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REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Phytochemical screening

Phytoconstituents are the natural bioactive compounds found in plants. These

phytoconstituents work with nutrients and fibres to form an integrated part of defense

system against various diseases and stress conditions. Phytochemicals are basically divided

into two groups, i.e. primary and secondary constituents according to their functions in plant

metabolism. Primary constituents comprise of common sugars, amino acids, proteins etc.,

while secondary constituents consist of alkaloids, terpenoids, saponins, phenolic

compounds, flavonoids, tannins and so on (Koche et al., 2010). Phytochemicals are

naturally occurring biochemicals in plants that help to give plants their characteristic colour,

flavour, smell and texture. Apart from that, phytochemicals could prevent diseases

(including cancer and cardiovascular diseases) and inhibit pathogenic microorganisms

(Renu, 2005).

Faraz et al. (2003) carried out phytochemical screening in fifty five Iranian plants

belonging to 21 families. Wang et al. (2003) isolated the active principles from selected

Chinese herbs and used Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometric analysis for structure

elucidation. Theeshan et al. (2005) studied the phytochemical constituents of Cassia fistula.

Falodun et al. (2006) reported the occurrence of flavonoids, saponins, diterpenes and

phorbol estersin in the aqueous and methanol extracts of Euphorbia heterophylla. Two new

homoisoflavonoids were isolated from Caesalpinia pulcherrima by Maheswara et al.

(2006). Raghavendra et al. (2006) examined different solvent extracts of the powdered

leaf of Oxalis corniculata and reported the presence of phenols, glycosides, carbohydrates,

phytosterols and tannins. Rahaman et al. (2006) reported 3, 5, 7, 4-tetrahydroxy flavone

from the leaves of Cassia alata.

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Awoyinka et al. (2007) isolated eight bioactive compounds from the water and

ethanol extracts of dried leaf of Cnidoscolus aconitifolius. Sixty two compounds were

identified by Chowdhury et al. (2007), from the leaves of Lantana camara using

GC-MS technique. Different extracts of Semecarpus anacardium were analysed by

Mohanta et al. (2007) for their phytochemical properties. Onwukaeme et al. (2007)

detected reducing sugars, phenols, tannins and flavonoids in Pycanthus angolensis.

Uma Devi et al. (2007) carried out the phytochemical analysis in Achyranthes

bidentata. The methanol and acetone extracts of 14 plants belonging to different

families were evaluated to detect the presence of various phytochemicals by Vaghasiya

and Chanda (2007) and this study revealed the presence of tannins, cardiac glycosides,

steroids and saponins.

Arokiyaraj et al. (2008), by HPTLC finger print technique, evaluated methanol

extract of Pterocarpus santalinus leaf to detect the presence of various phytochemicals.

Ayoola et al. (2008) investigated the phytochemical components of four medicinal

plants used in the treatment of malaria in Southwestern Nigeria. Ivana et al. (2008)

used GC-MS technique to analyze the chemical composition of the leaf extracts of

Stevia rebaudiana. The extracts of two varieties of Aloe greatheadii were examined,

quantified and compared for the phytochemical contents using GC- MS technique

(Lisa et al., 2008). Suhad and Viorica (2008) conducted quantitative analysis of the

bioactive compounds (flavonoids) in Hibiscus sabdariffa. Sathishkumar et al. (2008)

screened the in vitro antioxidant properties of ethanol extract of Canthium parviflorum

leaves. Mature and immature leaves and stems of eight plant species belonging to 7

families were screened for alkaloids, saponins, tannins and total phenolics contents by

Abdulkabirkhan et al. (2009).

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Aiyelaagbe and Osamudiamen (2009) screened Mangifera indica for its

bioactive active compounds. Aurapa and Wandee (2009) estimated total anthraquinone

glycosides from the fresh and cooked leaves of Senna siamea. Ayo et al. (2009)

studied the phytochemicals present in the methanol leaf extract of Cassia nigricans by

GC-MS technique. Bhise and Salunkhe (2009), by using TLC and HPTLC techniques,

screened the phytochemical components from Ashwagandha, Tulsi, Mulethi, Awala,

Shatavari, Gokharu, Arjun, Giloy, Safed musli, Kalimirchi, Haldi and Jaiphal.

Qualitative analyses were carried out for detecting the bioactive compounds present in

Acalypha indica, Cassia auriculata, Eclipta alba and Phyllanthus niruri (Chitravadivu

et al., 2009).

The aerial parts of Hypericum perforatum were analysed to find out the

bioactive compounds (Gioti et al., 2009). Krishna et al. (2009) conducted preliminary

phytochemical studies and also estimated the total phenolics and flavonoid contents in

the methanol extract of Justicia gendarussa. A comparative phytochemical study

between six Malaysian medicinal plants, belonging to different families, was carried

out by Krishnaiah et al., (2009). Methanol extract of Ocimum basilicum was analysed

by TLC/HPTLC techniques to detect the phytochemicals by Maria et al. (2009). The

leaf, stem and root of Ichnocarpus frutescens were investigated for their phytochemical

properties by Mishra et al. (2009). Nadjet et al., (2009) isolated and identified

flavonoids from Chrysanthemum myconis. GC-MS analysis of leaf extract of

Cleistanthus collinus revealed the presence of a number of phytochemicals

(Parasuraman et al., 2009). Quantitative estimation of phytochemical constituents

from the wood of Caesalpinia pulcherrima was carried out using Camag HPTLC

system (Pawar et al., 2009). Using HPTLC, Preeti et al. (2009) made qualitative and

quantitative analyses of phytochemical components in Leidium sativum. Ravirajsingh

20!

et al. (2009) conducted both qualitative and quantitative studies for detecting the

phytochemical constituents found in methanol extract of Clerodendron glandulosum.

Sazada et al. (2009) studied preliminary phytochemicals found in some important

medicinal and aromatic plants. Senthil Kumar and Venkatesalu (2009), using GC-MS

technique, analysed the phytochemical contents found in the leaf of Clausena anisata.

Shafaghat et al. (2009) extracted the essential oils found in the leaf, stem and root of

Chrysanthemum parthenium by distillation technique and studied phytochemicals by

GC and GC-MS methods. The results of GC-MS analyses of Mentha arvensis from

three different locations were compared by Sharma et al. (2009). Sirohi et al.

(2009) evaluated twenty one different herbal plants and their parts for total sugar,

protein, tannin and saponin contents using aqueous, methanol and acetone extracts.

Tannins, saponins, phlobatannins, flavonoids, anthraquinones, terpenoids, steroids,

alkaloids, carbohydrates and glycosides found in four medicinal plants belonging to

different families were investigated and compared by Victor Njoku and Chidi (2009).

Vikas Kumar et al. (2009) examined the phytochemical properties of the leaves of

Paederia foetida.

The dried leaf aqueous and methanol extracts of Vernonia amygdalina, Carica

papaya, Persea americana and Cnidosculous aconitifolius were evaluated by Asaolu

et al. (2010) for their phytochemical constituents. Ayo (2010) evaluated the extract of

Cassia nigricans for determining the phytochemical constituents. The petroleum ether

and alcohol extracts of Symplocos racemosa were screened for evaluating the

phytochemicals by Devmurari (2010). Hassanzadeh et al. (2010) obtained the essential

oils from the leaves of Cupressus lusitanica by hydro-distillation method and their

chemical nature were analyzed by GC-MS. Igwe et al. (2010) studied the

phytochemicals, minerals and vitamin A and vitamin C compositions found in the

21!

leaves of Spondias mombin. Karthishwaran et al. (2010) conducted preliminary

phytochemical screening in Pergularia daemia. They also separated and identified

compounds from the crude leaf extract using TLC, HPLC and HPTLC. Khaled et al.

(2010) extracted and characterised twelve fatty acids from the aerial parts of

Beaumontia grandiflora. Phytochemical analysis was carried out using the leaf extract

of Andrographis stenophylla by Parasuraman et al. (2010). The leaves and fruits of

Pedalium murex were examined to evaluate the phytochemical components

(Sermakkani and Thangapandian, 2010). HPTLC fingerprint was drawn for the

phytochemicals derived from the methanol leaf extract of Acacia nilotica by

Venkataswamy et al. (2010). Teffo et al. (2010) isolated four types of keampferol

methyl esters from the leaves of Dodonaea viscosa var. angustifolia.

Abirami and Murugan (2011) quantified flavonoids in Cassia occidentalis by

HPTLC. Swertiamarin found in 60% methanol extract of Enicostemma littorale was

analysed by Alam et al. (2011) by high performance thin layer chromatographic

densitometric method. Phytochemical and pharmacognostic analyses were carried out

in Dolichandrone arcuata by Bojaxa and Henry Joseph (2011). Chao and Lin (2011)

isolated and identified the bioactive compounds in Andrographis paniculata. Methanol

leaf extract of Bombax malabaricum was screened for phytochemical constituents by

Hassain et al. (2011). Hema et al. (2011) evaluated the bioactive components found in

Murraya koenigii leaves using GC-MS. Jeeva et al. (2011) identified the

phytochemical constituents in the methanol flower extracts of Albizia lebbeck, Cordia

sebestena, Thunbergia grandiflora and Antigonon leptopus. Joshi et al. (2011)

examined the entire plant extract of Cyathocline lyrata for phytochemical constituents

by TLC and HPLC. Kiruba et al. (2011) studied the phytochemical analysis of

various solvents extracts of the flower of Rhododendron arboretum Sm. spp

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nilagiricum. Laitonjam et al. (2011) isolated and compared the chemical constituents

present in the leaves of Cissus adnata and roots of Smilax lanceiefolia. Mamatha

(2011) collected Andrographis paniculata from different geographical locations in

India and quantified andrographolide by HPTLC. Maria Jancy Rani et al. (2011)

identified possible chemical components present in the leaves of Lantana camara

by GC-MS method. Momoh et al. (2011) studied the phytochemical composition of

leaf of Costus afer using the methanol extract. Nezhadali and Baghan (2011) followed

solid-phase micro-extraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatography- mass spectrometry

techniques for analysing volatile compounds present in the leaves of Malabila

isfahanica. Pascaline et al. (2011) screened some medicinal plants used by the

Nandis of South Nandi District, Kenya to find out the phytochemical constituents.

Zizyphus nummularia leaves were screened by Raghvendra et al. (2011) for detecting

the phytochemicals.

