are divided into two currents, one eastern and the other western.

Archaeological studies (based in particular on ceramics) enable a distinction to be made between several groups in specific geographical areas. The 11th century was marked by the beginning of a period of transition between the first and the second Iron Age, a change that is visible in the pottery traditions and lifestyles. Hunting declined to the benefit of the cultivation of sorghum, livestock breeding and trading relations using the cowries and the cones shells developing along the eastern coastline.

Southern Africa

Chapter 24 by N. Huffman entitled “Southern Africa to the south of the Zambezi” deals essentially with the Zimbabwe culture in the Iron age (some thousand years ago) which was the achievement of the Bantu peoples. The area under consideration encompasses the southwest of Matabele Land, the eastern centre of Botswana and the northern extremity of the Transvaal. The various communities in this area which practised diversified agriculture, stock breeding, hunting and fishing are studied through their various material cultures, particularly ceramics and housing. Under the effect of external change, the Zimbabwe culture experienced development, between 1000 and 1075, marked by the consolidation of central power and the prosperity of Manpungubwé, the first capital of the kingdom of Zimbabwe.

Madagascar

In Chapter 25, entitled “Madagascar”, B. Domenichini-Ramiarimanana attempts, on the basis of the deciphering of oral sources and the exploitation of archaeological and linguistic results, to restore the history of the populating of this vast island and the development of lifestyles over the years.

This analysis brings to light a number of hypotheses:

- Homo sapiens was present in Madagascar well before the 1st millennium, at least in the regions investigated.

- The populations of fishermen living probably between the 7th and 15th century along the coastline were in communication with the Arabo-Persian trade area. They are thought to have disappeared by the 15th century.

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- Austronesians certainly played a part in deep-sea navigation on the Indian Ocean (boat-builders, users of rafts, pirogues and larger boats). Their settlement on the island through these means dates back to the 1st millennium AD and since then the island was integrated into a network of interregional trade providing the products of gathering techniques (construction wood, gum, herbs and spices).

On the basis of a contribution from Faisal, “the African Diaspora in Africa”, Y. Talib, in Chapter 26, focuses on documenting African presence in Asia in various periods.

From the pre-Islamic period to the 11th century (the extent of the study) such presence is marked by servitude. Used as slaves in pre-Islamic Arabia (coming from East Africa), those populations became mercenaries, ensuring the protection of the caravan routes to Mecca. A substantial number of black slaves were among the earliest converts to Islam including the famous Bilal B. Rabah.

“From the 7th to the 11th century, the demand for slaves increased following the development of agriculture in the lower valley of Iraq and the expansion of international trade in the Indian Ocean” (page 759).

Attention is then given to the status of Africans in Muslim society. Africans were used in agriculture, trade, the armed services, harems and as servants and in places of leisure. The Abassid empire between 869 and 883, was the target of various Zandj revolts.

In addition to their economic role, Africans in the Muslim world contributed substantially in such fields as culture, the arts, literature and exegeses.

Chapters 27 and 28 deal with transversal themes focusing on the organization of sedentarity and the mobility of populations in Africa during the period under consideration (7th-6th century).

Chapter 27 by A. Bathily et C. Meillassoux entitled “Relations between the various regions of Africa” deals with population movements and their consequences. The authors emphasize from the outset the tradition and scale of the mobility of African populations. Progress achieved in the means of communication, the expansion of the trading network and urban development are typical features of the period under study. The authors review the outcome of interregional trade. Trade and personal mobility encourage the dissemination of techniques. As regards iron metallurgy, the authors tend towards the thesis of native origin.

An important feature of this period is also the major social transformations such as an acceleration in the process of social differentiation under the effect of progress in the dissemination of labour, and the development of a class struggle through the revolts that occurred in various States (J. Dévisse / J. Vansina, “Africa from the 7th to 11th century: five formative centuries”, Chapter 28).

The authors studied the organization of sedentary populations in Africa in the various regions. Such organization was based on the appropriate production systems ensuring the adequate feeding of the populations. In East Africa, this involved the dissemination of hump-backed bovine cattle in West Africa, while agricultural progress pushed back the forest in the

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Niger and Senegal valleys. Typical areas can be distinguished such as the “livestock breeding area” in the Sahel and the “complex organization areas” in the valleys. Subsequently, the authors focus on the techniques of which none is “immobile”; their history has yet to be written in Africa.

Other centres of interest in the chapter include trade (in its various forms) and the study of religions, ideologies and the arts as collective representations. The role of African religions as some sort of structural framework for political power is beginning to be better known.

Proposed themes and subjects for teaching contents in primary and secondary education

There is a long list of subjects proposed for teaching in regard to the interest of the volume. The subjects can be grouped together according to various themes.

- Islamization in Africa: stages in the development of Islam and its dissemination. Chapter 3. The texts of Arab authors could provide support in this instance, eg. the account of Oqba Ibn Nafi’s expedition to southern Morocco. The texts of Ibn Kaldun or of Ibn Batuta on Mali relating to the functioning of a court Islam.

- The resistance of the Berber peoples. Chapter 9.

Emphasis will first be placed on the origins and social structures of the Berbers. Chapters 9, 11 and 13.

- The behaviour of the Fatimid and Almoravid empires.

- The role of the Sahara in North/South relations. Chapter 11. In the collective imagination, the Sahara is perceived as an obstacle between North Africa and the Sudan. A study on trans-Saharan trade would be useful if it displayed the main axes, the role of such trade in the consolidation of State power and the stakes related to the control of the road axes.

- Beginnings of agriculture and the domestication of plants in various regions.

- African art: e.g. Ife, Igbo Ukwu.

- Introduction to African religion. Chapter 28.

- The Axum kingdom particularly under the rule of Ezana.

- The culture of Zimbabwe.

- The settlement of populations in Madagascar.

- Africans in the land of Islam.

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VOLUME IV

The General History of Africa

Africa from the 12th to the 16th century

Director of the Volume: D.T. Niane

Volume IV of the GHA, directed by D.T Niane, covers the 12th to the 16th century, a significant period in the history of the African continent. It comprises 27 chapters and an introduction by the Director of the Volume who presents the contents in a didactic fashion. The main issue in this volume is that of the constitution, development and collapse of the major political units in Africa in various socio-economic and political contexts.

The contributions highlight the role of religions, in this process, as a framework structuring political systems (in the context of ancestral religions) or as a factor that strengthens or not State institutions (e.g. Islam in the ruling aristocracies in West Africa). In parallel, attention focuses on intra- and inter-continental trading relations which played a significant role in political, social and cultural development through the circulation of ideas and expertise.

The history of the populating process, the formation of ethnic groups and their successive transformations, together with forms of social organization, lie at the heart of the analysis in various contexts through a study of the varied sources of historical, linguistic and archaeological nature.

Recent archaeological discoveries enable the reviewers to dispel the various myths relating to the authors and to the origin of the various cultures and civilizations such as those embodied in the stone structures on the shores of the Swahili islands or in the ruins at Mapungubwé (Zimbabwe) in the hinterland.

This range of issues is dealt with in the volume from a regional standpoint.

North Africa

The distinguishing feature of this period in North Africa was the two-fold movement of the formation of ensembles (of a unitary, regional nature), on the one hand, and the disintegration of the Maghreb into multiple, autonomous entities under the effect of centrifugal forces. Chapter 2, by Omar Saidi, describes the political development of the Maghreb under the Almohads while Talbi, in Chapter 3, describes the part played by scholars, doctors, historians, legal experts and geographers. Not only did they contribute to the development of knowledge (a role of which the public is frequently unaware) but they also played a significant part in the transfer of scientific knowledge to Europe.

H. R. Idriss and I. Hrbek, in Chapters 4 and 5, describe the conditions which brought about the disintegration of the Maghreb into three entities (Marinids, Wattassids and Hafasids)

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and, subsequently, a multitude of political entities as well as the composition of society at the time and its stratification.

During the same period, the Machrek experienced a Muslim renaissance under the Ayyubids, particularly under the rule of the Mameluks (13th and 14th centuries), which enabled it to halt the expansion of Christian crusades coming from Europe.

The chapters dealing with North Africa could be enriched with the results of recent research, particularly that conducted under the aegis of the Institut des Etudes Africaines at the Mohamed V University in Rabat.

West Africa

West Africa experienced the emergence and development of major political units studied in Chapters 6, 7 and 8, drafted respectively by D. T. Niane, Ms Ly Tall M. and S. M. Cissoko. The authors of these chapters have made optimal use of available sources (written, oral and archaeological) in order to analyse the conditions in which West African communities emerged and to describe their political and social organization, their development and the circumstances in which they declined. Reference in this instance is made to Mali (12th and 16th centuries), Songhai (7th and 16th centuries) and the various entities which preceded them, the Wagadu (Ghana according to Arab authors) and Sosso of Soumangourou Kanté. After the fall of Wagadu (Ghana), under the attack of the Almoravids in the 11th century, the area of West Sudan experienced political and socio-economic turmoil. The emergence of the kingdom of Sosso, under the blacksmith king Soumangourou Kanté, is more explicitly defined, as well as that of his “challenger” Soundiata Keita, who came out victor at the famous battle of Kirina in 1235 which laid the foundation of the empire of Mali. Security and peace (as witnessed by Ibn Battuta, who visited the empire in the 14th century) were to become a feature of the region for many centuries. The reputation of Mali beyond Africa owes much to the emperor Kanku Mussa who undertook a pilgrimage to Mecca (1324) with a widely acknowledged stay in Egypt. The generosity he displayed on that occasion has been the subject of varied appreciation by educated Arabs and the custodians of Mandingo oral traditions.

As regards the Songhai empire, S. M. Cissoko refers in Chapter 8 to the exceptional duration of this entity, the origins of which date back to the 7th century, and boasted three dynasties from the 11th to the 16th century. The modest kingdom of Kukya, an erstwhile dependent of Mali, obtained emancipation from Malian sovereignty and exercised hegemony over a greater part of West Sudan from its capital, Gao.

Sonni Ali Ber (1464-1492), who was a major builder of the Songhai, was replaced on his death by Askia Mohamed who deprived the legitimate successor of power. Askia Mohamed, a devout Muslim and proselyte, initiated a new dynasty, that of the Askia, under the banner of Islam. After his pilgrimage to Mecca, Askia Mohamed returned with the title of Caliph of Sudan. During his reign, Islam enjoyed considerable development through such cultural centres as Timbuktu, Djenne and Gao, as well as missionary activity throughout the region. The Songhai fell victim in the 16th century to the hegemonic designs of the Merenid sovereign of Morocco, Al Mansour. The battle of Tondibi (1591) put an end to the last

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Sudanese empire in that period.

Much archaeological work conducted in recent decades, particularly in the inner delta of the Niger has enriched the history of these political entities. Account must be taken of the results which bring into question the colonial paradigm, according to which the emergence of the Sudano-Sahelian civilization was brought about merely through the stimulation of trans-Saharan trade and Islam introduced into west Africa. While trans-Saharan trade, which integrated this part of the Sudan into world trade, had an indisputable impact on how the region evolved, even by reinforcing pre-existing inter-regional trade, the fact that the quest for permanent stability and security among the populations of the regions must be borne in mind.

Among the various resources used to maintain such stability, (some of which still persist today), the reviewers referred to the Kurukanfuga charter (edicted after the battle of Kirina by Soundiata, setting out the rules governing coexistence between the various clans and relations between populations and their leaders) and the “Sanankuya” (an alliance which with other participants contributed to the social regulation of daily life).

Studies have also focused on the development of various other populations in West Africa, including the kingdoms in the loop of the river Niger and the Volta Basin from the 12th to the 15th century by M. Izard; the “Hawsa and their neighbours in Central Sudan” by M. Adamu, Chapter 11; “the coastal populations of Casamance up to the Côte d’Ivoire Laguna” by Y. Person, Chapter 12, and P. Kipré, Chapter 13.

While Izard would seem to be well-informed on matters relating to the Mossi, so-called of the North and those so-called of the South, he makes no mention of other communities, even of those that are well-known. Communities such as the Gurma/ Gulmu or the Bourgou/ Baruwu, which feature on various maps, are not the subject of any further detail. While access to Chapter 6 relating to the Hawsa is easy, it is regrettable that no illustration of settlements referred to is to be found apart from the map (page 315).

Chapter 7 by Y. Person on the West African coastline reveals early settlements in the peninsula of Cape Verde closely linked to present-day Guinea Bissau. This study is continued in Chapter 13 by P. Kipré, who provides information on the Laguna in present-day Côte d’Ivoire, as well as the Akan territory as far as present-day Ghana. Nothing, however, is mentioned of the Ga territory in the so-called Accra plain.

The text by A.F.C. Rycler (Chapter 14) dealing with the “Volta in Cameroon” provides substantial information on the Yoruba settlements (present-day Southern Nigeria) and the founders of the famous city of Benin and its bronzes (the Edo), the Delta populations and the Ibo, the creators of Igbo-Ukwu artistic productions.

The last paragraph on the Ijo and Ewé shows how difficult it is to situate these populations. Rectifications or supplementary information on the basis of recent research are required to provide an accurate indication of where these populations lived.

