REVIEW OF LITERATURE - INFLIBNETshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/1181/6/06_chapter...
Transcript of REVIEW OF LITERATURE - INFLIBNETshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/1181/6/06_chapter...
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Review of literature
Overview of lianas
Lianas are structural parasites (Stevens, 1987) relying on other plants for
support The smking difference between lianas and other structural parasites
(epiphytes and hemi-epiphytes) is that lianas remain rooted to the ground throughout
their lives (l'utz and Mooney, 1991).
Climbing plants are found in most climatic conditions and every type of
vegetation, but they are more abundant and diverse in the tropics (Richards, 1996).
Schenck (1 892-93) estimated that more than 90% of climbing species occur within the
tropics. Lianas are a conspicuous and characteristic life-form in tropical rainforest and
thelr high abundance is an important physiognomic feature differentiating tropical
from temperate forests.
Climbing plants evolved from a diverse array of taxa including the
Gymnospermae (Gnetaceae), Monocotyledonae (e.g. Arecaceae) and the
Dicotyledonae (e.g. Bignoniaceae). Approximately one-half of the families of
vascular plants contain climbing species (Schenck 1892). In some families nearly all
the species are climbers; Hippocrateaceae and V~taceae are familiar examples. Most
lianas are light demanding and are abundant in natural or anthropogenically disturbed
areas (Putz and Chai, 1987; Hegarty and Caballe, 1991; Schnitzer and Carson, 2001)
Lianas possess various climbing modes to ascend on their host, based on
which various classifications have been proposed (e.g. Danvin, 1867; Schenck, 1893;
PUG 1984). Putz (1984) recognized the following climbing modes: stem twinm,
branch twinm, root climbers, tendril climbers and scramblers. Thc scramblers of
Putz (1 984) were further divided into hmWthorn climbers and scramblers.
The stem hwners twine around their host as a result of circumnutation
The branch twiners clasp their hosts by thelr lateral branches
About 95% of twiners tnvariably wil to the nght. Dioscorea is a major exception
(Baillaud. 1957; 1962) in that some of its many specles twine to the left and some to
the right. At least 20 species have been reported to Mine unreliably in either direction.
4 The root climbers ascend wth the a d of adventitious mots. They can
ascend supports of any diameter or texture.
4 The tendnl climbers climb wth thln. sensiuve tendrils that are modified
leaves, inflorescence or branches (Gentry, 1985) Most tendrillar species
characterist~cally establ~sh In disturbed, sunny areas (Bews, 1925; Kelly,
1985) and their fol~agr expands In full sun.
The hooW thorn climbers attach themselves to the vegetation with either
backward po~nting spines or hooks that grow around their hosts.
The scramblers are least spec~alized cllmbing mode which merely lean on
their host plants.
Lima abundance and diversity vary considerably across sites (e.g.Gentry,
1991, Appanah el a l , 1993, Perez-Salic~p el al., 2001). The lianas constitute -25%
of woody stem density and species diversity in many tropical forests (Gentry, 1991;
Appanah et al., 1993). Liana abundance and diversity increase with decreasing
latitude (Gentry, 1991). as well as altitude (Balfow and Bond, 1993). Liana
abundance was controlled by several factors, namely seasonality of rainfall (Genq,
1991), soil fertility (Proctor el al., f983) and disturbance (Laurance et al., 2001).
Lianas impede tree growth by competing for growing space and cause
mechanical damage by smothering the host trees ( h u , 1984; Clark and Clark, 1990).
Lianas are abundant in logged forests and they hinder tree regeneration in managed
forests Hence. lianas are considered as nuisance by foresten. h u ef a l . (1984)
reported that trees wlth lianas suffer higher mortality rates than liana-free trees.
Further. ~t has been suggested that lianas ~nfluence forest dynam~cs by increasing tree
m o v e r rate (Phillips and Gentry, 1994).
