Review: Date palm arthropod pests and their management in Israel

ENTOMOLOGY D. Blumberg (2008) Phytoparasitica 36(5):411-448

REVIEW: Date Palm Arthropod Pests and TheirManagement in Israel

Daniel Blumberg1

This review summarizes the current knowledge on the distribution, natural history, economicimportance and management of 16 major species of date palm pests in Israel. Another 15,rarely occurring, pest species are also identified. Research on the date palm pests in Israelwas initiated against a background of severe outbreaks of scale insects in the late 1950s.These outbreaks were caused mainly by unrestrained use of organophosphates. This situationled to the gradual development of an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program, whichwas implemented first against scale insects and later against fruit pests. The IPM approachresulted in successful control of the scale insects, up to the present, whereas agrotechnical andcrop management procedures, including covering the fruit bunches with plastic nets and earlyharvesting of several date cultivars, were successfully applied to achieve efficient control ofthe fruit moths. In addition, the use of chemical compounds in date plantations was drasticallyreduced and restricted to heavy foci of pest infestation. In time, microbial control, mainlyapplication of Bacillus thuringiensis products against the lesser date moth, and the use ofpheromone traps for monitoring and controlling red palm weevil, enabled further reductionsin the use of synthetic insecticides. The overall change in pest management also significantlyimproved the preservation of natural enemies of the pests in the plantations. Whereas inthe 1950s the major problems were caused by the parlatoria date scale and the green scale,in the early 2000s the key pests in date plantations in Israel are the lesser date moth andsap beetles in most of the date-growing areas, and spider mites which are restricted to theArava Valley. Future management of the first two of these pests should rely on an improvedmonitoring system and integration of pheromone application for reduction of the populationand damage. Efforts should be made to prevent the red palm weevil, which currently is apotential pest, from becoming an actual key pest in date plantations.KEY WORDS: Biological control; chemical control; natural enemies; pest management;pheromones; Phoenix dactylifera.

INTRODUCTION

Many arthropod species are known as pests of the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.)worldwide (72,102). In their review of pests and diseases of the date palm, Carpenter andElmer (45) reported on more than 50 species of insects and mites as pests of date palms invarious countries. In Israel, however, approximately 25% of these species of insects andmites are considered serious pests (30,40,83,97).

Research on the date palm pests in Israel was initiated in the late 1950s, in response tothe severe damage that resulted from the outbreaks of the parlatoria date scale, Parlatoriablanchardi Targioni-Tozzetti (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) and the green scale, Palmaspis

Received July 25, 2008; accepted Aug. 12, 2008; http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting Oct. 6, 2008.1Dept. of Entomology, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel [e-mail:[email protected]].

Phytoparasitica 36:5, 2008 411

(=Asterolecanium) phoenicis Ramachandra Rao (Hemiptera: Asterolecaniidae). The pi-oneers in that study, as well as in subsequent research on the date pests in Israel, were Prof.Eliahu Swirski and Dr. Moshe Kehat, both of the Department of Entomology, AgriculturalResearch Organization (ARO), The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan. Their studies undoubtedlyenriched our knowledge of the biology, ecology, phenology and control of the major datepalm pests, and they thereby laid the cornerstone of a comprehensive pest managementstrategy in the date plantations of Israel. Swirski and Kehat initially concentrated on findingsolutions to the above-mentioned scale insects problems. Gradually, since the 1960s, theyextended their efforts toward finding solutions to the other major date palm pest problems.Their work enabled the growers to cope with the pest problems, either by means of short-term solutions, such as insecticide applications, but mainly by establishing alternative,environmentally safer, control measures (97).

Date palm plantations in Israel cover an area of 3300 ha located along the Syrian-African rift, from Elat in the south to Lake Kinneret in the north; they contain 223,000mature palms. The extremely high temperatures and the low relative humidity that prevailin those areas during spring and summer provide the optimal conditions for growth anddevelopment of the date palm, as well as for maturation of the fruits. The total planted areaof organic date plantations in Israel in 2007 was approximately 370 ha, i.e., approximately11% of the total area planted with date palms in the country. The dominant (90%) cultivarin organic orchards is the ‘Medjhool’ (B. Glazner, pers. comm.). Other cultivars that areunder consideration for planting in certified organic plantations include ‘Hayany’, ‘Zahidi’,‘Barhee’, ‘Khadrawy’, ‘Dayri’, ‘Helawy’ and ‘Amri’.