Sarumathy et al. (2011) studied the biochemicals present in Caesalpinia sappan

by GC-MS. Extraction, isolation and characterization of bioactive compounds from

some plants were done by Sasidharan et al. (2011). Savita and Prakashchandra (2011)

developed a sensitive HPTLC method for the estimation of wedelolactone in different

extracts of Eclipta alba. Sharafzadeh et al. (2011) isolated essential oils from the leaf

and stem of Melissa officinalis, by GC and GC-MS method. Sivaraj et al. (2011)

conducted preliminary phytochemical screening using five different solvents extracts

of Aegle marmelos, Ruta graveolens, Opuntia dillenii, Euphorbia royleana and

Euphorbia antiquorum. Phytochemical profiling of Mimosa pudica was carried out

by Sriram et al. (2011). Sukumaran et al. (2011) identified the phytochemical

constituents of methanol extract of flower of Peltophorum pterocarpum.

Phytoconstituents found in Tridax procumbens were isolated and characterized by

23!

Surendra and Talele (2011). Various organic solvent extracts of Pedalium murex were

subjected to preliminary phytochemical screenings by Thamizh Mozhi et al. (2011).

Thenmozhi et al. (2011) identified the phytochemicals present in methanol extracts

of Eclipta alba and Emilia sonchifolia using HPTLC and FTIR. Vaghasiya et al.

(2011) conducted preliminary phytochemical screening and estimated total phenolics

and flavonoid contents in 5 traditionally used medicinal plants from western region of

India. Quantitative determination of phytochemicals, by HPTLC, was done by Verma

et al. (2011) in Eucalyptus hybrid leaves. Using thin layer chromatography technique,

Vladimir-Knezevic et al. (2011) estimated the flavonoid, phenolic acid and tannin

contents, in three selected species of Micromeria growing in Croatia. Yamunadevi et

al. (2011) investigated alkaloids profile of Aerva lanata using HPTLC.

Bajaj et al. (2012) reported the phytochemicals present in the methanol extract

of Achyranthes aspera. Johnson et al. (2012) reported the phytochemical constituents

present in the methanol flower extracts of Helicteres isora, Spathodea campanulata,

Antigonon leptopus and Thunbergia grandiflora. The crude leaf extract of Pteridium

aquilinum was subjected to preliminary phytochemical screening by Kardong et al.

(2012). Manohar et al. (2012) reported the phytochemicals present in the ethanol and

methanol extracts of fruit of Terminalia bellerica. Narasimhan and Mohan (2012)

studied the preliminary phytochemical constituents of Sesamum indicum seed.

Nirupama et al. (2012) identified the phytochemical constituents in aqueous and

methanol extract of various parts of Aegle marmelos using HPTLC. The different

solvent extracts of Kirganelia reticulata leaves were screened for their phytochemical

constituents by Shruthi et al. (2012). Agnel Ruba et al. (2013 a) carried out

preliminary phytochemical analysis of Arthocnemum fruticosum leaf using five

different solvents. Packia Lincy et al. (2013 a) conducted the preliminary

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phytochemical study of Ventilago maderaspatana whole plant, using different

solvents. Mohan et al. (2013) studied the preliminary phytochemical study of stem of

Suaeda monoica. Agnel Ruba et al. (2013 b) carried out preliminary phytochemical

screening of stem of Avicennia marina. Daffodil et al. (2013 a) reported the

preliminary phytochemical analysis of Asystasia gangetica.

Antioxidant activity

Free radicals are involved in many disorders like neurodegenerative diseases,

cancer and AIDS. Antioxidants through their scavenging power are useful for the

management of these diseases. DPPH stable free radical method is relatively rapid and

sensitive way which when encounters proton donors such as antioxidants, the radicals

get quenched and absorbance gets reduced, and thus used to survey the antioxidant

activity of a specific compound or plant extracts (Koleva et al., 2002, Qureshi et al.,

2010).

Antioxidant activities of 23 Iranian Ocimum accessions were studied by

Javanmardi et al. (2003). Chen et al. (2004) used microplated ABTS (2,2-azino-bis-[3-

ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid]), H2O2 and HRP (Horseradish peroxide)

system for evaluating total antioxidant activity of several popular vegetables and

traditional Chinese herbals. An in vitro survey for the antioxidant potentials of three

local Mediterranean food plant extracts (Cichorium intybus, Sonchus oleraceus and

Papaver rhoeas) was made by Schaffer et al. (2005). Pourmorad et al. (2006) carried

out a comparative study on the antioxidant potentials of some selected Iranian

medicinal plant extracts. The antioxidant properties of 25 edible tropical plants were

studied by Wong et al. (2006). Badami and Channabasavaraj (2007) studied the

in vitro antioxidant activities of thirteen medicinal plants collected from Western

Ghats of India.

25!

Ademiluyi and Oboh (2008) studied the antioxidant activity of methanol leaf

extract of Viscum album. By using linolenic acid peroxidation and DPPH methods,

Effat et al. (2008) screened thirteen medicinal plant extracts for antioxidant activity.

Janat et al. (2008) prepared the crude extracts of stem and leaves of Adenia lobata and

Desmodium ascendens, root and leaves of Glyphea brevis and Palisota hirsuta and

analyzed antioxidant potentials using DPPH assay. Moni Rani et al. (2008) evaluated

antioxidant activities of methanol extract of Ixora coccinea by DPPH free radical

scavenging activity, reducing power and total antioxidant activity assays. Rahman

et al. (2008) using DPPH assay, confirmed free radical scavenging activity of

methanol leaf extract of Cassia sophera. Suresh Kumar et al. (2008) surveyed

antioxidant activities of Albizzia amara, Achyranthes aspera, Cassia fistula,

C. auriculata and Datura stramonium.

Aliyu et al. (2009) evaluated antioxidant potentials of Bauhinia rufescens leaf

extract by DPPH and reducing power assays. Amal Kumar et al. (2009) evaluated the

antioxidant potentials of leaf and bark of Azadirachta indica. Bushra et al. (2009)

prepared four solvent extracts of the leaves of Terminalia arjuna and Aloe

barbadensis, by adopting two extraction techniques, and observed their antioxidant

activities. Devi et al. (2009) evaluated the antioxidant activity of Nephellium

lappaccum. Demiray et al. (2009) screened the leaves of Tilia argentea and Crataegi

folium and roots of Polygonum bistorta for their antioxidant properties. Jaleel (2009)

evaluated the antioxidant potentials of leaf and root tissues of Withania somnifera.

Laetitia and Christian (2009) studied antioxidant activity of Crithmum maritimum.

The methanol leaf extracts of Aegle marmelos, Abroma augusta, Lagersroemia

speciosa, Cassia fistula, Anthocephalus chinensis and Syzygium cumini were evaluated

for their antioxidant potentialities by Laizuman et al. (2009). Ljiljana et al. (2009)

26!

studied the antioxidant activity of Hieracium pilosella extracts. Methanol and aqueous

leaf extracts of Martynia annua were evaluated by Nagda et al. (2009), for their

antioxidant abilities, using various in vitro systems like reducing power assay, DPPH

radical scavenging activity, nitric oxide scavenging activity, H2O2 radical

scavenging activity, superoxide radical scavenging assay and hydroxyl radical

scavenging activity. Nazin and Nur (2009) used the methanol leaf and flower

extracts of Lippia alba to determine antioxidant activities by DPPH and reducing

power assay. A comparative study on the antioxidant potentials of four varieties

of Solanum melongena was evaluated by Nisha et al. (2009), by DPPH radical

scavenging activity, total reducing power assay, superoxide radical scavenging activity

and metal chelating activity. Using five in vitro assays, Patel et al. (2009) investigated

the antioxidant activities of the methanol extract of Grangea maderaspatana.

Total phenolic contents were also determined by them to evaluate the

relationship between the antioxidant activity and the phytochemical constituents.

Rajendra and Shakti (2009) prepared various extracts of medicinal plants from Tripura

and screened them for free radical scavenging activity. Ramesh et al. (2009) made a

comparison between the antioxidant activities, total phenolic and total flavonoid

contents of the leaves, latex and roots of field grown and in vitro raised Calotropis

procera. The methanol extract of Portulaca oleracea was evaluated for its antioxidant

activity by DPPH free radical scavenging activity, reducing power by FeCl3, nitric

oxide free radical scavenging activity and superoxide scavenging activity (Sanja et al.

2009). Antioxidant activities of Mentha piperita, Origonum vulgare and Capsicum

annum were determined by Univer et al. (2009). In vitro antioxidant activity of

Gymnema sylvestre leaf extract was investigated by Rachh et al. (2009). Vidyadhar

et al. (2010) determined the in vitro antioxidant activity of chloroform extract of

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aerial parts of Securinega leucopyrus. The antioxidant capacity of leaf, stem and fruit

extracts of Andrographis paniculata was investigated by Arash et al. (2010). Ayesha

et al. (2010) assessed the antioxidant ability of the methanol leaf extract of Muntingia

calabura Dheeraj et al. (2010) assessed the antioxidant potentials of different dried

parts of Cassia sophera. Gayathri Devi et al. (2010) studied in vitro antioxidant

activities of leaves and stem of Aristolochia indica. Methanol extracts of Carica

papaya leaf, Fagara zanthoxyloides root, Cajanus cajan seed, and Parquetina

nigrescens leaf were evaluated for their antioxidant activities by Imaga et al. (2010).

Patel et al. (2010) studied the total phenols, flavonoids and radical scavenging

activities of certain medicinal plants in Gujarat region. Paula et al. (2010) evaluated

antioxidant properties of Jacaranda puberula leaf extract. Pavithra et al. (2010)

estimated antioxidant activity of methanol extract of Evolvulus nummularius. The

crude methanol extracts of four Philippine medicinal plants viz., Brucea amarissima,

Intsia bijuga, Laportea meyeniana and Pipturus arborescens were examined by

Peteros and Uy (2010), for their antioxidant activities. Praveen Kumar et al. (2010)

screened the leaf extract of Vitex negundo for its antioxidant activity. Rekha et al.

(2010) screened the antioxidant activity of dry soup mix extracts containing

Anethum sowa leaves.

The antioxidant activities of aqueous and methanol extracts of Erythrina indica

leaves were tested by DPPH, nitric oxide radical scavenging activity under in vitro

condition by Sakat and Juvekar (2010). Shajiselvin and Kottai Muthu (2010)

examined in vitro antioxidant potentials of various extracts of whole plant of Borreria

hispida by DPPH radical scavenging activity, Superoxide anion scavenging activity

and Iron chelating activity. The antioxidant capacity and total phenolic contents

present in the acetone and methanol extracts of different parts of Melothria

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maderaspatana were evaluated by Sowndharajan et al. (2010). Antioxidant potentials

of methanol leaf extracts of Caesalpinia coriaria, Flacourtia cataphracta, Hiptage

benghalensis, Sesbania sesban, Persea macrophylla and tubers of Gloriosa superba

were analysed by Amutha and Shanthi (2011). Gokhan et al. (2011) examined in vitro

antioxidant activity and fatty acid composition of Centaurea urvillei. Mishra et al.

