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CHAPTER – II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Most of the research works are on human resource management and HR
policies and practices in public sector undertakings. No doubt that academicians
and practitioners alike have devoted a considerable thought to the various
aspects of HR and related aspects, but a very few studies on behavioural
aspects and areas of employee well-being Here an attempt is made to review
the literature covering a wider spectrum of work life balance of employees
especially in Indian organizations.
Kavoussi (1978)1 compared the unauthorized absenteeism rates in two
large textile factories andrecommended that closer attention to be paid for
improving the of Work Life of an employee.
Raghvan (1978)2 the Ex-Chairman of BHEL, a public sector
organization,stressed the need for worker’s participation in management.
According to him, equal “participation of workers in both the work and lifecreates
more job satisfaction on the other good family life.
1Kavoussi, N., “The Effects of Unsatisfactory Working Condition on the Epidemology of Unauthorised Absenteeism in an old textile factory”, Journal ofHuman Ecology, September, Vol. 7(1), 1978, pp. 81-87. 2Raghvan, S. P., Workers Participation in BHEL: 1, Vikalpa, 3(3), 1978, pp. 163-66.
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Greenhaus and Beutell(1985)3 defined work-family conflict as a form of
inter-role conflict in which the role pressures from the two domains, that is work
and family, are mutually non-compatible so that meeting demands in one domain
makes it difficult to meet demands in the other’. That is, participation in the work
role is made more difficult by virtue of participation in the family and vice-versa.
The major concern in this most widely used definition of work-family conflict is
that role conflicts are due to problems of role participation and emotional
intelligence.
Rice (1985)4 emphasized the relationship between work satisfaction and
Quality of people’s lives. The study contended that work experiences and
outcomes can affectperson’s general Quality of life, both directly and indirectly
which effects on their family interactions, leisure activities and levels of health
and energy.
Galinsky et al (1991)5 discussed on work life balance policies which are
the values, which attract prospective employees and are tools for employee
retention and motivation. The study found that one should also keep in mind that
new generation employees evaluate their career progress not only in terms of
lucrative job assignments but also in terms of their ability to maintain healthy
balance between their work and non-work life.
3Greenhaus J.H., “Sources of conflict between work and family roles”, Academy of Management Review, Volume10, 1985, pp.76-88. 4Rice, R. W., “Organizational Work and the Perceived Quality of Life towards a Conceptual Model”, Academy of Management Review, April, Vol. 10(2), 1985, pp 296-310. 5Galinsky,E., et al “The Corporate Reference Guide to Work-Family Programmes, Families and Work Institute: New York, 1991.
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Bachmann and Schwartz (1994)6discussedonthe literature that work and
balance is quite varied. Family-Friendly work environment, such as flexi-time,
telework has been portrayed as an important component of an individual worker’s
preferences towards work time. It has been suggested to the organisations that if
work and non-work lives environment should be provided to the employees with
a means of recruiting,retaining and motivating their work force.
Landsman(1994)7 disclosed that the employer provided resources can
help women a great deal in balancing work–life balance issues. If employers
provide facilities like onsite child care or referral, it would help in decreasing
absenteeism and turn over from work. It would further help in increasing women
employees to work overtime, from work and take-home dinner, family-friendly
benefits packages and exercise equipment’s can help in removing the stress of
working women in a big way. Thus concluded that one can say that flexible work
time, job sharing, telecommuting personal leave, childcare facilities completely
rely on degree of women efficacy and her intelligence.
Glass and fujimoto (1995)8 defined work-family practices as ‘any benefit,
working condition, or personnel policy that has been to empirically decrease work
–family conflicts among workers’. In operation, work –family practices address,
among other things, childcare plans, on-site day care, eldercare, parental leave,
6Bachmann,k., “work life balance. Are employees listening? Ottawa: ConferenceBoard of Canada”, 2000. 7Landsman P.,” Juggling work and family. Business Insurance”, New York, Oxford University Press,1994. 8Glass,J.L., and Fujimoto,T., “Employer Characteristics and the provisions ofFamily Responsive Policies", Volume No.22,1995, pp.380-411.
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long-term care leave, and flexible working hours are the supporting Human
Resource practices which makes an employee to balance both work and life.
Karrir and Khurana (1996)9 found significant correlations of Quality of
work life of managers from three sectors of industry viz., Public, Private and
Cooperative, with some of the background variables (education qualification,
native/migrant status, income level) and with all of the motivational variableslike
job satisfaction and job involvement. And concluded that both the variables show
effect on work life balance.
Caproni (1997)10 emphasized that unlike her peers, takes a different
stand on work life balance. Appreciative of scholars and practitioners who are
trying to promote balance between work and life, she argues that much of the
work in field has been built on the language and logic based on traditional
models of bureaucratic organizations which further aggravates the problem. She
cites certain problems in the prevalent literature: first the overarching goal
oriented approach to life that assumes people have a great deal of choice and
control over their lives, and second, the sole focus on individual (and neglect of
structural and relational) level of analysis.
Landauer(1997)11conducted research by WFD (formerly Work Family
Directions) focused on work/life programs with a number of clients (e.g., DuPont,
9Karrir, N. and Khurana, A., “Quality of work life of managers in Indian industry”, Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, Vol. 22(12), 1996 pp.1926. 10Coproni,P.J “Work life balance: you can’t get there from here. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science , Volume 33(1),1997,pp.46-56. 11Landauer, J., “Bottom-line benefits of work/life programs”, HR FOCUS, Volume 74, No. 7, 1997,pp.3-4.
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Johnson & Johnson, Hoechst Celanese, IBM, and others). At DuPont, for
example, “employees who used the company’s work/life programs were 45%
more likely to agree strongly that they will ‘go the extra mile’ and are least likely
to feel overwhelmed or burned out”.
Chaykowoski & Powell (1999)12explored on Part-time employment for
women, where part-time employment offers fewer benefits and little prospects for
an occupational pension in lieu of flexibility but part-time employment helps in
caring for children, managing personal responsibilities.