The arthropod fauna in Israeli date plantations is not entirely isolated from that of theneighboring countries, such as Jordan, Palestine and Egypt. The Jordanian plantationsgrown on the East Bank of the Jordan River, the Palestinian plantations on the West Bankand in the Gaza Strip, and the Egyptian plantations in the Sinai Peninsula may contributeto the Israeli fauna, through a corridor formed by the ornamental date palms planted in allIsraeli residential areas.

The objective of this review is to summarize the knowledge accumulated on date palmpests and their management in Israel during almost half a century of research, in both thefield and the laboratory. Much of the information presented in this review is based on thestudies cited therein, as well as on the personal experience of the author.

This review is dedicated to the memory of Zvi Bernstein (1922 – 2006), the editor andthe main contributor to the book “The Date Palm”, published in 2004. For me, Zvi was aclose colleague, a friend and a mentor. Like the date palm fruit, he was one of a kind, andwas beloved by all his friends and colleagues. In his own words: “in all of the traditionaldate palm-growing countries, the date fruit is the preferred fruit consumed over any otherkinds of fruits growing in those countries” (23).

In this work the various date palm pests are divided into two groups: (A) pests offrequent occurrence (major pests) and (B) pests of rare occurrence (accidental and/or minorpests).

A. PESTS OF FREQUENT OCCURRENCE (MAJOR PESTS)

The major date palm pests in Israel can be divided into several categories as related totheir host specificity and preferred plant part (Table 1).

The following sections summarize information on the distribution, host range, natural

412 D. Blumberg

TAB

LE

1.M

ajor

date

palm

pest

sin

Isra

elas

rela

ted

toth

eir

degr

eeof

spec

ifici

tyan

dth

eir

dist

ribu

tion

with

inth

epa

lmac

cord

ing

toth

eir

pref

erre

dor

gan

(+le

sspr

efer

red,

++

+m

ostp

refe

rred

)

Pest

spec

ies

inta

xono

mic

alor

der

(num

ber

ofth

ese

ctio

nin

the

revi

ew)

Deg

ree

ofsp

ecifi

city

∗

Part

sof

the

palm

atta

cked

Folia

geB

unch

stal

ksG

reen

frui

tR

ipen

ing

frui

tSh

oots

and/

orpa

lmba

ses

Stem

Roo

ts

1.D

ubas

date

bug

S+

++

2.Is

sid

date

bug

S+

++3.

Gre

ensc

ale

FS++

+++

++

+4.

Red

date

scal

eFS

+++

5.Pa

rlat

oria

date

scal

eO

+++

+++

++

6.Pi

neap

ple

mea

lybu

gP

+++

7.D

eser

tLoc

ust

P++

8.Sa

pbe

etle

sPP

+++

9.R

hino

cero

sbe

etle

sFS

+++

++++

10.R

edpa

lmw

eevi

lFS

+++

+++

11.D

ate

ston

ebe

etle

FS+

++

12.R

aisi

nm

oth

P+

++13

.Car

obm

oth

P+

++

14.G

reat

erda

tem

oth

FS++

+++

15.L

esse

rda

tem

oth

S+

++

16a.

Dat

em

iteO

+++

++16

b.O

ldw

orld

date

mite

O+

++

∗S

=H

igh

spec

ifici

tyto

the

date

palm

(Pho

enix

dact

ylife

ra).

FS=

Hig

hsp

ecifi

city

toth

efa

mily

Are

cace

ae.

O=

Olig

opha

gous

spec

ies,

atta

ckin

gA

reca

ceae

and

afe

wot

her

host

s.P

=Po

lyph

agou

ssp

ecie

s,at

tack

ing

aw

ide

rang

eof

plan

tspe

cies

.PP

=A

ttack

ing

allk

inds

offe

rmen

ting

mat

eria

l.


Fig. 1. Distribution of the main commercial date plantations in five growing areas in Israel (inparenthesis, the percentage of the total area): 1. Lake Kinneret area (29%); 2. Bet She’an Valley(31%); 3. Jordan Valley (5%); 4. Dead Sea area (14%); 5. Arava Valley (21%) (after B. Glazner,unpublished report).

history, damage, natural enemies, management and control of the major pests.

A.1 Dubas date tropiduchid (dubas date bug, Old World date bug), Ommatissuslybicus De Bergevin (Hemiptera: Tropiduchidae)

The Dubas date bug (DDB) was formerly referred to in the literature as the ’lybicus’variety of O. binotatus. It was raised to species status by Asche and Wilson in 1989 (5).