Llanas play a prominent role m forest-w~de carbon sequestration. Heavy liana
lnfesrat~on inhibits nee regeneration (Appanah and Putz, 1984, Schnitzer er al., 2000;
Laurance er al., 2001) wh~ch reduces the amount of carbon that 1s sequestered in plant
biomass (Laurance er al., 1997; Chave er al. 2001.)
L~anas also play significant beneficial roles In the ecosystem, by reducing soil
eroslon and contr~bute substantially to annual leaf biomass (Ogawa el al., 1965;
Klinge and Rodrigues, 1973, Kato rr al., 1978, Putz. 1983) They connect tree crowns
by prov~ding intercanopy pathways used by the arboreal mmals (Montogomery and
Sunqulst, 1978) and are also important source of food for insects (Gentry, 1985) and
monkeys (Emmons and Gentry, 1983). Mammals, ranging from the African
Prosim~an Euorrcus eleganrulus (Charles-Domnique, 1977) and Amazonian pygmy
marmoset to the African elephants (Shsrt'1981) heavily depend on lianas for food.
Liana inventories
Lianas are often ignored in forest inventories due to their small stem diameter,
anomalous stem structure., rampant vegetative reproduction which render difficulty in
distinguishing ramets (vegetatively produced plants) from genets (sexually produced
plants) and often pre-empt to the forest canopy which renders their collection and
study difficult. Perhaps for these reasons lianas have been excluded in many forest
studies. As summarized by Jacobs (1976). " the ecology of lianas is virtually a blank".
Ecological studits on lianas have begun only in the recent past (Caballe. 1984; Putz,
1984, Appanah and Putz, 1984, Putz and Chai, 1987)
Liana inventones across continents revealed a w~de variation in terms of the
areal extent of the study, methods adopted and glrtwdiameter class considered (Table
1) These variations pose difficulty In comparing the results across sites and to come
up w~th generalizat~ons By and large, quantitat~ve inventories on lianas were
conducted at smaller scales 0.1 ha or below, except for a few large-scale inventories
(Campbell and Newbery, 1993, Makana er a1 1998; Kadavul and Parthasarathy,
1999a; Muthuramkumar and Pannasarathy, 2000, Padaki and Parthasarathy, 2000;
Chitt~babu and Parthasarathy, 2001; Laurance el al. 2001)
Various methods have been employed for ecological sampling of Innas.
(Gentry, 1986) implemented an 'exploded' quadrat method (several small transects,
set up end to end or separated by ca. 10-20m). This method is helpful to cover several
hab~tat types in the forest and can avoid the patches of slngle liana species that is
presumably derived from vegetative reproduction.
Putz (1984) sampled cylindrical volumes rather than horizontal areas of forest.
Each circular 1 00m2 plots had imaginary wall extending from the ground to above the
canopy. Castellanos er al. (1992) proposed a methodology to characterize three
Tabl
e I.O
vew
iew
of l
iana
inve
ntor
y in
vario
us co
ntin
ents.
(R-~
ange
and
'-mea
n pe
r site
; DlG
bh- D
lam
eted
Girt
h at
bre
ast h
eigh
t)
Loca
tion
Site
D
lGbh
A
rea
(ha)
D
ensit
y of
lian
as
Sp
ies
Basa
l are
a Re
fere
nce
(cm
) nc
hnes
s (m')
Eumpc
Euro
pean
lian
a di
vers
ity 2
European
sites
' ~2
sdbh
0
1 0-
jR (I
5)"'
0-lR
(0.5
)'"
Gen
tly (1
991)
. 'E
umpn
n #&a : A
llach
n Ld
K (W
en G
erm
any)
, Su
derh
acks
tedt
. (W
est G
erm
any)
North
Amer
ica
Nor
th A
mer
ican
lion
a 12
Nor
th A
mer
ican
site
s a 5&
G
I 1-
143 R
(26 9
)"'
I-
~6
~
(6 9)
'" G
entry
(199
1)'
diw
rsily
'N
oh
An
alu
. Ika
Nw
Ihw
csl
Brao
ch (
Mav
land
), T
po
Rm
we (oak wd. M
~rou
rl). T
yw~ Rn
mc
(chm
gl
ade,
Mw
un).