(2011) screened the extracts of ten Indian medicinal plant species for their antioxidant

activities. Antioxidant potentials of Gynura procumbens, Achyranthes aspera and

Polygonum tomentosum were studied by Mon et al. (2011). The chloroform and

methanol leaf extracts of 124 Egyptian plant species belonging to 56 families were

investigated and compared by Moussa et al. (2011), for their antioxidant potentials.

Naveen Prasad et al. (2011) screened antioxidant potentials of some common

plants. Nithya and Balakrishnan (2011) screened 13 important medicinal plants for

their antioxidant properties. Panda et al. (2011) screened the in vitro antioxidant

activity of aerial parts of Cocculus hirsutus. Patil and Patil (2011) studied the in vitro

antioxidant activity of seeds of blue and white flowered varieties of Clitoria ternatea.

Using some in vitro antioxidant models like DPPH radical scavenging activity,

superoxide radical scavenging activity, ferric reducing power and hydrogen peroxide

scavenging activity, Priya et al. (2011) studied the antioxidant activity of aqueous,

ethyl acetate, ethanol and methanol extracts of Caralluma fimbriata. Sathisha et al.

(2011) determined antioxidant potentials of Curcuma longa, Coffea arabica, Tribulus

terrestris, Moniera cuneleolia and Trigonella foenum-graecum using various in vitro

assays. Antioxidant potentials of root, stem, leaf and tuber of Coleus forskohlii were

analysed by Selima et al. (2011). Sengul et al. (2011) analysed the antioxidant

activities of Artemisia santonicum and Saponaria officinalis, the native Turkish

medicinal and aromatic plants. Stankovic et al. (2011) derived twenty different

29!

extracts from stem, leaf and flower of Teucrium montanum and determined their

antioxidant activities. Sudha et al. (2011) screened the in vitro antioxidant activity of

fresh fruit of Solanum muricatum. Venkateshwarlu et al. (2011) studied the in vitro and

in vivo antioxidant activity of methanol extract of Solena amplexicaulis

Alsabri et al. (2012) reported the in vitro antioxidant activities of aerial parts

of Cistus incanus, C. parviflorus, Helianthemum lippii, Arbutus pavarii, Capparis

spinosa, Rhamnus alaternus, Quercus coccifera and Globularia arabica. Anitha et al.

(2012 a) reported the in vitro antioxidant potential of whole plant of Cynoglossum

zeylanicum. Various fractions of the hydromethanolic extract of the roots of Coccinia

grandis were evaluated for their in vitro antioxidant activity (Bhadauria et al.,

2012). Christabel et al. (2012) carried out in vitro antioxidant studies and

scavenging potential of Prunus persica fruit pulp and peel. In vitro antioxidant

activity of ethanol (70%), methanol, ethyl acetate and hexane extracts of Synadium

grantii were investigated by Dasari et al. (2012). The antioxidant activities of

methanol and aqueous extracts of 31 medicinal wetland plants in Taiwan were

investigated by Ho et al. (2012). In vitro antioxidant potentials of methanol extracts of

different parts of Sauropus bacciformis were screened by Jenecius et al. (2012).

Mudoi et al. (2012) studied the in vitro antioxidant activity of Garcinia

pendunculata. Narayanasamy and Ragavan (2012) studied the antioxidant potentials of

Zanthoxylum tetraspermum stem bark by superoxide anion radicals, hydroxyl radicals,

hydrogen peroxide and DPPH radical scavenging activity. Paulpriya and Mohan (2012,

2013) reported the antioxidant activity of methanol extract of Dioscorea oppositifolia

and Dioscorea pentaphylla tubers. Ganga Rao et al. (2012) evaluated the in vitro

antioxidant activity of methanol leaf extract of Entada pursaetha using superoxide

radical, hydroxyl radical and DPPH radical scavenging methods. Sakthidevi and

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Mohan (2012) made a comparative in vitro free radical scavenging activities of

Polygala javana, P. chinensis and P. rosmarinifolia. The antioxidant potentials of

different solvent extracts of Crataeva magna were evaluated using DPPH, ABTS,

superoxide radical, hydroxyl radical, nitric oxide radical scavenging activities and

lipid peroxidation inhibition assay (Sridhar et al. 2012). Tresina et al. (2012 a) studied

the in vitro antioxidant activity of leaf of Eugenia singampattiana using different

models like DPPH, hydroxyl, superoxide and ABTS radical cation scavenging activity.

In vitro antioxidant activities of various parts of Cinnamomum cassia extracted with

different extraction methods were evaluated by Yang et al. (2012).

Agnel Ruba and Mohan (2013) reported the in vitro antioxidant activity of

rhizome of Maranta arundinacea. Agnel Ruba et al. (2013 c) studied the antioxidant

potential of leaf of Arthocnemum fruticosum using different models like DPPH,

hydroxyl, superoxide and ABTS radical cation scavenging activity. Agnel Ruba et al.

(2013 d) reported the in vitro antioxidant activity of leaf of Avicennia marina using

various in vitro assay models. Daffodil and Mohan (2013) reported the in vitro

antioxidant activity of rhizome of Nymphaea pubescens. Daffodil et al. (2013 b)

studied the in vitro antioxidant activity of leaf of Salicornia brachiata. Jenecius and

Mohan (2013) studied the in vitro antioxidant activity of corm of Amorphophallus

paeoniifolius using various antioxidant model systems. Nishanthini et al. (2013)

reported the in vitro antioxidant activity of stem of Anthocnemum fruticosum using

various antioxidant models viz., DPPH, hydroxyl, superoxide and ABTS. Packia

Lincy et al. (2013 b) studied the in vitro antioxidant activity of stem of Suaeda

monoica. Paulpriya et al. (2013 a, b) reported the in vitro antioxidant activity of leaf

of Sesuvium portulacastrum and pneumatophores of Avicennia marina using

different models. In vitro antioxidant activity of methanol extract of tuber of

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Dioscorea tomentosa was evaluated by Rajalakshmi and Mohan (2013).

In vitro antioxidant activity of leaf of Hugonia mystex was evaluated by Rajeswari et

al. (2013). Sakthidevi and Mohan (2013 a) studied the in vitro antioxidant activity of

Dioscorea alata. Daffodil et al. (2014) studied the in vitro antioxidant activity of

Vernonia cinerea. Jegadeeswari et al. (2014 a, b) studied the antioxidant activities of

Aristolochia krysagathra and Aristolochia bracteata. Packia Lincy et al. (2014)

reported the in vitro antioxidant activity of aerial parts of Maerua apetala.

Rajendrakumar et al. (2014) determined the antioxidant activity of tuber of Ruellia

tuberosa. Sakthidevi et al. (2014) reported the in vitro antioxidant activity of leaf

extracts of Alangium salviforum.

Anticancer activity

Tumour is a mass of tissue which proliferates rapidly, spread throughout the

body and may eventually cause death of the host (Mohan, 2006). Chemotherapy is an

effective treatment against various types of cancer either singly or in combination with

surgery and/or radiotherapy. However, chemotherapeutic effects of most of the drugs

showed limited efficacies due to the development of various side effects.

Chemotherapy is still a major challenge to the cancer patients because such highly

potent drug can be toxic and less than 1% of injected drug molecules can reach their

target cells whereas the rest may damage healthy cells and tissue especially bone

marrow, epithelial tissues, reticulo-endothelial system and gonads (Kathiriya et al.

2010). The plant-derived compounds have always been an important source of

medicines for various diseases and have received considerable attention in recent years

due to their diverse pharmacological properties including cytotoxic and cancer chemo-

preventive effects (Gonzales and Valerio, 2006). Since medieval times, plants have

been the source of medicines for the treatment of diseases. Regardless of the

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availability of a wealth of synthetic drugs, plants remain, even in the 21st

century, an

integral part of the health care in different countries, especially the developing ones.

In the late 90s, the WHO stated that a big percentage of the world’s population

depends on plant based therapies to cover the needs of the primary health care

(WHO, 1999; Dikshit et al., 2004). The areas of cancer and infectious diseases have a

leading position in utilization of medicinal plants as a source of drug discovery.

Among FDA approved anticancer and antiinfectious preparations, drugs of natural

origin have a share of 60% and 75% respectively (Newman et al., 2003). It is worthy

to mention the vivid current interest in discovery of natural drugs for cancer treatment

and chemoprevention (Kucuk, 2002; Balunas and Kinghorn, 2005). Huge number of

plant species is screened and bioassayed for this purpose worldwide (Richardson,

2001).

Another important addition to the anticancer drug armamentarium is the class

of clinically-active agents derived from camptothecin, which is isolated from the

Chinese ornamental tree Camptotheca acuminata Decne (Nyssaceae), known in China

as the tree of joy. The derivatives of Camptothecin, Topotecin and Irinotecan, were

originally developed by Japanese company, YAKUH Honsha, are now in clinical use.

These are used for the treatment of ovarian cancer, lung cancer and colorectal cancer

(Cragg and Newman, 2004/Rev.2006).

Other plant derived agents in clinical use are homoharringtonine, isolated from

the Chinese tree Cephalotaxus harringtonia var. drupacea and elliptinium a derivative

of the ellipticine, isolated from species of several genera of the family Apocynaceae,

including Bleekeria vitensis have reputed anticancer properties (Cragg and Newman,

2004/Rev.2006). Some medicinal plants have been found effective in various types of

malignant (cancer) and benign tumours of humans and experimental animals. These

33!

include: Agrimonia pilosa in sarcoma-180; Ailanthus altissima in intestinal cancer,

sarcoma-180, sarcoma-37 and leukaemia-16; Akebia quinata in sarcoma-180 and

sarcoma-37; Chelidonium jajus var. asiaticum in stomach cancer; Chimaphila

umbellata in breast tumour; Coix lachrymahjobi in ascites cancer and yoshida’s

sarcoma; Fritillaria thunbergii in tumours of the throat, chest, neck and breast; Larrea

tridentata in various cancers, especially leukaemia; Lonicera japonica in ascites

carcinoma and sarcoma-180; Nidus vespae in gastric and liver cancer; Oldenlandia

diffusa in leukaemia, yoshida’s sarcoma, sarcoma-180 and ehrlich’s ascites sarcoma

(EAS); Patrinia heterophylla and P. scabiosaefolia in ascites cancer; Phaleria

macrocarpa in oesophageal cancer; Polygonum cuspidatum in sarcoma-180; Pteris

multifida in sarcoma-180, sarcoma-37 and yoshida’s sarcoma; Pygeum africanum in

prostate cancer; Pyrus malus in lung, colon, breast and intestinal cancers; Scutellaria

barbata in sarcoma-180 and ehrlich’s ascites carcinoma; Smilax chinensis and

S. glabra in sarcoma-180 and ascites sarcoma; Solanum lyrati in sarcoma-180,

sarcoma- 37, ehrlich’s ascites carcinoma and stomach cancer; Sophora flavescens and

S. subprostrata in sarcoma-180, leukaemia and cervical cancer-14 cells; Taraxacum

mongolicum in ascites cancer, sarcoma-180 and lung cancer cells and Vitex

rotundifolia in lung tumour (Hsu, 1990; Hecht et al., 1990; Pan, 1992; Chang, 1992;

Boik, 1995; Han and Xu, 1988; Eberhsrdt et al., 2000; Prajapati et al. 2003; Faried

et al., 2007).