The Nile Valley

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Egypt is relocated in the Muslim world between the 13th and early 14th centuries (Chapter 15). Egypt under the rule of the Mameluks (1250-1517) controlled the spice route together with other goods heading for the Mediterranean via the Red Sea. It was also a stopping place for the numerous pilgrims on their way to Mecca (particularly those from West and Central Africa). In 1517, the Ottomans extended their domination to Egypt bringing its destiny into balance yet again.

Nubia, studied by L. Kropacek, illustrates an instance of peaceful management of inter-religious relations over the long term between the Muslim Fatimid state of Egypt and the two Christian kingdoms of the south through the ”Bakt” which was to last some 600 years. The author then refers to the gradual decline of the two Christian Nubian kingdoms, the way they were conquered and the arabization of the Nubians between the 13th and the 15th centuries.

The Horn of Africa

Chapter 15 provides an introduction to the complex political and human geography of the Horn of Africa. T. Tamrat describes a region where Christian and Muslim States existed and maintained relations with the communities of traditional African religions.

The Ethiopian empire, ruled by a Christian sovereign Yekuno Amlak (1270-1285) reached its peak under the rule of Zera Yacob (1434-1468) before declining at the end of the 15th century.

The development of the Swahili civilization between the 12th and the 16th centuries along the eastern coastline of the continent and in the neighbouring island archipelagos is the subject of Chapter 18 written by V.V. Matvelev. The author describes the historical process that produced an original civilization on the basis of an African Bantu substratum. He highlights the importance of influences and cross-breeding with Arab, Persian and Indian contributions, together with those of Islam, among others.

Nevertheless, the reviewers have reservations as to his opinion according to which the Swahili community was not homogenous at the time in ethnic and social terms. Studies available at the time of drafting the chapter already pointed to the long-standing nature of the Swahili civilization, the origins of which dated back much earlier than what had previously been thought. Archaeological sites in the Lamu archipelago date back to before the 10th century and the urban site of Shanga already existed in the 8th century.

In the 12th century, Swahili society was already involved in activities other than agriculture and fishing and several city-states along the eastern coastline were involved in regional trade and practised arts and crafts including the production of fabrics, the construction of vessels and navigation.

These particular activities are age-old traditions along the eastern coast. There are several terms in Swahili for designating the variety of navigation vessels. Preconceived ideas suggested that “the inhabitants of East Africa did not sail long distances in the Indian Ocean”.

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According to Matvelev, the “advantageous geographical position” of the coastal area of East Africa made navigation on the Indian Ocean possible and “illustrates genuine maritime trade in this part of the world”. Among the products traded, reference is made to iron, produced on the spot, and gold from the continent which played an important part in the development of the Swahili civilization. From China, India and the Middle East were imported such products as pottery, glassware and pearls.

In different periods, the anchorage points of such trade have been referred to by Arab authors (Yakut in the 8th century and Ibn Battuta in the 14th century). From the 13th to the 14th century, the city of Kilwa was considered as the main centre for supervising gold from the continental hinterland.

Islam was initially adopted peacefully by the upper classes of society, a tolerant Islam with regard to traditional modes of worship. This chapter reminds the reader of the authentically African character of the Swahili civilization. The Swahilis also borrowed from outside the continent and enriched other cultures.

The Portuguese testified to the influence of this civilization when they arrived on the African shores. Nevertheless, precursory signs of the decline of these city-states have been detected by analysts and precede the arrival of the Portuguese particularly through an increased number of conflicts between States and environmental factors such as the deterioration of the quality of water in certain sites. The factor that destabilized the region as a whole was the intrusion of the Portuguese and the armed violence that came with it.

The region of the Great Lakes

Chapters 19 and 20 focus on the history of human settlement in this region. C. Erhet provides an overall picture of the region “between the coastline and the Great Lakes” through an approach that gives priority to historical linguistics. According to Erhet, early migrations of Bantu-speaking farmers in this region as early as the 1st millennium did not fully occupy the whole area as the populations concerned confined themselves to the least arid areas.

In the area situated to the North, there were speakers of Nilotic languages and in the South of Southern Kushitic languages. There is therefore evidence of phenomena of mixing and assimilation and the emergence of varied social structures. Other groups arrived later such as the Luo in the 14th century in the Kavirondo Gulf area which they were to control completely and the Southern Kalenjin whose influx was sudden.

The interaction of these numerous populations led to interbreeding whereby it is difficult to distinguish any “pure ethnic group”.

In the following chapter, Ogot focuses on the formation of States in the inter-lacustrian area during the same period, together with relations between the various groups, their respective positions and occupations. The author’s focus is on relations between farmers and sedentary populations with all the stereotypes of which such groups are the subject. Ogot attempts to deconstruct the myth of the superiority/inferiority complex entertained between these groups by showing that the formation of the earliest States in the region was achieved by

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farmers well before the arrival of shepherds. For hundreds of years, farmers and shepherds lived in harmony both in and outside the region. Stratification changed only in the 15th century giving rise to social classes which evolved in extreme cases into “castes”.

The author shows that the terms “shepherds” and “farmers” do not designate ethnic groups but rather occupations.

Southern Africa

Chapter 21 by B. M. Fagan deals with the Zambezi and Limpopo basins (+1100/+1500) on the basis of archaeological data which enable him to reopen the Greater Zimbabwe dossier. As Fagan rightly points out, this unique site in Africa “is celebrated both for its excellent architecture and for the extravagant theories that surround its origin” (page 532).

Fagan describes the development which led to this civilization through a succession of archaeological cultures, the guidance of traditions and rare texts. This therefore provides a presentation of the Iron Age cultures and societies (from approximately 1000 AD onwards), together with their economic and social transformation during the 11th and 12th centuries up to the origins of the Zimbabwe culture as they appear through archaeological findings and the study of the most ancient sites of the Zambezi such as Batoka, Kalomo and Léopard kopje. The latter is considered as being the origin of centralized societies such as that of Mapungubwe which developed from the 15th century onwards.

Certain researchers such as Huffman consider the architects of Mapungubwe to be the ancestors of the Venda population in the present day Republic of South Africa, while others, including Fagan, see the Greater Zimbabwe as the creation of the Shona ancestors.

Equatorial Africa

Chapters 22 and 23 by J. Vansina and L. D. Ngconco, with the help of the former, deal with the equatorial part of the continent. As regards equatorial Africa, the authors highlight the early emergence of State entities in spite of the presence of a dense forest. The history of the peoples to the south of the Limpopo has been affected by the negative aspects of the racist exclusion policy of black Africans.

Madagascar

In Chapter 24, F. Esoavelomandroso describes Madagascar and the neighbouring islands from the 12th to the 16th century. This period is seen as that of the formation of the Madagascan population which, beyond its ethnic diversity, possesses remarkable linguistic unity. The island experienced intermingling between its various components and witnessed the emergence of its main political entities. During this period, Madagascar and the Comoros Islands became part of the multiple trade circuits including those led by the Swahilis before the direct intervention of the Arabs. Recent archaeological investigations, including those of the “African Archaeologist Network” in which Madagascan researchers were involved, should provide additional knowledge of Madagascar.

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Recommendations for the pedagogical use of Volume IV

A preliminary remark by the reviewers of the volume calls upon the structure or group in charge of the pedagogical exploitation of the volume to take account of the attitudes of young people today which differ considerably from those of the young whom the authors of the General History of Africa had in mind in 1986. The needs of young people today have changed even in terms of the means of access to knowledge. At the same time, however, the reviewers emphasized the need to respect the choice of the International Scientific Committee which gave precedence to “a holistic and federalist vision of the African peoples rather than local singularity and the fragmentation of facts…”.

- According to them, Volume IV should be seen as a “a resource book” in which each chapter contains significant data. Nevertheless, some of the chapters need a serious overhaul while others merely an updating.

- In more precise terms, some chapters have been listed as containing pedagogical guidelines and possessing proven didactic value. These include Chapters 6, 7 and 8, drafted respectively by D. T. Niane, Ms Ly Tall and S. M. Cissoko.

Chapter 12 by Y. Person and Chapter 27 by D. T. Niane and J. Dévisse are essential and could, in the opinion of the reviewers, serve as a foundation for the drafting of textbooks and pedagogical materials.

Other chapters have been recommended because they tackle themes that are of educational interest. These include Chapter 15 by J.C. Garcin, on Egypt in the Muslim world (for questions of geopolitics and geostrategy which are tackled therein).

Chapter 16 by L. Kopracek on Nubia from the 12th to the 14th century (aspects related to the management of conflicts), and Chapter 20 by Ogot on the region of the Great Lakes (of interest in relation to the theme of ethnicity).

They also recommend that account should be taken of themes which have influential ideas as revealed by any reading of the volume such as the establishment of a State and centralization, the art of war and conquest, governance, peace and the resolution of conflicts, leadership, religious development on the continent, the expansion of Islam in Africa, religious tolerance, and Africa and the external world.

As for a global approach, the reviewers recommend:

- Account should be taken of sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in the training of young people (through maps and educational files);

- The project of drafting textbooks should be linked with initiatives on the part of the various African museums aimed at exploiting their collections for educational purposes;

- Interaction should be facilitated between components of this pedagogical project and the “national history” teaching curricula.

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VOLUME V

The General History of Africa

Africa from the 16th to the 18th century

Director of the Volume: B. A. Ogot

Volume V of the General History of Africa covers three centuries, from 1500 to 1800. The choice of this period raises the question of its relevance in regard to the history of Africa as it would seem to be rather Europe-centred and not motivated by the internal dynamics of African societies. However, it can be said that as the sources for that period are mostly exogenous, they had a strong influence on the perception and the interpretation of trends in Africa.

Structure of the Volume

The structure of the volume was conceived on the basis of a thematic approach leading to a regional approach. The first chapters (1 to 5) explore general themes that can be found, to varying degrees, in the rest of the volume devoted to regional studies. The advantage of this particular methodology is to attract attention to remarkable events in the period the effects of which may be perceived in various ways on a local or regional basis. While it has ensured a certain unity in the 29 chapters making up this volume, it also leaves an impression of repetition from one chapter to another or from one theme to another.

Thematic Approach

In the first of the five chapters devoted to this particular theme, entitled “the struggle for international trade and its connotations for Africa”, M. Malowist underlines the implications for Africa of a new orientation for international trade. Up until the end of the 15th century, the Mediterranean shores, the Far East and the Middle East made up the main destinations for African international trade. The period from the 16th to the 18th century is that of a new geopolitical system focused on the Atlantic with its triangular trading system linking Europe with Africa and the Americas. The consequences of this innovation and the development of Atlantic trade, including the slave trade, one of the driving forces for almost four centuries, were tragic for Africa in many respects.

J. E. Inikori (Chapter 4) examined the part played by the slave trade in the advent of a new economic order in the Atlantic. He emphasized first of all the scale of the trade whose quantitative development was largely influenced by the publication, in 1969, of the work by the American historian, Phillip Curtin “The Atlantic Slave Trade: a Census”. In his view, on the basis of the inegalitarian exchange system embodied therein and which was to continue after the colonial conquest and government, the trans-Atlantic trade can be seen as one of the fundamental factors in Africa’s underdevelopment.

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In Chapter 5 of the volume, J. E. Harris provides a documented table of the African Diaspora in the Old and New Worlds. As an expert on this issue, he recalls the major phases of this process, referring in passing to the outstanding figures in this Diaspora as an eloquent refutation of the racist theories of the supposed inferiority of the blacks. While the Atlantic slave trade remains one of the major aspects of this Diaspora, the author points to its world-wide dimensions, underlining in passing the voluntary nature of some of this migration. A particularly interesting point in his study is his apprehension of the dynamics of African cultures in the various parts of the American continent.

The slave trade did not go without having an effect on traditional population movements in Africa, so carefully studied by Jan Vansina (Chapter 3), without mentioning the dispersal of Africans outside of their continent. Violence in the form of organized wars, raids and kidnapping should not be overlooked as the principal form and most commonly used method for providing the New World with servile labour. Insecurity and its related violence in the quest for slaves brought about major population movements in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Marshland, mountains and forests thereby served as places of refuge for populations in distress. Vansina’s study is nevertheless of more general interest. After having observed the typical mobility of certain categories of the African population, particularly farmers (on account of the practice of itinerant cultivation) and of livestock breeders, he insisted on stating that this trend is not necessarily typical of the 1500-1800 period, nor is it typical of any particular region.

The contribution from P. Diagne (Chapter 2) focuses on “the political, economic and social structures in Africa during the period under consideration”. Endeavouring to encompass a theme on such a scale without falling into the trap of generalizations is a real challenge. It was difficult for him to view the continent as a whole while giving precise examples in support of many of his assertions. He nonetheless had the merit of underlining the impact of Islam and Christianity on the emergence of new structures even if virtually nothing has been said about traditional religions and their conflictual relations with the two new religions.

In the five chapters reviewed above, either explicitly or implicitly, the slave trade is a significant historical factor in African history between 1500 and 1800 singled out by any of the authors.

Regional Approach

Careful reading of the 20 chapters devoted to regional studies can convey an impression of the internal dynamics transforming African societies. There is much overlap, often confusion, between the geographical frameworks and the ethnic categories used in the thematic approach of the Volume.