Melissa and Peitola (1999)13conducted a General Social Survey on
gender basis and found that women and men report similar level of success and
kinds of work-family tradeoffs. However, they found that for men, imbalance is
predicted by long work hours, wives who work fewer hours, perceived unfairness
in sharing house work, marital unhappiness, and tradeoffs made at work for
family and at home for work. The new interdisciplinary dialogue between
traditional ‘work’ and ‘family’ disciplines is providing useful insights into the
subject.When organizations are establishing work/life programs, it is important to
consider the purpose of the programs and whom they serve. Another aspect of
judging organizational readiness for work/life programs is the employees’ view of
perceived support of the organization.
12Chaykowski.R.P et al.,”Women and the labour market: Recent trends and policy issues”, Canada Public Policy, 25, supplement 1: S2-S25,1999. 13Milkie, Melissa A.andPiaPeltola, “Playing all the roles: Gender and the work-family balancing Act”, Journal of marriage and the Family,612(2),1999,pp.476-490.
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Reynolds (1999)14 identified a common thread that links the reasons
work/life benefits go unused in organizational culture. Before establishing
work/life initiatives, it is importantto know if the organization’s culture is open and
readyto support work/life programs. As with most change initiatives, work/life
programsrequire support from senior management. The work environment is to
be ready for work/life benefits, and it is helpful to have a “corporate culture in the
organisation that encourages employees to look at business in anentirely
different way which supports and acceptsemployees as individuals with priorities
beyond the workplace.”
Thompson, Beauvais, and Lyness (1999)15in their study at the City
University of New York and University of Rhode Island considered the links
between an organization’s work/family culture, and the extent to which
employees used work/life benefits, the extent of work/family conflict, and the
employees’ intention to stay with their company. To determine the culture
readiness of an organization for work/life initiatives, the researchers developed a
series of questions to measure supportive work/life culture, addressing perceived
managerial support, negative career consequences for devoting time to family
concerns, and organizational time demands and expectations that interfere with
family responsibilities. The study revealed that more work/family benefits
translated to greater commitment, less work/family conflict, and less intention to
14Reynolds, H. B., “Work/life initiatives require cultural readiness”, Employee Benefit Plan Review, Volume 54, No.6, 1999, pp.25-26. 15Thompson, C. A., Beauvais, L. L., and Lyness, K. S., “When work-family benefits are not enough:The influence of work-family culture on benefit utilization, organizational attachment and work-family conflict”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 1999, pp.392-415.
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leave. Interestingly, the study results confirmed anecdotal evidence that a
supportive work/family culture is closely related to work attitudes and perceived
managerial support linked with less intention to leave the organization.
Friedman and Greenhaus (2000)16, twoleadersexpressed on work/life
balance, and bring forth new evidenceto help us understand choices we make as
employersand individuals regarding work and family. They had studied more than
800 business professionalsconsidered values, work, and family lives andfound
that “work and family, the dominant life roles formost employed women and men
in contemporarysociety, can either help or hurt each other.To handle work/life
balance, they emphasize that working adults learn tobuild networks of support at
home, at work, and in thecommunity. Conflict between work and family has
realconsequences and significantly affects quality of familylife and career
attainment of both men and women.The consequences for women may include
seriousconstraints on career choices, limited opportunity forcareer advancement
and success in their work role,and the need to choose between two apparent
opposites—an active and satisfying career or marriage andchildren. Many men
have to trade off personal andcareer values while they search for ways to make
dual careerfamilies work, often requiring them to embracefamily roles that are far
different, and more egalitarian,than those they learned as children.This research
reveals a compensatory effectbetween two forms of psychological interference
i.ework-to-family and family-to-work. Specifically, supportfrom two domains
(partner and employer) has a significantimpact on one another. The impact of
16Friedman, S. D. and Greenhaus, J. H., “Work and family—Allies or enemies? What happens when business professionals confront lifechoices”, New York: Oxford University Press,2000.
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partnersupport is greater when business professionals feeltheir employers are
unsupportive of their lives beyondwork. Conversely, for employees with relatively
unsupportivepartners, the employer family-friendlinessreduces role conflicts more
than partners. Thus, onesource of support compensates for the lack of theother.
Looking at behavioral interference of work on family, the picture changes. In this
case, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts: the combined impact of
employer and partner support leads to a greater reduction in conflict than does
independent employer or partner support.
Hogarthetal (2000)17stated that women felt that child care facilities should
be available in working place to ensure work like balance.
Moenand Yu (2000)18 expresses that majority of men and women (without
any gender differences) admit that they are not able to spend enough time with
their family.Also both the genders observed that the boundary between work and
leisure is blurred.
Waite and Gallagher (2000)19 documented the tensions within and
between dual career couples brought about by the transformation of marriage
and family life. A personal level, marriage and family functioning have become
fundamentally personal choices and responsibilities, making the maintenance of
both more vulnerable. At the cultural level, while traditional values such as
17Hogarth,T.,C.Hasluck,G.Pierre,BothamM.W.,andD.Vivian.2000.Worklifebalance2000: Results from the base line study. Warwick: Institute for Employment Research. 18Moen,P.andy.Yu.“Effectivework/lifestrategies:Workingcouples,workcondtions, gender and life quality. Social Problems”, Volume 47(3),2000,pp.291–326.
19 Waite L. and Gallagher M., “The case for marriage: why married people are happier, healthier and better off financially”, New york, Double day,2000.
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gender role ideologies are constantly being challenged, balance related to the
importance of work life and personal life still persists to role efficacy and
emotional intelligence.
Harrington (2001)20 concluded that work has an adverse effect on both
and women, as it affects their health and even their sleep.
Hom and Kinicki (2001)21examined that organizations take into
consideration and apply policies that manage a balance between employees
work and their lives. Therefore the organizations are giving an increased
intention to adopt those policies which can reduce the turnover of employees.