A.1.1 Distribution and host rangeDDB is considered a major pest of date palms in several countries in the Near East,

414 D. Blumberg

North Africa and southeast Russia (72,73,100). The species is apparently restricted to datepalms (72). It actually originated in the Tigris-Euphrates River Valley, from which it hasspread to other areas in recent decades. In the late 1970s it was considered a serious pestin the Basrah area of Iraq and in some oases of Egypt and Libya. The spread of the insectto other locations has apparently been via transportation of offshoots that contained eggs(see 73). Damage by DDB in Israel was first reported in the early 1980s in the southernArava Valley, where the ’Medjhool’ and ’Deglat Noor’ cultivars were attacked (100). Inthe late 1990s severe infestation and damage were recorded in the ’Medjhool’ cultivar inthe northern Dead Sea plantations.

A.1.2 Natural historyThe adults are brownish-yellow in color, with clear wings with no distinct features. The

females are 3.6–4.0 mm long, 1.2–1.6 mm wide; males are 2.5–3.0 mm long, 1.2–1.5 mmwide. The eggs are bright green when laid, later turning yellow. The developmental stagesinclude five nymphal instars. The posterior segments of nymphs carry long thin waxythreads. The background color of young nymphs is whitish gray, changing to yellowishbrown with distinct brown lines in later instars (100).

The females lay eggs singly, in straight compact rows on the lower leaflet surface.Most eggs are laid along the mid-veins of medium-aged leaflets, but in heavy attacks theyare found on all veins and fronds. The DDB has two generations per year. The summergeneration of young nymphs appears in mid- to late April. These nymphs mature after2 months, and eggs of the second generation appear late in September. The number ofeggs/female ranges from 100 to 130 (56). The eggs hatch within 18–21 days in summer andafter over 170 days in winter. The latter eggs overwinter on the leaf pinnae, and they hatchin the spring (April) of the following year. Low temperatures (below 0◦C) adversely affectthe survival ability of the adults. Nymphs and adults find refuge within folded leaflets, orin the whorls of the palm. The ’Medjhool’ palms, which have closed whorls, offer morehiding places and thus support heavier DDB infestations than the ’Deglat Noor’ variety.The DDB usually avoids direct sunlight (100). Spread of the population is enhanced bytransfer of infested offshoots as well as by wind.

A.1.3 DamageThe DDB excretes large amounts of sticky honeydew, which may almost completely

cover the palms, and may drip to the ground. Development of sooty mold was not observedin the Arava Valley, probably because of the low relative humidity prevailing in that region(100). Heavy populations of the pest may cause yellowing of the infested palms and retardtheir development (46).

A.1.4 Natural enemiesLittle is known about the natural enemies of the DDB’s, but Hussain (73) listed several,

including an unidentified chalcidoid parasitoid, a predacious neuropteran and coccinellidbeetles. These obviously do not provide adequate natural control everywhere the bugoccurs; it is questionable whether coccinellids, in particular, are adapted to prey on thisauchenorrhynchous insect or on its well-protected eggs. In the Arava Valley where theDDB appeared relatively recently, no natural enemies were detected (100).

A.1.5 Management and controlControl of the DDB is recommended only when dense populations occur, and various

chemical treatments have been applied to control it, including aerial applications (54).In Israel in the mid-1980s, preliminary experiments were conducted to test systemic


carbamates, such as aldicarb and butocarboxim. Soil application of these compounds gavesatisfactory control of DDB, and therefore growers began using them commercially (M.Klein, pers. comm.). Control treatments are applied at the beginning of a generation (earlyApril or early August). In Iraq satisfactory control results were obtained in 1965, with apreparation of dichlorvos (DDVP) (54); injection of thiamethoxam at 1 g a.i. per palm wasalso very efficient in suppressing the pest population (2).

A.2 Issid date bug, Asarcopus palmarumHorvath (Hemiptera: Issidae)

A.2.1 Distribution and host rangeThe issid date bug (IDB) is native to North Africa and the Middle East, including Egypt

(60) and Israel (109). It is probably specific to date palms (145). In the United States theIDB was first noticed in date plantings in 1922; it attacked young palms of the severalspecies of Phoenix grown there (135). Large populations of IDB were found in Israel in1990 and 1991, hiding and feeding at the base of whorls and fruit stalks in a date plantationnear Lake Kinneret, but it attacks date palms all over Israel (109).

A.2.2 Natural historyIDB is a reddish-brown insect that feeds on inflorescence stalks, tender growth of

the newest frond, and the lighter-colored tissue at the base of petioles. Occasionally,populations become dense and produce excessive honeydew, which attracts ants. The antcolonies build nests in the palms or within the soil near their food source. IDB is activethroughout the year, although less so during the winter. Populations on date palms consistprimarily of nymphal stages (46).