The methanolic extracts of Caesalpinia bonducella leaves and Bauhinia

racemosa stem bark were evaluated for antitumor activity against ehrlich’s ascites

carcinoma bearing mice (Gupta et al., 2004). Rajeshwari et al. (2005) reported the

antitumor activity of Mucuna pruriens seeds against ehrlich’s ascites carcinoma in

Swiss albino mice. Zahran et al. (2005) studied the antitumor activity of aqueous

34!

extract of Salix safsaf against two types of tumours, ehrlich’s ascites carcinoma cells

(EACC) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Dongre et al. (2007) reported the

antitumour activity of methanol extract of Hypericum hookerianum stem against

ehrlich’s ascites carcinoma in Swiss albino mice. Pradhan et al. (2008) studied the

methanolic extracts of Foeniculum vulgare and Helicteres isora against normal human

blood lymphocytes by micronucleus assay and antitumour activity against B16F10

melanoma cell line by trypan blue exclusion assay for cell viability and found out that

70% methanolic extract of Foeniculum vulgare showed good antitumour activity and

50% methanolic extract of Helicteres isora exhibited good antitumour activity. They

concluded that Foeniculum vulgare and Helicetres isora could be considered as

normal resource of antitumour agents.

The methanol extract of Zingiber officinalis was evaluated for anticancer

activity against ehrlich’s ascites carcinoma (Hanafy, 2009). Some Egyptian medicinal

plants such as leaves of Luffa aegyptiaca, Solenostemma argha, Cassia italica,

Ocimum basillicum, Colocasia antiguorum, Beta vulgaris and fruits of Capsicum

frutescens were evaluated for in vitro anticancer activity against Acute Myeloid

Leukemia (AML) and Acute Lymphocyte Leukemia (ALL) and in vivo anticancer

activity against ehrlich’s ascites carcinoma (Nasar-Allah et al. 2009). The anticancer

activity of hydro-distilled essential oils obtained from flowers of Matricaria

chamomilla and the dried leaves of Marjorana hortensis against leukaemia HL-60 and

NB 4 cells were tested in vitro by Romeilah (2009), and the results obtained by him

proved that the essential oils of above plants could be used as a potential natural

antioxidant and anticancer agents. Bala et al. (2010) reported the anticancer activity of

Cleome gynandra in Swiss albino mice against ehrlich’s ascites carcinoma cell line.

Forty four extracts from sixteen plants, used traditionally as anticancer agents, were

35!

evaluated in vitro for their antiproliferative activity against Hep-2, MCF-7 and Vero

cell lines. Twenty of these extracts demonstrated significant antiproliferative activity

against one or more of the cell lines. Among the tested extracts, methanol fractions of

Ononis hirta aerial parts and Irula viscosa flowers were the most active fractions

against MCF-7 cells, (Talib and Mahasneh, 2010).

Anbu et al. (2011) studied the anticancer activity of petroleum ether extract of

Abrus precatorius seed against ehrlich’s ascites carcinoma in mice. Jeevanantham et

al. (2011) studied the anticancer activity of methanolic extract of aerial part of

Momordica cymbalaria against ehrlic’s ascites carcinoma in mice. The ethanol extracts

of Eugenia flocossa and Eugenia singampattiana leaves were evaluated for anticancer

activity against Dalton Ascites Lymphoma in Swiss albino mice (Kala et al.,

2011). Mahadik et al. (2011) studied the antitumor and antioxidant activity of

ethanolic extract of Vitis vinifera leaves against ehrlich’s ascites carcinoma induced

Swiss albino mice on dose dependent manner. The ethanolic extract of leaves of

Butea monosperma was evaluated for its anticancer activity against ehrlich’s ascites

carcinoma in Swiss albino mice (Rekha and Jayakar, 2011). The methanol extract of

Cucurbita maxima aerial parts was evaluated for its antitumor activity against

ehrlich’s ascites carcinoma model in mice (Saha et al. 2011).

Islam et al. (2012) studied the anticancer activity of petroleum ether extract

of Eucalyptus camaldulensis against ehrlich’s ascites carcinoma. Anticancer activity of

methanolic flower extract of Tecamo stans was evaluated using both in vivo and

in vitro methods (Kameshwaran et al., 2012). Kota et al. (2012) reported the anticancer

activity of various concentrations of ethanolic extract of the leaves of Achyranthes

bidentata against DAL and EAL cell lines. Lalee et al. (2012) reported the anticancer

activity of ethanolic and aqueous extracts of Aerva sanguinolenta against ehrlich’s

36!

ascites carcinoma cells induced Swiss mice. Marappan and Subramaniyan (2012)

reported the antitumour activity of methanolic extract of Cynodon dactylon leaves

against ehrlich’s ascites carcinoma in mice. The ethanol extract of Madhuca

longifolia leaves was evaluated for its anticancer activity ehrlich’s ascites carcinoma in

mice (Sangameswaran et al. 2012). The acetone and ethanol extracts from the leaves of

Adina cordifolia were evaluated for anticancer activity against e hrlich’s ascites

carcinoma bearing Swiss albino mice (Sangameswaran and Saluja, 2012). Anitha

et al. (2012b) reported antitumour activity of ethanol extract of whole plant of

Cynoglossum zeylanicum against Dalton Ascites Lymphoma in Swiss albino rats.

Sarada et al. (2012) reported the anticancer activity of ethanol extract of leaf and bark

of Narirgi crenulata against ehrlich’s ascites carcinoma. The ethanol extracts of

Polygala chinensis, P. rosmarinifolia, and P. javana whole plants were evaluated for

their anticancer activity against DAL bearing mice (Alagammal et al., 2012a, 2013a).

The ethanol extracts of Polycarpea corymbosa and Melastoma malabathricum whole

plants were studied for their anticancer activity against Dalton Ascites Lymphoma

(Balamurugan et al., 2013 a, b.)

Antidiabetic activity

Diabetes is a disorder of metabolism, the way our body uses and digests the

food for growth and energy. Most of the food we eat is broken down into glucose, the

form of sugar in the blood. Glucose is the main source of fuel for the body. After

digestion, glucose passes into the bloodstream, where it is used by the cells for growth

and energy. For glucose to get into cells, insulin is essential. Insulin is a hormone

produced by pancreas, the large gland behind the stomach. When we eat, the pancreas

automatically produces the right amount of insulin to move glucose from blood into

our cells. In people with diabetes, however, the pancreas either produces little or no

37!

insulin, or the cells do not respond appropriately to the insulin that is produced.

Glucose built up in the blood, overflows into the urine, and passes out of the body in

the urine. Thus, the body loses its main source of fuel even though the blood contains

a large amount of glucose. The first stage in Type 2 diabetes is the condition called

insulin resistance; although insulin can attach normally to receptors on liver and

muscle cells, certain mechanisms prevent insulin from moving glucose into these

cells where it can be used. Most Type 2 diabetics produce variable, even normal or

high amounts of insulin, and in the beginning, this amount is usually sufficient to

overcome such resistance. Over time, the pancreas becomes unable to produce

enough insulin to overcome resistance. In Type 2 diabetes, the initial effect of this

stage is usually an abnormal rise in blood sugar right after a meal (called postprandial

hyperglycemia). This effect is now believed to be particularly damaging to the body.

Eventually, the cycle of elevated glucose further impairs and possibly destroys beta

cells, thereby stopping insulin production completely and causing full-down diabetes.

This is made evident by fasting hyperglycemia, in which elevated glucose levels are

present most of the time.

Diabetes mellitus is an epidemic occurring in adults throughout the world and

is the leading cause of kidney failure, heart attack, blindness and lower limb

amputation. It is the fourth main cause of death in most developed countries. The

prevalence of diabetes is estimated to reach 330 million by the year 2025, according to

International Diabetes Federation, with the greatest potential increase being in Africa

and Asia. This numerical increase will occur in developing countries. By the year

2025, over 75% of people with diabetes will reside in developing countries, as

compared to 62% in 1995 (Eseyin et al., 2012). Currently available therapies for

diabetes include insulin and various oral antidiabetic agents such as sulfonylureas,

38!

biguanides and glinides. Many of them have a number of serious adverse effects;

therefore, the search for more effective and safer hypoglycaemic agents is one of the

important areas of investigations (Patel et al., 2012). Many herbs and plants have been

described as possessing hypoglycaemic activity when taken orally (Rajan et al., 2012).

According to the World Health Organization, there are more than 1200 plant species

worldwide used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus and substantial number of plant

showed effective hypoglycaemic activity after laboratory testing (Rajasekar et al.,

2010). Recently, some medicinal plants have been reported to be useful in diabetes

worldwide and have been used empirically in antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic

remedies. Antihyperglycaemic activity of the plants is mainly due to their ability to

restore the function of pancreatic tissues by causing an increase in insulin output or

inhibiting the intestinal absorption of glucose or to the facilitation of metabolites in

insulin dependent processes.

More than 400 plant species having hypoglycaemic activity have been available

in literature, however, searching for new antidiabetic drugs from natural plants is still

attractive because they contain substances which demonstrate alternative and safe

effects on diabetes mellitus. Most of the plants contain glycosides, alkaloids,

terpenoids, flavonoids, carotenoids etc., that are frequently implicated as having

antidiabetic effect (Malviya et al., 2010). However, the study of plant for

hypoglycaemic, antioxidant and hypolipidemic activities may give new

pharmacological approaches in the treatment of diabetes mellitus (Dangi and Mishra,

2010).

Several medicinal plants have been used as dietary adjunct and in the treatment

of numerous diseases without proper knowledge of their function. Although

phytotherapy is continued to be used in several countries, a few plants have received

39!

scientific or medical scrutiny. Moreover, a large number of medicinal plants possess

some degree of toxicity. For example, Marles and Farnsworth (1994) reported that

about one third of medicinal plants used in the treatment of diabetes are considered to

be toxic. Numerous animal studies have shown that the ethanol leaf and flower

extracts of Vinca rosea and Ficus racemosa lower the blood glucose levels (Ghosh

and Gupta, 1980).