For pedagogical reasons, considerations regarding the regional approach imply a reorganization or regrouping of chapters according to their content. The way the history of Mediterranean Africa (Chapters 6, 8 and 9) has been dealt with would require to be reviewed in order to highlight more clearly its links with the rest of the continent. It would also be desirable, for pedagogical purposes, that the Ottoman component be presented in simpler more accessible terms for African pupils and students as a whole.

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The themes identified in this Volume illustrate the links between the northern and southern regions of the continent; they feature once again, to varying degrees, in other chapters in the Volume. The study by B. Barry (Chapter 10) is of particular relevance in this regard. After having underlined that the destiny of Sénégambia was linked to the convergence of influences from the Sudan, the Sahara and the forests, he observed that such unity had been strengthened, as from the 15th century, by the influence of Atlantic trade, the development and consequences of which, in thematic terms, are illustrated in this instance through the case of Sénégambia.

The “Marabout” movements of the 17th century and the Muslim revolutions of the 18th century thereby appear as forms of resistance to the impact of the black slave trade. It would perhaps be interesting to attempt a comparative analysis of these Muslim revolutions beyond Sénégambia alone.

The end of the Songhai Empire (Chapter 11) could have been studied in the context of Moroccan expansion into Western Sudan. While the author made a relevant analysis of the motives for the Moroccan invasion, he nevertheless proved very discreet as to the meaning of the battle of Tondibi in the process of establishing the States in Western Sudan. Aside from political history, the chapter focuses on other significant aspects of the historical process. This is true of natural disasters and the human environment, production and regional trade, trans-Saharan trade at the time of the Atlantic slave trade and the development of cultural and religious influences.

Chapter 12 (from the Niger to the Volta) is partly devoted to the Bambara kingdoms of Ségou and Kaarta already dealt with in the previous chapter. It is an illustration of the problem related to a regional approach as referred to earlier. A definition, even approximate, of the geopolitics of the Songhai would make it possible to avoid such overlap as can be observed in other parts of the volume. Chapter 12 would become more cohesive were the Mossi kingdoms to make up its only subject. The originality of the socio-political structures of the Mossi kingdoms provides a relevant framework for assessing the nature and impact of the meeting and subsequent relations between Islam and traditional African religions.

For ecological and historical reasons, the Hausa States (Chapter 16) should have been the logical sequel to Chapters 11 and 12 referred to briefly above. This would have ensured greater comprehension of conflictual relations between Hausa territory and its neighbours. It would also have provided an interesting comparative view of the historical development of Western and Central Sudan, in terms of production or trading structures, the penetration and development of Islam and its impact on traditional cultures and the ideology of state power. The Hausa territory has always been the subject of a degree of intellectual curiosity as displayed by the Kano Chronicle.

In global terms, Chapters 13 to 15 cover the forested areas along the Gulf of Guinea coastline. At the risk of repetition, it should be recalled here that there is a problem as to the definition and identification of specific geopolitical areas. This is all the more relevant when a region in which the impact of Atlantic trade has been more sensitive is involved, with as a corollary the existence of substantial documentary sources. The maps in these three

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chapters illustrate how difficult it is to determine credible borderlines, given the complexity of migratory movements in the region and the resulting ethnic interactions.

Chapters 17 to 29 open with Kanem-Borno and conclude with an overall synopsis of the volume in which B. A. Ogot highlights the remarkable events and principal themes dealt with in the various chapters. In addition to its economic potential, the slave trade will appear, in parallel with the gold and ivory trades, as a barometer for the construction and deconstruction of States and trading cities. Nevertheless, evaluation of this particular factor and its impact should take account of the regional specificities which, inter alia, include the relative influence of Christianity and Islam.

E. M’Bokolo, in Chapter 18 on the area entitled “from the Savannah of Cameroon to the Upper Nile”, traces the major migratory itineraries and the structuring of resultant societies. The major difficulty in this instance lies in the virtually exclusive recourse to oral sources and archaeological data, which gives an impression of incomplete research, pending a clearer image from new sources. The initial information which emerges from this is that the history of the area under consideration in this chapter was beginning to be better known as from the 16th century, or even more recently.

It will be observed that hunting and iron work were considered important. Trading was undertaken on periodic markets where various products, including slaves, were exchanged and bought. It was at this time that the staple food crops began to be imported from America, namely maize, manioc, groundnut, beans and tobacco. This agricultural change due to Atlantic trade combined with a slowing down in human movement and subsequent demographical stabilization in the area.

In Chapter 19, unlike the previous chapter, the text drafted by J. Vansina benefits from substantial documentary resources. It reveals that in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Congo established its hegemony over all the territories including those between the Benguela plateau and the Bateke plateaux on the one hand and the sea beyond the river Kwango on the other hand.

While political rivalry and African and Portuguese economic interests, whether combined or competitive, were played out, novelties imported from America appeared, thereby improving the general standard of nutrition, as well as introducing smallpox which manifested itself recurrently. A new turning point in history occurred as from 1641 when the Brazilians burst into Angola, driving away the Dutch and henceforth dominating trade beyond the 1730s. The collapse of the Congo triggered the autonomy of smaller principalities.

Chapter 20, dealing with the establishment of the Luba and Lunda States, brings to light a hierarchical socio-political method of organization among the Luba with, at the top, the Mulopwe, the holder of royal power. Among the Lunda, power was of an imperial and family nature, based on the uninterrupted reproduction of the devolution of responsibilities on the same bases of family affiliation. The Lunda empire indulged in the slave trade both for its own needs in terms of farm labour and transport, as well as for the desire to exchange slaves for manufactured products imported from Angola.

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Chapters 21 and 22 analyse the political and economic life of the territories to the north and to the south of the Zambezi. This also reveals the impetus of the gold and ivory trade conducted by the Portuguese and by local populations. While the Europeans enjoyed some success in exploiting gold, the loss of control over the ivory trade for the benefit of the Yao and the Bisa led the Portuguese towards the slave trade. The colonists set up domains, the prazos, which spread throughout the lower Zambezi region.

The contributions relating to the regions of the Zambezi and Southern Africa (Chapters 21 to 23) display the long-standing Portuguese presence, the interference of the newcomers in local political crises, and the various processes of establishing their hegemony on trade and the control of political society. These chapters and that devoted to the eastern coast may serve as sources for classes on “the Portuguese factor” in African history from the 16th to the 18th century.

In Chapter 23, E. Haberland analyses the ups and downs of the Christian empire of Ethiopia which, in the face of external pressure and internal problems, had to resist in spite of the duration of crises (1529-1632); the Muslim conquest conducted by Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi in the Amhara and Tigré provinces which ultimately imposed short-lived Islamization; the revocation of Muslim influence by the Oromo who established their own authority without it being accompanied by any sizeable cultural influence; and subsequently the drive of the Somalis between 1500 and 1700 leading to the dissemination of the Arabo-Muslim culture and a cultural snobbery that federated the scattered groups that made it up.

Chapter 25 on the eastern coast of Africa is a history of the struggle between the Portuguese and the Arabs for the political and economic control of the cities, a history of the periods of partnership between the two rivals and a history of the urbanization and economic activities on this side of the African continent, together with the strengths and weaknesses of the trading cities of Kilwa, Sofala, Malindi, Paté, Lamu and Mombassa.

Chapters 26 and 27 deal with the region of the Great Lakes and the “hinterland of East Africa”. The authors who dealt with the Great Lakes divided up its dynamism for the period under consideration in Volume V into three sequences. Between 1500 and 1580, the new states which came into being after the Bachwezi Empire sought consolidation through skilful diplomatic manoeuvres. The salient feature of this period was the decline of the Bunyoro and the emergence of the kingdoms of Buganda and Rwanda.

A study of the peoples of Kenya and Tanzania between 1500 and 1800 is weakened by the scarcity of written sources, resulting in an unequal distribution of the interest of historians for the human groups in the hinterland. In the two chapters, famine emerges as an historic theme of interest on account of its impact on human migration, on geopolitical redefinitions and the lifestyle of the populations.

General Conclusion

This particularly dense and rich volume brings to light common themes of interest, to varying degrees, for African societies during the period under consideration. This is true of the slave trade, slavery and the resistance which they generated; production conditions and methods;

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health; and the impact of Christianity and Islam on the development of political and social structures. These themes should be taken account of in educational programmes with a pan-African perspective, seeking to highlight the factors of unity in the diversity of African cultures. In pursuing this goal, pedagogical tools should integrate modern audio-visual facilities.

The Atlantic slave trade, typical of this period of African history, is by no means an innovation. It merely extends the old tradition of exporting slaves towards the Arab countries but with a new destination and a dimension which each of the contributors has individually highlighted. In a pedagogical perspective and the prospect of a simplified edition of the volume, it might be possible to envisage a presentation of the theme of the slave trade and slavery in a way which would highlight what students need essentially to retain. In this regard, a comparative approach to the consequences of traditional natural migrations or those induced by the quest for slaves for the markets of the American continent should be the object of further research.

The occasion would seem appropriate to recall that UNESCO, on the eve of the third millennium, had devised an educational project on this theme, known under the term “Breaking the silence”, with the aim of teaching a kind of minimum common core programme in secondary schools on the three continents involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade. The proceedings of the Ouidah conference, published by UNESCO under the title “The chain and the link”, together with documents produced in the context of the educational project “Breaking the silence”, should serve to devise a global synthesis on the subject of the slave trade and slavery. This particular line of approach, stimulated by various initiatives on the part of UNESCO, currently informs many exhibitions and research networks in various countries of Africa, Europe and America. The results of this impetus, in the form of specialized periodicals, individual and collective works and audiovisual documents represent pedagogical tools that are appropriate for a relevant teaching of the slave trade and slavery.

Should not the emphasis placed on slavery and the black slave trade on account of abundant documentation or favourable research circumstances make us lose sight of other major innovative themes?

What of the diseases affecting human beings as well as livestock, sometimes concomitant with these disastrous episodes? It is clear that the link between ecology and the history of human settlement is a transversal data in African historiography. What of disease as a factor modifying social and political structures, as a source of demographic change? In fact, what were the major diseases in this period? Correlatively, how did the Africans cure themselves immediately before the introduction of western medicine? These are indisputably relevant questions which deserve particular attention in research and teaching programmes.

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VOLUME VI

The General History of Africa

Africa from the 19th century up to the 1880s

Director of the Volume: J. F. ADE. Ajayi

1. Summary presentation of the volume

Volume VI of the GHA focuses on the 19th century. There were two major factors that brought about radical changes in the political and economic order for the continent as a whole: the abolition of the slave trade by the European powers, spearheaded by the United Kingdom; and the establishment of a so-called lawful trade regime. The international environment modified in this way by unilateral decisions enjoined the Africans, whether States or societies, to make a difficult adjustment throughout the length of this short century which began in 1815 and came to an end with the launching of the colonial conquest, from 1880 onwards.

Without wishing to minimize the undeniable impact of such external factors, the authors of this volume have given importance to an African perspective by highlighting the initiatives taken in the various regions of the continent to adapt to the new order introduced by an economy and politics on a global scale. In this way they showed that African States built on external slave trafficking could not adapt overnight to the new order introduced through legitimate trade, especially as the American demand for black gold had not yet dried up. The response to this demand was henceforth ensured by clandestine trade involving States and war lords in connivance with contraband vessels but also in conditions made more difficult by the surveillance of the seas by the European navies. The slave trade took some time to be eradicated. The difficulty in avoiding the British navy which criss-crossed and kept watch over the Atlantic refocused slave trafficking towards the Arab world. The trans-Saharan trails and many internal slave trade circuits within Africa thereby remained out of reach of the struggle against the slave trade. The abolition of slavery experienced the same metamorphosis and problems of implementation. Many local economies connected to the world market continued to make substantial use of slaves in the production and transport of farm produce and harvesting aimed at the international legitimate trade market.

No region in the continent, particularly the sub-Saharan part, escaped the crises induced by these changes on a global scale. African societies reacted to this new context which considerably increased the level of violence in economic, political and social relations. Nevertheless, the authors of the Volume provide adequate illustration of how African responses to these crises varied considerably. Revolutions occurred more or less everywhere, in response to the internal crisis of societies affected by the abolition of the slave trade and European interference. Ultimately, the 19th century was strongly influenced by the crises and revolutions which nevertheless remained ineffective in halting the imperialist thrust of the European powers which culminated in colonization bearing

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dependent modernity.

The authors have not failed to highlight the religious factor as a driving force underlying the strategies of adaptation to the 19th century context. In the countries of Islam, revolutions mobilized the populations in the name of this faith against secular powers and the establishment of theocratic regimes. In seeking to solve these crises, the Christian world attempted to bolster its cause through innovative interpretation of the message of the Gospels in local churches (Ethiopianism), as well as in the conventional churches. Locally based religions also contributed to an active interpretation of the changes affecting the times. Religious movements which sought to understand the rapid, traumatic developments did not succeed in durably countering European imperialism. The defeat that followed the conquest did not eradicate them as religious communities. They remained steadfast in the new colonial context and were even instrumental in arriving at some accommodation with the new authorities.