A.2.3 DamageThe injury consists of superficial, irregular brown areas of damaged tissues (72). At

times, IDB become numerous enough on small, weak palms to cause the terminal leavesto drop (46). Young palms planted in the vicinity of older ones suffer from severe stuntingor die because of the feeding of planthoppers. Damage caused to young palms is quitenoticeable, whereas injury to large, healthy palms is not. It is possible that yields areaffected by heavy infestation of fruit stalks. Damage is expressed in dryness of palm pinnaeand in suppression of development of offshoots (109). Usually, IDB is not considered aserious pest of date palms in Israel.

A.2.4 Natural enemiesNot known.A.2.5 Management and controlIn spite of the damage caused by IDB, control of this pest in the USA is usually not

necessary (46).

A.3 Green scale (date pit scale), Palmaspis (=Asterolecanium) phoenicis(Ramachandra Rao) (Hemiptera: Asterolecaniidae)

A.3.1 Distribution and host rangeUp to the present, the green scale (GS) has been known as a pest only of the date

palm (Phoenix dactylifera) (19). It is found in the Middle East, including Iran, Iraq, SaudiArabia, Qatar and Sudan (46,72). In Israel it occurs in all the date-growing areas (97,136).

A.3.2 Natural historyThe female bears concave armor, 1.2–1.5 mm long and 0.6–0.8 mm wide; its rear part is

narrow, and pale yellow to bright green in color, whereas the front part is wide, and reddish

416 D. Blumberg

brown to dark, glossy purple. The crawler is elongated, elliptical and flattened; its bodylength is 0.4–0.6 mm, and its color is bright yellow to greenish (83,85).

In the Bet She’an Valley the GS produces three generations per year. The autumn–winter generation begins in November with the mass appearance of the crawlers, and lasts7–8 months, until early summer (May–June). During the winter, the scale populationcomprises mainly 2nd stage nymphs that develop slowly. In the spring, as temperatures rise,the nymphs turn into adult males or females. The second generation appears in June andterminates in September, and the third generation lasts from September to early November(83,85).

A.3.3 DamageThe GS infests the pinnae, the rachis, the basal parts of the leaves, and even the fruits,

and may seriously damage the date palms. The infested plant parts (mainly the pinnae)turn yellow, and subsequently the entire leaf may degenerate. Heavy infestation by thescale may kill the palm (97).

A.3.4 Natural enemiesNo natural enemies of GS have been reported in the literature (19). In Israel, however,

high percentages of parasitized scales, with or without emergence holes, have often beenobserved in the field. Nevertheless, there has been no investigation of the natural enemiesof this scale insect in Israel (97).

A.3.5 ManagementApplications of organophosphate insecticides combined with mineral oils were very

effective in minimizing GS infestation and damage (96). As regards biological control,emergence holes observed in many GS individuals suggest that parasitoids probablyexercised efficient control of P. phoenicis. This may explain why no further outbreaksof GS since the early 1970s have been recorded in plantations that were not treated withinsecticides.

A.4 Red date scale, Phoenicococcus marlatti Cockerell (Hemiptera:Phoenicococcidae)

A.4.1 Distribution and host rangeThe red date scale (RDS) frequently infests date palms in its native North Africa and the

Middle East, and from there it has spread to Sicily and Spain. In the Western Hemisphere, itwas introduced into Argentina on date offshoots and into the southwestern USA on infesteddate saplings (8,46,72,102). The RDS is highly specific to the Arecaceae (Palmae), and itis occasionally found on Phoenix spp. in Florida (USA). There is also a curious record ofits occurrence on Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae) (21). In Israel, injury was recorded mainly in theJordan and Bet She’an Valleys, but RDS is not usually considered a serious pest of datepalms in Israel.

A.4.2 Natural historyThe small, spherical body, ∼1.5 mm in length, is red or reddish brown in color and

is embedded or nested in white wax. The wax is often rubbed, exposing the red color ofthe body. The scales occur on the white tissues at the base of fronds, and occasionally onexposed roots and fronds. The adult female is encircled by a band of whitish waxen flakes,and its antennae consist of only one segment. The 2nd stage larva resembles the femalein shape, but differs from the adult in the position of the anal orifice, which is situated atthe extreme posterior end of the larval body, whereas in the adult it is further forward. The


male is very small and wingless, with clavate antennae (8).The RDS normally avoids the light and is found massed on the white tissue at the bases

of leaves and fruit stalks, where it is protected by fibers and leaf bases. Sometimes thescale also descends to the roots of the palm. According to Stickney et al. (135), the scaleis partly viviparous, and in the USA was found to produce four generations each year.