The extract of Achyranthes aspera produced a significant dose-related

hypoglycaemic effect in normoglycaemic and alloxan induced diabetic rabbits. The

water and methanol extracts of this plant also decreased blood sugar levels in these

animals. This plant might be providing certain necessary elements like calcium, zinc,

magnesium, manganese and copper to the beta-cells (Akhtar and Iqbal, 1991). Oral

administration of Asteracantha longifolia extract significantly improved glucose

tolerance in healthy human and diabetic patients (Fernando et al. 1991). S-allyl

cysteine sulphoxide (SACS), a sulphur-containing amino acid of Allium sativum, is

the precursor of allicin and garlic oil. SACS had been found to show a significant

antidiabetic effect in alloxan induced diabetic rats. Administration of alloxan induced

diabetic rats, with SACS at the dose of 200 mg/kg body weight, significantly

decreased the concentration of serum lipids, blood glucose and activities of serum

enzymes like alkaline phosphatase, acid phosphatase, lactate dehydrogenase and liver

glucose 6 phosphatase. It significantly increased the liver and intestinal HMG CoA

reductase activity and liver hexokinase activity (Sheela and Augusti, 1992). Benjamin

et al. (1994) reported that Catharanthus roseus could be used as potential

hypoglycaemic agent because the leaf extract of this plant was found to increase

insulin and in the restoration of blood glucose and body weight to normal levels.

Saponin, isolated from the leaves of Acanthopanax senticosus, when injected to

40!

experimental mice decreased hyperglycaemia induced by injection of adrenalin,

glucose and alloxan without affecting the levels of blood sugar in untreated mice (Sui

et al., 1994).

Mukherjee et al. (1995) studied the effect of methanol extract of Nelumbo

nucifera on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats and reported a decrease in glycaemia.

The healthy rabbits were subjected to weekly subcutanaceous glucose tolerance test

after the gastric administration of water, tolbutamide or a traditional preparation of

Cuminum cyminum by Roman - Ramos et al. (1995), to study the antihyperglycaemic

effect. The results showed that the gastric administration of C. cyminum significantly

decreased the area under glucose tolerance curve and the hyperglycaemic peak.

Garg et al. (1997) reported that daily one time administration of the leaf

juice of Lantana camara, at different dose levels for 14 days in rats, resulted in an

alterations in various haematological and biochemical parameters. They observed that

1500 mg dose level had a strong hypoglycaemic effect. Noor and Asherof

(1998) observed that Tinospora crispa stimulated insulin release via modulation of

intracellular Ca2+

concentration in pancreatic beta-cells. Administration with the

extracts of Beta vulgaris var. cicla inhibited the increase in the non-enzymatic

glycosylation of skin proteins and blood glucose. These results demonstrated the

ability of this plant in preventing or at least retarding the development of some

diabetic complications (Tunali et al., 1998). Oral administration of with aqueous

extract of Tinospora cordifolia roots produced a significant decrease in glycaemia and

brain lipids in alloxan induced diabetic rats (Stanley et al., 1999). The ethanol bark

and leaf extracts of Thespesia populnea were investigated for hypoglycaemic effects in

streptozotocin induced diabetic rats and this was compared with glibenclamide, a

standard hypoglycaemic agent; also measured the lipid peroxide, superoxide dismutase

41!

and catalase enzymes level in the kidney of the animal. The root and aerial parts

extracts of Sida cordifolia showed hypoglycaemic activity. Moreover, the methanol

root extract was found to possess significant hypoglycaemic activity. Several plant

species such as Opuntia streptacantha, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Memordica

charantia, Ficus benghalensis, Polygala senega, Gymnema sylvestre, Allium sativum,

Citrullus colocynthis, and Aloe barbadensis were reported to possess hypoglycaemic

properties (Atta-Ur-Rahman and Zaman, 1989; Ziyyat et al., 1997; Bnouham et al.,

2002).

Chattapadhyay (1999) reported that the leaf extract of Azadirachta indica

significantly blocked the inhibitory effect of serotonin on insulin secretion mediated

by glucose. Moreover, A. indica leaf extract was found to have the most potent blood

sugar lowering property followed by Catharanthus roseus, Gymnema sylvestre and

Ocimum sanctum (Chattapadhyay, 1993). Uma Devi et al. (2006) reported the

antidiabetic and hyperlipidaemic effects of Cassia auriculata in alloxan induced

diabetic rats. Effect of Ficus carica leaf decoction, as a supplement to breakfast, was

studied in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) patients. The methanol leaf

extract of Costus pictus was investigated for its antidiabetic effect in wistar albino

rats by Jothivel et al. (2007). Pari et al. (2007) investigated the insulin receptor-

binding effect of Cassia auriculata flower extract in streptozotocin induced diabetic

male wistar rats. The antidiabetic potential of the whole plant petroleum ether, ethanol

and aqueous extracts of Phyllanthus fraternus was estimated in alloxan induced

diabetic albino rats (Garg et al., 2008). Noor et al. (2008) studied the antidiabetic

activity of Aloe vera in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Petroleum ether, ethyl

acetate and ethanol extracts of Dendrophthoe falcata leaves were investigated for their

antidiabetic activity in alloxan induced diabetic rats by Tenpe et al. (2008).

42!

Adebayo et al. (2009) demonstrated the antidiabetic properties of aqueous

leaf extract of Bougainvillea glabra on alloxan induced diabetic rats. Murugan et al.

(2009) studied the antidiabetic and hypolipidaemic activity of Mucuna pruriens leaves

in alloxan induced diabetic rats. The antidiabetic effect of Artemisia judaica extract on

alloxan induced diabetic rats was studied by Nofal et al. (2009). Gurjar et al. (2010)

reported the antidiabetic activity of Anthocephalus cadamba bark in alloxan induced

diabetic rats. Kumar et al. (2010) studied the antidiabetic activity of Euphorbia hitra

stem, leaf and flower extracts against normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.

Sharma et al. (2010) investigated the antidiabetic activity of Ficus glomerata in

alloxan induced diabetic rats. Maruthupandian and Mohan (2011) studied the

antidiabetic effects of ethanol wood and bark extracts and combined wood and bark

extract of Pterocarpus marsupium in wistar albino rats. The ethanol leaf extract of

Senna auriculata was investigated for its antidiabetic and antihyperlipidaemic

activities in wistar albino rats by Shunmugasundaram et al. (2011).

Alagammal et al. (2012c, d) investigated the effect of whole plant ethanol

extract of Polygala chinensis and P. rosmarinifolia for their antidiabetic and

antihyperlipidaemic effects in wistar albino rats. Anitha et al. (2012 c) reported the

antihyperglycaemic, antihyperlipidemic and antioxidant activity of whole plant of

Cynoglossum zeylanicum in alloxan induced diabetic rats. Halmi et al. (2012) reported

the antidiabetic activity of Opuntia ficus-indica. Kala et al. (2012 a) reported the

antidiabetic activity of Eugenia floccosa leaves in alloxan induced diabetic rats.

Manohar et al. (2012) studied the hypoglycaemic and antihyperglycaemic effects

of Moringa oleifera aqueous extract in normal and alloxan induced diabetic rabbits.

Neha et al. (2012) studied the antidiabetic activity of ethanol extract of Albizzia

lebbeck in alloxan induced diabetic rats. Ramachandran et al. (2012) reported the

43!

antidiabetic, antihyperlipidemic and in vitro antioxidant potentials of aqueous of

Anogeissus latifolia bark in Type 2 diabetic rats. Potential antidiabetic effect of

Nymphaea pubescens tuber extract, in alloxan induced diabetic rats, was investigated

by Shajeela et al. (2012).

Muthulakshmi et al. (2013) reported the antidiabetic, antihyperlipidaemic and

antioxidant activities of ethanol extract of leaf and bark of Feronia elephantum on

alloxan induced diabetic rats. Shajeela et al. (2013) reported the antidiabetic,

hypolipidemic and antioxidant effects of ethanol extract of corm of Xanthosoma

sagittifolium against alloxan induced diabetic rats. Thanga Krishna Kumari et al.

(2013a, b) studied the hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of ethanol extracts of

whole plant of Sarcosrtemma secamone and Canscora perfoliata against alloxan

induced diabetic rats. Balamurugan et al. (2014a, b) studied the antidiabetic and

antihyperlipidaemic activity of whole plant ethanol extracts of Polycarpaea corymbosa

and Melastoma malabathricum in alloxan induced diabetic rats.

Hepatoprotective activity

Liver is the vital organ responsible for drug metabolism and appears to be a

sensitive target site for substances modulating biotransformation (Ahmad et al., 2002).

Liver diseases are mainly caused by toxic chemicals, excess consumption of alcohol,

infections and autoimmune disorders. Certain medicinal agents, introduced within

therapeutic ranges, may injure the organ some times. Other chemical agents, those used

in herbal remedies, may also induce hepatotoxicity (Boerth et al., 2002). Nowadays

drug induced liver injury has become a major health problem. Liver diseases such as

jaundice, cirrhosis and fatty liver are very common and large public health problems in

the world (Balamurugan et al., 2008). There is no rational therapy available for treating

liver disorders so that management of liver diseases is still a challenge to the modern

44!

medicine. The traditional system of medicine has a major role in the treatment of liver

ailments.

Ayurvedic and other traditional medical practitioners of the world have claimed

for centuries that extracts from plants can be effectively used for the alleviation of

different types of liver diseases (Subramaniam and Pushpangadan, 1999). Most of the

claims are however, anecdotal and a very few have received adequate medical or

scientific evaluation. Except for the use of appropriate vaccine for the treatment of

hepatitis caused by viral infection, a very few effective treatments are available today

to cure liver diseases. Therefore, it is not surprising that a considerable interest has

been taken by researchers to examine their numerous traditional plant remedies, used

for treating liver disorders. In recent years, investigations have been carried out to

provide experimental evidences confirming that many of these plants do have

hepatoprotective properties (Sharma and Gupta, 2003).

Mondal et al. (2005) reported that methanol extract of Diospyros malabarica

bark had a potent hepatoprotective activity against carbon tetrachloride induced liver

damage in rats. Dash et al. (2007) reported that chloroform and methanol entire plant

extracts of Ichnocarpus frutescens served as effective hepatoprotective agents in

paracetamol induced liver damage in rats. Iniaghe et al. (2008) reported that the

aqueous leaf extract of Acalypha racmosa served as an effective hepatoprotective agent

against CCl4 induced liver damage. Abdul-Razik et al. (2009) studied the effect of

ethyl acetate and n-butanol extracts and volatile oil of Juncus subulatus, in ethanol

induced hepatic injury, in female rats, and showed that all extracts served as potential

hepatoprotective agents. Jain et al. (2009) compared the hepatoprotective potentials

of ethanol and aqueous extracts of Amorphophallus campanulatus tubers using carbon

tetrachloride induced hepatic damage in rats. This study revealed that the ethanol

45!

extract was more hepatoprotective than the aqueous extract. Aqueous extracts of seeds

of Areca catechu and nutgalls of Quercus infectoria were investigated for their

hepatoprotective activities, against liver injury, induced by carbon tetrachloride

(CCl4) in rats (Pithayanukul et al., 2009). Tiwari and Khosa (2009) evaluated the

hepatoprotective effects of aqueous and methanol extracts of flower heads of

Sphaeranthus indicus, a traditional Indian medicinal plant commonly used to nourish

and improve the liver conditions, on acetaminophen induced hepatotoxicity in rats.