Mark Tausig and Rudy Fenwick (2001)22stressed that alternate work
schedules affect perceived work-life imbalance the “time bind.” However,
perceived control of work schedules increases work-life balance net of family and
work characteristics. The most consistent family characteristic predicting
imbalance is being a parent. The most consistent work characteristic predicting
imbalance is hours worked. Once we control for hours worked, women and part-
timers are shown to perceive more imbalance. Younger and better educated
persons also perceive more work-life imbalance. However, they also report
20Harrington,J.M.,“Health effects of shift work and extended hours of work, Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Volume No.58 (1), 2001, pp.68-71. 21Hom, P.W., and Kinicki, A.J., “Toward a greater understanding of how dissatisfaction drives, employee turnover”, The Academy of Management Journal, Volume No.44(5), 2001, pp.975- 987. 22Mark Tausig and RudyFenwic, “Unbinding Time: Alternate Work Schedules Work-Life Balance”, Journal of Family and Economic Issues, Volume No.22(2), Human Sciences Press, 2001, pp.101-119
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higher levels of schedule control and since schedule control improves work-life
balance, it may be more important for unbinding time than schedule alternatives.
Roehling (2001)23conducted an empirical research and suggested a
direct relation-ship between work life balance programs and retention which
helps the employees to achieve a meaningful balance between work and
personal life, these programs may only hold benefits for the employers rather
than employees. The complexities exists in balancing work and personal life and
the importance of balance for individuals’ well-being should be investigated by an
organization to provide work life balance programs which are related to retention
strategies through the positive impact of these programs on individual’s
perceptions of balance.
Senecal (2001)24 analyzed a sample of 786 French Canadians and
demonstrated that if both have men and women have low levels of motivation
towards work and family led to family alienation. The alienation then predicted
work-family conflict, which lead to emotional exhaustion.
Tausig and Fenwick ( 2001)25suggested that both men and women
have strong belief that flexible working hours will enhance the work life balance.
This is consistent with the previous studies.
23Roehling, P.V., and Moen, P., “The relationship between work-life policies and practices and practices and employee loyalty: A life course perspective. Journal of Family and economic issues, 2001. 24Senecal,C., Vallerand,R.J., and Guay,F., Antecedents and outcomes of work – family conflict: Toward a motivational model”, Personality and Social Psychology, Volume No.27 (2), pp. 176-186. 25Tausig, M., and Fenwick R., “Unbinding time: Alternate work schedules and work life balance, Journal of Family and Economics, Issue No.22(2), 2001,pp.101-118
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Burke (2002)26 has identified that is a gender differences regarding the
work life balance that is men feel more satisfied when they achieve more on the
job even at the cost of ignoring the family. On the other hand, women stress that
work and family are both equally important and both are the sources of their
satisfaction. For them the former is more important when the work does not
permit women to take care of their family, they feel unhappy, disappointed and
frustrated.
Duxbury et al (2002)27 discussed on work-related stress consists of
working conditions involving heavy workloads, lack of participation in decision-
making, health and safety hazards, job insecurity, and tight deadlines.
Employees (with high levels of work-life conflict) are three times more likely to
suffer from certain heart problems, back pain and mental health problems. They
also indicated that workers are more likely to experience poor health, experience
negative impacts on relationships with children and their spouse, less committed
to the organization, less satisfied with the job, have poor quality of relationship
outside the work.
Rapoport (2002)28 action research describes a number of work-life
balance interventions which include surveys, interviews, and round table
discussions with new Interventions relating to retention of senior women, equity,
participation of senior management, feedback, internal change agents, and
overcoming resistance helps to maintain work life balance 26Burke, R.J., “Organizational values, job experience and satisfaction among managerial and professional women and men”, Management Review, Volume No.17(5), pp.5-6. 27Duxbury.L.,”The National work-life conflict study”, Final report , Public Health Agency of Canada, 2002. 28Rapoport, R., Bailyn, L., Fletcher, J.K., and Pruitt, B.H., “Beyond work-family balance: Advancing social equity and work place performance”, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2002.
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Comfort et al (2003)29analysed on workplace and reported that childcare
and elder care services should be available at work place based on the
arrangements varied considerably by gender, type of benefit, and the job
characteristics. In their study they have conclude that women should be provided
with increased access of flexi-time and also part-time work facilities and work-
family integration for women in work place to balance both work and family.
Hymanetal (2003)30observed that organizational pressures, combined
with lack of work centrality, result in work intruding into non-work areas of
employees’ lives. Such intrusions often manifest themselves differently
depending on the type of work, extent of autonomy and organizational support.
Duxbury and Higgings (2003)31 in their seminal report on work-life
conflict demonstrated that the respondents with high levels of work to family
interference reported: lower levels of job satisfaction and high levels of jobs
stress the intent to turnover of the employees.
Fisher and Layte (2003)32Considered three distinct sets of measures of
work life balance, viz., proportion of free time, the over-lap of work and other
dimensions of life, and the time spent with other people helps the employees to
balance both work and life.
29Comfort et al.,”Part-time work and family-friendly practices in Canadian workplaces”, the evolving workplace series 6.cat. No.71-584-MIE.Ottawa: statistics Canada and Human Resource Development Canada, 2003. 30Hyman., J., Baldry,C., Scholarios, D., and Bunze, D., “Work-life imabalnce in the new service sector economy, British Journal Industrial Relations, Volume British Journal of Industrial Relations, Volume No. 41(2) pp.41-55, 2003. 31Duxbury, L., and Higgings, C., “Work life conflict in Canada in the New Millenium: A status report”, Ottawa: Health Canada,2003. 32Fisher, K., and Layfe M., “Measuring work-life balance and degrees of sociability: A focus on the value of time use data in the assessment of quality of life”, Working Paper of the European Panel Analysis Group, Volume No.32, 2003.