A.4.3 DamageWith the extensive plantings of date palms in Israel, mainly in the northern valleys, and

with the introduction of high-quality cultivars, the danger posed by this insect has risen,since it is likely to retard development of young palms. Dense scale populations may impairthe survival prospects of newly planted young date shoots, and also may cause dryness andmortality of the infested palms. In cases of very heavy infestation the underlying tissuescan be damaged to a depth of a few millimeters (8,46).

A.4.4 Natural enemiesAmong a few general predators reported from North Africa is Pharoscymnus anchor-

ago F. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), which is an active predator of RDS (135). Anothercoccinellid predator of RDS, found in Spain, is Rhyzobius lophanthae (Blaisdell) (67). Nonatural enemies have ever been recorded in Israel.

A.4.5 Management and controlGenerally, chemical control of RDS is difficult and ineffective, because of the hidden

sites in which the scales are located. Effective control measures include: (i) exposinginfested offshoots that have been detached for transplanting to a temperature of 50◦C for65 h in an insulated room (46), or (ii) spraying to runoff into the bases of the offshoots withchlorpyriphos compounds (139).

A.5 Parlatoria date scale, Parlatoria blanchardi Targioni-Tozzetti (Hemiptera:Coccoidea; Diaspididae)

A.5.1 Distribution and host rangeThe parlatoria date scale (PDS) is widely distributed throughout most of the date-

growing regions of the world (46,72,102,130). It is generally believed to be native to theArabian Gulf countries (as is the date palm). Commerce in date offshoots over the centuriesspread it into India, Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Turkey, and later itwas carried on offshoots to Australia and America (130). Date palms are the preferred hostof PDS, but the latter also has been recorded on additional hosts belonging to four plantfamilies: Arecaceae (Palmae), Apocynaceae, Oleaceae and Rhamnaceae (19). In Israel, itis widespread in all the date-growing areas (8).

A.5.2 Natural historyThe female is covered with elliptical, convex armor, white-gray in color. Its body length

is 1–1.5 mm and its width is 0.6–0.8 mm; its body (underneath the armor) is elongate,reddish, ∼0.8 mm in length. The female is neotenic and lays its eggs beneath the armor.The crawler is reddish, 0.23 mm in length. The male bears flattened and elongate armor,white in color, and its body is ∼0.8 mm in length.

In a 2-year survey at two locations in Israel, the population of PDS was found toincrease substantially in spring and autumn. Reproduction in summer depended on climate,and was limited when heat and dryness were extreme. In winter, both development andreproduction were retarded. Three epidemiological generations per year were found, andonly a small part of the population succeeded in establishing a fourth generation. A strong

418 D. Blumberg

overlapping of generations was observed (78).A.5.3 DamageThe PDS infests all parts of the date palm. At high population densities, infestation

covers the fruit bunches and the fruit stalks. Dense populations may impair developmentof the palm and cause the fruits to shrink, rendering them unmarketable. In extreme casesit may cause deterioration of the palm.

A.5.4 Natural enemiesFour main groups of natural enemies were found during a comprehensive survey of

natural enemies conducted in unsprayed date plantations in Israel from the late 1950s tothe early 1970s.

(i) Parasitic Hymenoptera: Two species of parasitic wasps were found in Israeli PDSpopulations: Aphytis n.sp. (Aphelinidae) (formerly recorded as Aphytis aff. citrinus Comp.(78); and Archenomus arabicus Ferriere (Encyrtidae) (formerly recorded as Pteroptrix sp.(78) and later described from Saudi Arabia (58). The first is widely distributed in grovesin the North and in the southern Arava Valley, and is likely to be highly effective (78,95).The second species is rare and was found only in the southern Arava Valley (58). Noyes(114) reported seven aphelinid species (Chalcidoidea) that attack PDS. Aphytis phoenicis(DeBach & Rosen) (Aphelinidae) is one of a few species of parasitic Hymenoptera that isconsidered an important natural enemy of PDS in North Africa (72). Watson (143) claimedthat it is also found in Israel, but its presence here is questionable.