Hepatoprotective activity of water and alcoholic extracts of Luffa acutangula,

against carbon tetrachloride and rifampicin-induced hepatotoxicity in rats, was

evaluated by Jadhav et al. (2010). Shyamal et al. (2010) reported that ethanol root

extracts of Ixora coccinea, Rhinacanthus nastus and whole plant extract of Spilanthes

ciliata served as potental hepatoprotective agents in aflatoxin B1 intoxicated livers of

albino male wistar rats. Ravikumar et al. (2011) reported the hepatoprotective activity

of ethanol extract of Suaeda monoica leaves against concanavation-A induced

hepatoxicity in rats. Suky et al. (2011) reported the hepatoprotective effect of

Balanites aeyptiace against CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Banu et al. (2012)

studied the hepatoprotective activity of methanol extract of Barleria montana leaves

against ethanol induced rat hepatic injury.

Anitha et al. (2012 d) reported the hepatoprotective and antioxidant activity of

ethanol extract of whole plant Cynoglossum zeylanicum against CCl4 induced

hepatotoxicity in rats. Gnanasekaran et al. (2012) reported the in vitro hepatoprotective

activity of ethanol extract of Indigofera tinctoria whole plant against CCl4 induecd

hepatotoxicity. Methanol extract of root of Elephantopus scabes was evaluated for its

hepatoprotective activity against carbon tetrachloride induced liver damage in rats

(Sheeba et al., 2012). Alcoholic and aqueous extracts of Embelia tsjeriam fruits were

46!

evaluated for their hepatoprotective activity against carbon tetrachloride induced

hepatoxicity in rats (Sudhir and Suhas, 2012). Ethanol extracts of whole plants of

Canscora perfoliata and Sarcostemma secamone were evaluated for hepatoprotective

activity against CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity in rats (Thangakrishnakumari et al., 2012

c, d). Alagammal et al. (2013 b) reported the hepatoprotective activity of ethanol

extract of Polygala rosmarinifolia whole plant against CCl4 treated rats. Kala et al.

(2013a) investigated the hepatoprotective effect of ethanol extract of Eugenia

singampattiana leaf CCl4 treated rats. Sakthidevi and Mohan (2013b) evaluated the

hepatoprotective activity of Polygala chinensis whole plant against CCl4 induced

hepatotoxicity in rats. Sakthidevi et al. (2013) studied the hepatoprotective activity of

ethanol extract of Polygala javana whole plant against CCl4 treated rats.

Antifertility activity

Population growth throughout the world, more particularly in underdeveloped

countries, has tremendous effect on the economic progress. There is a global need to

support individuals in family-planning due to the increasing growth rate of the world’s

population with its negative impact on environment as well as on social system.

Although considerable progress has been made in the development of highly effective

variety of synthetic contraceptive drugs, the most challenging pursuits in health care

system is the search for newer, more potent, additional safe and less expensive methods

that require self administration and can be available to the majority of population of any

country. It is why traditional medicine has received considerable interest in the

treatment of diseases in the third world population. Nearly 80% of the world

populations rely on traditional medicines for primary health care, most of which involve

the use of plant extracts (Sandhya et al., 2006). Several studies for induction of

infertility have been investigated over a long period including immunological,

47!

hormonal and chemical approaches (Gupta and Rahi, 2006). Many plants’ extract have

been used as antifertility agents in folklore and traditional medicine without producing

apparent toxic effects (Singh and Singh, 2009).

Recently, efforts are being made to explore the hidden wealth of medicinal

plants for contraceptive use. With the exciting prospects of gene therapy, herbal

medicines remain one of the commonest forms of therapy available for much of

world’s population to maintain health and to treat diseases. There has been a steady

accumulation of information regarding the screening of plants having antifertility

efficacy (Hanshaw, 1953; Chopra et al., 1956; Chopra et al., 1958; Casey, 1960;

Bhakuni et al., 1969 and Farnsworth et al., 1975a and 1975b). The folklore

information and the ancient literature about the herbals can help antifertility program.

In the recent past, various researchers have done a number of works on plants and

isolated, identified and evaluated active principles from different parts of plants such

as root, stem, leaves, flowers, seeds or stem barks. These reports have been

exhaustively reviewed by Orzechowski (1972); Brondegaard (1973); Kholkute et al.

(1976); Kamboj and Dhawan (1982); Zhu (1982) and Satyawati (1983). A literature

survey for the period of past 25 years (1980-2005) revealed that there are about 105

plants possessing antifertility activity in males (Gupta and Sharma, 2006).

Hadley et al. (1981) isolated gossypol, a yellow phenolic compound from

cotton seed oil and confirmed it as a male contraceptive drug. They found that

gossypol treatment reduced the level of serum testosterone and luteinizing hormone

levels. Gossypol acts directly on testes and induces azoospermia or oligospermia (Xue,

1980; Xue, 1985 and Taitzoglou et al., 1999). A multi-glycoside extracted from the

root xylem of Tripterygium wilfordii was shown to have a reversible antifertility action

in male rats by Qian (1987) using Task-Force supported study. Its antifertility activity

48!

was well documented in rats, mice and human (Qian, 1986 and Qian et al., 1995).

Choudhary et al. (1991) studied antifertility effect of ethanol leaf extracts of

Alstonia scholaris, Cleistanthus collinus and Terminalia bellerica and root extract of

Murraya paniculata in male albino rats. Lohiya and Goyal (1992) administered

chloroform extract of Carica papaya seeds and showed a decrease in sperm count and

the suppression of cauda epididymal sperm motility in rats. They also suggested that

contraceptive effects were mainly post testicular in nature and without adverse

influence on the lipid profile of animals. Verma and Chinoy (2001) reported that

the Carica papaya seed extract altered cauda epididymal micro-environment.

Petroleum ether, benzene and ethanolic extracts of Crotolaria juncea seeds were

administered intraperitoneally, at the dose level of 25 mg/100 g body weight, to albino

male mice for 30 days by Vijaykumar et al. (2003). Manivannan et al. (2004) observed

the ultra-structural changes in the testis and epididymis of rats following treatment

with the chloroform extracts of the Carica papaya seeds.

Dehghan et al. (2006) reported that the Azadirachta indica seed extract altered

vas deferens and epididymal milieu and affected the spermatozoa. The ethanol and

aqueous extracts of the dried stem bark of the plant Crataeva nurvala (Capparidaceae)

have been found to possess significant antifertility effects in rats. (Bhaskar et al.,

2009). They exhibited a partial and complete resorption of implants at 300 mg/kg and

600 mg/kg body weight dose levels respectively. Bassia latifolia bud and Cajanus

cajan seed were evaluated for antifertility activity in mature female mice by

Bandyopadhyay (2010). Antifertility activity was evaluated by observing the estrus

cycle, body weight, wet weight of ovaries, steroidogenic enzymes and substrates.

Ahirwar (2011) studied the antifertility activity of alcoholic extract of Acacia

leucophploea root by evaluating estrus cycle study, genital organ weight and

49!

biochemical parameter. Raj et al. (2011) summarized the antifertility activity in terms

of antifertility botanical agents such as estrous cycle disruptors, antiestrogenic,

antiimplantation, abortifacient properties of different plants described by various

researchers. Sathiyaraj et al. (2011) evaluated the antifertility effect of aqueous leaf

extract of Andrographis paniculata in albino rats. The results suggest that the aqueous

extract of the leaves of A. paniculata has spermicidal activity. Priya et al. (2012)

reviewed the profiles of plants with antifertility, reported in the literature from 1994

to 2010. The profiles presented include information about the scientific name, family,

the degree of antifertility activity and the active agents. Vijaykumar et al. (2012)

reviewed 63 plants and 122 references with antifertility activity and profertility

activity including some other pharmacological activities.

Alagammal et al. (2013b) studied the antifertility effect of whole plant ethanol

extract of Polygala rosmarinifolia in male albino rats. The results revealed that the

ethanolic extract inhibited sperm concentration, motility and testosterone which

might result in a male sterility. Pare et al. (2013) studied the abortifacient potentials

of alcoholic root, stem and leaf extracts of Trianthema portulacastrum, in female

albino rats. Stalin et al. (2013) reviewed the works on antifertility agents of plant

origin. They highlighted that the extracts of various plants such as Abrus

precatorius, Aegle marmelos, Curcuma longa, Raphanus sativus etc., were biologically

very active and could be used as antifertility agents. Sundarrajan et al. (2013)

evaluated the antifertility activity of herbal oral contraceptive suspension containing

the extracts of Carica papaya leaves and Capparis aphylla aerial parts. Umadevi

et al. (2013) reviewed the studies of several researches on medicinal plants with

antifertility potentials.

Antiinflammatory activity

50!

The attention of pharmacologists, throughout the world, has been focused on

finding out safer and potent antiinflammatory drug. This is not surprising since

inflammatory disorders like rheumatoid arthritis have worldwide prevalence, occur in

all races and ethnic groups and have onset early adulthood, sometimes crippling the

afflicted person to render him economically non-productive (Wyngaarden et al., 1988).

Antiinflammatory drugs offer symptomatic relief in the inflammatory diseases when

the underlying cause of inflammation is unidentified. Antiinflammatory drugs,

presently available for the treatment of joint inflammation of various kinds, have

undesirable side effects such as causing peptic ulcers, Gastrointestinal complications,

including bleeding and perforation due to inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis

(Pascucci, 2002; Corley et al., 2003; Flower et al., 1980). Therefore search for safer

and effective drug is up surged. Plant remedies have become increasingly popular and

are often preferred to synthetically derived pharmaceuticals. The natural products

today symbolize safety in contrast to the synthetic drugs that are regarded as unsafe to

humans and environment. So, people are returning to the natural products with the

hope of safety and security. Numerous evidences have shown that increased

consumption of fruit and vegetables reduces the risk of various pathological events

such as cancer, cardiovascular, cerebro-vascular diseases (Goodwin and Brodwick,

1995; Rimm et al., 1996).

