38

CHAPTER - II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The review of literature deals with the major findings of some of the related

studies on air, water, soil pollution and their impact on plant kingdom by other

researchers in different parts of the globe. The survey helps to adopt, modify and improve

the conceptual frame work and act as guidelines for the present research work.

Chander sekaran et al., (1998)1 analyzed ambient air quality in the Vicnity of

cement plant at Dalamia puram in Tamilnadu. SPM, SO2 and NOx were sampled at four

different stations in the civinity of the cement industry namely, Pullambadi, Thappai,

Kallagam and Kovanda Kurichi. All these stations are rural areas. The SPM, SO2 and

NOx did not exceed the ambient air quality standards. This may be due to stringent

pollution control measures by the industry or due to transport of pollutants to long

distances.

Mohanty S.K (1999)2 monitored the ambient air quality at eleven stations in and

around Koraput District at monthly Intervals. Air quality index and standard deviation at

different sampling points were calculated .The results show a comparative study of the air

quality in different areas of Koraput .The study identifies the potential sources for

effective pollution control measures to improve the air quality in Koraput district in

future.

Pandey et al., (1999)3 concluded that SPM and O3 are the main pollutants in

Lucknow City. The reason being the growing number of automobiles and narrow and

poorly maintained roads. The problem of SPM can be checked by easing out of tempos

and replacing them with more efficient and eco-friendly mass transport service.The

problem of O3 is a serious one, since O3 has caused extensive losses to crops in U.S .To

control both the pollutants ,plants of better filtering /sink ability should be planted.

Surya Prakash et al., (1999)4 determined there are many ways to minimize the

automobile pollution. Use of catalytic converters, oxygenated fuels or electric vehicles

has the potential to reduce substantially. There are many general control techniques, like

green cover to roads, proper maintenance of the roads and vehicles on adulterated and

leaded fuel oil, withdrawal of the old polluting vehicles that can be implemented without

much difficulty. It is possible to effectively fight against that automobile pollution. But

what is required now, is a strong determination to implement the appropriate strategies of

39

course; it is only possible with the wholehearted participation and co operation of the

public.

Parida et al., (2003)5 resulted RSPM and SPM in industrialization and

urbanization in very deep deterioration of India’s air quality. Thus knowing the status of

air quality and its effects on human health and his environment. “Roorkee”, town (a

temple of learning), a semi-urban area was selected as the study area for this work.

Primary pollutants, such as suspended particulate matter (SPM) and respiarable

suspended particulate matter (RSPM or PM 10) were monitored in study area at 4

locations for 1 hr sampling period. Cascade impactor, high volume sampler (HVS) and

respirable dust sampler (RDS) were used for the measurement of SPM and PM10 In this

study linear regression models have been developed between RSPM/SPM and influencing

parameters. Such as traffic volume, temperature, wind speed and humidity. It has been

observed that wind speed and temperature have decreasing effects on RSPM and SPM

whereas humidity has increasing effect on RSPM and SPM.

Tripathy A.K (2003)6 studied Sulphur dioxide (SO2) in the flue gas emission

from OSCOM stacks during the year 2000 to 2002. It has been monitored and the date

have been fitted to Gaussian diffusion model to predict the SO2 concentration in the

ambient air around OSCOM. Experimental monitoring of SO2 at three monitoring stations

has been carried out. There is a fair agreement between the predicted SO2 level and

experimental results establishing adequacy of Gaussian model. Kannan et al., (2004)7

have reported air pollution has emerged as one of the most challenging problems before

mankind in the past few decades, with rapid rise in population, industries and

automobiles, the air pollution has become a major environmental problem in the world.

SO2 and NOx concentration at Rohini are for residential areas were well below the

prescribed permissible standard. SPM concentration exceeded the standard of 200 μg/m3

(residential area) very often, for the stations in Rohini areas. From the AQI values of the

stations it is clear that the ambient air in Rohini area is fairly clear especially near the

residential apartments. Several apartments and Sunrise chowk.

Behera et al., (2005)8 studied the air quality at eight locations in Allahabad city in

terms of concentrations of nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphurdioxides(SO2) particulate matter

(SPM) and respirable dust particulate (RSPM).The studies have been carried out during

normal traffic flow times. The study also focuses on some key air pollution problems

arising from vehicular pollution. It examines the utility of an air pollution index (API) for

tackling air pollution problems. The approach for the selection of air pollutions

40

monitoring stations, its monitoring programme, data analysis and results are discussed.

The Oak Ridge air quality index (ORAQI) was used to evaluate the relative ranking of

overall air quality at different study locations of the city. Vijay Ratan et al., (2005)9

described the quality of air in the urban areas by onesingle number known as air quality

index (AQI). An equation for calculation of AQI in India based on four pollutants

(Nitrogen dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, suspended particulate matterand respirable particulate

matter) has been developed.

Salve et al., (2006)10 carried out a study for the assessment of the air quality at

Chandrapur region, (1 9°55; 79°19) Maharashtra state. The 24-h average concentrations

of total suspended particulate (TSP) matter, respirable particulate matter (RPM). sulphur

dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx,), lead (Pb). Carbon monoxide (CO) and

ozone (O3) were monitored during summer season (2006). Samplings were done at a

regular interval in the residential area which is a representative of mining and thermal

power plant areas. It is well known that O3 reaches a daily peak in the afternoon because

of the high solar radiation facilitating photochemical production of O3 at night, O3 level

approaches that in the background air when the local traffic and industrial activities are

minimal. The SO2/NOx ratio was found to be 0.54 indicated that point sources are the

major contributors of air pollutants. The chemical ratio of CO/NOx, was observed to be

15.8.The database generates during the study helps regulatory agencies to identify

locations where the natural resources and human health could be at risk.

Mondal et al., (2007)11 discussed the assessment of Air Pollution in and Around

of Dhanbad. In the atlas of India, Jharia coalfields play an important role in the

production of coking coal known as black diamond. During the production of coal it

produces huge quantity particulate matter as well as gaseous pollutants, like SO2 and NOx

which polluted the area badly. Another major source of air pollution in the area is

presence of various coking and briquetting units. Transportation of coal and heavy traffic

play an important role in the degradation of ambient air quality. Due to tremendous

population growth in last two decades and develop as an important business center also,

the area paying its toll as a polluted city. The ambient air quality is measured in the

vicinity of coalmines to asses impact of mining and related activity on ground level

concentration.

Sehra., (2007)12 was checked Air Quality in Punjab.This paper presents the

summary results of a case Study of hazardous air pollution problems over a densely

populated city Ludhiana situated in Punjab in the form of annual average concentrations

41

of suspended particulate matter (SPM). NO2 and SO2 for the periods 1988-1989 and

1994-1999, which is generally found to be increasing with time and thus requires

immediate corrective measures least the situation becomes totally uncontrollable. The

present situation is as bad as in other metropolitan Indian cities, such as its capital city

Delhi itself. This urban pollution must be checked everywhere in the world for the

betterment of everyone.

Gupta et al., (2008)13 assessed the air quality indices (AQI) are important to

decision makers for implementation of various air pollution control strategies. In this

study, the general features of AQI are described. A case study of regional area is

illustrated through computation technique of an AQI, Similarly, air quality assessment

(AQA ) is another important approach to decision makers for implementation of various

are pollution control strategies. In this study, the general features of AQA are described.

Naveen et al., (2008)14 had studied the environmental problems due to the

presence of small and large-scale industries, Bhadravathi town in the state Karnataka. In

the present study, an effort has been made to study the air quality in terms of SPM, oxides

of nitrogen and sulphur dioxide, at five different locations representing, residential,

commercial sensitive and industrial areas of Bhadravathi town. The present study

indicates the potential source for fluctuation of SPM. SO2 and NO in the study region.

Singh.S.N et al., (2008)15 calculated statistical data for ambient particulate

matter concentration the pollutants, namely SO2, NO2, CO, O3, Pb and particulate matter

(PM) have been named as criteria pollutant by Environmental Protection Agency, USA.

Particulate matter monitoring was conducted in a mixed urban rural environment the state

of Uttar Pradesh. Total six ambient air sampling stations were identified for the collection

of respirable suspended particulate matter (RSPM) and total suspended particulate

residential area residential commercial area and industrial area. For the assessment of

seasonal variability in ambient PM concentration, the PM sampling was conducted in

three different seasons throughout the year, namely pre-monsoon, post-monsoon and

prewinter season of the year 2005 using recommended instruments for ambient air

sampling (respirable suspended dust sampler ad high volume samplers ).

Singh et al., (2008)16 indicated ambient air quality has been a global phenomenon

and is a matter of serious concern. In view of this monitoring was conducted in Varanasi

city of uttar Pradesh in silence, residential, industrial and commercial, total four locations.

For the assessment of seasonal variability in ambient air quality concentration, the

sampling was carried out during different sampling periods of the year using high volume

42

air sampler at each sampling sites. Results were compared with ambient air quality

standard laid down by Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India. It was

observed that the concentration of the pollutants is more than the prescribed limits except

the gaseous pollutants. The gaseous pollutants are well within their respective standards

for all categories. Vehicular traffic and diesel generator set are the root cause of air

pollution, in general in all the areas of Varanasi city. In the core zone, the automobile

emission for the heavy traffic flow and jams as well as exhaust of petrol pump and bus

stand are responsible for the observed pollution level. Senthilnathan.T (2008)17

calculated Gaseous Air Pollutants with Statistical Approach in Chennai City. In this

study, the interaction patterns of air pollutants SO2, NOx are investigated based on traffic

intersection and residential sites in Chennai city. This study is necessary, since these

pollutants violate the prescribed norms of the NAAQ standards. Urban areas receive more

diffuse radiation, heat radiation from the atmosphere and less solar radiation compared to

rural areas. Heat balance may transports pollutants released at the periphery of the city

towards the centre. As a result of this, the gaseous pollutants SO2, NOx and aerodynamic

size of respirable dust particle and suspended particulate matter pollutants were

continuously assessed using high volume sampler at residential and traffic intersection

sampling stations in Chennai city. Anamika Tripathi et al., (2009)18 studied assessment

of air pollution tolerance index of some trees species .To see the relative tolerance of the

plant species, ten different plant species that is Ficus rumphii, Pongamia pinnata, Alstoria

scholaris, Holoptelea integrifolia, Saraca indica, Pithecolobium dulcis, Cassia simea,

Bauhinia variegata, Azadirachta indica and Grewelia robusta was taken from, residential

(SI), Industrial (SII) and commercial (SIII) area of the city as this flora as very much

common to the Brass city and is planted on the roadside. The quality air with respect to

SPM, SO2 and NO2, has been also assessed on respective sites to see its effect on

biochemical parameters of the leaves pH, total water content, chlorophyll and ascorbic

acid and evaluate the air pollution tolerance index (APTI) of various plants.

Ciurea et al ., (2010)19 highlighted air pollution is a global problem that arises from

the fact that industrial activities, primarily generate emissions of substances with negative

impact on tropospheric air quality and on the overall atmosphere, including the ozone

layer. The atmosphere can be affected by noise, impact pollution, and massive accidental

pollution. Some of the negative effects of air pollution are the following: affecting the

human health, animals and plants life, acid rains, tropospheric ozone presence,

greenhouse effect with dangers of climate change, stratospheric ozone layer thinning.

43

Tudoroiu et al., (2010)20 investigated the pollution sources along the Romanian

coast of the Black Sea, especially in the Constanta neighbourhood, by monitoring the air

quality parameters. Furthermore, we will try to disseminate the information collected and

we will propose adequate actions to prevent the continuous degradation of the

environment.