(ii) Predatory Coccinellidae (Coleoptera): A rich fauna of predatory lady beetleswas found associated with PDS. Among 25 coccinellid species recorded, seven werefound frequently and, therefore, are regarded as important predators of the scale. Theywere: Pharoscymnus aff. numidicus Pic, Ph. setulosus Chevrolat, Ph. ovoideus Sicard,Ph. pharoides Marseu, Chilocorus bipustulatus (L.), Rhyzobius lophanthae Blaisdelland Scymnus bipunctatus Kugelann. The criteria for determining their usefulness were:searching ability, feeding behavior, distribution, population density, survival under extremeenvironmental conditions, and regularity of appearance on date palms (78-81). By thesecriteria, Pharoscymnus spp. were considered to be of great importance: except for Ph.setulosus they were widely distributed throughout the country; Ph. aff. numidicus was themost prevalent of them; it maintained very dense populations, and its seasonal predatoryactivity lasted longer than those of the other species. In the northern plantations (the BetShe’an and Jordan Valleys) C. bipustulatus seemed to be an important lethal predator inwell-shaded, old plantations.

(iii) Predatory Cybocephalidae (Coleoptera): Five species of these predatory beetleswere found to be associated with PDS: Cybocephalus nigriceps nigriceps (J. Sahlberg), C.micans Reitter, C. mediterraneus Endrody-Younga, C. aegyptiacus Endrody-Youngaand C.pullus Endrody-Younga. Their distribution, phenology, biology, and survival under extremeclimatic conditions were studied (25-27,29,41-43). The most prevalent species was C.nigriceps. In plantations where dense populations of P. blanchardi existed, Cybocephalusspp. also appeared in very large numbers, especially in the Arava Valley but also, to alesser extent, in the northern plantations. Adults of C. nigriceps nigriceps were presentin date plantations all year round; their populations peaked during summer, whereas eggsand larvae were abundant only during spring and summer. In autumn and winter the adultsentered a diapause (aggregating in the bases of pinnae), development of their ovaries wasarrested, oviposition stopped and predatory activity decreased. The predominance of C.


nigriceps in local habitats is attributed to the fact that all stages of this predator displayedhigh survival capacity under extreme conditions of high temperatures and relative humidity(25). Cybocephalus spp. survived well at a very low prey population density, as well as ininsecticide-treated plantations, where coccinellids were destroyed (97). On the other hand,its disadvantage as a predator was reflected in its low predatory activity - as comparedwith the Coccinellidae, its inability to feed on adult scales, and its low activity duringthe winter, when PDS nymphs are most abundant (41). Comparative biological studies ofseveral cybocephalid species explained their different distribution according to the climaticconditions and prey species prevalent in their specific habitats (41,43).

(iv) Green lacewings (Chrysoperla spp.): These lacewings were found mainly duringspring and autumn; their significance in the control of PDS was not investigated.

The predacious mite Hemisarcoptes coccophagus Meyer (Hemisarcoptidae) was alsofound to attack PDS (61).

A.5.5 Management and control: Integrated pest management (IPM)Following the severe outbreaks of the PDS in date plantations in Israel in the late 1950s

and during the 1960s, chemical control was used to provide an immediate solution to thescale problem. Concomitantly, a program for IPM was initiated, first against the PDS andthe green scale, and later against the other major pests, especially those of the ripening datefruits (30,97).

During the 1960s and 1970s date growers used chemical control against all majordate palm pests. However, the behavior and biology of PDS, i.e., extended ovipositionperiod, overlapping generations, and constant infestation of axils and leaves beneathdry fibers, reduced the effectiveness of chemical control (78). Insecticides used in the1960s were based on organophosphate compounds among which dimethoate, alone or incombination with a 2% mineral oil emulsion, was the most effective; combinations of otherorganophosphates with oil also gave satisfactory control (95).

The IPM program developed in date plantations against the PDS was based on thefollowing principles.

(i) Survey of local natural enemies of PDS in insecticide-untreated plantations: see theabove section on ’Natural enemies’ of PDS).

(ii) Re-establishment of local natural enemies: The re-establishment of parasitic waspsand cybocephalid beetles involved mainly transferring these natural enemies from un-sprayed plantations, where they were abundant, to plantations from which they had beeneliminated. However, the re-establishment of coccinellids relied mainly on supply fromlaboratory mass-rearing cultures. During 1960–1965, approximately 50,000 adults of Ph.numidicus and 5,000 of Ch. bipustulatus were reared in the laboratory and distributed indate plantations in the southern Arava Valley. Ph. numidicus successfully re-establishedin all plantations where it was distributed, whereas repeated efforts to establish Ch.bipustulatus failed. The latter species was limited to its natural distribution in the northernplantations (97).