A systematic study on antiinflammatory effects of Indian medicinal plants

was s t a r t ed by Gujral and his associates. They screened a number of plants for their

antiarthritic effects. Subsequently, various workers from different laboratories in India

made significant contributions. In the sixties, formaldehyde induced arthritis and

croton oil induced granuloma pouch, in rats, were mainly used as the experimental

models of inflammation. Later, with the introduction of better and more specific

51!

models of experimental inflammation like carrageenan induced paw oedema in rats,

cotton pellet induced granuloma in rats, Freud’s complete adjuvant induced arthritis

etc., workers in different laboratories tested their drugs with the help of the later

models. Scientists in Central drugs Research Institute, Lucknow studied nearly two

thousand Indian medicinal plants for their various pharmacological properties

(Chatterjee and Pal, 1984; Shah et al., 2006). The greatest disadvantage in the

presently available potent synthetic antiinflammatory drugs lies in their toxicity and

reappearance of symptoms after discontinuation. Therefore, the search for their

antiinflammatory activity (AIA) is an unending problem (Chawla et al., 1987; Shen,

1981).

The oleoresin fraction of Commiphora mukul possessed significant

antiarthritic and antiinflammatory activities. A steroidal compound isolated from C.

mukul displayed a significant dose dependent activity which was more potent than the

resin fraction of C. mukul. A comparison between the antiinflammatory activities of

petroleum ether extract of C. mukul with standard drugs showed that the former to be

more effective. The ethyl acetate-soluble portion of the resin (guggalipid), on

fractionation, revealed that the acidic portion displayed a significant antiinflammatory

activity (Satyavati et al., 1969). Singh et al. (1970) isolated !-sitosterol from Cyperus

rotendus and showed it a potent antiinflammatory agent against carrageenan and cotton

pellet-induced oedema in rats. Gupta et al. (1971) compared the antipyretic activities

of hydrocortisone and oxyphenbutazone. Spinasterol obtained from the stem-bark of

Symplocos spicata showed a significant activity against acute inflammation induced by

carrageenan in rats. Hye and Gafur (1975) observed the antiinflammatory activity of a

flavonoid glycoside, chrysoeriol 7-0-!-D glucopyranosyl-D-apiofuranoside, isolated

from Dalbergia volubilis. Magniferin, a xanthone C-glucoside isolated from Canscora

52!

decusssata, mangostin and related compounds isolated from Garcinia mangostana by

Shankaranarayanan et al. (1979) and xanthones isolated from Calophyllum

inophyllum and Mesua ferrea by Gopalakrishnan et al. (1980) were shown to have

antiinflammatory activities. Swarnalakshmi et al. (1981) isolated epicatechin from

seed coat of Anacardium occidentale and showed it an antiinflammatory agent, as

effective as phenylbutazone, using various test models. Bergenin was isolated from

the pods of Peltophorum pterocarpum and was found to be equipmental to

phenylbutazone against carrageenan induced oedema in rats (Menon et al., 1982).

A flavonoid isolated from Hedychium spicatum showed a significant activity

with less ulcerogenic index than phenylbutazone (Srimal et al., 1984). The petroleum

ether extract of Curcuma longa rhizomes showed significant antiinflammatory activity

and was effective in delayed hypersensitivity. Curcumin, chemically known as

diferuloyl methane, a constituent of turmeric, was shown to be effective

antiinflammator agent by Srimal and Dhawan, (1973). It was as potent as

phenylbutazone in the carrageenan induced oedema test but as half potent in chronic

tests. Srivastava and Srimal (1985) showed that curcumin was found to be a stabilizer

of lysosomal membrane (more potent than Ibuprofen) and as an uncoupler of oxidative

phosphorylation in sub-acute inflammation rat models. Two naturally occurring

curcumin related analogues, feruloyl-4-hydroxycinnamoyl methane and bis (4-hydroxy

cinnamoyl) methane also showed AIA. Water soluble sodium curcuminate showed

better AIA than curcumin in albino rats. Delgado et al. (2001) isolated dicadalenol,

caryolane-1, 9!-diol and quercetin from aerial parts of Heterotheca inuloides

(Asteraceae) and displayed their dose dependent activities and showed them to be the

most active substances tested. Quercetin, quercetin 3-0-rhamnoside (quercitrin) and

quercitrin 3-0- rutinoside (rutin) isolated from 80% MeOH leaf extract of Morinda

53!

morindoides showed similar inhibition of classical pathway of complement system

(Kanyanga Cimanaga et al., 1995).

The dichloromethane extract of the aerial parts of Tanacetum microphyllum

yielded two antiinflammatory flavonoids viz; 5,7,3’-trihydroxy-3,6,4’-trimethoxy

flavones (centaureidin) and 5,3’-dihydroxy-4’-methoxy-7-carbomethoxy flavonol

(Abad et al., 1993). Three flavonoids, namely 7-0-methylaromadendin, rhamnocitrin

and 3-0- acetylpadmatin along with a sesquiterpene lactone inuvisolide; a

sesquiterpene acid, silicic acid; and a diagalactosyl-diacylglycerol, inugalacolipid-A

were isolated from Inula viscosa dichloromethane extract by Manez et al. (1999) and

were shown to have 12-0- tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate induced ear oedema

inhibitory activity in mice. Flavonone glycosides, diinsininol and diinsinin from the

rhizomes of Sacropthyta piriei (Balanophoraceae), showed prostaglandin synthesis

inhibition and inhibition of platelet activating factor-induced exocytosis, respectively.

Calophylolide isolated from the nuts of Calophyllum species effectively

reduced the increased permeability induced by the chemical mediators involved in

inflammation like histamine, serotonin and bradykinin. The triterpenoids of the

oleanene and ursene series were found to be active against carrageenan induced

oedema, formaldehyde induced oedema and formaldehyde induced arthritis in rats.

Bhargava et al. (1970) suggested that the antiinflammatory activity of the

triterpenoids of the oleanene series, with the polarity of compounds, were enhanced

by a number of hydroxyl groups in the molecule. Atal et al. (1980) observed the

antiinflammatory and antiarthritic activities of the oleogum of Boswellia serrata in

controlled clinical trials in arthritic patients. Its activity might be due to the boswellic

acids present in the oleogum. Two new triterpene saponins having phospholipase-D

inhibitory activity were isolated from Myrsine australis leaf extract. Oleanolic acid

54!

3-!-glucoside isolated from the seeds of Randia dumetorum showed a significant

AIA in the exudative and proliferative phases of inflammation in rats (Ghosh

et al., 1983).

Tylophorine, an alkaloid isolated from Tylophora indica, apart from the

anaphylactic and immunocytoadherence actions, significantly inhibited the primary

and secondary responses of adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats (Gopalakrishnan

et al., 1979). The alcoholic extract of Cardiospermum halicacabum leaves showed a

significant antiinflammatory activity in rats. The stem bark of Cedrus deodora

possessed a significant AIA in rat (Gopala et al., 1976). Gangetin, one of the

pterocarpens, isolated from hexane extract of Desmodium gangeticum root also

produced a significant AIA in the exudative and proliferative phases of inflammation

in rats (Ghosh and Kumar, 1983). Radiological findings by Hazeena Begum and

Sadique (1988) evidently supported the antiarthritic property of Withania somnifera.

Handa et al. (1992) cited that species of 96 genera belonging to 56 families

possessed antiinflammatory activities. The triterpenes, alpha-amyrin acetate, beta-

amyrin acetate and lupeol acetate of Alstonia boonei were evaluated for their

antiarthritic activities in rats by Kweifio-Okai and Carroll (1992 and 1993). The

antiinflammatory activity of the aqueous extract of Bridelia ferrugiana stem bark was

evaluated using carrageenan induced paw oedema in rats and mice (Olajide et al.,

1999). Suleyman et al. (1999) studied the antiinflammatory activity of the aqueous

extract of Rumex patientia roots using carrageenan, histamine, dextrane, serotonin and

formaldehyde induced oedema tests. The alcoholic extract of Clerodendron serratum

roots was evaluated for its antiinflammatory activity using animal models (Narayanan

et al., 1999). The analgesic and antiinflammatory properties of lyophilized aqueous

extract of Opuntia dillenii fruits were demonstrated by Loro et al. (1999) in rats and

55!

mice. The aqueous and alcoholic extracts of Tecoma sambucifolia flowers and pods

were analysed to determine their antiinflammatory activities using carrageenan induced

oedema test (Alguacil et al., 2000). Stephania tetrandrae, a traditional medicinal plant

to treat inflammatory diseases in Korea, possessed two major alkaloids namely

fangchinoline and tetraandrine. Choi et al. (2000) isolated fangchinoline and

tetraandrine and showed their antiinflammatory potentialities of using animal models.

The dried leaf methanol extract of Alstonia macrophylla was investigated for

its antiinflammatory activity in carrageenan induced rat paw oedema (Arunachalam

et al., 2002). Antiinflammatory activity of ethanol extract of Bouchea fluminensis

leaves was demonstrated by Delaporte et al. (2002). Hajhashemi et al. (2002) studied

the antiinflammatory activities of polyphenolic fraction of hydro alcoholic extract and

essential oil of the aerial parts of Satureja hortensis, an important Iranian folk

medicinal plant used as muscle and bone pain reliever, using carrageenan induced paw

oedema in rats. The crude ethanol extract and the chloroform and aqueous fractions of

Sideritis canariensis var. pannosa were examined for their antiinflammatory and

analgesic effects using several animal models (Hernandez-Perez and Rabanal, 2002).

The ethanol rhizome extract of Cistanche deserticola was evaluated for its

antiinflammatory activity (Lin et al., 2002). The hexane, chloroform and methanol leaf

and bark extracts of Aristolochia trilobata and Syngonium podophyllum, leaves of

Hamelia patens and Piper amalago and barks of Bursera simaruba were evaluated for

their antiinflammatory activities by Sosa et al. (2002). Mitragyna ciliata, a widely used

traditional medicinal plant to treat inflammation, hypertension, headache, rheumatism,

gonorrhoea and bronchial-pulmonary diseases was investigated by Dongno et al.

(2003) for its antiinflammatory and analgesic properties using the hexane and methanol

extract of the stem bark. Laupattarakasem et al. (2003) studied the antiinflammatory

56!

activities of aqueous and alcoholic extracts of the leaves of the Acanthus ebracteatus,

stem bark of Oroxylum indicum and the stem of Cryptolepis buchanani and Derris

scandens, the medicinal plants used to treat arthritis traditionally by the people of

Thailand, using three different in vitro systems.

Li et al. (2003) evaluated the antiinflammatory activities of ethanol extracts

of 9 vine plants used in the traditional Chinese medicine to treat inflammatory

conditions. Matu and Vanstaden (2003) evaluated the antiinflammatory activities of

aqueous, hexane and methanol extracts of 12 medicinal plant species, traditionally used

in Kenya. The methanol extract of Clerodendrum petasites was assessed by Panthong

et al. (2003) for antiinflammatory and antipyretic activities using experimental

animals. They found that the extract possessed moderate inhibitory activity on acute

phase of inflammation. The methanol-water extract of Barleria prionitis was

evaluated for its antiinflammatory and antiarthritic activities against different acute and

chronic animal test models (Singh et al., 2003). The antiinflammatory activity of the

alcoholic stem extract of Tabenaemontana pandacaqui was studied using carrageenan

induced rat paw oedema (Taesotikul et al., 2003). Trongsakul et al. (2003) conducted

pharmacological studies using experimental animal models and evaluated the

analgesic, antipyretic and antiinflammatory activities of hexane extract of the dried

stem of Diospyros variegata.