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Janet polach (2003)33identified the remarkable gains in organizations
regardingwork–life balance programs. Flexible work arrangements, competitive
compensation and advancement for men, women and minorities, long-term
saving and profit sharing programs and resourceservices to help with such things
as day care, elder care and adoptions are all programs inwhich sponsoring
organizations can be proud. The author proposes that organizations are now
ready to make the next big step – making work–life integration a way of life. He
suggested a call for action to human resource development professionals by
providing background on work–life balance, profiling organizations who have
made the transition into this way of thinking and providing specific actions that
human resource development professionals can take to transform the thinking in
the workplace.
Taylor.R (2003)34 suggests that the future of work-life balance programs
points to a number of suggestions to the policymakers that need to refocus to
cover the millions of working parents to lessen the difficulties of bringing up
children, or caring for elderly and working at the same time. And also they need
to place the work-life issue in a wider context and make it an all-inclusive
approach, available to every individual who needs irrespective of their gender,
race, ethnicityetc.
33Janet Polach, “HRD’s role in work-life integration issues: moving the workforce to a change in mindset”, University of Minnesota,HRDI 6:1 2003, pp. 57–68. 34Taylor.R.,”The future work life balance”,swindon:ESRC,2003.
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Wu et al (2003)35 found that female workers whose income makes up
between 40 to 60 percent of their family income would have more work life
conflicts. This is because women with less income weight are focusing more on
their family where as women with more income weight is more career oriented.
They have concluded the study that female workers with 40 to 60 percent weight
of income do not have a clear role of them and struggle between work and
family. It must be noted that women do not always have a choice of what work
they do, how long they work and when, as these are often decided by their
employers, the business needs and the financial needs of their family.
Wilson (2003)36 found that in the academic world,” having children
particularly early on, can severely damage the job prospects of women,
fatherhood is actually a boon to academic men”. In general, the larger companies
and those in more modern/emerging sectors (such as information technology and
IT-enabled industries in comparison to the older industries like mining and
construction) typically adopt more family friendly policies that can moderate the
level of tension between work and life/family.
Zimmerman (2003)37 documented the adaptive strategies of dual earner
couples in balancing family and work based on a study of 47 middle –class, dual
–earner couples with children, who perceive themselves as successful in
35Wu.L., et al,” The research on work-family conflict of professional female workers”, Chinese Journal of Applied Psychology 9, 1, 2003, Pp. 43-46. 36Wilson Robin.,” How babies alter careers for academics”, The chronicle of Higher Education, Volume No.50(15),2003, p.1. 37Zimmerman,T.S., “Intimate partnership: Foundation to the successful balance of family”, The American Journal of Family Therapy, Volume 31, Issue 2, 2003, pp.107-124.
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balancing family and work.Their description clustered into six general partnership
themes: shared housework, mutual and active involvement in childcare, joint
decision-making, equal access to and influence over finances, value placed on
both partners work life goals and shared emotion work. Successful couples
equally share house work and emotion work to balance their work and life
however, wives tend to perform slightly more childcare and to be primarily
responsible for organizing family life. Further, Zimmerman notes that wives
perceive that husbands’ careers are slightly more prioritized.
Burke and Collinson (2004)38a recent poll by the members of society for
Human Resource Management indicated that professionals viewed flexible
workplace schedules as key to employee retention and if flexi work schedules
are provided to the employees it achieves employee retention.
Golden (2004)39defines overwork as the point “when the length of work
hours begin to adversely affect the health and safety of individuals, families
organizations and the public even if the workers themselves voluntarily, work the
excess hours,” Golden also emphasizes that regulation is required not only in
cases where the longer working hours are involuntary, in order to protect the
safety and health of both workers involved and the general public.
38Burke,M.J., and Collison,J.”U.S.Job Recovery and Retention Poll Findings”, Society for Human Resource Management, 2004. 39Golden,Lannie(2004)Decentworkingtime:Newtrends,Newissues,ILO,Geneva,2004,p.6.
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Higgins C. (2004)40 analysed the gap between need for work-life balance
and the reality in most workplaces remains disturbingly wide. Employers across
Canada do not provide sufficient or adequate work-life balance programs for their
employees. It indicates that the factor has the association with employee
commitment is managers’ recognition of their employee’s needs for work-life
balance. Hence employers need to create supportive work place environments,
as work life balance is the key to employee well-being and hence organisations
productivity.
Hyman and Summers(2004)41founded seven major problems associated
with the current UK practice of lightly regulated approach towards Work Life
Balance i.e the unevenness of adoption across different sectors and
organizations, lack of formalization of policies at organizational level, with largely
untrained line managers having discretion over policy application, there is
restricted voice for the employee over the introduction and implementation of
policies, policies are introduced initially to meet business needs, rather than
those of employees, there is no evidence of reductions in working hours, tangible
and intangible work intrusions into domestic life are myriad, domestic
responsibilities are still conducted primarily by women irrespective of their
employment status. As a result, many employees continue to face difficulty in
reconciling their work domestic responsibilities.
40Higgins.C, et al, “Exploring the link between work-life conflict and demands on Canada’s healthcare system, Health Canada, Report 3, 2004. 41Hyman, Jeff and Juliette Summers, “Lacking balance? Work-Life employmentpractices on modern economy”, Personnel Review, Volume No. 33-20(4),2004,pp.418-429.
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Rapport R. (2004)42 reported that the workplace response ‘tends to be
based on the US model to support people to be able to work more rather than
less”. This is possibly due to the influence of Multinational Corporations’ policies
on inclusive workforce and family friendly workplaces. Most Indians still seem to
consider work life balance as an issue for the “haves” and less so far the “have
not’s”, where work tends to take precedence over family. Some companies have
publicized their being a family friendly workplace as a recruitment tool, rather
than facilitating women to advance in the workplace. Organisations, like WIPS
(Women in Public Sector), are working with the British High Sector Commission
and the Standing Conference on Public Enterprises to organize special training
programs for the career advancement of women to balance work and family.