The dream of unfettered adhesion to Western modernity as conveyed by the abolitionist movement which attempted to give practical reality to the idea through the creation of two States populated by former slaves, and also by the Islamized States of the North, without forgetting other regions such as the Horn of Africa, did not meet with total success. Ultimately, the 19th century came to an end with a takeover of the entire continent by the imperialist powers , in economic and subsequently political terms. Two states, Ethiopia and Liberia, succeeded in preserving their political independence.

These structuring factors which have been analysed by the authors mean that the rest of the volume can provide an inventory of Africa at the very beginning of the century before moving on to regional studies focusing on Southern Africa, East Africa and its hinterland, the region of the Great Lakes, Central Africa with the Congo Basin and Angola, Egypt and Sudan, the Horn of Africa, North Africa and West Africa, Madagascar and the African diasporas in Europe and America.

The 19th century witnessed the end of a long period of trans-Atlantic slave trading. The volume emphasises the demographic consequences of this historical process and analyses the migratory phenomena which had a durable effect on the continent’s history. The volume reviews the economic motivations and aims of the competing European powers to control the resources of the continent, the productive potential of its agricultural systems and the transformation of its social systems, institutions and the operating methods of the political regimes.

The impact of the new configuration of the world economy on the various parts of the continent which were integrated into it willy nilly has been the subject of detailed analysis. No region actually escaped the impetus of the capitalist economy in its quest for raw materials. Mastery of strategic positions to secure access to such resources brought the European nations into competition on the African soil. Prematurely in North Africa and later in the rest of the continent, European intervention resulted everywhere in the subordination of the African economies, despite the variety of circumstances and local reactions. The only hindrance to capitalist expansion was the absence of resources responding to the demand of the world market.

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As far as possible, African societies and States took initiatives to master these external factors or to put them to advantage in their internal struggles for power. The strategies involved cover a wide spectrum ranging from outward-looking policies and economic reform for the development of national capitalism or a radical but futile rejection of the new process of capitalist expansion. Between these two trends, numerous variants in accommodation, largely based on local contexts, were devised in response to the solicitations of European States and companies.

2. Southern Africa (Chapters 5, 6 and 7)

On the dawn of the 19th century, South Africa experienced economic, social and political change on an unprecedented scale. The revolutionary changes that took place in this region were the result of a combination of multiple local factors. The adoption in Nguni of maize of American origin introduced by the Portuguese from Mozambique made it possible to increase food production considerably, in favourable climatic conditions. This led to considerable population growth. The region had, at the beginning of the century, been faced with a cycle of drought which led to famine affecting the population. The new agricultural order and its demographical consequences led to change of a very significant historical nature in the political, economic and social fields.

Through what is known as the Mfecane (troubled times), the local chieftains were militarily quelled and brought together in a powerful Zulu State under the leadership of Chaka who consolidated and perfected the military reforms initiated by his predecessors. One of the major innovations involved the way troops were armed with a transition from projectiles to weapons for close combat, with the use of shields made of cow hide. Profound social restructuring occurred with the integration of the vanquished into the age groups eligible for traditional initiation transformed into military units subjected to iron discipline. War tactics also experienced similarly radical reform, with the spearhead technique of surrounding and stifling the enemy.

The local origin of these innovations has been highlighted in order to push aside the idea according to which they were of European influence. The reforms, which led to the unification of a political territory and the integration of population groups, both varied and numerous, within the Zulu nation, were conducted with a high degree of violence under the leadership of authoritarian, even despotic rulers. Nevertheless, the military reforms did have a beneficial effect on the local craft industry allocated to producing weapons on a large scale, such as lances, knives and shields. The spirit of warrior virility which came out of this historical experience has continued to be one of the major components of the Zulu culture.

It was also in this context that new state and ethnic entities emerged such as the Sotho, the Swazi, the Zulu, the Ndebele, etc. who, today, are still very conscious of their identity. The state of war imposed by the Mfecane, caused great insecurity with the theft of livestock and the destruction of agriculture, thereby bringing into question the very basis of population growth which began at the beginning of the century. Many populations were left in dire poverty and destitution. The consequences of this historical period affected remote areas and all of Southern Africa, as well as some parts of East Africa.

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The situation grew considerably in complexity when two foreign forces with conflicting interests came into play. The Boers, Dutch peasantry expelled from Europe for religious heresy, who had arrived in the region since the 17th century, were cornered by the revolutionary fervour of African societies and the aims of the British who wanted to exploit the mining regions. They responded by migrating massively northwards, in a move known as the Grand Trek. The Boers developed fierce opposition to expansionist African States. The movement, based on the religious ideology of a chosen people, came up against the opposition of the African populations of the regions, against whom extremely violent conflicts were launched. In this way, a radical hatred developed against the African populations which fomented the ideology of Apartheid.

The disturbances which affected the region in the first part of the 19th century made its contribution to world trade negligible. The distinct focus of this volume on the Zulu revolution and its military and political aspects had been at the expense of reference to other peoples in the north-west of southern Africa who suffered the despoilment of their land by the Boer colonists.

3. East Africa and its hinterland (Chapters 8, 9, 10 and 11)

This volume focuses on the merchant networks that drove the export trade which developed by linking the east coast of Africa to its hinterland which extended far into the interior of the continent up to the Congo Basin. The Asian merchant networks (Arabs from the Sultanate of Oman and Indians) operated side by side with the Europeans (British, French, German and Portuguese), both being connected to African trade which drained products from the hinterland towards the coast. The Arabs, for their part, nevertheless succeeded in penetrating the hinterland. They were protected by the African authorities and, in certain favourable circumstances, established their own political territories. They were active in the regions of Malawi, Zambia, South-East Congo, the region of the Great Lakes and the Masaï country.

The Africans involved included the Swahili who set off from the coast like their Arab counterparts in order to establish connections with intermediaries in the hinterland in charge of capturing slaves and collecting ivory, the two products that dominated trade. The British navy’s failure to eradicate this flow of the slave trade meant that the Brazilian market for slaves could be supplied from the ports of Mozambique. Some of the slaves transported via the ports of Kilwa and Zanzibar were sent to the plantations on the islands of Pemba and Zanzibar or towards Asia. The ivory trade was controlled by the Indians who then sold it to the Americans and the Europeans.

The context proved favourable for a coalition between the rising merchant class and that of the warriors who established new States which were relatively distinct from the traditional criteria of power and challenged the conquering imperialism of the end of the century. These political projects which were an integral part of a predatory economy, disorganized societies subjected to plunder, thereby producing thousands of marginals, principally in the Kasaï and the centre of the basin. Conversely, those societies which were an integral part of the trading networks combined their efforts with the Arab and Swahili slave trafficking companies. They moved on from the status of victims to that of agents actively engaged in

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capturing slaves and collecting ivory. The best example of this reconversion is that of the Batetela of Ngongo Lutete, who participated actively in the ventures of the Arabs and Swahilis in the direction of the Kasaï and downstream of the Kisangani.

This context of violence combined with droughts had disastrous effects on the living conditions of the local populations. The endemic nature of certain diseases, the epidemics and recurrent famines, campaigns of capture and the trafficking of slaves also had a negative effect on regional demography.

It should be underlined that the introduction of new American plants (maize and manioc) on the shores of Lake Victoria contributed to increasing production in the 19th century in response to the needs of the local kingdoms and populations. This was certainly the case elsewhere but the authors of the volume make no mention of it. It should also be added that the Arabs contributed to developing the rice plantations in their territories and in their fortified towns. In this way, they provided adequate food for the caravans and their nascent cities. They also introduced new eating habits as among the Batetela whose staple food became rice. The Kindu region is still reputed even today for rice cultivation.

In the wake of trade, the Swahili language became a lingua franca and accordingly, the region was penetrated by Islam. The dominance of the Swahili culture in the region provides an indication of how important were the transformations made by the mercantile world in the 19th century. Similarly, Arab architecture made its appearance in the region. A study of cultural change in the 19th century remains one of the weaknesses of this particular chapter: the Arab education system and the regional expansion of the Swahili culture.

4. The Congo basin and Angola (Chapter 12)

The vastness of this region meant that choices had to be made regarding the exclusion of certain areas such as the contemporary States of Gabon, Central Africa and Chad. The scale of these areas in the overall regional dynamics is nonetheless indisputable and, accordingly, deserves to be taken into account.

Based on the demographical imbalance between the various parts of the region, the study shows the varying impacts of the slave trade on population movements. The plants introduced via the Atlantic trade are certainly not alien to the density observed in the Savannah areas of Ubangi and Uele in North Congo, the mountainous regions of East Congo and the Savannah areas of South Congo and Angola. Production there was undertaken by slave labour which could no longer be exported to the Americas on account of increased maritime surveillance. Demographic imbalances can also be accounted for by the major migratory movements observed among the Fangs, the Ngbaka, the Ngbandi and the Azande. The marked increase in the Arab populations was also a contributing factor. The trading community was an active agent in bringing about historical change in the region as it set up networks which controlled the five distinctly different areas.

The Sudan-Nile area which extended as far as the Red Sea pursued predatory activities in the Congo basin and the Azande and Mangbetu country. Raids were conducted there by African mercenaries in the service of Muslim and Coptic Egyptians, as well as Europeans. The major

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cultural consequences can be seen in the vernacular languages which established themselves there, namely Arabic from the Sudan to Chad and sango in the loop of the Ubangi river.

Swahili influence extended from the Uele and Aruwimi basin, from the equatorial territory of Bumba as far as eastern Kasaï, via the centre of the basin. The commercial area around the river under the control of the Africans was also another zone that drained produce from the Congo basin towards the western coast. Ivory, rubber, coconuts and palm oil wax were the main products traded from this area. Two factors provide the key to the trading dynamism of this region: the abundance of ivory as a hunting trophy accumulated over the centuries and the capacity of the riverside populations to transport goods thanks to the largest fleet on the continent which covered thousands of kilometres on the river and on its tributaries. Partners in this trade included the European agents, British, French, Dutch and Portuguese, who roamed around the lower Congo valley. In this particular area, trade resulted in remarkable linguistic dynamism with the emergence or establishment of common languages such as kituba or kikongo in Kwango-Kwilu, what was to become lingala. Economic transformations had a certain social impact whereby “nouveau riche” tradesmen made their influence felt in politics.

The Luso-African area extended from Loanda to the Kasaï and to Katanga as far as the Lunda of Kazembe. In that area, the Africans organized a caravan trade under high protection in relation with the Portuguese who had direct control over the products of the plantations and certain trading products coming from regions under their domination. Intense predatory activities, nurtured by the increased movement of weapons, developed elephant hunting as well as slave capture. The captives were made to ensure the transport of products from the hinterland towards the coast and vice versa. Elsewhere, in the Ogoué basin, a marketing network was set up which delivered products such as ivory to the French processing plants in Gabon. Transport was provided by canoes in spite of some difficult stretches of the river which were littered with rocks.

It should be noted that the economic dynamics did not bring about any development of infrastructure. They were, in fact, the cause of the decline of local craft industries. Similarly, major cultural transformations were conveyed by the languages of trade. Alongside the mercantile world, evangelization which had been an ancient tradition in the region continued to spread, guided by the French Spiritains, from Gabon to the Congo in the second half of the 19th century. At the end of the century, they had to face competition in winning souls from the Protestant missionaries who had settled at the estuary of the river.

5. Egypt and the Sudan (Chapters 13 and 14)

Egypt developed a modernization policy relatively early on by comparison with the rest of the continent. Mohammad Ali and his successors proved innovative in founding the modern Egyptian state. They crushed Turkish domination and extended Egyptian sovereignty in Asia and Africa as far as Sudan and Ethiopia. The opening of Egypt to European influence provided them with the technical and military means of achieving their ambitions. The

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expenditure required for such an enterprise led to a precarious situation in spite of the desire of the country’s leaders to preserve its independence. To cope with such difficulties, Egypt exerted constant pressure on Sudan, whose populations were exposed to taxes and labour, particularly that of slave labour. These difficulties were compounded by those resulting from agrarian reform which led to growing discontent among the disinherited populations, including the Sudanese slaves who were used on a vast scale in the arduous modernization schemes involving railways and irrigation, etc.

Modernization also effected the cultural field with the development of an education system with its own network of major institutions in Cairo and Alexandria. Nevertheless, it was to a large extent hampered by its recourse to well-established foreign experts in the decision centres of the army and public administration.

While Egypt’s geostrategic position enabled it to obtain the funding required for building the Suez canal in 1853, the subsequent debt made it lose sovereignty over this strategic tool which came under the control of the creditor powers. The canal became an international zone. Foreign influence was particularly that of the British who subordinated the country and thereby acquired the means of efficient control ensuring access to conquest of the area from Cairo to the Cape.

The conquest of Sudan by Egypt, as it still depended legally on Turkey, responded to the aims of Muhammad Ali who sought to acquire an African empire, but the motives were more economic than political. Muhammad Ali wanted to have access to slaves for his army and major agricultural work and infrastructure in Egypt. He incorporated thousands of captured Sudanese in his army. Fiscal policy was the cause of the revolt by Islamized Northern Sudan. In the south, the conquest was undertaken both by the State and by individuals, tradesmen of every kind and their militia. In this way, the non-Islamized populations endured many slave wars waged by the Turks, the Egyptians, the Arabs and the Ansars or Dongolawi of North Sudan. These men built fortresses, the Zeriba, bases for military operations which earned them both slaves as well as ivory. The populations which resisted them in the fiercest manner were the Shilluk, Bari and Azande.