Bab
ler
Stat
e Pa
rk (
Mw
un),
Cul
we
hver
Sta
te P
ark
(Mar
owl),
Val
ley
Vuw
Glad
es (
M~J
sani
). ?
Ire
sues
of C
hum
la (M
exic
o), L
a T
uxtla
s (M
exic
o), l
ndw
Cav
e Sta
te P
ark
(Neb
&),
Burl
~ng T
rrt (
Virg
inia
).
Ccn
bd A
mer
ica
Cent
ral A
mer
ican
lim
5 C
entra
l Am
eric
an si
tesc
22
.5"
0.1
l I-7
5R (4
9.4)
'" 6-
37R (
22.6
)'"
-(199
1)*
dive
rsity
' C
emd
A&
u
&ex
C
um
Olu
mo (
Nlc
arng
ua), C
mo
El P
~cac
ho (N
tcan
gua)
,Cur
undu
(Pan
una)
, Mid
den
Facs
(P
anam
a). P
iplln
e Roa
d (P
anam
)
Pana
ma
Trop
ical
moi
st fo
rest
all
1 31
65
65
htz
(1 98
4)
~
~.
Costa
Ria
T
ro~
id
wet f
ores
t, La
Selv
a >l
odb"
12
.4
133
20
Lieb
enua
n et a
l. (19
%)
210"
1
15
7
dodbh
I 13
7
Tabl
e 1 c
ontd
.
Loca
tion
Slte
D
/Gbh
A
rea
(ha)
D
ens~
ty of
lian
as
Spec
~es
Bas
al area
Ref
mnc
e (c
m)
--
nihn
ess
(m2)
N
icar
agua
C
osig
uina
22
0
1 17
10
Nic
arag
ua
La F
lor
Nic
arag
ua
Mas
aya
Nic
arag
ua
Om
etep
e
Cos
ta R
lca
Palo
Ver
de
22 5
'" 0
1 42
17
Cos
ta R
lca
Sanl
a R
osa
22 5'"
0
1 77
21
- - - - - - - --
Sout
h A
mer
ica
Solu
h Am
errc
an li
ana
47 S
outh
Am
erlc
an si
tes '
22 5"
0
1 7.
122~
(59
3)m
2-
5oR
(25
O)m
G
eny
(199
1)'
dive
rrrm
--
- ---,
'So
rlh
Am
nirn
n rb
u A
nu)u
K~
xhu
clo
. CO~IC
~IYI
IArg
cnlln
a~ I'a
rqw
tl R
e) (
Arg
nt~n
a,, t
crm
nlu
(Rol
lv~a
).
lnca
huar
r (8
oln
l~l.
Mua
rnhu
IRm
llI.
Alto
dc
Mtr
ah
(('h
llcl.
Ilo
qtc
C \a
n M
dnm
(('h
rlcl
Pu)
ch~
c Na
l~w
al Pn
rk
(Ch
lk). Ba
jo C
allm
a ((
~lo
rnh
~a
~.R
oy
w
& la
Cbr
va ,C
olor
nbta
) C
rm E
spcj
o IC
nlom
hlal
. tar
atlo
ne\ &
cal
l (C
ulom
b~a)
. (iskr
aram
ha (C
'olu
mbb
al, l
a Pl
anad
a ~
l'olo
mbu
l. t t
nra
Mrh
rcnh
rp ((
ulo
mbl
a). I a
vo
w ~
Col
omb~
al.
Tutu
nend
o IC
nlnm
h~al
. Cap
can
(Lcu
ador
j, la
lun
%ha
(
Fc
d~
),
la
unnh
c ~
Ec
dr
r. Rlu
Pal
mqu
e N
o 1
~tc
ua
da
).
Klo
Pal
c~qu
c Nu
2 (l:
cusd
or).
I'mun
cla
(tcu
adtr
I. Sa
ul (F
rmch
(iul
anal
RII,
Ir)u
l-m
~ (Par
qua)
I. C
ab
ra d
r M
m
(Per
ul.C
mos
&
Am
Jtap
c (P
ml.