Yasbek (2004)43 found that work life balance policies are positively
associated with the job tenure of the female employees, and moreover the
practices of such policies have a great effect on the turnover rate of employees.
Work-life balance policies help in reducing the stress and provide a good work
place where, there is less chance of accidents in the working and also provide a
fair platform for every employee, ultimately enhancing productivity.
Bandopadhyay and kumar (2005)44emphasized on e-learning which is
affecting heavily on imbalanced work-life. The authors develop a motivational
pyramid of e-learning and then discuss how the existing corporate e-learning 42Rapport. R., “work-personal life integration: visions and pragmatic strategies for change”, Work life integration: case studies of organizational change, Wiley London, 2004. 43Yasbek, P., “The business case for firm-level work-life balance policies: a review of the Literature, Labour Market Policy Group”, Department of Labour, 2004. 44Bandopadhyay,T., and P.Kumar P., ”Corporate E-learning effects on the work-life balance and quality of life of employees, Proceedings”, (461)Web-based education, 2005.
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framework can adversely affect the work life balance and cause more stress.
Based on the above lines they propose a modified framework with more
emphasis on blended learning approaches and experimental learning and
flexible, user –configurable tools and technology support environment.
Schulz and Schulz (2005)45 explore the additional challenges faced by
dual career couples thus: The first challenge is the original jobs search and
finding two positions. The next challenge is to both make it through the tenure
and promotion process. The third challenge is to have advancement
opportunities. Along with way, the authors assert, the couple has to work
together to develop a work life balance plan to provide an environment for each
person with in the pair to thrive towards his/her career and personal goals.
Besides balancing the day-today activities of a functioning household, they argue
further, couples must agree on timing for or if they will start a family and
advancement opportunity for each.
Kochan.T (2005)46 suggested that Mathematical, technological an
Scientific skills are the assets in today’s workforce. In addition to these academic
skills, employers are looking for other important practical skills. Amongst other
things, the ability to work in teams, to lead others, to problem solve and to
communicate clearly are critical. Besides formal schooling, it is important to
45Schulz, Kirk,H., Schulz, Noel N, ”Work-life Balance for dual career couples”, ASEE Annual Conference and Exposition:The Changing Landscape of Engineering and Technology Education in a World,2005,p.12 46Kochan.T., ”Restoring the American dream: A working families”, agenda for America, Cambridge, MA: The MIT press, 2005.
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continue on a path of lifelong learning. In competitive work world, workers need
to keep their qualifications and skills up to date.
Keene and Renolds (2005)47 used the 1992 National Study on the
Changing Workforce to conclude that job characteristics are more salient than
family factors for predicting the likelihood that family will detract from job
performance and for explaining the gender gap in negative family-to-work
spillover. Working in a demanding job or having little job autonomy, the authors
assert, was associated with more native family-to-work spillover regardless of
gender, while greater scheduling flexibility mitigated the gender gap.
Pocock and Clarke(2005)48explored that spill -over of work into family
life showed that both men and women did not have enough time to spend with
families and moreover work pressures affected quality of the family life.
Rothbard(2005)49surveyed 460 employees focusing on the extent to
which individuals desire to integrate or segment their work and non-work lives.
They observed that people who want more segmentation are less satisfied and
committed to the organization when they have greater access to integrating
policies(e.g., onsite childcare)than when they have less access to such policies.
Conversely, people who want greater segmentation are more committed when
47Keene,Jennifer Reid and John R. Renolds, “The job costs of family demands:Gender differences in negative family-to-work spillover”, Journal of Family Issues, Volume No.26(3),2005,pp.275-299 48Pocock, B., and Clarke, J., “Time, money and jobs spill over: How parents’s jobs affect young people”, The Journal of Industrial Relations, Volume No.47 (1), 2005, pp.62-76. 49Rothbard,Nancy P., Katherine W.Phillips,TracyL.Dumas, “Managing multiple roles: work-family policies and individuals’ desires for segmentation, Organizational Science, Volume 16,No.3, 2005, pp.243-258.
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have greater access to segmenting policies(eg., flexi-time).The fit between the
desire for segmentation and organizational policy has an effect on satisfaction
and commitment over and above the effects of demographic characteristics such
as age, gender, marital status, income, number of children, and the ages of those
children.
Thompson, Andreassi and Prottas (2005)50 has identified work life
policies which are very important and defined as the base level indicators of an
organization, prioritizing work over family or family over work and these policies
include flexible work scheduling and leave of employees from work.
Chen (2006)51 reported on young and single that they tend to have less
work life conflict issues compared to with those who have childcare and elderly
care responsibilities. And also those who work in state sector will face less WLC
issues, generally speaking, than those who work in private sector, as competition
and performance pressure is relatively lower in the sector than in the private
sector. Similarly, the level of position held and income both have positive relation
with the level of WLC in different ways as well as those in higher organizational
position tend to feel greater pressure of work which effects their family life
negatively. And those who are on less income are less able to commercialize
their housework and family care responsibility and experience more-life
struggles.
50Thompson, C. A., Andreassi, J., and Prottas, D., ”Work-family culture: Key to reducing workforce-workplace mismatch”, Lawrence Erlbaum Publications, 2005,pp.117-132. 51Chen.Q.,” Research on work/family conflict of knowledge worker and its intervention strategies”, unpublished masters dissertations, changing universities, China, 2006.
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Ferrer. A et al (2006)52 expressed that private sector provide family
friendly benefits such as workplace childcare and employment insurance
supplements to maternity, paternity and sick leave and other alternate work
arrangements. Some of these policies include facilitating leave from work for
family reasons such as extension to leave which may be paid or unpaid and
facilitating changes in work schedules such as switching to part time work, job
sharing or reduced work week, flexi-time (flexibility in start and stop hours) or
telework (work from home) and family support policies such as offering help with
child/elder care to balance work and life.