The effect of the root bark extract fractions of Securidaca longipendunculata

(Polygalaceae) on acute inflammation was evaluated by Okoli et al. (2005).

The antiinflammatory effects of Saponin and Iridoid glycosides from the flowers of

Verbascum pterocalycinum were investigated by Akkola et al. (2007). Deb et al.

(2007) investigated the antiinflammatory activity of the aqueous leaf extract of

Eucalyptus globulus in carrageenan induced paw oedema and cotton pellet granuloma

57!

technique in albino rats. The petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, ethanol and aqueous leaf

extracts of Calotropis gigantea were screened by Patil et al. (2007) for their

antiarthritic activities in albino rats. The petroleum ether, chloroform, methanol and

aqueous extracts of Sesbania sesban leaves were investigated for their

antiinflammatory activities in albino rats (Tatiya et al., 2007). The bark extract of

Xeromphis spinosa using a mixture of equal proportions of petroleum ether, ethyl

acetate and methanol was analysed for its antiinflammatory activity by Das et al.

(2009).

The ethyl acetate and methanol extracts of Syzygium cuminii leaves were

investigated for their antiinflammatory activities in carrageenan induced paw oedema

in wistar rats (Jain et al., 2010). Parthasarathy (2010), using carrageenan induced paw

oedema albino rats, studied the antiinflammatory activity of whole plant methanol

extract of Spermacoce hispida. Rajesh et al. (2010) investigated the antiinflammatory

activity of the petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate, ethanol and water leaf

extracts of Salvadora persica in albino rats. The methanol root bark and stem bark

extracts of Pittosporum tetraspermum were investigated for their antiinflammatory

activities by Rosakutty et al. (2010) in carrageenan induced paw oedema in albino rats.

Sutha et al. (2011) screened the ethanol leaf extract of Alstonia venenata for its

antiinflammatory activity in carrageenan induced paw oedema in albino rats. The

whole plant ethanol extracts of Polygala rosmarinifolia and P. javana were evaluated

for their antiinflammatory activities using carrageenan induced paw oedema by

Alagammal et al. (2012b and 2012c).

Balamurugan et al. (2012) reported the antiinflammatory activity of Polycarpea

corymbosa against carrageenan induced paw oedema. Kalpanadevi et al. (2012)

studied the ethanol extract of Entada pursaetha seed for its antiinflammatory activity

58!

in carrageenan induced paw oedema in albino rats. The ethanol leaf and stem bark

extracts of Naringi crenulata were evaluated for their antiinflammatory activities using

carrageenan induced paw oedema by Sarada et al. (2012). Amira et al. (2012) studied

the potential antiinflammatory activity of Myrtle (Myrtus communis) Sarsaparilla

(Smilax aspera), Arabian or French lavender (Lavandula stoechas) and Calamint

(Calamintha nepeta) along with their apoptotic effects on the pro inflammatory cells.

Myrtle extract exhibited the highest inhibitory activity in the paw oedema induced by

carrageenan (60% at 3h) whereas Calamint, Lavender and Sarsaparilla produced

inhibitions of 49%, 38% and 47% respectively.

Kataria et al. (2012) assessed the antiinflammatory activity of methanolic

extract of whole plant of Crotalaria burhia using formalin induced pain in mice and

acute, subacute models of inflammation in rats. The alcoholic bark extract of Pinus

roxburghii was evaluated for its antiinflammatory activity in experimental animal

models by Kaushik et al. (2012). Acute and chronic antiinflammatory activity was

evaluated by Carrageenan induced paw oedema in wistar albino rats using

indomethacin as the reference drug. Pandey et al. (2012) evaluated the

antiinflammatory activity of ethanolic leaf extract of Parthenium hysterophorus using

carrageenan induced rat paw oedema in rats. Ravipati et al. (2012) evaluated the

antiinflammatory properties of selected Chinese herbal extracts by measuring their

ability to inhibit the production of nitric oxide and TNF-" in RAW 264.7

macrophages activated by LPS and IFN-# respectively. Padmanabhan and Jangle

(2012) studied the in vitro antiinflammatory activities of four medicinal plants in terms

of effect of hypotonic solution-induced haemolysis on RBC membrane stabilization

and inhibition of protein denaturation activity. The hydro-alcoholic extract and

ethanolic extract of the Vitex leucoxylon leaves were screened for antiinflammatory

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activity using human red blood cell (MRBC) membrane stabilization method by

Faimum et al. (2013). Gonzalez et al. (2013) investigated the antiinflammatory activity

of chloroform and methanol extracts of Senecio salignus on 12-O-

tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate induced oedema in mice ears.

Borges et al. (2013) investigated the antiinflammatory activities of the

Synadenium umbellatum leaf extract using croton-oil induced ear oedema test and

Carrageenan induced peritonitis test. Sen et al. (2013) evaluated the antiinflammatory,

analgesic and antioxidant potentials of crude methanol extract of Pisonia aculeata

leaves, by oral administration, and showed a significant inhibition of carrageenan

induced paw oedema, pronounced at 4 h and 5 h, and at 200µg/mL dose the protective

effect against hypotonic solution and heat induced haemolysis of the extract was

77.67% and 38.51% respectively. Matthew et al. (2013) investigated t h e

antiinflammatory effect of ethanol and aqueous extracts of Kalanchoe pinnata

dried s tem against carrageenan induced paw oedema in rats.

Immunomodulatory Activity

Immunomodulation is a process, which alters the immune system of an

organism by interfering with its functions. This interference results in either

immunostimulation or immunosuppression. An immunomodulator is a substance that

helps to regulate the immune system. This regulation is a normalization process, so that

an immunomodulator helps to optimize immune response. Immnomodulators are

becoming very popular in worldwide natural health where as they do not tent to boost

immunity, but to normalize it. Keeping this in view, efforts have to be made to

modulate the immune response to termite effective treatment of various ailments

associated with immune system and thus there is an urgent need to develop safe and

effective immunomodulators for clinical use. Immunomodulators are biological

60!

response modifiers and exert their effects by improving host defense mechanism against

diseases. Immune regulation is a complex balance between regulatory and effectors

cells and any imbalance in immunological mechanism can lead to pathogenesis (Sehar

et al., 2008).

Puri et al. (1994) proved that the aqueous leaf extract of biopesticidal plant

Nyctanthus arbotristis to be a potent immunomodulator. This extract was evaluated as

an immunorestorative or antiimmunosuppressant using mice and by studying various

immunological parameters. The ethanol extract of Mollugo verticillata showed

immunostimulator activity (Ferreira et al., 2003). The assessment of

immunomodulatory activity of Haridadi ghrita was carried out by testing the tumoural

(antibody titre) and cellular (foot pad swelling) immune response. Fulzele et al. (2003)

evaluated the immunomodulatory properties of Emblica officinalis and Evolvulus

alsinoides, by antigenic challenge in sheep RBCs and by neutrophil adhesion test, in

adjuvant induced arthritic rat model. The ethanol root extract of Cryptolpis buchanani

caused significant stimulation of the delayed type hypersensitivity reaction and humoral

antibody production in mice (Kaul et al., 2003). Mehotra et al. (2003) described in vitro

immunosuppression by ethanol extract of Acorus calamus rhizome. Khanittha Punturee

et al. (2005) investigated the immunomodulatory effects of Thai medicinal plants,

including Murdannia loriformis, Cymbopogon citratus, Momornica charantia, Centella

asiatica, Allium sativum, Carthamus tinctorius, Eclipta alba, Cyperus rotundus, etc., on

the mitogen stimulated proliferation of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells

(PBMCs).

Gabhe et al. (2006) evaluated the immunomodulatory activity of the aerial roots

of Ficus benghalensis. Amirghofran et al. (2007a) reported that treatment of mice with

the extract of Haussknechtia elymatica, decreased the foot pad thickness indicating a

61!

dose related inhibitory effect on delayed hypersensitivity. This extract also reduced the

antibody titer significantly after immunization with sheep RBC. Amirghofran et al.

(2007b) reported that the methanol extract of Stachys obtusicrena possessed inhibitory

effect on both cellular and humoral immune responses. Sharififar et al. (2009)

demonstrated that the immunomodulatory activity of aqueous extract of Heracleum

persicum in mice. The methanol and aqueous extracts of Capparis zeylanica exhibited

immunomodulatory activity (Agarwal et al., 2010). Jeba et al. (2011) demonstrated the

immunomodulatory effect of aqueous extract of Ocimum sanctum in rats.

Kalpesh Gaur et al. (2009) assessed the immunomodulatory activity of

hydro-alcoholic extract of flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, at 75 mg/kg, 150 mg/kg

and 300 mg/kg doses and ethanolic extracts of aerial parts of Cleome gynandra, at 50

mg/kg, 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg doses, by carbon clearance method for non-specific

immunity, haemagglutination antibody titre method for humoral immunity and footpad

swelling method for cell mediated immunity on wistar albino rats.

Gaikwad and Krishna Mohan (2011) found out immunomodulatory potential of

methanolic extract of leaves of Thespesia populnea, at 100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg, and 400

mg/kg doses using Levamisole (50 mg/kg body weight) as standard immunomodulatory

drug and Cyclophosphamide (30 mg/kg body eight) as standard immunosuppressant

drug. The measurement of immunomodulatory property was carried out by Delayed

Type Hypersensitivity (DTH), Humoral antibody (HA) titre response to SRBC, and

Cyclophosphamide induced myelosuppression. Rama Bhat et al. (2012) evaluated the

immunomodulatory activity of Salacia chinensis. Ashok kumar et al. (2012) evaluated

the immunomodulatory activity of Viscum album, Panax ginseng, Asparagus

racemosus, Azadirachta indica, Tinospora cordifolia, Polygala senega, Ocimum

santum, Withania somnifera. Smriti Tripathi et al. (2012) reported the

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immunomodulatory activity of ethanolic extract of Trigonella foenum-graeceum, an

Indian medicinal plant by phagocytic activity, cell mediated and humoral immune

system on mice.

Meenakshi et al. (2013) demonstrated Immunomodulatory activity of the

ethanol extract of Phallusia nigra against Dalton’s Lymphoma Ascites (DLA) cells on

Swiss Albino mice. Nahak and Sahu (2014) studied the immunomodulatory activity of

water extract of Ocimum kilimandscharicum leaf. !!

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