Ca
ha
('a
<hu
(Pm
l, le
naro
Ilm
cra(
Prt
u). l
ml~
ana(
Pcr
u). M
~rh
ana(
bula
nd. Pm
).
M~s
hann
ftshu
amw
Per
u). M
~sha
na lw
httc
rand.
Peru
). Sh
mna
mar
u (P
eru)
. Tam
booa
m (l
atm
t~c I P
m). T
ambo
mu
(hc
nt~
c 2. P
m)
Ta
mb
pm
(upl
and
I'cru
) T
rap
oto
(Pm
) L
mcr
rrrn
~n
~Prm
,. Ya
nam
ono I
(Pcr
ul.
Yw
mo
no
2
(Pm
). Y
uvm
ono
~ta
hu
un
m Pm
l, vo
n Il
um
h~
h
(Pm
l H
lohm
Kan
chlV
cnem
cla)
&a&
Il
chlr
rlV
mca
rla
l Cam N
cblin
a I (
~co
em
cli)
. Ccr
m N
eblz
na 2
(V
enem
la)
Ven
ezue
la
Ever
gree
n fo
rest
al
l 0.
12
3429
R
olla
(197
1)
Fren
ch G
uiw
Ev
ergr
een
tropi
cal r
ainf
ores
t Im
I
415
Be
eb
(198
1)
Col
ombi
a Ta
yron
a 52 sd
' 0
1 18
H
eybr
ock (
1984
)
Tab
le 1
, con
td.
Loc
at~o
n Si
te
DlG
hh
Are
a (h
a)
Den
s~ty
of ll
anas
Sp
ec~e
s B
asal
are
a R
efer
ence
(c
m)
nchn
ess
(m')
Peru
Y
anam
ono
>lo
dhh
I 26
17
M~s
hana
Coc
ha C
ashu
Cab
eza
de M
ono
Tam
bopa
ta a
lluv~
al
Tam
bopa
ta te
rrat
ime
Ven
ezue
la
Neb
lina
base
cam
p
Col
ombi
a B
qo C
alim
a
Bej
o C
alim
a
Baj
o C
alim
a
Baj
o C
alim
a
Para
guay
M
bgla
cayu
Para
guay
Ta
rum
a P
anw
av
Para
bel
14
I5
16
Gen
try (
I 988
)
i0
I3
13
3 Fa
bcr-
Lang
endo
en an
d G
entry
(1 99
1 2
-.
B
oliv
ia
Sant
a C
ruz
25db
h I
60
Kill
een
er a
/. (1
998)
Fren
ch G
uian
a A
RB
OC
EL e
xper
imen
tal p
lot >50cm
tall
FlR
y-tw
o 14
92
47
Torio
la e
f a1
(1 998)
IOm
x10m
.
-
-
Cen
tral
Am
azon
Z
d'
Slxt
y nl
ne
2759
0 La
uran
ce el
01. (
2001
)
Loca
tton
Slte
D
IGbh
A
rea
(ha)
D
ens~
ly of
ltan
as
Spec
lrs
Bas
al a
rea
Ref
eren
ce
(cm
) - -- .. -
nchn
ess
(m2)
C
entra
l Am
azon
Se
vent
y tw
o 40
0m'
t2&
2
88
1023
83
La
uran
ce el
a1 (
2001
)
- ..
East
ern
Bra
zilia
n >2
m ta
ll 0
3 78
G
envi
ng an
d Fa
rias (
2000
) A
maz
on
-
Ecua
dor
Yas
uni N
at~o
nal Pa
rk r
idge
al
l 0
2 31
8 96
N
abe-
Nie
lsen
(200
1)
s~d
e Ec
uado
r Y
asun
i Nat
iona
l Par
k nd
ge to
p al
l 0
2 28
8 86
Bol
tvia
-
Twen
ty f
our 9
00m
2 Z
dbh
216
24
71
flM
3
--
- . ..~.