Felsteadetal (2006)53experimented that home working was also another
factor which was preferred by both men and women and it was believed that it
would enhance work life balance.
Hunsley.T (2006)54 reported on non-standard jobs in recent years,
competing demands of work and family have given rise to various forms of non-
standard work arrangements such as temporary help work, on-call work, day
labour, contract work, self-employment and part-time work in a standard
employment relation-ship. The study indicates that women are more likely to be
employed in non-standard jobs compared to men. The non- standard job
receives company benefits in the form of pensions or health coverage. Often,
there are also limited means for advancement or training. 52Ferrer.A et al.,”The use of family friendly workplaces practices in Canada”, Institute for research on public policy, working paper series no.2006-02, 2006. 53Felstead, A., “Opportunities to work at home in the context to work-life balance”, Human
Resource Management Journal, Volume No.12(1), 2006, pp.54-76. 54Hunsley.T.,”Work life balance in an aging population”, dimensions, Ottawa: Policy Research
Institute, Govt.of Canada, 2006.
74
Lilly et al (2006)55expressed their views on personality traits that can
moderate relationship between environmental variables and work life balance
and found that those with a high need for power and a high need for achievement
typically experience more work interferes with family, not family interferes with
work, while those with a high need for affiliation tend to experience more family
interferes with work.
Lee and McCann (2006)56 recognized the decent working time from the
perspective of human development theorists or the capabilities approach to
working time, therefore, encompasses the need for offering workers the
opportunity to choose their working hours on the basis of their capabilities of
functioning, in order to improve the quality of their lives (for example daily hrs)
and arrangement (for example un social hrs) of working time.
Voyer.J.P (2006)57 determines about the future workforce that it brings
more pressures on prime-age workers, because of the coming retirement of baby
boomers. The previous model of family and life-cycle pattern such as education
followed by career (mostly for males) and then retirement is no longer viable.
With aging population, economic and social gains could possibly be derived from
more flexibility of choice regarding the allocation of time among work, family
responsibilities, leisure and learning throughout one’s life.
55Lilly,J.D., et al,” A Gender-sensitive study of McClelland’s needs, stress, and turnover intent with work-family conflict”, Women in Management Review, 2006, 21(8), pp. 662-680. 56Lee Sangheon and McCann, Deidre, “Working time capability towards realizing individual choice”, International Labour Office, Geneva, 2006, pp.65-82. 57Voyer.J.P.,”work and life balance: Better choice”, flexibility and policy opportunities, horizons, 2006.
75
Aaltio and Huang (2007)58 expressed that those who have childcare and
elderly care commitment, outsourcing house work(babysitting, cooking and
cleaning) is the most commonly used personal coping mechanism to reduce
work life conflict. The study of female IT managers found that women sought
support from parents or parents-in law, hired tutors for children’s homework,
employed domestic helper for child minding, cleaning, cooking, shopping, and
shared family responsibilities with their husband.
Cooke.F.L (2007)59 reported that the complete accessibility to extended
family networks and low cost childcare services further encourages dual full-time
working among couples with young children. The one child policy enforced by the
government is to control the population growth has further reduced the amount of
childcare work for working couples. The model of a modern urban Chinese family
typically takes the form of dual careers/dual earners, with much less sharply
divided marital roles and possibly greater equality than that in industrial capitalist
societies.
Fleetwood (2007)60 discussed the inevitable connection between work life
balance and other kinds of flexible working practices, and then discharge these
practices. These practices are ‘employee friendly’ and sought by employees to
enhance their work life balance. On the other hand ‘employer friendly’
58Aaltio.I., et al, “Women Managers career in IT in china: high flyers with emotional costs”, Journal of organizational change Management 20, 2, 2007, pp.227-244. 59Cooke.F.L., ”Husband’s career first”, Renegotiating career and family commitment among migrant Chinese academic couples in Britain work, Employment and society 21,1, 2007,Pp.47- 65. 60Fleetwood, Steve,” Why Work-life Balance Now?” Human Resource Management Journal, 2007, pp.387-400.
76
approaches are sought by employers to enhance profit and then to enhance
employees’ work life balance. The data reflected that flexible working practices
are characterized as by the employee to make friendly working practices that
tend to constrain work life balance.
Forsyth and PolzerDebruyne (2007)61 have studied that the
organizational pay-offs for visible work-life balance support the workers for the
reduced intention of leaving the job through increased job satisfaction and also
the reduction of work pressure and also reported about the employees that they
feel organization is supportive and providing them work life balance it enhances
job satisfaction and reduces work pressure leading to reduction in turnover
intention.
Nathwani.A (2007)62 analysed the absence of effective HR interventions
to tackle Work Life Conflict problems, individuals adopt a range of coping
strategies that is some individual join sports clubs to keep fit and to socialize with
people who have similar backgrounds. The study shows Chinese employees
spend more time than their Indian counterparts to pursue their hobbies and
would be ready to leave the company if work pressure is perceived to be too
high. While younger and single employees may feel less WLC, working long
hours and anxiety of holding on a career are having a negative impact on their
non-work life. This is particularly the case for single career women who may be
61Forsyth,Stewart and Polzer-Debruyne, Andrea”, The Organizational Pay-offs for Perceived Work-life Balance Support”, Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources,45(1),2007,pp.113:123. 62Nathwani.A., et al, “Diversity and inclusion: A lever for solving talent pool dilemmas in India and China”, a summary report presented to the Global Diversity Network, Schneider-Ross limited and community Business, 2007.
77
experienced a vicious circle of having no partner, then spending more time to
work which results in having less opportunity to find a partner and hence
remaining single. Some married women also have to postpone their motherhood
once they get married in order to hold on to their career.
Pockok (2007)63argue that longer hours worked, are consistently
associated with worse work-life outcomes on all our life measures’. In certain
industries (service industries of hospitality and tourism, for instance) and in
developing countries there is an unhealthy acceptance of long working hours.