Ma et al., (2011)21 focused Technogenic activities (industrial-plastic, textiles,

microelectronics, wood preservatives; mining-mine refuse, tailings, smelting;

agrochemicals-chemical fertilizers, farm yard manure, pesticides; aerosols-

pyrometallurgical and automobile exhausts; biosolids-sewage sludge, domestic waste; fly

ash-coal combustion products) are the primary sources of heavy metal contamination and

pollution in the environment in addition to geogenic sources. During the last two decades,

bioremediation has emerged as a potential tool to clean up the metal-

contaminated/polluted environment. Exclusively derived processes by plants alone

(phytoremediation) are time-consuming. Further, high levels of pollutants pose toxicity to

the remediating plants. This situation could be ameliorated and accelerated by exploring

the partnership of plant-microbe, which would improve the plant growth by facilitating

the sequestration of toxic heavy metals. Plants can bioconcentrate (phytoextraction) as

well as bioimmobilize or inactivate (phytostabilization) toxic heavy metals through in situ

rhizospheric processes. The mobility and bioavailability of heavy metal in the soil,

particularly at the rhizosphere where root uptake or exclusion takes place are critical

factors that affect phytoextraction and phytostabilization. Developing new methods for

either enhancing (phytoextraction) or reducing the bioavailability of metal contaminants

in the rhizosphere (phytostabilization) as well as improving plant establishment, growth,

and health could significantly speed up the process of bioremediation techniques.

Mesquita et al., (2011)22 characterized Fluoride (F) is an air pollutant that causes

phytotoxicity. Besides the importance of this, losses of agricultural crops in the vicinity of

F polluting industries in Brazil have been recently reported. Injuries caused to plant leaf

cell structures by excess F are not well characterized. However, this may contribute to

understanding the ways in which plant physiological and biochemical processes are

altered.

Van poppel et al., (2012)23 estimated a comparative study of traffic related air

pollution next to a motorway and a motorway flyover . The aim of this study was to

investigate the influence of the vertical position of a motorway on the pollutant

concentrations in the vicinity of the motorway. Therefore, a near-road monitoring

44

campaign was performed along two adjoining motorway stretches: one motorway at

ground level and a motorway flyover.

Padro Martinez et al., (2012)24 compared Mobile monitoring of particle number

concentration and other traffic-related air pollutants in a near-highway neighborhood over

the course of a year . Accurate quantification of exposures to traffic-related air pollution

in near-highway neighborhoods is challenging due to the high degree of spatial and

temporal variation of pollutant levels. The objective of this study was to measure air

pollutant levels in a near-highway urban area over a wide range of traffic and

meteorological conditions using a mobile monitoring platform. In general, PNC levels

were highest in winter and lowest in summer and fall, higher on weekdays and Saturdays

compared to Sundays, and higher during morning rush hour compared to later in the day.

Bigazzi et al., (2012)25 showed the result Impacts of freeway traffic conditions on

in-vehicle exposure to ultra fine particulate matter. There is evidence of adverse health

impacts from human exposure to traffic-related ultra fine particulate matter pollution. As

more commuters are spending a significant portion of their daily routine inside vehicles, it

is increasingly relevant to study exposure levels to harmful pollutants inside the vehicle

microenvironment. Vehicle cabin barrier effects are the primary determinant of in-vehicle

exposure concentrations, providing 15% protection with the windows down, 47%

protection with the windows up and the vent open, and 83-90% protection with the

windows up and the vent closed (more with the air conditioning on).

Mavroidis et al., (2012)26 monitored Trends of NOx, NO2 and O3 concentrations

at three different types of air quality monitoring stations in Athens This work presents a

systematic analysis and evaluation of the historic and current levels of atmospheric

pollution in the Athens metropolitan region, regarding nitrogen oxides (NOx = NO +

NO2), ozone (O3) and the NO2/NOx and NO/NO2 concentration ratios. Hourly, daily,

monthly, seasonal and annual pollutant variations are examined and compared, using the

results of concentration time series from three different stations of the national network

for air pollution monitoring, one urban-traffic, one urban-background and one suburban-

background. Concentration data are also related to meteorological parameters. The

NO2/NOx ratio in the urban-traffic station appears to be almost constant with time, while

it has been increasing in other urban areas, such as London and Seoul, suggesting an

increased effect of primary NO2 in these areas. Diesel passenger cars were only recently

allowed in Athens and therefore, NO2 trends should be carefully monitored since a

possible increase in primary NO2 may affect compliance with NO2 air quality standards.

45

Ning et al., (2012)27 discussed PM, NOx and butane emissions from on-road

vehicle fleets in Hong Kong. Vehicular emissions are the major sources of air pollution in

urban areas. For metropolitan cities with large population working and living in

environments with direct traffic impact, emission control is of great significance to

protect public health. Implementation of more stringent emission standards, retrofitting

fleet with emission control devices and switching to clearer fuel has been commonly

practiced in different cities including Hong Kong.

Guéguen et al., (2012)28 suggested Passive air samplers have been installed in

industrial, urban, rural and remote forested environments in order to collect coarse

airborne particles for subsequent chemical characterization. To identify principal

polluting sources, isotopic tracers, such as Sr, Nd and Pb isotopic ratios, have been used.

The mass deposition rates (MDRs) of trace metals, determined for each of the studied

environments, clearly indicate that industrial and traffic sites are especially affected by air

pollution. Elements such as V, Pb, Fe, Cr, Co, Mo, Cd, Ni, As, Sb and Zn are notably

enriched in samples from industrial zones, whereas V, Mn, Ba, Sr, Al, U, Th, rare earth

elements (REE), Zr, Y, Cs, Rb, Sb, Sn and Cu are principal components of the airborne

particles collected close to areas influenced by heavy traffic.

Borge et al., (2012)29 predicted many cities in Europe have difficulties to meet the

air quality standards set by the European legislation, most particularly the annual mean

Limit Value for NO2. Road transport is often the main source of air pollution in urban

areas and therefore, there is an increasing need to estimate current and future traffic

emissions as accurately as possible. Waked et al., (2012)30 resulted road transport is a

major contributor to pollutant emissions in the Middle East region (MEA). Emissions

originating from this sector have a significant impact on the atmosphere, health and the

climate change. Identification and quantification of these emissions in this region is of

great importance in order to develop emissions reductions strategies.

Melkonyan et al., (2012)31 resulted legislative norms developed at the end of the

1970s, structural changes in the economy, and the implementation of filters in both

vehicles and industries improved the air quality of North Rhine-Westphalia, the largest

western state in Germany in terms of population and economic output. Because these

changes occurred unevenly across the state, the main aim of the given study is to analyze

the historical development of air pollutants in the various environments industrial, traffic

or rural background within the state.

46

Kelly et al., (2012)32 targeted showed that Particulate matter (PM) is a complex,

heterogeneous mixture that changes in time and space. It encompasses many different

chemical components and physical characteristics, many of which have been cited as

potential contributors to toxicity. Each component has multiple sources, and each source

generates multiple components. Identifying and quantifying the influences of specific

components or source-related mixtures on measures of health-related impacts, especially

when particles interact with other co-pollutants, therefore represents one of the most

challenging areas of environmental health research.

Cyrys et al., (2012)33 investigated the ESCAPE study (European Study of

Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects) long-term effects of exposure to air pollution on human

health in Europe. This paper documents the spatial variation of measured NO2 and NOx

concentrations between and within 36 ESCAPE study areas across Europe. In all study

areas NO2 and NOx were measured using standardized methods between October 2008

and April 2011. On average, 41 sites were selected per study area, including regional and

urban background as well as street sites. The measurements were conducted in three

different seasons, using Ogawa badges. Average concentrations for each site were

calculated after adjustment for temporal variation using data obtained from a routine

monitor background site.

Vijayaraghavan et al., (2012)34 predicted more stringent motor vehicle emission

standards are being considered in the United States to attain national air quality standards

for ozone and PM 2.5.We modeled past, present and potential future US emission

standards for on-road gasoline-fueled light duty vehicles (including both cars and light

trucks) (LDVs) to assess incremental air quality benefits in the eastern US in 2022. The

modeling results show that large benefits in ozone and PM 2.5 (up to 16 ppb (14%)

reductions in daily maximum 8-h ozone, up to 10 ppb (11%) reductions in the monthly

mean of daily maximum 8-h ozone, up to 4.5 μg m -3 (9%) reductions in maximum 24-h

PM 2.5 and up to 2.1 μg m -3 (10%) reductions in the monthly mean PM 2.5) accrued

from the transition from Tier 1 to Tier 2 standards. Guttikunda et al., (2012)35 estimated

a prerequisite to an air quality management plan for a city is some idea of the main

sources of pollution and their contributions for a city. This paper presents the results of an

application of the SIM-air modeling tool in six Indian cities - Pune, Chennai, Indore,

Ahmedabad, Surat, and Rajkot. Using existing and publicly available data, we put

together a baseline of multi-pollutant emissions for each of the cities and then calculate

concentrations, health impacts, and model alternative scenarios for 2020. Venkatesh et

47

al., (2012)36 resulted regulations monitoring SO2, NOX, mercury, and other metal

emissions in the U.S. will likely result in coal plant retirement in the near-term. Life cycle

assessment studies have previously estimated the environmental benefits of displacing

coal with natural gas for electricity generation, by comparing systems that consist of

individual natural gas and coal power plants. However, such system comparisons may not

be appropriate to analyze impacts of coal plant retirement in existing power fleets. Results

suggest that location specific parameters should be considered within environmental

policy frameworks targeting coal plant retirement, to account for regional variability in

the benefits of reducing the impact of SO2 and NOX emissions.

Schreck et al., (2012)37 internalized Fine and ultra fine metallic particulate

matters (PMs) are emitted from metallurgic activities in peri-urban zones into the

atmosphere and can be deposited in terrestrial ecosystems. The foliar transfer of metals

and metalloids and their fate in plant leaves remain unclear, although this way of

penetration may be a major contributor to the transfer of metals into plants. This study

focused on the foliar uptake of various metals and metalloids from enriched PM (Cu, Zn,

Cd, Sn, Sb, As, and especially lead (Pb)) resulting from the emissions of a battery-

recycling factory. Metal and metalloid foliar uptake by various vegetable species,

exhibiting different morphologies, use (food or fodder) and life-cycle (lettuce, parsley and

rye-grass) were studied. Lepicier et al., (2013)38 analyzed Developing an indicator for

the chronic health impact of Traffic-related pollutant emissions. The goal of this study is

to develop an emission based indicator for the health impact of the air pollution caused by

traffic. This indicator must make it possible to compare different situations, for example

different Urban Travel Plans, or technical innovations. Our work is based on a literature

survey of methods for evaluating health impacts and, more particularly, those which

relate to the atmospheric pollution caused by transport. We then define a health impact

indicator based on the traffic emissions, named IISCEP for Chronic health impact

indicator of pollutant emission. Here health is understood in a restricted meaning,

excluding well-being. Only primary pollutants can be considered, as the inputs are

emission data and an indicator must be simple. The indicator is calculated as the sum of

each pollutant emission multiplied by a dispersion and exposition factor and a substance

specific toxicity factor taking account of the severity. Pandit BR et al., (1996)39 studied

the effect of dairy effluent on seed germination, seedling growth and pigment contents of

pennisetum typhoides Barm. (bajra and Sorghum bicolor L. (Jowar). The seeds were

soaked in different concentration 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of the effluent. A gradual

48

decrease in the germination of seeds, seedling growth and pigment contents with increase

in effluent concentration was observed. The best germination, seedling growth and

pigment content was observed in 25% effluent concentration. Prasannakumar PG et al.,

(1997)40 studied the effect of dairy effluent on seed germination, seedling growth and

pigment content of green (Phaselous aureus L.) and black gram (Phaseolus mango L.). A

gradual decrease in the germination of seeds, seedling growth and pigment contents with

increase in effluent concentration was observed. The best germination, seedling growth

and pigment contents were observed in 25% effluent concentration. Thus effluent can be

used safely for irrigation purposes at proper dilution (25%) for beneficial cultivation.