(200
1 )
Afr
ica
Afir
can
liu
m dr
vers
rry
8 A
fric
an s
~te
s " 22
5db
h 63
-168
'(104
4)m
27
-47
R(4
0 3)'"
G
entry
(199
1)'
' Afr
fran
silt
s :
Ban
yong
(Cam
erou
nl. M
t Cam
erou
n (C
amer
oun)
. Kor
up N
atio
nal P
ark
(hcr
ou
n).
Nda
kan
~nun
datcd
(C
amen
un),
Mak
okou
No
I (G
atan
), M
akok
au N
o 2
(Gab
on).
Om
o fo
rest (
N~g
er~a
),
Pugu
For
est (
Tana
nla)
Gab
on
Ever
gree
n fo
rest
M
argi
ns
2jd
M
I 14
4
Med
ium
tall
?sd
bh
I
I28
Cah
alle
(198
4)
Mat
ure t
all
2jd
M
1 80
--. . . . -
- .-
Gab
on
Ever
gree
n fo
rest
zs
dbh
I 12
2
Cab
alle
(198
6)
Tabl
e I.
cont
d ~
.
--
Loca
tion
Site
D
IGbh
A
rea
(ha)
D
ens~
ty of It
anas
Sp
ec~e
s B
asal
are
a R
efer
ence
-
(cn~
) ric
hnes
s (m2)
lturi
fore
st
Moi
st tm
p~ca
l fo~
sl
(I) L
enda
I 22
dbh
3 16
1 M
akan
a el a
1 (1
998)
(11)
Edor
o I
a"b
h
3 71
8 pp
~~
Mad
agas
car
Mad
agas
car h
am
3 M
adag
asca
r sl
tes '
a sd
hh
0 1
107.
134~
(1 19
3)'"
3~
-4
3~
(3
6)m
G
entry
(199
1)'
dive
rsify
'M
adag
ucor
run
: Ank
araf
anlls
ka (M
adag
asca
r). N
or)
Man
gak
(Mad
agas
car)
. Per
mel
(Mad
agas
car)
Mad
agas
car
Trop
ical
dry
for
est,
Bez
a M
ahaf
aly
Res
erve
W
et s
oils
as
dhh
01
8
4 D
ry s
oils
asd
bh 01
26
5
Suss
man
and
Rak
otoz
afy
(199
4)
Out
of r
eser
ve
_- >2
s?_
-. 0 0
5 6
2
Asi
a A
sian
/lam
div
ersi
fy
11 A
s~an
slte
s ' Z2
5db
h 0
1 25
-1 1
7~
(7
2 09
)'"
1 I-5
sR (3
2 4)
m
Gen
try(
l991
)' 'A
sh
rb
: Na
duga
n~ (In
du),
Gen
r~ng
(Mal
ays~
a) ,Pas
oh (3
0. M
alay
rla),
Paw
h (4
0. M
alay
r~a)
. Ball
etc
(-New
G
ulnc
a),
Vanm
a (P
apw
New
Gui
nea)
, Bak
o (S
araw
ak).
Sem
engo
h (Sa
raw
ak).
Nan
jen
Shan
(T
a~w
n),
Ken
tlng
Natio
nal P
ark
flaw
an),
Khao
Yal
(lba
iland
)
--
Mal
uysi
a Sa
raw
nk
Dip
tero
carp
fore
st, G
unun
g M
ulu
Nat
iona
l Pa&
Dip
tern
carp
fore
st
?IdM
I
440
Proc
tor e
l a1
(198
3)
dimensional above ground occupation of lianas and vines to give better insight to the
differential space utilization by lianas, their growth and leaf canopy dynamics.
Gentry (1982) reported that lianas make up an average of ca20% of species
sampled in dry forest, moist forest and wet forest vegetation Liana diversity averaged
12 liana species per O.lha sample of dry forest and 25 specles in moist forest and 32
species in wet forests.
From the Appendix-l of Gentry (1991). I have scored out the quantitative data
on llanas L 2.5cm dbh of 0 Iha: it revealed that on a regional scale, liana density as
well as diversity were higher in African and Madagascar forests. followed by Asian,
American, Australian, tropical island and European forests (Table 1).