Bambra (2008)64 Review of experimental and quasi-experimental studies
focused on shiftwork and work-life balance. Three interventions found to improve
work-life balance: shift changes from slow to fast rotation; shift changes from
backward to forward rotation; and self -scheduling of shiftwork.
Anup Kumar Singh and Richaawasthy (2009)65discuss different causes
and consequences of Work-Life Balance, where societal, organizational and
individual causes are major responsible for Work-Life Balance. Managers have to
take the challenge of work life balance seriously as it affects their professional
success and personal well-being. They also need to hone certain skills that
conducive to better work life balance. Some of these skills are: time
63Pockok,B,. Skinner, N and Williams, P., “Work, Life Time: The Australian work and life Index, centre for work and life”, Hawke Research Institute: University of South Australia, 2007. 64Bambra, C.L., Whitehead, M.M., Sowden, A.J., Akers, J., and Petticrew, M.P.,“Shifting schedules: The health effects of reorganizing shift work”, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Volume No. 34(5), 2008, pp.427_434. 65AnupKumar Singh and RichaAwasthy,”Work-Life Balance: causes, consequences and interventions”,NHRD Network Journal,2009,pp.59-67.
78
management, delegation, coping with stress, negotiation, caring, listening,
empathy, trust etc help in managing things both at work and in family.
Aryasri A.R (2009)66 analysed the impact of flexi-time on employee
retention as part of work-life balance practice based on empirical evidence drawn
from IT sector. The study shows that when the average flexi time score
increases, the average Employee Retention score also increases proportionately.
It also founds positive correlation and significant association between employee
retention and flexi-time.
Anil Verma, young ChulChang (2009)67 highlighted the five significant
areas in which the Korean dream remains elusive. Korean workers work for
more(40) working hours per week, Secondly the growth of non-regular workers is
limited in terms of all aspects, thirdly high occupational accident rates and
diseases, fourth is the low birth rates can be seen in Korea. Lastly stimulating
labor work force that is women into organizations. The study was concluded with
three predominant initiatives towards which workers, employers, the government
and non-governmental organizations need to tune their agendas i.e to reduce
working hours, non –regular employment needs to be better regulated so that
these workers are afforded comparable pay and benefits to regular workers and
finally with more family-friendly policies are needed to promote the status of
women both at home and at work.
66Aryasri.A.R, Somanbabu.,”Impact of flexi-time as a work-life balance practice on employee retention”, NHRD network Journal, July 2009, Pp.68-75. 67Anil Verma,”Realising the Korean dream for work-family balance, employer policies for sustainable societies”, NHRD network Journal,2009,pp.29-52.
79
Baral (2000)68conducted a study on 730 managerial employees from
various organisations in India, and found that family significantly contributes to
work in terms of enhancing performance and positive emotions at the workplace.
The finding indicates that one of the important determinants of work life balance
is availability of work life balance programs. When an organization offers its
employees policies, practices, benefits and services to help them integrate their
work and family responsibilities, they feel committed to the organization and
indulge themselves in organizational citizenship behaviours.
Cooke (2009)69I identified many of the HR initiatives adopted by
organisations to help employees enhance their work-life balance are of collective
nature, providing bonding opportunities among employees and between
employees and their family. Money remains the main motivator and de-stressor
in that and material rewards have been the main mechanisms for alleviating
employees’ grievance of WLC inflicted by work intensification. This reflects
China’s current stage of economic development that is people desire better living
standard and extra material rewards are appreciated. The study stressed the
provision of employee welfare and employee entertainment is traditionally seen
by Chinese firms as an important ingredient to improve morale and commitment
of the workforce and enhance productivity of the firm.
68Baral,R.,”ExaminingAntecendents of Work-Family Enrichment and its Effect on Individual, Family and Organisational Outcomes”, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, IIT Bombay, 2000. 69Cooke,F.L., ”Employment Relations in China, International and comparative employment relations 5th edition,London, 2009.
80
Cousins and Varshney (2009)70 conducted 10 qualitative cases studies
to investigate how mobile users experienced and the work life boundary
management strategies they enacted to address them in terms of three
categories: Managing life space transitions relate to how users switched between
work and life activities using mobile technology. Managing accessibility relates to
how users employed mobile technology. Managing accessibility using mobile
technology for managing communications, interruptions and availability to others
for direct interaction .Managing space utilization,relates to how users organized
resources in their physical location to support their computing activities. They
conclude that use of mobile technologies to blur work life boundaries is highly
pervasive and may not be indicative of dysfunctional behavior, but representative
of new ways of working and living .Therefore they suggest that we must design
ubiquitous computing environments to support users’ preferences for blurred or
defined boundaries,while facilitating their well -being and feelings of satisfaction
in both work and life.
Deery and Jago (2009)71 examine the key issues associated with work
life balance with a particular focus on practices within the tourism industry based
on 8-year longitudinal study. Presenting a framework that focuses on the specific
variables that influence work life balance and the potential outcomes from these,
the authors’ identified the individual differences and family work life conflict. They
assert that greater use of flexible work practices such as flexible scheduling,
working from home and having access to both paid and unpaid leave and job
70Cousins,Karlene C and UpkarVarshney, “Designing ubiquitous computing environments to suppory work life balance, Volume No.9(2),2009,pp.65-93. 71Deery, Margaret and leoJago “A Framework for work- life balance practices: Addressing the needs of tourism industry”,Tourism and Hospitality Research, Volume No. 9(2), 2009,pp.65-93.
81
sharing are some of the strategies that can have positive effect on work life
balance.
Harish C Jain(2009)72 analyzed a survey on Canadian center for
occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS)that work life balance initiatives are any
benefits, policies, or programs that help create a better balance between the
demands of the job and the healthy management(and enjoyment)of life outside
work such work/life initiatives can potentially deal with a wide range of issues
including on-site childcare, eldercare initiatives, flexible working arrangements,
parental and maternity leave, employee assistance programs, on-site seminars
and workshops(on such topics as stress, nutrition, smoking, communication
etc)internal and /or external educational/training opportunities or fitness facilities
or fitness membership assistance (financial)etc.