Gaikwand RW et al., (2004)41 assessed the present study deals with investigation

of prediction of pollutant level by correlation and regression method. For the present

investigation two case studies has been analysed. First study was water pollutants based

and determine the various correlations among the physico – chemical characteristic of

wastewater of National Fertilizer Limited situated at Panipat. Second case study aims to

predict the air pollutants concentration in Trans Thane Creek area at 7 stations. Besides

the above analysis standard deviation, linear regressions are also given. Schrank et al.,

(2004)42 have compared many organic compounds contained in wastewater are resistant

to conventionalchemical and/or biological treatment. Because of this reason different

degradation techniques are studied as an alternative to biological and classicalphysico-

chemical processes. Amathussalam et al., (2004)43 indicated Physico-chemical and

bacteriological analyses of tannery effluent polluted groundwater in Sempattu area of

Tiruchirappalli reveal higher values of TDS, EC, DO, bicarbonate alkalinity, total

hardness (CaCO3), chloride, nitrate and MPN than the permissible limits of

drinking water standards. But pH, TS, TSS, BOD, COD and carbonate alkalinity values

are within the WHO standards. Lokhande SS et al., (2005)44 described that the analysis

of the industrial effluents collected from G and H industrial zone from Taloja industrial

area of Maharastra state. High concentration of metal ions is observed in the effluents. It

indicates the high degree of pollution in this zone. MIDC Taloja is very big industrial area

and hence a small zone is selected for the assessment to give typical model of industrial

pollution study. The physico-chemical characteristics, like colour, odour, pH,

temperature, total suspended solids, hardness, chloride, oil and grease, iron, chromium,

sulphate, phosphate and COD has been analysed.

Abirami. P et al., (2005)45 revealed the pollutant removal efficiency of

Eichhornia crassipes Solms and Pistia stratiotes L. from the dye industry effluent and the

49

effect of dye industry effluent on the growth of Eichhornia crassipes Solms and Pistia

stratiotes L. were analysed. TDS, COD, BOD, DO, total hardness, calcium, magnesium,

nitrate, chloride, sulphate and iron were highly reduced by Eichchornia and Pistia at 20%.

Ash B et al., (2005)46 attempted a study to prepare the activated carbon from coconut

pith, under different conditions and its activity was computed with commercial grade

activated charcoal.

Banerjee Subash et al., (2005)47 highlighted the characteristics of the generated

waste from a paint processing unit in the eastern region of India. The effluent is subjected

to several treatment processes to alter the parameters in relation to ambient environment.

Very encouraging results were obtained by adopting pure oxygen based cultivated sludge

treatment technique as BOD and COD values were reduced by 90-95% and 79-80%

respectively. Binu Kumari S et al., (2005)48 described the physico-chemical properties

of the municipal sewage water of Vellore, Coimbatore were studied to see their nutritive

value and possible use for the cultivation of fishses following the adequate treatment.

Guna PR et al., (2005)49 gave a study on production of biogas and vermicompost from

this microbiology waste was found to be easy way having potential to take care of both

ecology and economy. It was found that about 12-15 litres of biogas/liter slurry of the

waste and about 1.0-1.5kg vermicompost can be generated daily from average

microbiology laboratory waste. Hemalata B et al., (2005)50 described and the study was

carried out to stabilizer yard waste and industrial sludge. Industrial sludges used were

tannery sludge, distillery sludge and paper mill sludge. Eudrilus eugineae was the species

of earthworms used in the vermicomposting process.

Jain Monika et al., (2005)51 revealed Bioassay experiments are conducted in the

laboratory under different set of conditions to evaluate the toxicity levels of different

heavy metal available in the effluent of different hospitals. Concentration of Pb and Cr

were above the permissible limit prescribed by bio medical waste [Handling and

Management] rule 1998. As compared to lead, chromium is much more toxic for Daphnia

magna in very low concentration. Root zone treatment is an effective device to reduce

these pollutants. Kanchanabhan et al., (2005)52 gave a study on a sequencing batch

reactor (SBR) of five litre capacity was fabricated and used. The reactor treated high

strength wastewater and the cumulative COD and tannin removal efficiency was 77 %

and 88 % respectively. The removal efficiency of tannin and COD in wastewater were

controlled by tannin concentration, hydraulic residence time, micro and macronutrients.

The degradation of tannin was confirmed through the enzyme assay test.

50

Misra Anil Kumar et al., (2005)53 described low-cost wastewater treatment will

continue to be viable and economical option in the recovery, recycle of water. The

wastewater treatment technologies more suitable for developing countries, which are cost

effective, having low operation and maintenance requirements, are discussed. Pratap

Chandran et al.,(2005)54 studied on attempt has been made to optimize parameters for

anaerobic digestion after subjecting the waste to steam digestion. This steam digestion

was arrived out at temperatures in the range 110◦C to 150◦C. The resultant slurry was

cooled and filtered. The filtrate COD showed a reduction of 46% at the maximum

temperature. The filtrate when subjected to anaerobic digestion showed a net increase in

COD reduction 6.5%.

Prathima G et al., (2005)55 described toxic chromium (VI) is removed from

Wastewater with used tea powder as an adsorbent. The equilibrium studies on adsorption

of chromium are carried out in batch process systematically. The optimum contact time is

obtained at 5 hrs. The percent removal of chromium increases with increases in adsorbent

dosage and initial concentration of chromium. The percent removal is also increased with

decreases in adsorbent size and volume of wastewater. Sastry TP et al., (2005)56 assessed

that two processes have been developed to offer an alternative and better solution for the

disposal of chromeshavings.The first process is preparation of parchment like membrane

and the second process is related to development of leather like material. These products

are analyzed for their mechanical behaviour and other physicochemical properties.

Suriyanarayanam et al., (2005)57 found that the raw wastewater consisted of

202-294 mg/l and 2010-3200 mg/l of suspended and dissolved solids respectively while

Ph varied from 6.7-7.3.The BOD and COD values ranged from 210-310, 1680-2340 mg/l

respectively. Due to the treatment of raw effluent, the SS and TDS of treated effluent

were significantly decreased and the values ranged in between 118 mgL-1 to 154 mgL-1

and 645 mgL-1 to 925 mgL-1, respectively. The Ph values of the treated effluent were

higher than the raw effluent. Tambekar et al., (2005)58 described Studies indicated the

variation in physical and chemical characteristics of MSW depending on localities. It was

noted that high organic contents was present in MSW collected from vegetable market,

residential areas, temple and cow yard, and this MSW can be used for good quality

compost. The MSW collected from bus stand, railway station, school and college area

was high in paper and plastic contents content, which could be recycled and reprocessed

to make it reusable.

51

Bharani A et al., (2006)59 revealed that the pH decreased with increasing levels

of sewage biosolids and the available plant nutrients increased markedly. Phytoavailable

heavy metals increased as the dosage of sewage biosolid increased. A nine times increase

in phytoavailable Cu and Pb at 100% biosolid application was observed. Shoots

accumulated more of Pb and Cu, while roots accumulated much of Nickel and

Manganese. Bishno Narsi et al., (2006)60 carried an experiment to find out the

degradability of black liquor of pulp and paper mill wastewater for biomethanogenesis in

continuous stirred tank reactor ( CSTR ) ( for anaerobic digestion ) and followed by

activated sludge process (ASP) (for aerobic digestion). A maximum methane production

was found up to 430 ml/day.

Esakku et al., (2006)61 revealed Leachate samples from Perungudi and

Kodungaiyur dumping grounds were collected and analyzed. Leachates were slightly

alkaline. The maximum chemical oxygen demands recorded were 1370 and 58 mg/L,

respectively. Heavy metals were in microgram levels. A comparisons of the quality in the

two sites showed that the pollution potential of Perungudi leachates was slightly higher

than that of Kodungaiyur. Namasivayam et al., (2006)62 revealed Waste Fe (III) / Cr

(III) hydroxide was investigated for the removal of anionic dyes, namely acid brilliant

(acidic dye) and procion red ( reactive azo dye ) from aqueous solution. Adsorption

followed Langmuir isotherm with adsorption capacity of 10.37 and 3.28 mg/g for acid

brillant blue and procion red respectively.

Pandey et al., (2006)63 effect of environmental conditions on decolorzation of

Porcion Red Yellow, Acid Yellow-9, Direct Orange 102 and Crystal Violet by

Phanerochaete Chrysosporium and Pseudomonas fluorescens was studied. The conditions

for dye degradation by these microorganisms were different, which have been optimized.

The most suitable conditions for Pseudomonas fluorescens are pH 7.2, temperature 37◦C

and carbon and nitrogen source from yeast extract. Reddy Babu G(2006)64 revealed

Attempt has been made to investigate the feasibility of adsorption for removal of colour

from simulated reactive textile dye effluents employing powdered activated carbon

(PAC). Bath sorption experiments have been conducted with established procedures. The

results indicate that sorption isotherms are favourable in the removal of colour bodies by

PAC.

Vasanthy et al., (2006)65 deals with removal of colour, odour, TDS and COD

from the spent wash using chemical agent such as calcium oxide and hydrogen peroxide.

Odour has been completely removed from the diluted 10% spent wash when treated with

52

calcium oxide and hydrogen peroxide. Three different treatments were performed with

calcium oxide, hydrogen peroxide and both these in combination. Treatment with

combination of the two chemicals has shown highest removal of colour (95%), TDS

(54.5%) and COD (63.7%) from the dilute spent wash. Vasanthy M et al., (2006)66

described with the removal of colour and odour from the spent wash using chemical

agents such as CaO,H2O2 and an adsorbent commercial activated carbon (CAC). Odour

has been completely removed from the 5% diluted spent wash when treated with calcium

oxide, hydrogen peroxide and commercial activated carbon.

Sinha et al., (2006)67 studied the implications of metal contamination of

agricultural soils due to long term irrigation with treated industrial wastewater and their

subsequent accumulation in the vegetables/crops growing on such soils has been assessed

in an area of industrial complex, Jajmau, Kanpur (India). Physico-chemical properties of

the soil were also studied. The soil and vegetables/crops were sampled from an area of

2100 acre agricultural land and analyzed for physico-chemical properties and metal

accumulation in different parts of the plants. The comparison of the data of physico-

chemical properties of control and contaminated soil showed that salinity, electrical

conductivity, available phosphorous, sodium and potassium content (both water soluble

and exchangeable) were found high in contaminated soil.

Thirunavukkarasu et al., (2007)68 isolated bacteria from the activated sludge

plant and identified based on the morphological and biochemical characters. The

heterotrophic bacterial population load and protease producing bacteria were also

determined. The Physico-chemical characters were correlated with total heterotrophic

bacterial population. Further studies on the nature and identification of the microbes of

the environment using culturable, non-culturable and metabolic studies would help to

improve the operation quality of the waste water treatment process. Sahu et al., (2007)69

assessed the impact of tannery and other industrial effluents on thephysico-

chemical characteristics of loamy drain water and their consequent impact on soil and

plants irrigated with effluent have been studied. The study reveals most of the parameter

pH, BOD and COD at sampling station I was higher than station II. Waste water quality

at both Stations I and II exceeded prescribed limits (BIS) for safe disposal of effluents

into the surface water. Samples of soil and vegetables from the land irrigated with loamy

drain waterhas been collected and analyzed for Cu, Zn, Ni, Cr, Pb and Cd. Accumulation

of toxic heavy metals may be build up in the agriculturally productive land where it is

53

treated with contaminated effluent enrich with metals in turn bio-concentrated in the

edible fodder/plants.