The mean density and diversity of lianas 22.5crn dbh In O.lha of African sites
were I04 indiv~duals and 40 species respectively The Madagascar site contained 119
liana lndiv~duals In 36 species. The mean dens~ty and diversity of lianas in Asian sites
were 72 ~ndiv~duals and 32 species respect~vely. In neouopics, South American
average of liana density and species nchness respect~vely were 59 and 25 species
(Table 1); The Central Amencan average was 49 indiv~duals and 23 species, Ghereas
the North American average was 27 indiv~duals and 7 species. Tropical Islands scored
a mean liana density and diversity of 20 individuals and 7 species respectively.
Schnitzer and Bongers (2002) remarked that liana abundance and diversity
increased proportionally with decreasing latitude at much faster rate than in other
major life-forms (e.g. trees, shrubs and herbs with notable exceptions such as
epiphytic plants). For example, Gentry (1991 - Table 1.2) reported that liana species
incrcasod five-fold from tempmate to lowland tropical forests. Thm was an a v w
tm-fold d i f f m c e in liana density betwan tcmperete and tropical lowland for~sts,
with a three-fold difference between the most liana-rich temperate forests and most
l i a n a - p r lowland tropical forests (Gentry, 1982).
Lima diversity as well as density decreased with increasing altitude. For
Instance, Lieberman er al , (1996) found greatest diversity and abundance of lianas
(2lOcm dbh) in less than 500m altitude when compared to >500 altitude.
Similarly. three sites of tropical evergreen forest in Agumbe. Western Ghats
(Padaki and Parthasarathy, 2000), two sites of seml-evergreen forest in Eastern Ghats
(Kadavul and Parthasarathy, 1999a) and four sites of tropical evergreen forest in
&tern Ghats which were inventoried for lianas 2 5cm gbh also exhibited such a
trend Incidentally, each of these lites is located along an altitudinal gradient. A
comparison of these sites revealed that density decreased with increasing altitude
except at 200111 altitude of Agumbe forest (Padalu and Parthasarathy, 2000). The
authors argued that h~gh liana abundance was due :o disturbance such as selective
logging. This supports the view that most lianas are light demanding and grow in
natural and man-made clearings. The species richness dropped up to 650111 and
peaked at 680m alt~tude of Vellimalai forest and then the diversity dropped with
increasing altitude of tropical evergreen forest of the Eastern Ghats (Table I).
The density of small climbers, which increased as altitude decreased, ranged
from <5 numbers pcr tree in the higher elevation forests to >30 climbers per trc+ on
the coastal plains (Balfour and Bond, 1993).
De Walt er al. (2000) examined the diversity and abundance of lianas dong a
forest chronoxquence at Barn Colorado Nature Monument. Their major findings
include: lianas were significantly more abundant and diverse in secondary forests (20
years and 40 years) than in older forests (70 years and 100 years and Old growth
forest). Further. the climbing guild. tendril climben decreased and stem twiners
~ncreased over stand age
Proctor er a1 (1983) reponed a greater abundance of lianas on alluvial soils.
They polnted out that inundat~on by nver water by several times per year might both
e ~ c h so11 and lead to an increase in treefall frequency
Laurance er a1 (2001) assessed the effects of forest fragmentation, treefall
disturbance, soil and stand attributes on liana community Their major results revealed
that soil properties did not sign~ficantly predict liana abundance, whereas tree
biomass, forest disturbance and distance horn forest edge significantly predicted the
liana abundance.
Gentry (1991) reported a w~de variat~on In l~ana abundance among various
forests and soil types, resulting in no strong trend in liana abundance with 'soil
fert~lity. Lima abundance was as much as four tlmes higher in some nutrient-rich sites
than some nutrient-poor soils, which lead Gentry to conclude that there was a very
slight tendency for greater liana density on richer soils.