The Al-Djallaba, tradesmen from North Sudan who had infiltrated the South, contributed to extending the use of the Arabic language and Islamization in South Sudan, by cultivating contempt for the native populations of the region which opposed fierce resistance in the region of Bahr el-Ghazal and Darfur. Subsequent instability in Egyptian politics brought about significant migratory waves from Darfur, Kordofan and the Upper Nile in Central Africa.

6. Ethiopia and Somalia (Chapter 15)

The Christian empire of Ethiopia started the 19th century in a state of complete dispersal, after the invasion of the Galla and the Oromo. Three more or less major kingdoms, namely the Tigre, the Amhara and the Shoa, made up most of the territory with a multitude of small entities. All of the States sought alliances with the European countries, namely France, the United Kingdom and Italy, in order to procure weapons and to establish themselves as the

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sole masters of the empire. In addition to this political crisis, there were major economic difficulties.

It was in 1853, under the rule of Dajazmach Kassa Heyku, that the political reconstruction of the country was undertaken. He became emperor in 1855 under the name of Téwodros II. He undertook a vigorous policy for modernizing his army in order to meet the Egyptian threat supported by the British. The latter attacked him in 1867 and destroyed the country without occupying it. The Kassa from Tigré who came out victorious from the succession conflicts, was appointed emperor under the name of Joannes IV in 1872. He defeated the Egyptians on two occasions thereby ensuring definitive independence for his country. He reformed the Orthodox Church, encouraged the Muslims to convert to Christianity and drove out the Catholic Christians in spite of their technical skills indispensable for the reconstruction of the country.

As regards Somalia, it was the scene of political fragmentation dispersing power between the lower-ranking Muslim chieftains. The modest local commercial trade was directed towards the Sultanate of Oman. The population endured considerable suffering through the recurrent droughts which produced rural famine.

7. The Maghreb in the 19th century (Chapters 17, 18 and 19)

The Maghreb, still under Ottoman domination, was coveted by the European powers motivated by two closely linked factors: the proximity of Mediterranean countries as markets and the opening up of routes that had been made dangerous by Muslim sea pirates. After having vanquished the pirates, they established themselves in the field of commerce thanks to their economic and, above all, financial power.

As from 1815, the economy of the region was subjected to a strong influence from the agents of international trade who sought to encourage its openness and its reform. The growing indebtedness of the States concerned bolstered the domination of the Europeans who had settled in the coastal cities where they dominated business. Foreign businessmen succeeded in breaking up monopolies and in seizing various rights and privileges to the detriment of the States concerned. The rural world on which was based the repayment of public debt became more vulnerable to natural disasters.

The most ill-adapted reforms took place particularly in Tunisia. Excessive expenditure drove the public authorities to raise taxes and then to have recourse to loans. The taxes brought about rebellions whereas the loans rendered the State insolvent. This brought into being the International Financial Commission in 1869 in order to control all finances and to ensure the reimbursement of debts. It can be said that economic domination preceded colonization which occurred in the early 1880s. The positive aspect of this reform involved the construction of schools and the training of officials abroad in order to serve as a basis for modernization.

Libya experienced a slightly different fate for two reasons: its relative poverty and direct Turkish domination from 1835 onwards. This meant that traditional economic activities continued encompassing trans-Saharan trade including some gold, ostrich feathers, hides

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(particularly goat skins) and some ivory, without forgetting slaves.

Algeria, as far as it was concerned, experienced a singular situation on account of early colonial occupation from 1830 onwards. The French became masters of the country and were to impose political and economic domination. Much of the territory was to rebel, thereby paralyzing the usual conduct of trade.

Another article shows that Morocco, which developed outside the scope of the Ottoman empire, resembled the other countries of the region in several ways. European pressure drove the sultans to introduce reforms while the political and administrative organization of the country was based on Islamic law. Such reforms were to raise the fiscal problem which marked this period of history. Financial resources were inferior to the country’s true needs. Consequently, in 1859, Morocco opened up to international trade and fell under the regime of indebtedness.

As in Egypt and Tunisia, Morocco introduced reforms in education and the army. The University of Fez which trained administrators undertook also to train engineers. Other young people were sent to be trained abroad. In spite of its efforts to modernize its army, Morocco was not able to stand up either to France or to Spain which defeated it respectively in 1844 and 1866.

Attempts at modernization systematically brought about a growing crisis in the public debt making the States insolvent. One after another, they fell under the economic and subsequently political domination of the European colonial powers.

8. The Sahara in the 19th century (Chapter 20)

This chapter focuses on the colonial occupation and geopolitical change that occurred in this vast area known as the Sahara. One of the major consequences of colonial presence was to damage the trans-Saharan slave trade whose routes had been redirected towards Morocco after the French occupation of Algeria. With the conquest of Timbuktu in 1894, a fatal blow was given to this traffic which had drained more than 200,000 slaves towards Morocco. The Kano-Tripoli route through which the trade in ostrich feathers, hides and slaves had transited remained active until 1900. Security provided by the Sanussiya brotherhood along the Wadai-Benghazi route meant that it was possible to pursue even longer the trade in the same products with more than 500,000 slaves directed towards Egypt between 1840 and 1885. This vast servile population captured in raids on nomad tribes was employed in watching over flocks, in agriculture (Hoggar), in craft industries and the production of salt in the Sahara (Aïr). This traffic was also fostered by the religious and economic wars of the 19th century. Substantial contingents of soldiers were recruited by the Moroccan and Egyptian armies.

These relations on either side of the confines of the Sahara provided an opportunity for the nomadic tribes to disseminate the mystical traditions of the Sufi brotherhoods and the use of Islamic law in the practice of trade and politics.

9. The Islamic revolutions of the 19th century in West (Chapters 21, 22 and 23)

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This chapter shows how, in the 19th century, West Africa was the theatre for major Islamic revolutions with declared aims such as a return to Islamic orthodoxy in the organization of society and the shaping of attitudes. The major figures of the Jihad were Shaykh ‘Uthman dan Fodio, Seku Ahmadu and Al-Hadj ‘Umar. They offered the prospect of getting out of the political impasses pursued by the secular states and old theocracies ossified through the exercise of power. The Jihad had enormous consequences for all of West African societies: the institution of dynastic theocratic power, the development of native slave trade systems, the emergence of a new intellectual elite, and the durable establishment of two rival brotherhoods, the Kadiriyya and the Tidjaniyya.

Illustrations

There is a need to enrich illustrations in terms of quality and quantity when appealing to a contemporary young readership educated in a world of images. The illustrations in the various chapters focus too much on leading figures and provide little illustration of living conditions, architecture and images typical of daily life, technological factors and the residential environment. The cartography is of a good overall standard. The use of photography should be more systematic. Care might also be taken to simplify maps to ensure greater clarity and readability. As regards works aimed at elementary and secondary schools, pupils should be provided with source texts in order to acquaint them with the construction material of history and to nurture their own reflection and awaken their constructive imagination.

Proposals regarding subjects to be retained for African primary and secondary schools

As regards Volume VI and in accordance with the thrust of the comments, the following subjects could be retained:

1) General chapters: the abolition of the black slave trade.

The slave trade is an important matter of which pupils must know both the beginning and the end. Adequate understanding must also be ensured of the behaviour of the whites and blacks who took part in this painful chapter of our history.

2) Southern Africa: the culture of the Nguni and the Zulus.

Emphasis must be placed on initiation according to age groups as an apprenticeship of life which in the 19th century became an instrument of national integration and a major military school. The new fighting techniques which emerged prove that Africa had its own military strategists.

3) Southern Africa: the Boer republics of the 19th century.

The minority community of the Boers which distinguished itself by its policy of separate development (Apartheid) framed its weapons in that period. The complex of racial and technological superiority, the natural defensive instinct together with greed which drove them to rid the Africans of all they could lay their hands on, are some of the many factors which account for their behaviour. The basic factors that

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underlined their existence would appear to be stronger than the moral and religious principles of which they claimed to be the custodians from their European origins.

4) The coast and hinterland of East Africa: the Swahili culture.

This culture is a mixture of Asian and African components which displays the dynamism of African cultures in the face of any foreign contributions and their capacity to borrow and to innovate. This new culture subsequently penetrated the African hinterland cultures and would seem, today, to be an exemplary model in terms of regional integration.

5) Central Africa (the Congo basin and Angola): the Congo basin, a commercial crossroads.

By its very situation, the Congo appeared as from the mid-19th century as a genuine commercial meeting point and a subject of conflict between the European powers. The foundations of the future international status of the traditional Congo basin date back to this period of economic conquest.

6) The Nile Valley: the Egyptian renaissance under Muhammad Ali and Ismail.

The earliest African power in modern 19th century history deserves specific treatment to reveal the difficulties related to a policy of modernization in the context of imperialist expansion.

7) The Horn of Africa: restoration of the empire of Ethiopia under Tewodros II and Joannes IV.

This Christian kingdom in East Africa had experienced a difficult existence since the advent of Islam. When it was on the point of foundering, two of its valiant sons ensured its rebirth in the mid-19th century. It is a symbol of African independence

8) The Maghreb: attempts to modernize the Maghreb in the 19th century.

As a vast cradle of Islamic civilizations, the Maghreb provides an example of the ravages of capitalist expansion and the arduous struggle of African societies to preserve their independence.

9) West Africa: the Islamic revolutions in West Africa.

Faced with the challenges of adjusting to a world context of major change, the West African societies were able to bring into play their Islamic heritage in order to meet the challenges of triumphant imperialism.

10) The major personalities: major historical figures in Africa in the 19th century.

Mention could be made in this instance of those who constructed the States as well as those who resisted early attempts at colonization.

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11) The external agents of cultural development: the Christian missions in Africa in the 19th century.

12) Africa’s position in the world: Africa’s international relations in the 19th century.

African chieftains attempted to establish bilateral relations with the major powers, often to obtain military or technical assistance. It is within this framework that foreign consuls resided in their states.

13) Imports and exports: international trade in Africa in the 19th century.

14) The state of our societies: African societies in the 19th century.

15) The Island of Madagascar: Madagascar in the 19th century, diplomacy and social organization.

16) The fate of Africans living outside the continent: the African diaspora in the 19th century.

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VOLUME VII

The General History of Africa

Africa under colonial domination, 1880-1935

Director of the Volume: A. Adu Boahen

I Structure and major outline of the volume

Volume VII focuses on Africa under colonial domination. While it studies the policies of the players of European imperialism, it gives precedence to the reactions of African societies in the face of the upheavals resulting from conquests in the latter years of the 19th century and in the face of the ascendency of foreigners up until the annexation of Ethiopia by fascist Italy in 1935. It is not so much a history of Europeans in Africa as that of Africans in Africa and outside Africa, a history which lies within an international context, marked during that period by European expansion, the First World War and the strengthening of links between Africa and North America contributing to the emergence of pan-Africanism.

The volume, comprising 30 chapters, is constructed according to a chronological sequence and, where possible, according to an approach via major regional ensembles which make it possible to depart from the European perspective of colonial history. Obviously, this was only possible for a number of chapters dealing specifically with methods of domination. Emphasis must also be placed on a constant concern to avoid a homogenizing view if only on account of the diversity of the nations and social groups populating a given region, the differences between the economic stakes (lucrative crops and mining operations) and between the policies of the various powers exercising tutelage. Similarly, the presence of European colonists and, in religious terms, the strength of Islam, the deep rootedness of Christianity and the vigour of traditional religions feature among the numerous factors that call for qualified analyses. Similarly, in more general terms, the volume provides an account of the complexity of the phenomena, even though the authors were not able to draw on certain sources that were not yet accessible at the time of drafting.

The volume can be divided into three, well-balanced parts. Each part begins with an introductory synoptic chapter, providing an overall view of the theme to be developed.

The first part (from Chapters 2 to 11) covers the period 1880-1914, that of the defense of sovereignty dealing with “the initiatives and resistance” of African societies faced with the consequences of diplomatic negotiations which escaped their competence completely (Berlin Conference), the assaults conducted by the Europeans and the subsequent establishment of colonization. Reactions to the conquests varied between armed resistance and strategies of alliance and not of collaboration. Furthermore, there is a need to go beyond the simplifying resistant/collaborator dichotomy. While the colonial powers thought they had actually achieved “pacification”, the Africans continued nonetheless to manifest their desire to regain their sovereignty. Resistance took on various forms and concerned all

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African societies with or without a State, thereby illustrating the effort the societies exerted on themselves. This should not be seen merely as reactions to external aggression; African societies, as fully fledged players were also mindful to take initiatives that took account of the solicitations of their times, their own needs and the specific context in which each of them existed. Whatever the case, at the eve of the First World War, European powers had established their domination over virtually all of the continent; they also succeeded in intervening in the economic activities of the only two independent States of Liberia and Ethiopia.