Verma et al., (2008)70 assessed the quality of treated tannery effluent discharged

from Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP), Unnao, India, to various water bodies

and agricultural lands. The physico-chemicalanalyses revealed that the effluent was

yellowish-brown in colour, having alkaline pH, high BOD, COD values and contained

large quantities of organic and inorganic constituents well above the prescribed standards.

The bacteriological quality was assessed in terms of the presence of heterotrophs and total

as well as faecal coliforms. The observations of this investigation indicate that the treated

tannery effluent released for various purposes is not satisfactory and is far from optimal in

attaining the safe limits of disposal.

Haroun et al., (2009)71 studied the major limitation of direct application of

tannery sludge compost in agriculture is the total heavy metal contents and their

bioavailability to the soil-plant system. This study focused on the heavy metal

characterization and the influence of changing the physicochemical properties of the

medium throughout the composting on the concentrations, bioavailability

or chemical forms of Cr, Cu, Zn, Pb and Cd in tannery sludge.

Zubair Alam et al., (2010)72 determined the tannery effluents at Kanpur (India)

have been in use for irrigation since last many years, polluting soil directly while ground

water and food crops indirectly. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometric analysis of the

test samples revealed the presence of organic compounds including diisooctyl phthalate,

phenyl N-methylcarbamate, dibutyl phthalate, bis 2-methoxyethyl phthalate, and higher

alkanes. In the light of results, precautious use of tannery effluents for irrigation is

suggested.

Patil et al., (2011)73 analyzed the concentration of heavy metals in surface

sediments of the Tapti River at five different places in Dry and Wet seasons. The analysis

shows that the concentration of mercury, Arsenic and Cadmium is less than 0.01ppm.

Concentration of Lead and Zinc shows much variation in both seasons .In wet seasons

the concentration is very high and in dry season it is very low at station .

Patil et al., (2011)74 correlated the quality ground water by using

ISI,WHO,ICMR, BIS Standards and irrigation guidelines. The various parameters like

pH, EC,TDS, Cl-,SO42-,TH,TKN,TP,COD,BOD, ,Na+,K+, Mg2+,% Na and SAR where

analyzed most of the samples were found to be unfit for drinking and irrigation purpose

due to high levels of The EC,TDS, Cl-,SO42-, TH, TKN, TP,COD,BOD, Na+, K+,

54

Mg2+,% Na and SAR. The Correlation coefficient (r) between all parameters were

studied which provides an easy and rapid method of monitoring of water quality .

Rajesh kumar yadav.S.S., (2011)75 studied an acute awareness among the

people about the quality of ground water by taking water samples from specific locations

for analysis .The experiment analyses its various physico- chemical parameters such as

pH,electrical conductivity ,TDS ,TH,TA,Ca2+,Mg2+,Cl-,SO42-,Na+,K+,CO3

2+,HCO3- and

F-, content in ground water. A systematic correlation matrix study showed significant

relationship among different pairs of water quality parameters.

Yeole. P.M., (2011)76 an attempt has been made for the assessment of the

relationship between COD and BOD for the pulp & paper mill effluents. All the

correlation was found to be good excellent indicating that for the particular part of

ecosystem under identical or near identical natural conditions and strongly inter related.

The correlations provide an excellent tool for the prediction of parameter values within

reasonable degree of accuracy.

Sunny et al., (2012)77 studied the impact on environment in the Dhaka division

is the main central industrial zone in Bangladesh. Along with the great growth in industry

in the region, there have also been increased and sometimes critical levels of

toxic pollution to the environment. Although much has been researched in the region on

the degradation of the environment, the slow improvements in environment protection

drive the question of what is the environmental security climate in Dhaka division. The

study of four plants (textile, leather tanning, cement and fertilizer) in Dhaka division

aimed to find out the impact of each on the environment. The loss of life and quality

of life may have larger impacts that daily profitability and livelihood.

Haloi et al., (2012)78 conducted to evaluate the heavy metal contamination status

of groundwater in Brahmaputra flood plain Barpeta District, Assam, India. The

Brahmaputra River flows from the southern part of the district and its many tributaries

flow from north to south. Cd, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn are estimated by using atomic

absorption spectrometer, Perkin Elmer AA 200. The quantity of heavy metals in

drinking water should be checked time to time; as heavy metal accumulation will cause

numerous problems to living being. Forty groundwater samples were collected mainly

from tube wells from the flood plain area. As there is very little information available

about the heavy metal contamination status in the heavily populated study area, the

present work will help to be acquainted with the suitability of groundwater for drinking

applications as well as it will enhance the database.

55

Subba et al., (2012)79 Studied on chemical characteristics of groundwater and

impacts of groundwater quality on human health, plant growth and industrial sector is

essential to control and improve the water quality in every part of the country. The area of

the Varaha River Basin is chosen for the present study, where the Precambrian Eastern

Ghats underlain the Recent sediments. Groundwater quality is of mostly brackish and

very hard, caused by the sources of geogenic, anthropogenic, and marine origin. The

quality of groundwater is of mostly moderate in comparison with the salinity hazard

versus sodium hazard, the total salt concentration versus percent sodium, the residual

sodium carbonate, and the magnesium hazard, but is of mostly suitable with respect to the

permeability index for irrigation.

Oufline et al., (2012)80 assessed the impact of three sources of pollution (landfill

leachate, wastewater and mining activities) on the physico-chemicalcharacteristics of

surface water and groundwater in the northern region of Marrakech (Morocco).

Numerous groundwater samples and surface water (Tensift River) samples were collected

during the dry season and analysed. Pandya et al., (2012)81 detected fluoride and

quantified in ground water and surface water in the North Gujarat region. The major

source for drinking and irrigation water in North Gujarat is ground water.

Ground water comes from the regional alluvial aquifer system. This region is severely

affected by endemic fluorosis under water stress. With an objective to understand fluoride

contamination in groundwater of Patan region groundwater samples have been collected

and analyzed for various chemical parameters. It is well known that long-term exposure

to water with high levels of fluoride produces severe health problems.

Mustapha et al., (2012)82 presented the application of some selected multivariate

statistical techniques, prediction method, and confirmatory analysis to identify spatial

variation and pollution sources of the Jakara-Getsi river system in Kano, Nigeria. Two-

hundred and forty water samples were collected from eight different sampling sites along

the river system. Fifteen physico-chemical parameters were analyzed: pH, electrical

conductivity, turbidity, hardness, total dissolved solids, dissolved solids, dissolved

oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, mercury, lead,

chromium, cadmium, iron, and nickel. Correlation analysis showed that the mean

concentration of heavy metals in the river water samples were significantly positive

correlated values. Principal component analysis and factor analysis (PCA/FA)

investigated the origin of the water quality parameters as due to various anthropogenic

56

activities. This study provides a new technique of confirming exploratory

data analysis using SEM in water resources management.

Yadav et al., (2012)83 studied Kunda river a large tributary of Narmada from

Nimar region, which starts from Village Pipalzhopa, Tehsil Bhagwanpura,Distict

Khargone to Village Hopa, Tehsil Kaswarad, District Khargone. In the present study,

various physicochemical and pollution parameters like alkalinity, chloride content,total

hardness, Mg hardness, Ca hardness, pH value, turbidity of Kunda river were studied. The

study shows the hardness, alkalinity, chlorides, turbidity of water of Kunda River, which

contains sewage of Khargone City, was found above the prescribed limit. Therefore the

conservation and management of this water is very much required as it supplies water to

1.5 lac population of Khargone city. Bhatnagar et al., (2012)84 attempted a non point

source delivers pollutants indirectly through environmental changes. An example of this

type of water pollution is when fertilizer from a field is carried into a stream by rain, in

the form of run-off which in turn affects aquatic life. The technology exists for point

sources of pollution to be monitored and regulated, although political factors may

complicate matters. Non point sources are much more difficult to

control. Pollution arising from non point sources accounts for a majority of the

contaminants in streams and lakes. The present work is an attempt to

evaluate water condition (pollution level) in the Rewa city, M.P., India. The water quality

was not found suitable for drinking purposes.

Kuppuraj et al., (2012)85 correlated groundwater quality in the flood plains of

upper Palar River. Groundwater is generally presumed to be good for human

consumption and is used as a main source of drinking water. Although there are

numerous reasons for groundwater pollution, anthropogenic sources are considered as the

prime ones. In this study, twenty-two groundwater samples were collected from the flood

plains of upper Palar River during the pre- and post-monsoon seasons to assess the extent

of pollution and effects on human health. Physico-chemicalcharacteristics of groundwater

were analyzed and compared with those of drinking water standards recommended by the

World Health Organization (WHO) and the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). The Piper's

trilinear diagram shows the nature of alkali earth with the high contents of alkalies and

prevailing sulphate in the present samples. The univariate statistics and correlation

analysis were performed to find out the relationships between the variables.

Karunyal et al., (1994)86 studied the effects of tannery effluent (25, 50 75 and

100%) on seed germination of Oryza sativa, Acacia holosericea and Leucaena

57

leucocephala. Germination was inhibited by 25% and 50% and prevented by 75% and

100% of the tannery effluent. Compared to the control the soil treated

with tannery effluent was rich in Mg Mn Fe,Na and K ions.

Rusek et al., (2000)87 studied in only a few groups of soil animals, notably

protozoans, nematodes, potworms, earthworms, mites, and collembolans. Pollutants in the

form of acid depositions, which contain SO4 2-, NOx,H+, heavy metals, and some organic

compounds are not homogeneously distributed on the landscape. Deposition patterns

depend mainly on landscape configuration and plant cover. Airborne pollutants affect soil

animals both directly and indirectly. Direct toxic effects are associated with uptake of free

acidic water from the environment by some soil animals and with consumption of

polluted food by others. Indirect effects are mediated primarily through disappearance or

reduction of the food resources (microflora and microfauna) of soil animals, changes in

organic matter content, and modification of microclimate.

Pichtel et al., (2000)88 evaluated a metal accumulation in soils and plants are of

environmental importance due to their health effects on humans and other biota. Soil

material and plant tissue were collected along transects in two heavily contaminated

facilities, a Superfund site and a lead-acid battery dump, and analyzed for metal content.

De Sá E Melo Marques et al., (2000)89 evaluated the metal content and ability to

grow in soil with excess of heavy metals of seedlings of 20 woody species. In the

greenhouse, seedlings were transplanted to pots with 3.3 kg of soil-mixes with different

proportions (0, 20, 40, 60% v/v) of a heavy metal contaminated soil. It was found that

plant species behaved differently in terms of growth inhibition and metal content in the

shoots and roots. Based upon the dry matter yield, only Myrsine umbellata, Cedrella

fissilis, Tabebuia impetiginosa and Copaifera langsdorffii were not affected by increasing

contamination, whereas Hymenaea courbaril, Mimosa caesalpiniaefolia, Acacia mangium

and Platypodium gonoacantha were only slightly affected by it. All the other species were

highly inhibited by the excess of metals in the soil, being such effects related, in most

cases, to high uptake of Zn and Cd. Several species were able to retain large quantities of

these metals in the roots, therefore avoiding their translocation to shoots.

Valagurova et al., (2001)90 explained the effect of heavy metals on the

streptomycete pure cultures under solid and liquid nutrient media has been studied. These

cultures may be used as indicators of the soil heavy metal pollution in the future.

Shuman et al., (2001)91 analyzed the Compost which can be used to remediate

metal-contaminated sites because it binds metals and reduces metal uptake by plants. A

58

greenhouse experiment was conducted to test the effectiveness of compost to remediate

Zn toxicity to plants and to determine its effect on zinc (Zn) distribution among

operationally defined forms.