Fang lee Cooke and Xingyao Jing (2009)73 outlines major sources of
work-life conflicts encountered by workers in china against a context of
marketization of the economy where the organizational leaders and workers tend
to accept work-life conflict as a fact of life. Individuals adopt various coping
strategies on their own. Whilst organizations are more likely to introduce HR
initiatives to cushion the negative effect of long working hours on their key
employees and their family, managers are far less sympathetic towards
employee’s childcare needs and are unwilling to introduce policy to
accommodate family commitments. Many of HR initiatives adopted by
organizations to help employees enhance their work-life balance are of collective 72Harish C Jain, ”Issues and Prospects relating to Work-Life Balance”, NHRD Network Journals,2009, pp.9-17. 73Fang lee Cooke and XingyooJing,”Work-Life Balance in China, sources of conflicts and coping strategies”, NHRD network Journal, 2009,pp.18-28.
82
in nature, providing bonding opportunities among employees and between
employees and their family.
Rosalie L Tung(2009)74 provided a conceptual paradigm of Work-Life
balance and highlights the role of environment and moderating factors in
facilitating work family balance(or) exacerbating family conflict with a positive
note he has concluded that paying attention to work-life balance can have
favorable outcomes both at personal and organizational level.
RupashreeBaral and S.Bhargava(2009)75 highlights the status of Work-
Life Balance practices in Indian organizations where there is a realization from
Indian organizations that work life balance practices are crucial for organizational
performance. The paper identifies challenges for effectiveness of work life
balance practices and recommendations are put forth to facilitate employers to
see employees work-life balance as a core strategic issue in corporate landscape
for which their should be supported by top management. And even organization
should support employee’s participation in many life roles and even personal
developments to make work-life balance a reality in Indian corporate landscape.
Venkatratnam and Chandra (2009)76 provide a select review of literature
in different countries and sectors. Chandra and venkataratnam also provides
insights into best practices in work life balance, drawing upon the work of
74Rosalie L Tung,July 2009,”Perspectives on Work-Life Balance implications for the Indian context”, NHRD Network Journal Volume No. 2,issue-3,pp.1-8. 75RupashreeBaral and S. Bhargava,”Work-Life Balance practices in Indian organizations: challenges and prospects”, NHRD Network Journal, 2009. 76VenkataRatnam and Chandra., ”Work life balance: Review of literature”, NHRD network Journal, July 2009, pp.89-97.
83
International Labour organisation and also the policies in about 25 large
companies.
Bilal,Zia-ur-Rahman and Raza (2010)77 examined the significant impact
of family friendly policies on employee’s job satisfaction and turnover intention in
the banking industry. Long and inflexible work hours are the most consistent
predictor of work-life conflict among banking employees. The evaluation provided
prima facie evidence that alternative work schedules can improve banking
employee’s work-life balance, creating benefits for banking employees and
corporate organizations.
Divya, Suganthi and Samuel (2010)78 illustrated the current workplace
conditions and some of the reasons causing imbalances in work and life in the IT
industry in India. Their study mainly focused on the working women in the age
group 20-35 and the problems they face at work and family life. Results obtained
from using factor analysis suggest that organizations may mitigate voluntary
turnover among women belonging to IT sector and increase workforce diversity.
Malik, Saleem and Ahmad (2010)79 examined the relationship of job
satisfaction with the concept of work-life balance, turnover intentions and burnout
77Bilal,Muhammad,Zia-ur-Rahman,Muhammad and RazaIrfan, ”Impact of Family Friendly Policies on Employees Job Satisfaction and Turnover Intention:A study on work-life balance at workplace”, Inter-disciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, Volume No.2(7), 2010, pp.378-95 78Divya D, Suganthi L. and Samuel Anand A., ”Work life Balance of IT Women Professionals Belongings to the Age Group 20-35 in India, ”Advance in Management Volume No.3(1),2010,pp.37-46 79Malik,MuhammadImran,Sallem, Farida Ahmad and Mehboob,”Work-life Balance and Job Satisfaction Professionals Belongings to the Age Group 20-35 in India”, Advance in Management Volume No.3(1), 2010, pp.37-46 79Malik and MuhammadImran, “Teachers in Pakistan”, South Asian Journal of Management Volume No.17(2), 2010,pp.112-23.
84
level of teachers in Pakistan. The purpose of the study was to provide empirical
evidence to prove the relationship. They concluded that higher the work life
balance higher will be the job satisfaction of the teachers.
Shankar and Bhatnagar (2010)80 looked at the literature of work life
balance exhaustively and accentuated the importance of broadening the narrow
focus to broader one beyond work and family. They have proposed a conceptual
model of work life balance to be tested empirically. This model focused on the
work life balance construct and its relationship with employee engagement,
emotional dissonance and turnover intention and reviewed the antecedents of
Work-Family Conflict from the perspective of individual, work and family. Findings
revealed the effects of individual variables like stress influences, family variables
like family demands and spousal interactions.
Singh (2010)81 explored on the perception of work-life balance policies
among the software professionals. The major contribution of this study was to
provide an approach for the management of software organizations to assess the
awareness levels of Work-life polices and measure their perceived importance.
The variables employed by the author in the study are not occupation specific
and can be used to assess the work life balance policies in other occupation too.
80Shankar, Tara and BhatnagarJyotsna, “Work-life balance, Employee, Engagement, Emotional Consonance/ Dossonance& turnover intention”, The Indian Journal of Indian Relations, Volume No.46(1),2010,pp.74-87. 81Singh,Amita, ”A study on the perception of Work-Life Balance policies among Software Professionals,” IUP Journal of Management Research, Volume No.IX(2), 2010,pp.51-79.