The second part of the volume (from Chapters 12 to 21) opens on the impact of the First World War with military recruitment, the loss of life on the battle fronts, and the economic difficulties due to an interruption in trading relations with the colonial powers. It is followed by an analysis of colonial policies, the diversity of which is related to differences in methods and strategies on the part of the imperial powers but also to the resources of the territories under consideration and the involvement of African societies in government and the economy, together with their openness or reticence in relation to the “civilizing mission”. This volume does not fail to recall that, in spite of the differences between direct and indirect administration of “native policies”, the colonizers were guided by the same idea, namely that of western superiority. Particular attention was given to colonial economies which are the subject of four chapters, as well as the demographical and social changes linked to colonization, examined in two chapters. Within the colonial context, that of tight social control, the religions and the arts appeared as spheres of comparative freedom, offering possibility to express rejection of foreign domination. Two chapters are devoted to cultural life in this African perspective.

The last part (Chapters 22 to 29) deals with “African policy and nationalism” or more specifically with nationalist and anti-colonialist reactions of African societies in the inter-war period. The Africans adapted to the system set up by the colonial powers through protest or resistance. Awareness of deep-rooted inequality sustained a feeling of frustration which affected the auxiliary staff of governments, the former elite of chieftains and the new urban elite educated in colonial schools. The intellectuals adopted the official discourses on policies of assimilation or association in order to bolster their contestation. They made considerable use of the press, and were active in political parties and youth organizations. Nationalism was also expressed through religion with the foundation of churches independent of the missions and the development of millenarian movements or Mahdism and pan-Islamism. The economic problems nurtured discontent among the working population and the rural communities. Tensions were particularly strong in regions where colonists were well represented. These reactions are analysed in the context of the major regional ensembles defined in the first part of the volume for assessing resistance to imperialist conquests. After a chapter on the growing intervention of Europeans in Liberia and in Ethiopia which finally lost its independence (the year 1935 was a turning point in African history), the volume recalls in what way the international context did operate in favour of African nationalists, who benefited from the League of Nations and support from various associations in Europe and the United States, thanks in particular to connections established by the Diaspora of intellectuals who had studied abroad, the subject of the penultimate chapter of the volume.

The general conclusion, drafted by Adu Boahen, raises the question of the impact of

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colonialism on Africa and its significance in the continent’s history. The author underlines the complexity of the phenomenon, recalls the need for an approach which takes account of the diversity of situations and the capacity for resilience of the African cultures, particularly in rural areas, in spite of the undeniable repercussions of foreign domination in the economic field and its consequences on the political development of the continent. He concludes with the following words: “although colonialism was a mere chapter in a long history, an episode or an interlude in the multiple and diverse experiences of the African populations …, it constituted a distinct break in the history of Africa” and in the subsequent development of the continent.

II Summary of the contents of chapters other than the introductory chapters

“Africa in the face the colonial challenge” could serve as a title for the first part, as in the case of the general introduction, written together with the conclusion by Adu Boahen.

(Chapters 2-11)

Chapter 2 describes the various theories on the development of a new form of imperialism from the 1880s onwards. It provides a contrast between theories focusing on European perspectives (the dominant role of monopolist capitalism, the influence of social evolutionism and the exacerbation of nationalism throughout Europe) and the “theory of the African dimension”, which gives special attention to the forces underlying the disintegration of African societies which can account for their defeat in the face of European imperialism.

After a general review by Terence Ranger on “African initiatives and resistance in the face of partition and conquest”, a series of chapters tackles the question of regional ensembles, beginning with North East Africa.

In Egypt, growing dependence on Europe resulted in a revolution under the leadership of Ahmad Urabi. The British, however, took advantage of divisions amongst the Urabists in order to occupy the country. Young intellectuals established the Nationalist Party while others chose a strategy of alliance. In Sudan, the Mahdists involved in a Jihad were also defeated by the British with the help of their Egyptian allies, while France, Italy and the United Kingdom divided among themselves the territory of the Somalis which did not form a single political entity. A movement for Islamic renaissance was launched in opposition to the domination of Infidels. The chapter is illustrated by photographs of political leaders and a general map.

In North Africa, in spite of a relative cultural homogeneity, the situation was complex on account of the diversity of nations, the dates at which conquest took place and the methods of administration and the precedence of Ottoman domination. Reactions in this regard need to be examined at different levels: that of organized States, that of the Sufi brotherhoods and that of the djema’a. The European conquest was undertaken in five phases. Two major phases appear in resistance in the Maghreb: from 1880 to 1912 and from 1921 to 1935. But the Africans were also defeated on account of internal and external factors. The illustrations include maps of the main regions and the European campaigns together with photographs of the resistance leaders and one of the war in the Rif.

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The socio-political organization of the African States and the relations the Europeans entertained with them feature among the determining factors in the reactions of the societies of West Africa to intrusion by the Europeans (French, British and Germans). The Africans chose one of three solutions: armed confrontation, alliance or submission. Emphasis is placed on the reactions in territories conquered by France (Sénégambia, the Toucouleur empire, the Samori empire, Dahomey and the Baulé country) and the territories that came under British domination (the Ashanti empire and the South and North of Nigeria). There follows an analysis of resistance to oppression exercised by the colonial administration, of which revolts were a feature (Mamadou Lamine, the revolt against the housing tax in Sierra Leone), migrations, Christian and Muslim religious movements and the establishment of associations by the elite. The chapter is illustrated by two maps (the States and populations; European progress in West Africa) as well as photographs of the resistance leaders and an aspect of repression.

The chapter on East Africa deals successively with Kenya, Tanganyika and Uganda. While the Nandi in Kenya offered an example of lengthy resistance against the British, the attitude of the Gikuyu fluctuated between alliance and armed confrontation. In Tanganyika, the Germans took advantage of rivalry between certain groups but came up against vigorous reactions on the part of the Hehe and the coastal populations under the leadership of the Abushiri. Mwanga, king of Buganda, resorted initially to diplomacy before finally being captured at the end of guerrilla warfare. The colonial governments confiscated the best land, confined the Africans to reservations, with particularly significant pressure by the colonists in Kenya. Colonial restrictions provoked revolts, passive resistance, the enhancement of African beliefs and new modes of expression of Christianity in Kenya. In Tanganyika, the Maji-Maji movement was born in 1905. Apart from the map, illustrations include three photographs (construction of the railway, the resistant chief Abushiri and the Mwanga rulers of Buganda and Kabarega rulers of Bunyoro).

In Central Africa (Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Malawi, Angola and Mozambique), internal conflicts did not hamper reactions of contestation, amongst which there was resistance of a local nature and more widely based insurrections, with a view to overthrowing the colonial system but faced with various problems. The fact that these groups chose to cooperate with the Europeans also contributed to the failure of the resistance. The chapter is illustrated by a map of the populations and States together with photographs of the Bemba welcoming Europeans and resistance leaders).

Reactions to the Europeans of societies in Southern Africa varied according to their interests and whether or not they had the capacity to resist. Small (Tswana and Swazi) kingdoms opted for an agreement with the United Kingdom. The Zulus, victorious at first, had to admit defeat to the British, whereas Lobengula, the ruler of the Ndebele, attempted a diplomatic approach with Cecil Rhodes who played on the terms of the treaty in order to impose his authority. Annexation of their territories aroused resistance amongst the Ndebele and the Shona, the chimurenga, which came to an end after its leaders, priests and prophets had been captured. In South-West Africa, the Herero revolt was repressed through massacres. Illustrations include a map of the populations and political entities, the victorious battlefields of the Zulus at Isandhlwana (1879) and various rulers.

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As regards Madagascar, the chronology in this first part of the volume differs from that of other regions. It extends as far as 1939. An initial expedition by France (1883-1885) against the kingdom of Madagascar ended in the signing in 1885 of a treaty which marked the beginning of a decade of misunderstandings. The second expedition (1895-1895), however, ended with annexation of the island, weakened after many difficulties. Nevertheless, after Queen Ranavalona III had surrendered, uprisings occurred immediately on the margins of Imerina. The French also had to face resistance in other regions. The Madagascans subsequently reacted to colonial domination through passive resistance, jacqueries, and modern forms of nationalism from 1910 onwards. France’s rejection of the claim for massive naturalization marked a turning point in 1929 with the birth of a national movement. The chapter comprises three maps and photographs (Ranavalona III and the prime minister, Rainilaiarivony).

Coveted also by the Europeans, Ethiopia and Liberia succeeded in preserving their independence but in conditions that were all the more difficult as their societies experienced profound divisions between native Africans and American Liberians in Liberia, or through a highly hierarchical social system as in Ethiopia, with a pyramid organization of society dominated by the emperor. Liberia, powerless as it was, witnessed successive attempts by Britain and France at eroding its territory. Differing interpretations of the treaty of Wuchale were the cause of a war between Italy and Ethiopia which ended in Italian victory at Asowa. Nevertheless, whether asked or imposing themselves as intermediaries for acceding to modernity, the Europeans intervened in the economic and social life of the Ethiopia of Menelik II, just as they did in a more ostensible manner in Liberia. The chapter has an abundance of illustrations. Maps of Liberia and photographs of political leaders and a drawing of the battle of Adowa.

The second part analyses the way colonial domination was exercised and its consequences in the various economic, social and cultural fields. It includes chapters on the colonial economy (14, 15, 16 and 17), on demography and societies (18 and 19) and on religion and the arts (20 and 21).

An introductory chapter recalls the close economic links between the colonies and the colonial power on the one hand and the rest of the world on the other. This process comprises four main phases: 1880-1910 (conquest and new production relations); towards 1900-1920 (capital and coercion); 1920-1930 (participation of Africa in the colonial economy) and 1930-1938 (dependence and depression). Account should also be taken of the very diverse circumstances according to resources, the settlement of European colonists and the capacity of the Africans for resilience to various pressures, contexts of warfare and the Great Depression. A distinguishing feature of the colonial economy was the interdependence between modern and traditional sectors.

The colonial economy in sub-Saharan Africa is then analysed according to the various imperial powers. One chapter studies the early French, Belgian and Portuguese colonies, underlining the great variety of circumstances, together with the part played by mineral and agricultural resources, and the type of economy (slave trade economies of companies with a monopoly). In general terms, however, there is evidence of limited diversification in the economy and the pressure of constraints on the colonized populations providing labour but

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without easy access to party or trade union membership. The chapter is illustrated by some 15 statistical tables and a map displaying the resources of the French, Belgian and Portuguese colonies.

As sources of raw materials for the colonial power, the former British colonies also provided markets for British industry. Nevertheless, each of the territories had its own specific character: South Africa where the mining wealth played an essential role in socio-economic change; West Africa which had been spared major land despoilment unlike Kenya, Southern Rhodesia and South Africa. While limited modernization of an outward-looking economy did not do much to improve the circumstances of the colonized populations, it did benefit major British companies substantially. The text includes three maps, including one of mineral resources and another of railways, a statistical table indicating mining exports and photographs of African workers.

The last region defined for studying the colonial economy is North Africa with a distinction between the colonies according to the regions (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, on the one hand, and Libya, Egypt and Sudan, on the other) and according to the imperial powers. Unlike the territories under French and Italian domination, there are no major groups of European settlement in Egypt under British domination which also has the particular feature of being a free trade zone and enjoying comparative prosperity. Elsewhere, in the various territories where emphasis is placed on the exploitation of minerals, and where investment in infrastructure remains relatively limited, the Great Depression brought about a serious deterioration in the circumstances of the colonized populations. This chapter is illustrated with maps of each of the territories, statistical tables and photographs of the Assuan dam and Djazira.

The social repercussions of colonial domination are analysed in terms of their demographical aspects and the emergence of new social structures. While wars, famine, epidemics and forced labour, particularly in those colonies which provided reservoirs of labour, exhausted the populations, the development of communications and the health care facilities of the missions and governments had a positive impact. Demographical growth resulted in population movement particularly towards the cities. Urbanization, education, Christianity and the colonial economy feature among the various causes of change, with the abolition of slavery, far greater social mobility, the emergence of new elites and the creation of various associations. Nevertheless, account should be taken of the dynamics peculiar to African societies and not make do with the opposition between tradition and modernity. Account must also be taken of the diversity of processes across the continent, according to colonial policies, the presence of European colonists and the reactions of Africans to the forces of change. The illustrations focus on a city, a school and the sociability of the new elite but exclusively in the British colonies.

Two chapters focus on cultural life during the colonial period, one on religion and the other on the arts. Opposition to colonial domination was also expressed through religion. Some rebellions were waged under the sign of a revitalization of tradition beliefs and, when the States borne out of the Jihad collapsed, there was a renaissance of Islam in the forms of Mahdism and brotherhoods. While African converts complied with the rules laid down by the missionaries, others rebelled against their tutelage. They created independent churches

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which were spheres for political contestation and adaptation to African traditions. The text comprises various illustrations representing prophets, a mosque and dancers during initiation rites.

The section devoted to music, closely linked to eloquence, emphasizes music in the possession cults among the Shona. While the professionals of the performing arts were victims of measures against pagan rites, the colonial administration and missionaries encouraged theatrical performances over which they had ample control. As regards literature, the chapter focuses on debates on usages in classical or modern Arabic and the languages of the colonial powers on which the opinions of African intellectuals were divided. Examples are taken from Egypt and Western Sudan. There is no illustration in this chapter.

The last part focuses on African politics and African nationalism in the major regional ensembles.