(iii) Establishment of a less toxic environment in date plantations: This was a prereq-uisite for enhancing the activity and survival of natural enemies of the PDS, and therebyensuring the successful biological control of PDS and green scale. Establishment of aless toxic environment in date plantations was achieved in several ways: (a) restrictingchemical applications to heavily infested foci, or parts of a plantation, to ensure thecontinued existence of natural enemies; (b) using insecticides with a low toxicity to the

420 D. Blumberg

natural enemies (95); (c) ensuring considerable reduction of PDS populations prior to thebeginning of the IPM program, to avoid the need for disruptive treatments afterwards: thiswas achieved either mechanically – by removing old, heavily infested, unproductive palmleaves – or chemically; (d) improving the micro-environmental conditions for survival ofnatural enemies, and thereby reducing the need for chemical treatments. Thus, the frequentdust storms in the Arava Valley, and the extreme environmental conditions that prevailthere (82), impaired the efficacy of natural enemies. Procedures such as the introductionof drip irrigation, covering the soil with weeds, and reducing the number of cultivationslessened the amount of dust, and probably resulted in other micro-environmental changesin temperature and relative humidity, and increased the availability of alternative foods –all of which led to increased survival and efficacy of the natural enemies. The effect ofenhanced micro-environmental conditions was reflected also in the relationship betweenplantation age and the density of PDS: provided there were no chemical applications, thePDS population density was inversely related to the age of the plantation.

(iv) Maintaining satisfactory phytosanitary conditions in the plantations: Maintenanceof satisfactory phytosanitary conditions in date plantations by, e.g. cutting and removingold, PDS- and green-scale-infested palms, greatly reduced re-infestation of trees.

The implementation of the IPM program against scale insects resulted in the successfulcontrol of the PDS and the GS. Thus, scale density was reduced from 96.6 in l962 to0.02 scales/cm2 in 1972 (97). As a result, PDS changed from the status of a key pestto a very rare and unimportant pest of dates in Israel: from the early 1970s to the present(2008), there has been almost no need for any control measures against scale insects in dateplantations in Israel. Nonetheless, in recent years (early 2000s), occasional outbreaks ofPDS and GS have been reported in a few date plantations in Israel (S. Bitton, pers. comm.).

A.6 Pineapple mealybug, Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell) (Hemiptera:Pseudococcidae)

A.6.1 DistributionThe pineapple mealybug (PAM) is cosmopolitan, generally occurring in tropical and

subtropical areas of the Australasian, Afrotropical, Nearctic, Oriental, Palaearctic andNeotropical regions (17-20). In the Middle East the PAM was previously known fromEgypt and Israel (17). It has been known in Hawaii, especially as a serious pest ofpineapples and to a lesser extent of sugarcane and bananas. However, PAM attacks a widerange of other host plants (including various Arecaceae), and its major wild habitats inHawaii comprise roots of grasses and foliage of numerous native weeds. PAM is alwaysattended by ants, which are largely responsible for its spread (14).

A.6.2 Natural historyIn Hawaii, PAM reproduces parthenogenetically, about 25 days after the third molt,

and males do not exist there. The life span of the mealybug ranges from 78 to 111 days,averaging 95 days. D. brevipes is ovoviviparous and the crawlers constitute its primarydispersal stage. There are three instars of larvae, which extend over a total of about 34days. A female can produce up to 1000 crawlers during an average of 25 days. The adultfemale lifespan ranges from 31 to 80 days, averaging ∼56 days.

A.6.3 DamageIn the arid Arava Valley of Israel, populations of this mealybug occur throughout the

year on the adventitious roots at the trunk base of date palms, apparently without damaging


the palms (17). Nevertheless, in late summer (August–September) mealybugs occasionallywander upwards to the ripening bunches, where they infest the dates and sometimes causetotal loss of bunches. This occurred in several date plantations in the southern Arava Valleyduring 1980–1982 (17). Small colonies were observed on date palm trees in the early 2000sin various date-growing areas (Y. Ben-Dov, pers. comm.).

A.6.4 Natural enemiesMany natural enemies have been recognized in Hawaii, but none is known in Is-

rael. According to Noyes (114), 30 parasitoid species, comprising 28 encyrtids andtwo signiphorids, attack D. brevipes. Predators include the coccinellids: Cryptolaemusmontrouzieri Mulsant, Lobodiplosis pseudococci Felt, Nephus bilucernarius Mulsant,Scymnus (Pullus) unicatus Sicard and S. pictus Gorham; and a cecidomyiid, Lobodiplosispseudococci. These natural enemies exhibit minimal control if protective ants are tendingthe mealybug colony (105).

A.6.5 Management and controlIn Israel, no control measures have been taken against the PAM in date plantations. In

Hawaii considerable reduction in the abundance of the pest has been achieved through thecombined activity of several natural enemies: the cecidomyiid Dicrodiplosis pseudococciFelt, and the encyrtids Anagyrus coccidivorus Dozier and Hambletonia pseudococcinaCompere.