Khan A.G (2001)92 correlated heavy metal-contaminated land is increasingly

becoming an important environmental, health, economic, and planning issue in Pakistan.

The unplanned disposal of industrial effluent from tannery, for example, has resulted in a

many fold increase in chromium (Cr) in the land near a tannery. This study was

undertaken to compare the total and the DTPA-available Cr contents in the soil and the

roots and leaves of tree species growing on it with those on the nearby noncontaminated

reference site at Kala Shah Kakoo, Panjab, Pakistan. A very reduced plant cover on

the tannery effluent-contaminated site was noted and there was a sharp boundary between

the polluted and nonpolluted reference sites, suggesting a strong selection pressure.

Florig et al., (2002)93 focused China's urban and rural populations face very

serious health risks from combustion particles. Major sources of exposure to inhalable

particulates include the burning solid fuels (biomass and coal) for household cooking and

heating, coal-fired industrial and residential boilers, tobacco smoking, and diesel motor

vehicles. China began to address particulate pollution problems over 25 years ago and has

implemented a series of progressively more aggressive policies.

Renuga (2005)94 revealed a plant growth promoting bacterium, Pseudomonas

aeurginosa that contained high levels of heavy meta was isolated from soil

collected tannery effluent seepage near Dindigul Dt. The bacterium was resistant to the

toxic effects of various metals such as Cr3+, Pb2+, Hg, Zn and Cd. Lycopersicum

esculentum seeds inoculated with this bacterium and then grown under genotobiotic

condition in the presence of high concentration of potassium chromate were partially

protected against chromium toxicity

Tariq et al., (2005)95 found the observation that the effluent and relevant soil

samples from 38 tanning units housed in Kasur, Pakistan, were obtained for metal

analysis by flame atomic absorption spectrophotometric method. The levels of 12 metals,

Na, Ca, K, Mg, Fe, Mn, Cr, Co, Cd, Ni, Pb and Zn were determined in the two media.

The data were evaluated towards metal distribution and metal-to-metal correlations. The

study evidenced enhanced levels of Cr (391, 16.7 mg/L) and Na (25,519, 9369 mg/L) in

tannery effluents and relevant soil samples, respectively. The effluent versus soil trace

metal content relationship confirmed that the effluent Cr was strongly correlated with soil

59

Cr. For metal source identification the techniques of principal component analysis, and

cluster analysis were applied.

Gruszczyński. S (2005)96 studied various ways of approaching the horizontal

distribution trend (tendency) of Chromium (Cr) in soil, where pollution by this element is

high, were analyzed. Interpolation algorithms triangular irregular network (TIN), kriging,

regularized spline with tension (RST), and artificial neural networks; radial basis function

network (RBF), probabilistic neural network (PNN), generalized regression neural

network (GRNN) and mixture density network (MDN) were applied. Data from field

experiments, carried out in the area of the chemical plant in Alwernia, were used

Nuorteva et al., (2005)97 highlighted levels of Al, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cd and Hg

in leaves of 22 species of terrestrial indicator plants from numerous randomly selected

localities in the southern parts of British Columbia, Finland and Poland were analyzed by

AAS. The main material comprised 2008 chemical analyses performed on 309 samples

randomly collected from 87 localities in the three extensive study areas. The interaction

of soil fertility, Cd pollution and pest resistance in forest decline is discussed.

Mathe-Gaspar et al., (2005)98 analyzed the heavy metal pollution CdSO4,

K2CrO4, ZnSO4) affecting the soil actual element content, plant and soil microbial

function. Pot and laboratory experiments were set up to examine the extent of pollution in

the soils collected from the upper 20 cm ploughed layer in the 8th year of a long-term

field trial. Actual heavy metal concentration of the polluted soils was low, although Cr

and Cd values were significantly higher, exceeding the Hungarian "B" soil pollution

threshold limit.

Bragato et al., (2006)99 studied a recently constructed wetland, located in the

Venice lagoon watershed, was monitored to investigate growth dynamics, nutrient and

heavy metal shoot accumulation of the two dominating macrophytes: Phragmites australis

and Bolboschoenus maritimus. Investigations were conducted over a vegetative season at

three locations with different distance to the inlet point to assess effects on vegetation.

The distance from the inlet did not affect either shoot biomass or nutrients (N, P, K and

Na) and heavy metals (Cr, Ni, Cu and Zn) shoot content. With the exception of Na,

nutrient and heavy metal concentrations were higher in shoots of P. australis than in B.

maritimus. Heavy metal concentration in the incoming water and in the soil was not

correlated to the plant content of either species.

Wu et al., (2006)100 discussed Chelant-enhanced phytoextraction is one of the

most promising technologies to remove heavy metals from soil. The key of the

60

technology is to choose suitable additives in combination with a suitable plant. In the

present study, laboratory batch experiment of metal solubilization, cress seeds

germination were undertaken to investigate the metal-mobilizing capability and the

phytotoxicity of organic additives, including ethylene diamine triacetic acid (EDTA),

citric acid, acetic acid, oxalic acid, glutamine and monosodium glutamate waste liquid

(MGWL) from food industry.

Çelik et al., (2006)101 monitored the concentrations of Cd, Pb, Fe, Cr, Ni, Se, Sb,

As and Cu were investigated in the nesting environment of green turtles in Mediterranean

Sea near Kazanli, Mersin-Turkey. Tissues of plants growing on the beach and the

adjacent environment, beach sand, sea ground sediment, sea grass as well as the egg

shells from the nests were analyzed and the results showed no significant high levels of

heavy metals detected. Yanai et al., (2006)102 analyzed the influence of soil

characteristics on the phytoremediation potential of Thlaspi caerulescens is not well

understood. It was reported the effect of soil pH and Cd concentration on plant Cd uptake

on one soil type, and the variation in Cd uptake using a range of field contaminated soils.

Rai et al., (2006)103 observed the booming vehicular population reached over

26.5 million today has completely transformed the socio-economic scenario in urban

India. Vehicles, particularly two wheelers with two stroke engines, burn a mixture of

petrol and oil, gives out a cloud of blue toxic smoke. The automobile emissions are the

significant sources of gaseous pollutants and ultra fine particles in the atmosphere. In

India, petrol and diesel engine vehicles emit a wide variety of pollutants principally

benzene, carbon-monoxide (CO), lead (Pb) organic compounds (OCs), oxides of nitrogen

(NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and suspended particulate matter (SPM) like smoke,

metals (Cd, Co, Cu and Zn) and inert dust. The plants are proven to be effective in the

capture of particles and other toxic gases from urban air to the extent that they can

significantly improve the urban air quality.

Srivastava et al., (2006)104 evaluated Aspergillus Niger isolated from soil of

leather tanning effluent had higher activity to remove chromium then the other fungal

isolates. The potency of A. niger was evaluated in shake flask culture by absorption of

chromium at pH 6, temperature 30 °C. The toxicity of chromium evaluated in petriplates

and soil microcosm seed bioassay test had indicated increase in toxicity with the higher

concentration of chromate. The results of chromate toxicity in the wheat plants revealed

that the peroxidases was induced due to increase of metal stress which was reversed in

soil microcosm amended with compost.

61

Tariq et al., (2006)105 analyzed tannery effluents and relevant ground water and

soil samples collected from various tanning industries of Peshawar were analyzed for Na,

Ca, K, Mg, Fe, Mn, Cr, Co, Cd, Ni, Pb and Zn by the AAS method. The metal

concentration data for the three media are reported in terms of basic statistical parameters,

metal-to-metal correlations and linear regression analyses. Metal distributions in the three

media were quite divergent and showed non-normal distributions with high standard

deviation and skewness parameters. The source identification studies conducted using

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Cluster Analysis (CA) evidenced that ground

water and soil were being contaminated by the toxic metals emanating from

the tannery effluents.

Samanta et al., (2007)106 predicted Biodegradation of hexavalent chromium

present in tannery waste has been studied using Pseudomonas sp. (JUBTCrl) and Bacillus

sp. (JUBTCr3) isolated from their native source. It is observed that Haldan-type substrate

inhibited model can satisfactorily be used to predict the extent of bioconversion for

different dilution rate. Using the kinetic parameters of proposed Haldane equation, a

CSTR model was developed. Model prediction agreed well with experimental data.

Nareshkumar et al., (2007)107 assessed the efficiency of bioleaching to

decontaminate heavy metal laden soil affected by tannery effluent employing sulfur

oxidizing bacterium, Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans. Concentrations of predominant heavy

metals were Cd, 9; Cu, 95; Cr, 11800; Pb, 85 and Zn, 238 mg/kg.

Sahu et al., (2007)108 observed the impact of tannery and other industrial effluents

on the physico-chemical characteristics of loamy drain water and their consequent impact

on soil and plants irrigated with effluent have been studied. The study reveals most of the

parameter pH, BOD and COD at sampling station I was higher than station II. Waste

water quality at both Stations I and II exceeded prescribed limits (BIS) for safe disposal

of effluents into the surface water. Samples of soil and vegetables from the land irrigated

with loamy drain water has been collected and analyzed for Cu, Zn, Ni, Cr, Pb and Cd.

Accumulation of toxic heavy metals may be build up in the agriculturally productive land

where it is treated with contaminated effluent enrich with metals in turn bio-concentrated

in the edible fodder/plants.

NareshKumar et al., (2008)109 carried out experiment to assess the changes in

nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contents in soil during bioleaching of heavy metals

from soil contaminated by tannery effluents. These findings indicate that despite its high

potential for removal of heavy metals from contaminated soils, bioleaching results in

62

undesirable dissolution/loss of essential plant nutrients. This aspect warrants urgent

attention and detailed studies to evaluate the appropriateness of the technique for field

application.

Kumar et al., (2008)110 performed in developing country like India greater

attention has been focused so far only on the ground water pollution. Unlike water the

study on the soil contamination has not been much attended yet. In this background, it

becomes necessary to study the soil contamination in Dindigul, where the soil is mostly

degraded by tannery effluents. The overlay analysis was then performed by assigning

weightages to the soil parameters to arrive the contamination levels. The results show that

most of the areas were highly contaminated which make the land unfit for agriculture.

Vankar et al., (2008)111 suggested the tannery effluent carrying hazardous Cr

(VI) species due to the oxidation of Cr (III) species was found to pollute the soil and the

ground water of Jajmau area of Kanpur city where a large number of tanneries are

located. They have studied the phyto-remediation of Cr (VI). Biosorption of the

chromium ion Cr (VI) onto the cell surface of Trichoderma fungal species in aerobic

condition was investigated.

Alam et al., (2009)112 observed the agricultural fields with wastewater originating

from industries and domestic sources. At Jajmau (Kanpur), India, tannery effluent is used

for irrigation purposes. This practice has been polluting the soil directly and groundwater

and food crops indirectly. This study is aimed at evaluating the mutagenic impact of soil

irrigated with tannery effluent. Sundar et al., (2010)113 reported the tanneries in Ambur,

Vaniambadi, Pernambut, Ranipet and Walajapet are clustered on the banks of the Palar

River. This is the primary source of drinking water for the residents of Vellore district.

Reports have shown that the soil and ground water of these places are heavily

contaminated with salts and heavy metals especially Chromium. The water quality

parameters in the area are found to be above the WHO permissible limits (0.05 mg/L).

This study reports the chromium contamination and the chromium resistant bacterial

populations in the Vellore District in relation to seasonal variations.

Tarcan et al., (2010)114 discussed more than 50 tanneries are operated in Kula,

Turkey which is located on highly permeable geological units. The untreated effluents

from the tanneries discharged onto the ground surface may cause pollution in surface

waters, in groundwater, and in soil. Since the water resources of the region are used for

drinking, agricultural, and industrial purposes, the quality assessment of ground waters

and surface waters is completed in the content of this study. Additionally, the surface soil

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samples are analyzed for their heavy metal content to describe the size of the pollution.