Whereas in North-East Africa, in Egypt and in the southern part of Sudan, nationalism was of an essentially secular nature, it was of both secular and religious inspiration in north Sudan and Somalia. Thanks to the support of King Fu’ad I, the United Kingdom succeeded in refraining the success of the Wafd, organized by an emerging class of Egyptian intellectuals and landowners who sought to give a legal nature to its presence in Egypt. The colonial power repressed demonstrations on the part of the Flag League, an association of young Sudanese intellectuals, whose slogan was “Unity of the Nile Valley”, while also crushing a revolt in the Darfur under the banner of Mahdism. This repression did not, however, prevent other reactions such as passive resistance or discussions in clubs. Three photographs (the leader of the Wafd, a college in Khartoum and a demonstration in support of Fu-ad) illustrate the chapter.

As regards nationalism which was expressed in various ways in North Africa, the chapter highlights a number of remarkable aspects including the emergence of trade unionism in Tunisia and Algeria, the development of a nationalist press and the war in the Moroccan Rif. The scale of colonization in Algeria raised a particular problem for young people who were torn between French identity and Algerian nationalism. In Morocco, Islam also mobilized opponents. The text includes a map of the Maghreb and the Sahara, together with photographs of the war in the Rif and a portrait of Bourguiba.

The Great War, with its constraints and the discovery of the Europeans’ weaknesses, played a fundamental role in the development of anti-colonial feeling in West Africa. This is also true of the Great Depression. Nevertheless, problems of leadership and methods faced parties, trade unions and youth movements which were set up on a regional scale. The chapter is illustrated by a map and photographs of political figures.

In East Africa, nationalism was expressed through millenarian movements, in dissident churches and more particularly in associations of the young educated elite on a local basis, one of which (that of the Kikuyu) had a trans-ethnic aim. Repression did not put an end to these claims. The text is illustrated with a map of the various localities and photographs of political leaders.

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The series of chapters on nationalism on a regional scale concludes with Central and Southern Africa. Racial segregation in South Africa was a driving force for contestation firstly within the independent churches and, increasingly from the 1930s onwards, in the context of political parties, including the ANC for the educated elite and workers’ trade unions. In the Belgian Congo, anti-colonialism was expressed through passive resistance or strikes, as well as in the context of millenarian movements. Apart from comparable phenomena, there is evidence in Angola of the importance of the nationalist press and leagues affiliated to pan-Africanism. While intellectual opposition was less structured in Mozambique, the workers were very active in major strikes. Illustrations consist of two maps of local sites and a portrait of the leader of an independent church.

A parallel can be established between Liberia and Ethiopia where the author refers to a “colonial spirit” on the part of the dominant groups, one of the factors which, combined with economic difficulties, encouraged the intervention of the western powers and supervision by the League of Nations. The United States of America imposed its authority on Liberia which succeeded in preserving its independence unlike Ethiopia which fell under Italian domination. The chapter is illustrated by two maps and portraits of political leaders.

Chapter 29 analyses relations between Africa and the New World from various standpoints: the movement led by Marcus Garvey, the evangelization of Africa by African Americans, the role in Africa of African students trained in the USA, pan-Africanism and the African cultural heritage in Latin America and the Caribbean. The text includes a map showing the settlement of Afro-Brazilians in West Africa, portraits of political leaders and photographs reflecting relations between Africa and Brazil.

III Remarks of a general nature on the content of the volume with a view to the production of textbooks

On the texts

Generally speaking, the volume provides abundant documentation in spite of a few problems related to the date of drafting of the texts.

The director of the volume points out that the authors were not able to consult documents which were not yet available on account of archive regulations. Furthermore, it is necessary to update the themes and debates with the renewal of the bibliography and historiography. It is impossible for the authors of this report to undertake this task. A number of points could be developed. Sport is something of importance if only because it involves the young (who are not mentioned very much in the volume except with regard to Kenya), and because sports clubs are places where discussion and possibly contestation can take place. Similarly, youth movements (boy scouts, the YMCA, etc.) deserve more attention as they are issues which can interest school pupils. Reference can also be made to the comparative absence of women, whereas some research has already been conducted in this field. The question of the schooling of children should also be dealt with in greater detail than at present.

A number of inadequacies have been observed such as the absence of German and Portuguese colonies in West Africa (Chapter 6).

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Furthermore, the report draws attention to the case of the islands which are part of the African Union (Madagascar, the Comoros and Mauritius) which should have been viewed as a regional unit. Neither Mauritius nor the Comoro islands are dealt with. The question of the Seychelles and Reunion could also be raised.

As regards Madagascar, the choice of an alternate chronology has meant that certain events have been omitted.

As regards the division of time into periods, 1935 may be a turning point but the volume could extend as far as the end of the Second World War as one of its features is the strengthening of the system already in place.

On the illustrations for the preparation of textbooks

They focus too much on major figures. Other illustrations need to be found for describing the framework of everyday life such as towns and villages, monuments such as churches, schools and traditional sanctuaries, as well as administrative buildings. Reference could be made to illustrations of agricultural and mining concessions, and of villages with their specific architecture. It would be interesting to have city plans to show the difference between western urbanization and “native quarters”, spatial segregation but also to give examples of towns where segregation is more social than racial and to distinguish between cities existing before the conquest and those that are colonial creations. Illustrations ought to represent ordinary individuals from different ways of life, including men, women and children alike. Such illustrations must be readily available in archives or publications. Each illustration should be accompanied by a brief commentary.

The volume contains a considerable number of maps but they should be simplified for textbooks: maps locating the various sites, population maps, maps of languages and colonial territories, etc.

Particularly expressive quotations can be kept which would be evocative for school children.

IV Recommendations for the content of textbooks for primary and secondary education

It would have been useful to have had a more precise idea of the curricula in primary and secondary education to achieve a more efficient assessment, to know exactly what types of works and how many textbooks UNESCO envisages publishing. One for lower secondary and one for higher secondary? And what about the level for primary? A publication for teachers or for pupils? Answers to these questions should result from the working sessions in Tripoli, without overlooking previous recommendations.

What we are short of is the point of view of teachers in primary, lower and higher secondary education who are well acquainted with the target audience. This venture needs the collaboration of colleagues from primary and secondary education in order to acquire a more accurate idea of what the history of Africa and national history account for in school curricula. That being so, there is a need for an approach through major regional ensembles, in which attention can focus more specifically on particular countries.

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This report highlights what would seem to be most important in each chapter and draws attention to how interesting it might be to draw inspiration from the work of our colleagues in Nigeria in their publication Tarikh. As regards this particular period, reference can be made to Tarikh, Volume 4, No. 3, “European Conquest and African resistance”; Volume 3, No. 3, “Indirect rule in British Africa”; Volume 5, No. 3, “Protest against colonial rule in West Africa”; Volume 3, No. 4, “Independence Movements in Africa 1”; Volume 4, No. 1,” Independence Movements in Africa 2”; Volume 5, No. 4, “The African Diaspora”.

After a gradual review of the chapters, the themes that are likely to be retained are as follows:

Chapter 2: European partition and conquest of Africa

Reference to the Berlin Conference; simplification of the part on the theories of imperialism, emphasis on European nationalisms and their divisions, difficulties in Africa; a chronological table of conquests is required.

Chapter 3: General introduction to initiatives and resistance

Something less complex is required while referring to various points of view: the quotation from the Nama chieftain, Hendrik Wittboi, should be readopted on a unified vision of Africa.

Chapter 4: Initiatives and resistance in North East Africa

The following themes should be retained: the Urabist revolution, Mahdism, the partition of Somalia; emphasis on the stakes related to the Suez Canal.

Chapter 5: Initiatives and resistance in North Africa and the Sahara

Military confrontation and diplomatic exchanges before 1880; resistance to colonialism from 1880 to 1930; internal and external factors having caused the failure of resistance; a study of the role of the leaders and religious groups.

Chapter 6: Initiatives and resistance in West Africa

Resistance to European invasion; resistance to colonial domination; the failure of resistance; pupils should acquire an idea of both the unity and the diversity of the experience of African communities; biographies of resistance leaders; a chronology of the main events.

Chapter 7: Initiatives and resistance in East Africa

Reference to the Maji-Maji, Abushiri’s rebellion; emphasis on the question of land in the Uplands of Kenya; resistance in the region of the Great Lakes. A map of colonial territories is required.

Chapter 8: Initiatives and resistance in Central Africa

The struggle of States to maintain their sovereignty; early resistance on a local basis; anti-colonial insurrections before 1918. A chronology is required to guide pupils, emphasis to be

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placed on the diversity of Africans’ reactions to invasion, and provision of biographies of major resistance figures.

Chapter 9: Initiatives and resistance in Southern Africa

Additions should be made to the Bambatha revolt; retain the chimurenga; reference to the constitution of the two Rhodesias and their mining resources; the dismantling of the Zulu empire; the Boer republics and the origins of the enclaves in Swaziland and Lesotho.

Chapter 10: Initiatives and resistance in Madagascar (1880-1939)

Distinction between the kingdom of Madagascar and other kingdoms; simplification of the question of the Menalamba; need for the same chronology for other regional ensembles, including two chapters but inclusive of the other islands members of the African Union.

Chapter 11: Ethiopia and Liberia (1880-1914): the survival of two African States

Liberia and European infringements; the Adowa victory and its resonance in Africa.

Chapter 12: The First World War and its consequences

Africa’s contribution to the War (in men and resources, etc.); the economic and social consequences of the War; the socio-political impact, particularly regarding the role of demobilized servicemen. A chronological table of events.

Chapter 13: Methods and institutions of European domination

Diversity of native policies taking account of the specificities of African societies; colonial governments; means of control of the administrations.

Chapter 14: The colonial economy

The conquest and loss of autonomy in the economic sphere; the development of rent crops; land property policy; the impact of the Great Depression on societies. Too great a number of statistical tables should be avoided.

Chapter 15: The colonial economy in the former French, Belgian and Portuguese colonies

Distinction between agricultural and mining colonies; policies on land ownership; labour, taxation and trade; foreign and African companies; limitation on the number of statistical tables for pupils.

Chapter 16: The colonial economy in the former British colonies

As for the preceding chapter.

Chapter 17: The colonial economy in North Africa

As for the preceding chapters, but reference should be made to regional diversity according

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to the presence of colonists, minerals and the impact of irrigation programmes.

Chapter 18: The social repercussions of colonial domination: demographical aspects

Discussion on the impact of the slave trade in Africa, the Americas and the Middle East; demographical trends before and after the abolition of the slave trade; the impact of colonial policy in terms of health.

Chapter 19: The social repercussions of colonial domination: new social structures

Emergence of new economic and intellection elites; the consequences of urbanization on the life of associations and on identity; the establishment of trade unions; reference to regional specificities while noting major trends in Africa as a whole.

Chapter 20: Religion in Africa during the colonial period

The religious universe of Africans; the importance of dissident churches; additional regional approaches.

Chapter 21: The arts in Africa during the period of colonial domination

The text gives priority to West Africa, except for Shona music; other regions need to be taken into account; the plastic arts need to be developed through illustrations; poems and songs protesting against colonial power should be added.

Chapter 22: African politics and African nationalism

Synthesis of the various facts studied in the following chapters.

Chapter 23: Politics and nationalism in North East Africa

Plan highlighting the various regions should be maintained; the Wafd and the 1919 revolution; British settlement in Egypt and Sudan; the Flag League in Sudan; the concept of the unity of the Nile Valley; the renaissance of Mahdism in Sudan; the role of young intellectuals.

Chapter 24: Politics and nationalism in the Maghreb and the Sahara

War and passive resistance in the Maghreb; Muslim reformism; trade union action; the elite and the nationalist press; the impact of the Great War and the Great Depression on anti-colonial movements.

Chapter 25: Politics and nationalism in West Africa

Inclusion of the Portuguese colonies; the impact of the Great War and the Great Depression on the development of nationalism; the development of trade unions, parties and student associations and the press; movements which extend to the whole of West Africa.

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Chapter 26: Politics and nationalism in East Africa

Emphasis on the role of youth associations; reference to millenarianism with a rapid focus on new churches better represented in South Africa.

Chapter 27: Politics and nationalism in Central and Southern Africa

For South Africa: ANC and African churches; for Belgian Congo: strikes in the mining regions; in the Portuguese colonies: resistance to forced labour and the role of intellectuals; simplification of maps.

Chapter 28: Ethiopia and Liberia: two independent African States during the colonial period

For Liberia: the intervention of Western powers and the League of Nations; the establishment of Firestone; for Ethiopia: the intervention of the League of Nations, modernization and conservatism, Italian aggression.

Chapter 29: Africa and the New World

Movements for a return to Africa (Marcus Garvey); pan-African movements; organizations of every kind which establish links between Africa and the Americas; the African Diaspora. Illustrations would be required of the pan-African congresses and the leaders of the Diaspora in Europe and the Americas.

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VOLUME VIII

The General History of Africa

Africa since 1935

Director of the Volume: A. A. Mazrui Co-Director: C. Wondji

Chapter 1: Introduction

This volume covers the period from 1935 (the Italian invasion of Ethiopia) up to the present day. It is also a period of active integration of all of the African regions into the world system with all that that implies in the way of change, adaptation and awareness.