All Amazonian sites mentioned by Gentry (1988) had much higher density of
larger (tlOcm dbh) lianas i.e. 14 to 24 individuals and 10 to 17 species ha". At Bajo
Calima, there were only 6-1 1 lians individuals (TlOcm dbh) and 3-6 species ha"
(Faber-Langendoen and Gently, 1991). Among Indian forests, for a near similar girth-
class (SOcm gbh), the liana density m g e d from 17 to 74 individuals and rhat of
species richness ranged from 5-10 species ha" (Parthamathy, 1999; Kadavul and
Pahwuathy , 1999b; 1999~; Chinibabu and Parthasarathy, 200 1).
Maintenance of liana species diversity and abundance
Small-scale forest d~sturbance such as treefall gaps. has been hypothesized to
maintam species divers~ty (Denslow. 1987. Hubbell et al.. 1999). Schnitzer and
Carson (2001) In their study on B m o Colorado Island, compared the density and
specles nchness of shade tolerant trees, pioneer trees and lianas between paired gap
and non-gap sites on both per area and per indiv~dual bases. The results demonstrated
that both pioneer tree and liana density and species richness, were significantly higher
In the gap than non-gap sltes, whereas there was no difference between gap and non-
gap areas for shade tolerant trees. These results revealed that gaps maintain liana
specles d~venity and that this effect is not merely a consequence of increased density.
Lianas respond to forest disturbance from natural factors, such as hurricane as
well as irom anthropogen~c, such as clear cutting and selective logging. Lianas are
more abundant in gaps due to their abil~ty to colomze and proliferate. Specifically,
lianas may become abundant In gaps because: 1) more than 90% of the adult lianas
that fall into the gaps survive mefalls (Put& 1984); 2) lianas are often abundant as
advanced regenerauon pnor to gap formation (Putz, 1984; Putz and Chai, 1987;
Schniaer and Carson 2001); 3) lianas recruit Into the gaps both from sced rain and
sced benk, 4) they can encroach the gaps from the surrounding intact forest and 5 )
lianas in the gaps can sprout prolifically, producing many new stems (Appanah and
Putz 1984).
Lima abundance and diversity wen influenced by altitudinal and latitudinal
gradients as well as by several abiotic factors, including rainfall, soil fertility and
disturbance, and successional stages of the forest. The extent of liana diversity and
denslty In a given area 1s thus an outcome of the complex interactions of these factors.
Tree-liana interactions
Investigations on tree-liana interactrons arc important to understand the
possible factors, which could facilitate or lnhlbit liana establ~shment and distribution
(Clark and Clark, 1990, Campbell and Newbery, 1993).
Lima abundance in forests accelerate tree mortality and hinder tree
regeneratlon and delay canopy redevelopment for years, even a decade or more (Putz,
1980, Schtutzer rr 0 1 , 2000) According to Schnitzer er a1 (2000) lianas appear to
stall and alter conventional gap phase regeneration by promoting pioneer tree density
and diversity and reducing non-pioneer tree density
L~anas ~nterfere w~th trees by competing for light, nutrients and water
(D~llenburg el a1 , 1993) as well as by causing mechanical damage and therefore it is
to a tree's advantage to avoid or shed lianas (Strong, 1977). Fast growing tmes have a
better chance of avoiding lianas than slow growing trees (Putz, 1980).
Some trees have more lianas than expected by chance, thus they arc inherently
susceptible to lianas and the first liana in a tree provides support for other lianas to
invade the tree and increase its susceptibility to lianas (Putz and Chai, 1987).
The height of the lower branches of a tree canopy determines the d c r a b i l i t y
of a m e to climber invasion. In folwts where the canopy is high and there Ue few
hclliws more, climbers would enter the canopy of their host aecs horizontally from
neighbonng trees than in forests where the tree canopies arc low and more trellises arc
available (Balfour and Bond. 1993).
Gerwing and Farlas (2000) observed that liana abundance was inversely
correlated wth forest stature Low-stature forest had five times the density and three
tlmes the basal area of climbing stems as compared to high stature forest.