The results obtained from the analysis of the water samples show that the concentrations

are mostly within drinking water limits.

Tariq et al., (2010)115 studied the distribution, correlation, and apportionment of

selected metals, the tannery effluent, related soil, and groundwater samples were collected

from Multan, Pakistan, and analyzed on flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer.

Among the selected metals, Na, Ca, K, Cr and Mg revealed dominant concentrations with

average values of 5,499, 945, 565, 209, and 107 mg/L and 2,634, 330, 484, 14.1, and 60.5

mg/L in the effluents and groundwater, respectively, whereas the mean metal levels in

soil samples were 10,026, 6,726, 9,242, 476, and 9,857 mg/kg. Overall, the mean metal

concentrations in thetannery effluents, groundwater, and related soils reveal following

order, respectively: Na > Ca > K > Cr > Mg > Ni > Fe > Zn > Co > Pb > Mn > Cd; Na >

K > Ca > Mg > Cr > Zn > Ni > Pb > Fe > Co > Mn > Cd; Na > Mg > K > Ca > Cr > Co >

Ni > Fe > Pb > Mn > Zn > Cd. Generally, the metal distribution in tanneryeffluents, soils,

and groundwater was found to be random as evidenced by large differences between

mean and median values as well as considerably higher standard deviation and skewness

values.

Firdaus-e-Bareen., (2010)116 observed the Phytoextraction of two toxic metals,

namely sodium and chromium, which was studied using seven cultivated plants-Brassica

campestris L. (mustard), Brassica juncea (L.) Czan. (Indian mustard), Triticum aestivum

L. (wheat), Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. (millet), Trifolium alexandrianum L. (Egyptian

clover), Helianthus annuus L. (sunflower), and Spinacea oleracea L. (spinach)-in

greenhouse trials. Soil used was untreated (control) or contaminated

with tannery effluents with and without application of EDTA.

Arunachalam.S (2010)117 gave the following results. In developing country like

India greater attention has been focused so far only on the ground water pollution. Unlike

water the study on the soil contamination has not been much attended yet. In this

background, it becomes necessary to study the soil contamination in Dindigul, where the

soil is mostly degraded by tannery effluents. In order to assess the extent and level of soil

contamination, soil samples were taken at 60 locations in and around tannery industries

and tested for various chemical parameters like Electrical conductivity, pH, Nitrogen,

Phosphorus, Potassium, Iron, Manganese, Zinc and Copper.

Boularab et al., (2011)118 studied the effluent and sludge from tanneries which

are considered as one of the most polluting industrial discharges, carrying high

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concentrations of toxic chromium hexavalent. The biological decontamination procedures

of water polluted by chromium have significant advantages compared to physicochemical

methods. In this work we report the isolation of three Cr(VI) reducing yeasts isolates

from tanneries effluents of Fez (Morocco), by enrichment culture techniques. The isolates

show resistance to high concentrations of Cr(VI) up to 1500 mg/L and exhibited multiple

heavy metal (Ni(II), Zn(II), Hg(II), Pb(II), Co(II), Cu(II) and Hg(II)) tolerance.

Alam et al., (2011)119 investigated a total of 198 bacteria were isolated, 88 from

the tannery effluents and 110 from agricultural soil irrigated with the tannery effluents.

Tannery effluents and soils were analyzed for metal concentrations by atomic absorption

spectrophotometer. The tannery effluents and soil samples were found to be contaminated

with chromium, nickel, zinc, copper and cadmium.

Kathiravan et al., (2011)120 analyzed the ex situ batch and continuous

bioremediation of tannery effluent contaminated soil using Bacillus sp. isolated from

hexavalent chromium Cr(VI) contaminated environment. The remediation of Cr(VI)

contaminated soil by conventional methods is challenging and hence, the present study

aims to address this issue by examining ex situ bioremediation of Cr(VI) contaminated

soil. The elemental composition of the soil was analyzed by SEM-EDX. The leachate of

the soil was remediated using Bacillus sp. and the effect of temperature, pH and inoculum

volume on the process performance was explored.

Alam et al., (2011)121 gave the following results. The resulted four bacterial

isolates (two resistant and two sensitive to chromium) were isolated from soil

contaminated with tannery effluents at Jajmau (Kanpur), India and were identified by 16S

rDNA gene sequencing as Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Exiguobacterium sp., Pantoea

sp., and Aeromonas sp. Biosorption of chromium by dried and living biomasses was

determined in the resistant and sensitive isolates. The effect of pH, initial metal

concentration, and contact time on biosorption was studied.

Masood et al., (2011)122 studied a Cr(VI) reducing bacterial strain FM1 was

isolated from heavy metal contaminated agricultural soil irrigated

with tannery effluents of Jajmau, Kanpur (India), and was identified as Bacillus sp. on the

basis of biochemical methods and 16S rDNA gene sequence analysis.

Ghosh et al., (2012)123 studied the concentration of chromium (VI) in the

effluent, sludge, soil of the agricultural field and water from the wetland around the sites

of tannery industries was measured by instrumental methods. There is a decline in

chromium concentration in effluent as a function of distance traveled by it while reverse

65

trend is observed in case of sludge. Results indicate that there is a substantial buildup of

Cr VI in the soils of agricultural field which is irrigated by the tannery effluent, as

compared to the controlled soil sample.

Sharma et al., (2012)124 conducted to isolate and characterize Cr(VI) [chromate]

reducing bacteria from soil contaminated with tannery effluent (Kanpur, India) and

evaluate these bacteria for Cr(VI) reduction activity. A comparative growth and reduction

study was conducted in AMM (acetate minimal media; considering acetate as an

economical and easily available carbon source) and in the tannery effluent for further

possible application to remove Cr (VI) from the tannery effluent and other contaminated

environment. The promising results encourages for the development of cost effective and

user friendly bioremediation technology for tannery industry.

Fathima et al., (2012)125 demonstrated Bacterial strains belonging to the genus

Bacillus, isolated from Cr- polluted soil (tannery sludge) which were employed as

consortium for Cr(III) removal from tannery effluents. Kaolin clay, a natural adsorbent,

was used as supporting material for bacterial biofilm formation. The use of clay supported

bacterial biofilm has not previously been employed for the treatment of tannery

effluents containing Cr (III) salt.

Yan Zhanga et al., (2013)126 studied a direct competitive enzyme-linked

immunosorbent assay (dc-ELISA) was developed to measure anilofos levels in

agricultural and environmental samples. The ELISA was developed using rabbit

polyclonal antibodies against a hapten-protein conjugate of anilofos-bovine serum

albumin. The limit of detection was 0.1 μg L−1, and there was no cross-reactivity with

other related pesticides or structurally similar compounds.

S.K.Singh (1993)127 examined the urban – industrial pollutants and its effect on

plants. He monitored the four leaf parameters namely ascorbic acid, total chlorophyll,

relative water content and leaf extract pH. He calculated the air pollution tolerance index

for plants. The index indicated the plant response at the cell membrane and chloroplast

levels. Three sites were selected in the western parts of Varanasi, India, near the junction

of a national highway and a railway track. The control site was selected in the Banaras

Hindu University campus. Air pollution tolerance index (APTI) showed the most

sensitive and consistent response of plants to urban- industrial pollutants. As the

pollutant load decreased from polluted site to control site, the value of air pollution

tolerance index increased. It was used as a good indicator of the impact of pollution on

plants. Tiwari S, Bansal (1993)128 reported the effect of Nitric oxide on an evergreen

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species Alimillsops elegy, Decrease in root length, fresh and dry weight, photosynthetic

pigments and ascorbic acid was recorded in Mimusops elgi exposed to Nitrogen dioxide.

Tiwari S, Bansal S. Rai S (1993)129 worked about the air pollution tolerance

capacity of an evergreen and deciduous plant, two such species namely Mimusops

elengi(E) and Ficus religlosa(D) were selected and they were exposed to different

concentration of sulphurdioxide. It was found that the degree of foliar injury was directly

proportional to the concentration of pollutant. A deciduous species was more susceptible

to pollution stress than the evergreen species.

J. Pandey and M. Agarwal (1994)130 had studied about the urban environment of

Varanasi, India, to evaluate plant responses to urban air pollution. Three species

including a shrub (Carissa carandas L) and two tree species (Delonix regia Rafin and

Cassia fistula L) were grown in pots at selected study sites. Changes in plant

performance were considered in relation to the status of ambient air quality. Reductions

in plants height, basal diameter, canopy area, plant biomass, chlorophyll content and

ascorbic acid and nitrogen contents in leaves were correlated with air pollution level at

different sites.

Jitendra pandey and Usha Pandey (1994)131 had been studied about the urban

environment of Varanasi, India, to evaluate the plant rsponses to urban air pollution.

Twenty sites were selected in four different zones of the city. At each site, seven woody

perennials of same age classes were selected. Out of the four zones (I, II, III and IV),

zone IV was used as a reference (Control) zone as it received the minimum pollution

input. Plant species growing in polluted and control areas were compared with respect to

foliar dust load, percent leaf area injury, leaf area, specific leaf weight and chlorophyll,

ascorbic acid, sulphate ion and total N concentration in leaves. Results indicated that the

air pollution level in Varanasi causes leaf damage reduces leaf area, specific leaf weight

and chlorophyll, ascorbic acid and N concentration in the leaves.

Tiwari S, Agarwal SK (1994)132 had been reported that expected performance

index is an expression of the total characterization of plant species with reference to its

behavior under polluted environment. Mangifera indica was recorded to be the best plant

due to its varied beneficial character, while BauAinia purpurea and Pongamia glabra

showed lowest expected performance index values. Tiwari S, Bansal S (1994)133

calculated the air Pollution Tolerance Index valued of twenty five species growing in

various localities of Bhopal. Air Pollution Tolerance level of each plant was different and

plants did not show uniform behaviours.

67

Sunitha M, Madhava Rao KV (1997)134 worked about different parameters such

as epidermal features, chlorophyll II content, ascorbic acid content were determined to

find out the air pollution tolerance capacities of some important tree species. Among the

twelve tree species studied Albizzia lebbek was considered as relatively resistant and

Pongamia pinnata as relatively sensitive to air pollution. Mashitha PM, Pise VL

(2001)135 selected plants from Nagpur city and analyzed for the Air Pollution Tolerance

Index (APTI) to monitor the level of air pollution. Around 50percent of the plants were

found to be sensitive to (10percent being highly sensitive). The plants which were able to

tolerate the pollution were very few namely Haloptelea SPP and Cassia Spp. As indicated

by their high APTI index.

Prakash Govind et al., (2002)136 had done experiment about the three different

concentrations of sulphur dioxide (320, 667 and 1334 gm-3) were used to fumigate the

two different varieties, each of Raphanus sativus and Brassica rapa. Both Cholorophyll-

a and b content decreased with increasing concentration, maximum decrease being at the

highest concentration that is 1334 gm-3. Chlorophyll-a showed more reduction than

chlorophyll-b.

Thangarasu et al (2002)137 had studied about the high resistant and sensitive

plant species in the vicinity of a cement factory in Ariyalur, through the determination of

air pollution tolerance index (APTI) using four leaf parameters. The result indicated that

out of 15 woody plant species only 8 were found to be resistant to cement Kiln dust

pollution. Wagela et al 2002 had analyzed about ambient lead levels in air, soil and dust

deposits on selected plant species at 10 distantly located sampling stations of Indore city.

Trivedi and Shukla (2002)138 analyzed the microfrora usually comprises of

unicellular and multicellular microscopic organisms, widely distributed in air, water, soil

dead matter and oxidation, reduction, isomerization, hydrolysis and condensation. They

play an important role in human welfare activities and environmental biotechnology.