The new identities and aspirations encouraged the emergence of a desire for economic integration and the expression of a widely discussed pan-Africanism. One of the designs in the drafting of this Volume was the recognition of the importance of women in history and the questioning of the classical view of history, which relied on politics and military matters, events and periods. It is rather the prospect of history giving priority to an analysis of events, and their socio-cultural and economic consequences.

SECTION I: AFRICA IN THE DECADE OF WORLD CONFLICT 1935-1945

Chapter 2: The Horn of Africa and North Africa

Chapter 3: Tropical Africa and Equatorial Africa under French, Portuguese and Spanish domination

Chapter 4: Africa under British and Belgian domination

The analysis bears on the Horn of Africa, North Africa and the two major crises which these regions experienced (the Great Depression and the Second World War) and their corollary, the consequent economic and political challenges.

The economies were based essentially on mining industries very sensitive to fluctuations in world prices for raw materials.

In social terms, these regions witnessed a demographic transition and experienced a population explosion as early as 1930, together with major migratory flows.

In political terms, the regions were the centre of major nationalist currents with consequent crises with the colonial powers and claims for independence.

The colonial metropolises reacted differently according to the manner in which their territories were governed. Portugal, which had a very segregationist standpoint, strengthened the servitudes required (forced labour, taxes, etc.), and heightened racial

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tension during the periods of economic crisis by settling poor Portuguese citizens in the colonies.

France, under the Vichy regime, also hardened the living conditions of the populations which were subsequently widely mobilized in order to participate in the campaigns for liberating the metropolis. The regime was at times repressive, at times mistrustful, against the religious communities, particularly the Muslim brotherhood. Progress achieved by the trade unions resulted in conflicts regarding economic exploitation which was relayed to public opinion via the press.

Hence, the Brazzaville Conference appeared in contradiction with the context insofar as it was aimed at preserving the empire.

Belgium had a paternalistic policy which did not envisage extending political rights to the Africans, unlike the United Kingdom which, after the war, set itself the aim of delegating political representation to the Africans except for Rhodesia and South Africa.

SECTION II: THE STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL SOVREIGNTY, FROM 1945 TO INDEPENDENCE

Chapter 5: Seeking the political realm

Chapter 6: North Africa and the Horn of Africa

Chapter 7: West Africa

Chapter 8: West Equatorial Africa

Chapter 9: East Africa

Chapter 10: Southern Africa

This section opens with a chapter on the political, philosophical and religious concepts underlying the liberation struggles. The political organizations in the inter-war period were composed of an urbanized African elite brought together in the unions and associations. Anti-colonial agitation gradually extended to the rural areas and to the Diaspora which was very active in propagating the pan-African message.

Chapters 6 to 10 tackle, according to a regional approach, the history of the colonies and subsequently that of the African States from 1935 until the mid 1980s. There is nevertheless a repetitive nature to the information developed in these various chapters.

In global terms, evidence points to activism among the African populations with a multiplication of strikes, a political struggle in North Africa, particularly after the French debacle in Indochina. In Algeria, the armed struggle is embarked upon on account of French intransigence, and the various stakes regarding oil, geostrategy and economics. This liberation war together with conflicts between Egypt, Libya and the colonial powers elicited the support of the USSR, Muslim and Arab organizations (the Muslim brotherhood) and the Non-Aligned countries.

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In the Sudan, it was the North-South conflict encouraged by the British, which became dominant. The Ethiopian neighbour freed itself from Italian domination before falling under British administration and absorbing Eritrea. In the meantime, Somalia, under the influence of the intelligentsia, attempted an improbable union which resulted in turmoil.

In general terms, the situation in the British colonies of Africa was marked by the rise of nationalism, the role of the unions, and leadership asserted by an educated elite and a very strong pan-African commitment. This situation contrasted with that of the French-speaking countries that were committed rather more to federalist strategies. The Belgian colonies, led by a nascent bourgeoisie were less inclined to contestation while the Portuguese colonies were submitted, in the aftermath of the war, to repression in spite of the mobilization of the population.

In Southern Africa, segregation policies in South Africa and Rhodesia contrast significantly with the situation prevailing in other colonies.

SECTION III: UNDERDEVELOPMENT AND THE STRUGGLE FOR ECONOMIC INDEPENDENCE

Chapter 11: Economic change in Africa in the world context (1935-1980)

Chapter 12: Agriculture and rural development

Chapter 13: Industrial development and urban growth

Chapter 14: Compared strategies of economic decolonization

The integration of Africa into the international capitalist system was strengthened through new forms of imperialism, a diversification of multilateral relations and the attraction of new partners other than relations with the former colonial metropolitan powers. Post-independence Africa did not define a uniform strategy aimed at economic decolonization. It was bereft of any coherent development strategy with economies focused on neo-classical economic parameters.

The rare industrialization policies (composed of little or no industry producing finished products or products for local consumption) did nothing to stem the extraverted structure of the economy. This situation was based on the fact that agricultural and mining companies were funded and managed by foreigners and local labour was used in producing raw materials aimed at export and commercial structures that were disadvantageous for the continent. On the social level, there was a steep rise in the ranks of the proletariat more or less guided by the unions and an uncontrolled influx into the cities with a consequent explosion of poverty. In short, “capitalism came to Africa without the protestant ethic of work and frugality”.

SECTION IV: SOCIOPOLITICAL EVOLUTION SINCE INDEPENDENCE

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Chapter 15: Construction of the nation and development of political structures

Chapter 16: Construction of the nation and development of political values

This section seeks to find answers to the fundamental question of the nation. What does it actually consist of? What is the attitude of populations in the process of identity construction particularly in the face of the legacy of colonialism? What is actually involved in the construction of modern States? In short, here are the identity markers and symbols of the African States and their models as well as their attempts at integration. Analysis of the components of nationalism comes to light with their corollary, the ideology of the nation State, religion, ethnic identity, territory and race/civilization. This nurturing of politics does not overlook ideological constructions (African socialism, Nasserism, Ujamaa, etc.) or the adaptation of familiar political formulae devised elsewhere.

SECTION V: SOCIOCULTURAL CHANGE SINCE 1935

Chapter 17: Religion and social development

Chapter 18: Language and social development

Chapter 19: The development of modern literature

Chapter 20: The arts and society since 1935

Chapter 21: Trends in philosophy and science in Africa

Chapter 22: Education and social change

This section which provides a synthesis of each theme, seeks to be informative. Chapter 20, the longest, has a very erudite approach and illustrates this situation quite well.

What is highlighted is the non-proselytizing nature of traditional African religions in contrast with monotheistic religions because they are a component of African life even if they are losing ground to the revealed religions on account of the social dimension of the latter (particularly in urban areas). Cultural integration linked to current education methods based on the western model has accelerated their disappearance. Education based on three models, namely indigenous, Islamic and Afro-Christian, was replaced by modern education in the 1930s with the teaching of European languages rather than Arabic or other African languages. This raises the problem of African languages given that the elite had an advantage in using the language of the colonizer which transcended ethnic barriers.

In spite of the danger of colonial assimilation policies, African languages owe their survival to a gentle break with the past. They enrich world literature through the borrowings they afford and ensure the thriving of African literature. The latter is skilled in enhancing local knowledge and crafts which are the very basis of social rather than individual expertise. They are founded on philosophy in Africa which can be divided into three categories:

- Cultural, rooted in native traditions;

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- Ideological, “devised to govern political action and define objectives”;

- Critical, more academic than political, more rationalist than nationalist.

SECTION VI: PAN-AFRICANISM: LIBERATION AND INTEGRATION SINCE 1935

Chapter 23: Africa and the black Diaspora

Chapter 24: Pan-Africanism and regional integration

Chapter 25: Pan-Africanism and liberation

This section lays emphasis on the activism deployed by the early black Diaspora in order to re-establish links with the African continent (pan-African congresses, studies on Africa, festivals, etc.). The approach which went well beyond that of a quest for identify, promoted pan-Africanism and leant support to the liberation movements. The perception of the situation of the early Diaspora was different from that of the new Diaspora in the wake of recent migratory flows. The installation of the latter is the result of economic and political oppression exercised in the colonies (particularly those of North Africa and the Belgian colonies) or linked to periods of study. The migration of highly qualified professionals and economic and political refugees is not confined to Europe and North America alone but is widespread throughout the continent. The section concludes by describing the conditions that underpinned the birth of the OAU and, more particularly, the content of its charter and the principles which it defends.

SECTION VII: INDEPENDENT AFRICA IN WORLD AFFAIRS

Chapter 26: Africa and the capitalist countries

Chapter 27: Africa and the socialist countries

Chapter 28: Africa and the regions in development

Chapter 29: Africa and the United Nations Organization

Chapter 30: The Horizon of 2000

Postface: Chronology of the current situation in Africa in the 1990s

This section examines the support which the Soviet and Chinese regimes gave to the African countries, underpinned by ideological and strategic considerations. Soviet support was conveyed through the Communist International, the Komintern, and through the radical African students who attended western universities. Soviet material and diplomatic support for the anti-colonial movement went from strength to strength from post-independence cooperation agreements, particularly in education. Ideological solidarity and rivalry with the USSR, together with personal interests, underpinned relations with China which was very committed to supporting guerrilla movements.

The Movement of Non-Aligned Countries, bringing together principally Third World

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countries, proved to be a domain of very active cooperation in decolonization of the continent and with regard to racism issues. Relations between Africa and the Arab world were based on the fact that the continent hosts the greater part of the Arab world. Such active solidarity was expressed on the occasion of the embargo against Portugal, Rhodesia and South Africa. The Latin American and Caribbean States (most of the Caribbean countries have black majorities) cultivated links with the African States through pan-Africanism and negritude but frequently with somewhat ambiguous positions with regard to defending African interests.

Partnership relations with the United Nations are systematically analysed as follows:

- The United Nations as “benevolent imperialists”

- The United Nations as “allies of liberation”

- The United Nations as “partners in development”.

As the gestation of the publication was substantially delayed, a chapter on updating the historiography in particular is required; the artifice of a chronological table helps to provide a link with events contemporaneous with the publication.

Critical analysis and suggestions

This volume, the last in the series, suffers from being out of date at the very time it was published and still more so today. Publication problems were partly the cause but also the methodology used in certain chapters raises problems. Accordingly, its revision should cover more than events but also emerging themes and methods such as the question of gender, namely the history of gender rather than merely the history of women and minorities.

Most of the chapters lack illustrations, particularly photographs and maps which are so useful in teaching.

The critical analysis of this volume conducted by the reviewers is very ample. Suggestions have been made for the updating of many chapters.

The pedagogical adaptation of several chapters constitutes a real challenge by virtue of their polemical or tendentious nature in terms of current historiography.

Suggestions of a pedagogical nature have been made by the reviewers for each of the chapters in this volume.

Observations by the coordinator

The overall synthesis of the reviewing reports of the GHA warrants a number of remarks regarding the work itself and the prospect of its pedagogical use. It would seem appropriate to recall some of the main features of the General History of Africa that can be identified in all of the reports. The approach adopted for devising the General history of Africa was initially regional. The dynamics underlying the formation of regional entities (most of which

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cover current subregions) are highlighted according to the perspective of a continental history. The history of the continent lies within world history since its origins and subsequently through the Diasporas in the wake of the various slave trades, particularly the Atlantic trade.

This overall approach should be taken into consideration for the pedagogical use of this work. The optimal use of all the sources, particularly African, requires interdisciplinarity which alone is likely to enable a global history to be restituted and to ensure its comprehension.

A number of ideas arise from the work as a whole:

- First of all, the centrality of Africa, as the cradle of humanity and on account of its location and the uninterrupted pattern of exchange it has had with other regions in the world;

- The cultural unity of the African civilizations, beyond the diversity of situations (illustrating local development), expressing African creativity;

- The continuity of African history beyond the ruptures induced by the Atlantic slave trade and colonization. This continuity is due also and more particularly to the capacity of Africans to resist, to produce and to regenerate themselves even in extreme circumstances.

Among the transversal themes which provide support for such theses, issues such as those relating to techniques (invention and dissemination) and the circulation of knowledge, the history of human settlement, the uninterrupted formation of ethno-cultural communities, and the establishment of States, have been dealt with for each of the regions. The theme of the State is so pregnant that those territories that never experienced centralized States are sometimes overlooked or are described in less detail.

One of the problems which results from the reading of these reports is that of chronology, or more precisely, the periodization of African history. This is one of the recurrent problems in African historical research.

The question of the relevance of chronological landmarks used to internal African dynamics remains unanswered.

With the prospect of the pedagogical use of the General History of Africa, discussion must bear on the historical periods or sequences to be retained and the type of chronology to be taught. Another question which was thought resolved is that of “race” and as such would deserve the opinion of certain reviewers, and clarification as to the concept itself and its relations with cultures and languages.

Lastly, there is the question of how the work will be received by young people at whom the content of teaching is targeted. To respond to this question, it might be useful to rely on the preface by A. M. M’Bow who determined the objectives of the General History of Africa. It would then be possible to assess the degree to which these objectives match the

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educational needs of young people today by taking account of the state of the world and the major trends that can be observed in it.