Studies of liana dlstnbutlon on trees have reported that the lower frequency of
lianas on certaln tree specles could be due to thelr architectural characteristics such as
hgh tree flexibility, long leaves and h~gh tree bole before the first limb (Boom and
Mori, 1982, Putz, 1984; Balfour and Bond, 1993; Campbell and Newbery, 1993).
Putz (1980) reported that smooth bark 1s select~vely advantageous to tropical
trees because it hinders trunk liana invas~on In contrast, 50% of the smooth bark
P e l t o ~ n c trees supported at least one liana (Nascimento et a1 1997), of course, in a
Peltogvne-nch forest.
Chalmers and Turner (1994) reported that climbing plants demonstrate a
preference towards particular support tree species. The suitability as a support may be
related to its leaf-size and density of foliage, as well as availability in terms of the
degree of branchng and the depth of its crown; but, Carse el d. (2000) reported a lack
of significant relationship between tree morphological baits and liana infestation.
Lianas are generally not distributed at random on their potential host tncs and
across forests. It is potentially as a result of facilitation process by which new
invading lianas use the stem of the fim established liana to reach the crown of the tree
( P i and Putz, 1994) and the spatial clumping of lianas in the forest cornsponds to
old light gaps (Caballe, 1986)
Climbing guilds
Liana climbing mechanisms change with respect to successional stages of the
forest. For instance, H e g q ( 1 988) reponed a strong polarization of tendrillar species
and bole-climbers to early and late succession, respectively Similarly, climbing guild
analysis along a chronosequence In a Central Panamanian lowland forest revealed that
stem twiners increased while tendril climbers decreased across stand age (De Walt er
a1 ,2000) Branch twlners did not show a significant trend.
Laurance et al. (2001) reported only lim~ted shift in climbing guilds from
forest Interior to disturbed edge All three major climbing guilds (branch-twiners,
manstem-twiners and tendril climbers) Increased In abundance near the edge; but the
proportion of each climbing guild remains nearly the same. Climbing mechanism
determines the maximum diameter support a liana can use. Tendril climbers an
restricted generally to supports with diameter <I0 cm and stem twiners to supports
<30cm (Putz, 1984; Putz and Chai, 1987). Branch twiners have higher maximum
support sizes (Putz, 1984; Putz and Chai, 1987). Thus the shrub and tree composition
of a forest stand will strongly influence the vertical and horizontal distribution of
lianas (Chalmers and Turner, 1994).
h t z (1980) has reported several anti-climbing defense of tries h m his
observations at B m Colorado Island which include rapid growth in diameter and
height. periodic shedding of branches and 1 or leaves, and steep branch angles.
Addit~onally, ants may prey on lianas invading their host mes. Trees, which have
evolved structures to attract ants, such as exuafloral nectaries, may bear fewer lianas.
Liana management
Lianas show detrimental effects on tree regeneration in managed and logged
forests. In such forests lianas are abundant and reduce the tree growth, increase tree
monallty and cause trees to bend. distorting the~r trunk and reduc~ng their timber
value (Pinard and PuK, 1994; Vidal et al. 1997). Hence, forest managers suggest that
penodic and pre-harvest liana cuttlng is a sensible method In forest management (Putz
er a/ 1984. Uhl, 1997, V~dal er 0 1 . 1997) Penodlc liana cunlng reduces the number
of l~anas In thelr crown (Perez-Sal~crup et al., 2001) and reduces the surrounding tree
damage, and further they reduce 50% of the post harvest canopy gaps (Fox, 1968,
Appanah and Putz. 1984)
Tl~e recent stud~es on liana cutting for forest management emphasize that
lianas can be removed only from the trees which have a high density of lianas in&eu
crown, to reduce the expense of liana cutting (Appanah and Putz, 1984, Vidal er a/.,
1997; Parren and Bongers, 2001) and to maintan arboreal animals that depend on
lianas for their food (Emmons and Gentry, 1983). Overall, liana cutting still appears
to be the most ecolo@cally sound and cost-effective strategy for forest management,
when done selectively on a tree to tree basis.