Joshi and Sikka (2002)139 studied about the floral response of some tree species to air

pollution. Flower of Cassia fistula, Delonix Regia and Petrophorum inerme collected

from polluted areas (textile mills, industrial area and roadsides) and the reference areas

(Agricultural college campus) were studied for fresh and dry weights and percent pollen

germination.Maximum reduction in flower weights (fresh and dry) was noted in textile

mill area and minimum at roadsides.

Tinku and Ambarish (2003)140 analysed thirteen plant species in and around

Golaphag Tarabag campus in Burdwan, West Bengal, India. They calculated Air

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Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI) using the parameters pH, relative water content, total

chlorophyll and ascorbic acid. The results showed that Dolichandrone stipulate,

Lagerstroemia speciosa, Mangifera indica, Scheleichera oleosa were intermediate.

Thirteen plant species were investigated by Tinku Gosh and Ambarish Mukherjee

(2003)141. They analyzed the areas in and around Goaphag Tarabag campus in Burdwan,

West Bengal, India. They calculated air pollution tolerance Index(APTI) using the

parameters of pH, relative water content, total chlorophyll and ascorbic acid. The results

showed that Dolichandrone stipulate, Lagerstroemia speciosa, Mangifera Indica, Saraca

asoca and Schleichera oleosa were intermediate.

Tinku Ghosh, Ambarish Mukherjee (2003)142 carried out the following

analysis. Thirteen species(namely Couroupita guianensts, Dolichandrone stipulate,

Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Ficus benghalensis, Lagerstroemia speciosa, Mangifera

indica, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Pongamia pinnata, Quisqualis indica, Saraca asoca,

Schleichera oleosa, Swietenia mahagoni and Tabernaemontana coronoria(T.divaricata)

selected in and around Golapbag-Tarabag Campus in Burdwan, west Bengal, India, were

used to assess the air pollution tolerance index (APTI).

A.S Shannigrahi, T. Fukushima, R.C. Sharma (2004)143 investigated that the

vegetation naturally cleanses the atmosphere by absorbing gases and some particulate

matter through leaves. Plants have a very large surface are and their leaves function as an

efficient pollutant trapping device. Some plants have been classified according to their

degree of sensitivity and tolerance towards various air pollutants. Sensitive plants species

are suggested to act as bio-indicators. Levels of air pollution tolerance vary from species

to species depending on the capacity of plants to withstand the effect of pollutants without

showing any external damages.

Trivedi et al (2004)144 studied the environmental contamination of chrysotile

asbestos and its toxic effects on growth and physiological and biochemical parameters of

Lemna gibba. The plants were exposed to the concentrations of chrysotile asbestos and

the control plants were cultured in medium without chrysotile asbestos. An inhibition

effect of chrysotile asbestos exposure was found on the root length and biomass, similar

alternations in contents of chlorophyll a/b, carotenoid, total free sugar, starch and proteins

were also found. The results indicate oxidative stress and phytotoxicity of chrysotile

asbestos on duckweed.

Indu Kumari et al., (2005)145 determined the effects of pollution by automobile

exhausts on various biochemical parameters of the commonly occuring roadside trees

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such as Ficus religiosa, Ricinus communis and Carica papaya Hyderabad City of

Southern India. A clear difference in the absorption of lead which is the main emission by

the automobiles was noted in the leaves of the trees in the high-density traffic. There is a

reduction in the total chlorophyll content protein and amino acids of F. religiosa, R.

communis and C. papaya leaves in comparison to their respective controls

Zaggout F.R., (2005)146 determined uptake of zinc ions from aqueous solutions

by Tamrix gallica leaves was studied. The effect of several factors on this removal was

studied including metal ions concentration tamrix leaves concentration, pH, presence of

competing ions, agitation, crushing, drying, presence of complexing agent and leaf

extract. Application of Freundlich adsorption isotherm on the present results has been

examined and the parameters of this isotherm have been calculated. The interaction

between metal ions and tamrix leaves has been determined and mechanism for this

interaction suggested.

Ma et al., (2005)147 evaluated the effects of automobile exhaust on chlorophyll

fluorescence parameters of 4 tree species, Acer mono Malus bacata Pyrus ussuriensis and

Acer ginnala were tested by means of fumigation in open top chamber. During

fumigation test, the four plants were exposed to exhaust of the same concentration for

different time span and same time span but different concentrations.

Mandal et al., (2006)148 studied plants are the only living organisms which have

to suffer a lot from automobile exhaust pollution because they remain static at their

habitat. But such roadside plants like Nerium indicum Mill. Boerhaavia diffusa L.,

Amaranthus spinosus L., Cephalandra indica Naud and Tabernaemontana divaricata L.

can easily avoid the effects of air pollution by altering their physiological pathways

pertaining to photosynthesis and respiration. Stomatal closure in Boerhaavia,

Amaranthus, Cephlandra and stomatal clogging in Nerium and Tabernaemontana help

these plants in preventing the entry of poisonous gases.

Higher concentration of sulphurdioxide and particulate matter was reported by

A.K. Dwivedi and B.D. Tripathi (2007)149 in surrounding areas of coal fired industries

which influence the distribution patten of plants. Sensitive plant species are abolished

from such areas, however, only pollution tolerant species survive under stress conditions.

Out of 99 plants studied, Ricinus communis with APTI 81.10 was found to be the most

resistant wild plant showing uniform distribution at all the polluted sites. On the other

hand, Lepidium sativum with APTI 5.27 was recorded as the most sensitive plant and

found to be present only at the less polluted sites.

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Gupta et al., (2007)150 described metal accumulation potential of Chenopodium

album L. grown on various amendments of tannery sludge (TS) was studied after 60 days

of sapling planted. The analysis of the results showed that the levels of pH, cation

exchange capacity, organic carbon, organic matter and DTPA extractable metals (except

Mn) of amendments increased by the addition of tannery sludge ratio. Shoot length of the

plant increased by the addition of sludge, whereas, no marked change was observed in

root length, fresh and dry weight of the plant. Accumulation of the metals in the plants

was found in the order; Fe > Mn > Zn > Cr > Cu > Pb > Ni > Cd. Translocation of toxic

metals (Cr, Pb, Cd) in different parts of the tested plant was found in the order; leaves >

stems > roots.

Yang et al., (2007)151 highlighted the highway greening model will affect the

traffic safety obviously. The safety characters of highway greening, such as reducing the

dull sense, directing the line of sigh, anti-dazzle, preventing crashing, slope protection,

reducing pollution, hindering the noise are analyzed. The scheme of highway plant color

arrangement is put forward in order to ensure traffic safety. These highway greening

models in the median separator, the slope of subgrade, the road-side greening belt, the

road-limits isolation, the interflow and set up the handing in area, the tunnel, the grade

crossing and the traffic island are pointed out in this paper. It is important to combine the

greening with the highway engineering to exert the safety character of the highway

greening model and provide the graceful, comfort and harmonious safety traffic

condition.

Bartra Tomás et al., (2007)152 It is well known that the prevalence of allergic

diseases has increased in recent decades in the industrialized world. Exposure to

environmental pollutants may partially account for this increased prevalence. In effect, air

pollution is a growing public health problem. In Europe, the main source of air pollution

due to particles in suspension is represented by motor vehicles - particularly those that use

diesel fuel. Diesel exhaust particles (DEPs) are composed of a carbon core upon which

high-molecular weight organic chemical components and heavy metals deposit. Over

80% of all DEPs are in the ultrafine particle range (< 0.1 μm in diameter). Air pollutants

not only have a direct or indirect effect upon the individual, but also exert important

actions upon aeroallergens.

Battaglia et al., (2007)153 studied last few years solidification/stabilisation of

acidic soils polluted by heavy metals with low-cost sorbents has been investigated. Paper

mill sludges are produced in large amounts and their disposal is a serious environmental

71

problem. The possibility was therefore studied of using paper mill sludge as a stabilizer to

reduce the bioavailable metal forms in polluted soils and thus the transferability of metals

to plants (barley). We first investigated the sorbing properties of paper mill sludge for

Zn(II) and Pb(II) and then their fractionation both in a polluted soil and in the same soil

amended with paper mill sludge in order to check the decrease in mobile forms. Finally in

both soils we tested the uptake of two metals by common barley in order to assess the

performance of soil remediation from an ecological point of view.

Krstić et al., (2007)154 explained contamination of the environment with toxic

heavy metals is a mayor environmental problem. Aimed to find effective and economical

attractive solutions for environment cleaning, scientists intensively evolve various

phytoremediation techniques. Nickel is one of the essential micronutrients for plants,

animals, and humans, but toxic at elevated concentrations. Also, it belongs to a group of

heavy metals. In respect of the fact that Ni uptake relies upon plant species and that some

of them show hyperaccumulation effects, the aim of our study was to analyse. It may be

concluded that the analysed plant species exhibit various phytoremediation potential for

Ni under the same ecological conditions.

Il'in V.B., (2007)155 highlighted Data on the bulk contents of heavy metals in

polluted soils are not quite suitable to judge the ecological situation in an agrocenosis.

According to the results of model experiments with artificial contamination of soil, the

flux of zinc and lead from the starting point (from a medium loamy leached chernozem)

to the final point (wheat grains) sharply decreases. It is possible to obtain an ecologically

pure (uncontaminated) grain yield even on a strongly contaminated soil due to the

buffering capacity of the latter and due to the self-protective capacity of agricultural

crops.

Bansal et al., (2007)156 studied the effect of sewage effluent on the distribution

of Pb and Cr in five soil samples, collected from different parts of Aligarh district and on

vegetables grown on it. The concentration of Pb and Cr in sewage effluent was below

permissible limit. The concentration of Pb in both sewage effluent and soil samples were

more than Cr.

Deniz et al., (2007)157 assessed the impact of SO2, CO2, NO x , and CO on non-

enzymatic foliar defense mechanism around oil refineries, the present study was

undertaken in Batman, Turkey during the periods February-April-June 2002. For this

purpose, the four common evergreen plants at all sites, Pinus nigra Arn. Subsp.

pallasiana (Lamb.) Halmboe, Ligustrum vulgare L., Thuja orientalis L., and Nerium

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oleander L. was selected as test plants. Four study sites were selected at the Batman

Refinery area (AR). Four control sites were also selected at a distance of about 5 km from

the refinery (OR). A comparison of four evergreen plant species indicated that L. vulgare

was the most resistance to refinery induced air pollution and the magnitude of foliar

injury symptoms was greatest in P. nigra and T. orientalis.

Solti et al., (2008)158 aims Cadmium (Cd) causes Fe-deficiency-like symptoms in

plants, and strongly inhibits photosynthesis. To clarify the importance of Cd-induced Fe

deficiency in Cd effects on photosynthesis, the recovery processes were studied by

supplying excess Fe after the Cd symptoms had developed. Methods: Fe-citrate at 10 μm

or 50 μm was given with or without 10 μm Cd (NO3)2 to hydroponically cultured poplars

(Populus glauca 'Kopeczkii') with characteristic Cd symptoms. Iron, chlorophyll and

pigment contents, amount of photosynthetic pigment-protein complexes, chlorophyll

fluorescence and carbon assimilation were measured together with the mapping of

healing processes by fluorescence imaging.

Singh et al., (2008)159 reported the following results use of fly ash (FA) to

agriculture is not always beneficial, however, utilization of lower concentration of FA as

soil amendment is suitable for better management of few crops. The present study was

conducted to study the effects of various concentrations of FA (0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and

20%) on heavy metal accumulation, growth, and yield responses of palak (Beta vulgaris

L. var All Green H1). The results showed that application of FA caused significant

reductions in growth, biomass and yield responses of B. vulgaris plants at different ages

of observations.

Ramírez et al., (2008)160 evaluated potential toxic effects of stabilized sewage

sludge that are currently applied to agricultural soils, three types of municipal sewage

sludge and one pig slurry were subjected to phytotoxicity assays using three plants

(Brassica rapa, Lolium perenne and Trifolium pratense). Equivalent batches of

aerobically and anaerobically-digested sludge (F) from two municipal wastewater

treatment plants, were composted (C) or thermally dried (T). In addition, one

anaerobically-digested and thermally-dried pig slurry (P) was tested. Results indicate that

digested sludge, thermally-dried sludge and thermally-dried pig slurry have non-

negligible short term phytotoxic effects and confirm that composting is an effective

sludge treatment for the reduction of phytotoxicity.

Angelov (2008)161 studied background concentrations of the heavy metals Mn, Ni,

Cd, Co, Zn, Cu, and Pb in the soils and plant monitors of the Boatin Reserve were

73

determined by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES).

Surface soil layers of the Boatin Reserve were polluted with Cu, as its concentration

exceeded both the national legal standards and the content of Cu in non-polluted areas.

Singh et al., (2009)162 investigated the impact of irrigation with wastewater on

nutritional property and heavy-metal concentrations in the soil and consequent

accumulation in vegetables at sites having long-term uses of wastewater for irrigation.

Samples of irrigation water, soil, and root and shoot parts of palak plants were analyzed

to determine the concentration of heavy metals. Wastewater irrigation led to increases in

the total and phytoavailable heavy-metal concentrations in the soil at all the sites. Heavy-

metal concentrations in soil under wastewater irrigation were negatively and positively

correlated with soil hydrogen potential (pH) and organic carbon (OC), respectively.

Ehsan et al., (2009)163 reported Phytoremediation offers the benefits of being in

situ, low cost and environmentally sustainable. Lupinus species is starting to generate

interest for phytoremediation of soils showing intermediate metal pollution. The aim of

this study was to explore the accumulating behavior and tolerance of Lupinus uncinatus

Schldl. towards increasing Cd concentrations in soil. For this purpose the effects of

different Cd treatments on plant growth, survival, metal tolerance, Cd accumulation and

distribution in various plant organs were investigated.

Bosiacki., (2009)164 work was carried out in the Department of Horticultural

Plant Fertilization, University of Life Sciences in Poznań was the investigation of the

influence of the introduced doses of cadmium and lead (soil pollution) on the yield of the

particular organs of selected cultivars of Marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) and to check

whether these plants are suitable to be planted on soils polluted with the mentioned

metals. Plants used in the experiment were planted in individual outflowless containers in

plastic tunnel. The studied cultivars of Marigold were planted in a substrate artificially

polluted with cadmium and lead.

Uprety et al., (2009)165 The Ruzyne Fertilizer Experiment analyzed trace

elements in the applied fertilizers which did not exceed the limits permitted by Czech

national legislation. Concentrations of As, Cd and Cr were highest in single

superphosphate, those of Cu, Mn and Ni were highest in poultry litter and those of Pb and

Zn were highest in dung water. Poultry litter had the second highest concentration of As

and Zn. Poultry litter supplied the soils with considerable amounts of Cu, Mn and Zn and

increased their concentrations in the soil. There was also a significant increase in plant

availability of Mn, Ni and Zn and a decrease in soil pH. Although all fertilizers were

74

applied for five decades, total concentrations of As, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in soil

remained far below Czech legislation limits.

Chatterjee et al., (2009)166 isolated and characterization of a Cr(VI) resistant

bacterial strain, having plant growth promoting properties to improve general growth of

plant in chromium-contaminated soil through rhizosphere colonization. The strain was

isolated from the sludge of waste canal carrying industrial effluents. The minimum

inhibitory concentration of chromium to this strain was found to be 450 and 400 mM in

complex and minimal media, respectively.

Kuffner et al., (2010)167 characterized bacteria associated with Zn/Cd-

accumulating Salix caprea regarding their potential to support heavy metal

phytoextraction. Methods and Results: Three different media allowed the isolation of 44

rhizosphere strains and 44 endophytes, resistant to Zn/Cd and mostly affiliated with

Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi. 1-Aminocyclopropane- 1-

carboxylic acid deaminase (ACCD), indole acetic acid and siderophore production were

detected in 41, 23 and 50% of the rhizosphere isolates and in 9, 55 and 2% of the

endophytes, respectively.

Yadav et al., (2010)168 Plants experience oxidative stress upon exposure to heavy

metals that leads to cellular damage. In addition, plants accumulate metal ions that disturb

cellular ionic homeostasis. To minimize the detrimental effects of heavy metal exposure

and their accumulation, plants have evolved detoxification mechanisms. Such

mechanisms are mainly based on chelation and subcellular compartmentalization.

Chelation of heavy metals is a ubiquitous detoxification strategy described in wide variety

of plants.

Guo et al., (2010)169 experimented in calcareous and acidic field soils were

conducted to study the effects of copper (Cu) and nickel (Ni) added to soils on maize

growth and metal accumulation in maize plants. The results revealed that the critical

concentrations of Cu added to soils that decreased maize grain yield by 10% (EC10) were

711 mg kg-1 for calcareous soil with a pH of 8. 9 and 23 mg kg-1 for acidic soil with a pH

of 5.3. The toxicity thresholds of EC10 did not differ significantly for Cu and Ni. A

different pattern of Cu and Ni accumulation in maize plants was also found. Zhong et

al., (2010)170 analyzed relationship between plant absorption and accumulation of heavy

metals and the effect of iron plaque on roots of wetland plants are unknown, especially

for plants grown in heavy metal-contaminated soil. This experiment was designed to

study the effects of iron addition on the formation of iron plaque in the rhizosphere of the

75

wetland plant species Iris pseudacorus L. in artificial Pb-contaminated soil and the effects

of iron plaque on Pb accumulation by plants.

Langer et al., (2010)171 explained response of plant performance and root

properties to heterogeneous distribution of crude oil pollutants and mycorrhizal

colonization is poorly understood even though (high) heterogeneity represents the normal

case rather than exception in re-vegetation and phytoremediation of polluted soils. We

investigated the effects of heterogeneous versus homogeneous distribution of

hydrocarbon pollution

Bareen et al., (2011)172 investigated The tannery effluent contaminated lands,

adjacent to Depalpur Road, Kasur, Pakistan, have been rendered infertile due to long term

effluent logging from the leather industry. The area has been colonized by twelve plant

species among which Suaeda fruticosa, Salvadora oleoides and Calatropis procera have

been found to be the most common and high biomass producing plants. S. fruticosa was

subjected to further experimentation because of its high biomass and phytoextraction

capabilities for metals.

Sakthivel et al., (2011)173 investigated in Tamilnadu, one of the important States

in India, a large number of tannery industries operate and release huge volume of

the tannery effluent and sludge that contaminate the nearby agricultural lands as well as

the underground water. Besides, there is always a pungent and foul smell in and around

the industry installations. From the perusal of literature, it is evident that an in-depth

study is totally lacking with regard to reclamation of the tannery polluted soil for raising

fast growing tree species either for fire wood or timber.

Tony Remans et al., (2012)174 reported Zinc (Zn) is an essential micronutrient

for plants, but accumulation of excess Zn causes oxidative stress, even though the

element is not redox-active. An oxidative stress signature, consisting of multiple

oxidative stress related parameters, is indicative of disturbance of redox homeostasis and

signaling, but has not been determined after exposure to excess Zn. Zn accumulated in

both roots and leaves, which led to a disturbed redox homeostasis as evident from

increased H2O2 levels and altered glutathione redox state. In roots, magnesium uptake

was affected and glutathione levels decreased due to reduced glutathione reductase

activity and increased phytochelatin production.

Fa Yuan Wang et al., (2012)175 studied toxic pollutants in tobacco (Nicotiana

tabacum L.) products, lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) can enter the human body via

smoking and thus pose a potential health risk to smokers. We conducted a greenhouse

76

experiment to study the effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) inoculation with Glomus

intraradices BEG 141 and organic amendment with cattle manure, alone or in

combination, on the growth, P nutrition, and heavy-metal uptake by tobacco plants grown

in soil to which was added Pb-Cd at 0/0, 350/1, 500/10 and 1,000/100 mg kg−1,

respectively.

Anna M. Stefanowicz et al., (2012)176 examined the effects of soil

physicochemical properties (including heavy metal pollution) and vegetation parameters

on soil basal respiration, microbial biomass, and the activity and functional richness of

culturable soil bacteria and fungi. In a zinc and lead mining area (S Poland), 49 sites were

selected to represent all common plant communities and comprise the area's diverse soil

types.

Gallego et al., (2012)177 picturized the occurrence of heavy metals in soils may be

beneficial or toxic to the environment. The biota may require some of these elements

considered essentials (like Fe, Zn, Cu or Mo) in trace quantities, but at higher

concentrations they may be poisonous. Due to the difficulty in controlling environmental

metal accumulation, organisms have to cope with exposure to unwanted chemical

elements, especially those considered biologically nonessential. Cadmium (Cd) belongs

to this latter group. The effect of Cd toxicity on plants has been largely explored

regarding inhibition of growth processes and decrease of photosynthetic apparatus

activity. This review aspires to pinpoint new avenues of research that may contribute to a

more differentiated view of the complex mechanisms underlying Cd toxicity in target

tissues

Li et al., (2012)178 revealed Cadmium (Cd2+) interferes with the uptake,

transport and utilization of several macro- and micronutrients, which accounts, at least in

part, for Cd 2+ toxicity in plants. However, the mechanisms underlying Cd 2+ interference

of ionic homeostasis is not understood. Using biophysical techniques including

membrane potential measurements, scanning ion-selective electrode technique for non-

invasive ion flux assays and patch clamp, we monitored the effect of Cd2+ on calcium

(Ca2+) and potassium (K +) transport in root hair cells of rice. These results provide direct

evidence that Cd2+ impairs uptake of Ca2+ and K +, thereby disturbing ion homeostasis in

plants.

Li et al., (2012)179 discussed Cadmium (Cd) is one of the most toxic and widely

distributed pollutants in the environment. Cadmium contamination of soils has posed a

serious threat to safe food production in many parts of the world. The authors present a

77

comprehensive review of present status of phytoextraction technology for cleaning up

Cd-contaminated soils, based primarily on the data resulting from both laboratory and

field-scale studies that have been conducted to assess or improve the Cd phytoextraction

potential of various plant species in the past decade.

Gutiérrez-Ginés et al., (2012)180 addressed the effects of soil polluted with more

than one heavy metal in a grass species. A 16-week bioassay with Avena sativa L. was

conducted in microcosms using soils from two abandoned mines in central Spain that

contained levels above World Health Organization (WHO) reference limits for soils of

more than three heavy metals. Pollution effects were examined at cell, tissue, organ, plant

and population levels. It is recommended that its use for an ecotoxicological diagnosis

and risk analysis of similarly polluted sites.

Wan-Ying Xiea et al., (2013)181 elighted Cadmium (Cd) pollution around the

world is a serious issue demanding acceptable solutions, one of which is

phytoremediation that is both cost-effective and eco-friendly. Removal of Cd from

contaminated water using plants with high growth rates and sufficient Cd accumulation

abilities could be an appropriate choice. Here, we investigated a potential Cd

accumulator, Wolffia, rootless duckweed with high growth rate. Cd uptake, accumulation,

tolerance, and phytofiltration ability by Wolffia globosa were examined. Therefore, this

plant can be used in fresh aquatic environments co-contaminated by low-levels of Cd

and As.

78

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