A.7 Desert Locust, Schistocerca gregaria (Forskal) (Orthoptera: Acrididae)

The desert locust occurs in date-growing areas throughout the Old World (45). Heavymigrations into palm plantings are sporadic, but may be devastating. The locust swarms aremeasured in terms of square kilometers. The insects eat leaves and fruit, and may destroyan entire crop (46). During the winter of 1958–59, an invasion of this locust occurred inIsrael and lasted 14 days (48), during which palms were completely defoliated and didnot renew growth until the following April. Heavy defoliation of palms is undoubtedlyreflected in reduced crops for several years, because renewal of an acceptable crown ofleaves takes at least 3 years under optimal growing conditions.

Chemical control is effective if applied properly and timed to kill the locusts beforethey attack the palms. The coordinated use of baits and dusts in breeding and swarmingareas and the use of serial spraying on both ground and flying swarms of locusts havebeen successful. Since 1959 aerial spraying has come into widespread use. The numerousfactors that affect the success of the various control methods were reviewed in detail byCarpenter and Elmer (46).

A.8 Sap beetles (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae)

The sap beetles found in Israel belong to four sub-families that include a total of 44species (47). Four species are regarded as date plantation pests of economic importancein Israel: they belong to two sub-families, the Carpophilinae and the Epuraeinae. TheCarpophilinae comprise ten species, of which three are of economic importance: the driedfruit beetle, Carpophilus hemipterus (Linnaeus); the confused sap beetle, C. mutilatus(Erichson); and the pineapple beetle, Urophorus (=Carpophilus) humeralis (Fabricus). TheEpuraeinae comprise five species, of which the yellow nitidulid, Epuraea (=Haptoncus)luteola (Erichson), is the most prevalent.

422 D. Blumberg

A.8.1 Distribution and host rangeSap beetles are regarded as pests of many agricultural crops, including dates, through-

out the world (46,144). In Israel they are found primarily in date plantations (30,39,90).A.8.2 Natural historyThe adults are chestnut brown, brown-black or black, with short truncate elytra that

only partially cover the abdomen; the legs are yellow-red. The antennae are 11-segmented.The body is 2–4 mm in length. They can be distinguished easily from other species by thepresence of two bright, pale spots on the elytra. The larvae are whitish or yellowish, withbrown heads, and grow to a final length of 5–7 mm. The larvae usually pupate in the soil,and the pupae are white or yellow, 3–4 mm in length. The eggs are white, elliptic in shapeand 0.7 mm in length.

Sap beetles are attracted to all kinds of rotten plant material; they develop on a variety ofsubstrates, such as decaying fruits and vegetables, pollen and flowers (11,70,103,129,144).The abundance of the four main species in Israeli date plantations varied in different years,as well as the relative abundance of each of them (39,93).

Some Nitidulidae are known to vector a variety of disease-causing microorganisms(3,50,141). Nitidulid beetles are also considered to be important pollinators of Annonaceae(59,121).

Sap beetles develop and survive very well under the extreme climate conditions (espe-cially high temperatures) that prevail during the summer in date-growing areas. At 27◦Cdevelopment from egg to adult takes 16–21 days, whereas at 32◦C only 12–15 days arerequired. It follows that if ripe dates remain on the palm or in the warehouse for a longtime they are likely to become heavily infested with sap beetles, since several generationscould develop during prolonged storage. The beetles fly readily and may cover distances ofup to 4 km. Nitidulid adults can live for 6–12 months, during which time each female maylay 500–1000, and sometimes 2000 or more eggs (8). During most of the year the beetlepopulation survives on fallen date fruits and kernels that are decaying on the ground, andonly towards the beginning of the ripening season do the adult beetles start to attack thedate bunches (46,90,103).

A.8.3 DamageIn dates, sap beetles damage the ripening fruits on the palms, on the ground and in

storage. They do so by entering the fruits, usually at the calyx end, and feeding on thepulp. The hatching larvae develop rapidly inside the fruits, contaminating them withtheir excretions. Fruit infestation by sap beetles is usually accompanied by generationof secondary pathogens, which accelerate fermentation and rotting of the fruits, renderingthem unsuitable for marketing. In some fruit orchards sap beetles are usually regarded assecondary pests. However, in date and fig plantations they are also primary pests, attackingthe ripe fruits on the palms and trees. Most date cultivars are susceptible to attack by sapbeetles (8,46,103).

A.8.4 Natural enemies(i) Parasitoids: In Israel the only known local parasitoid that attacks sap beetles is

Zeteticontus utilis Noyes (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), which is a solitary internal parasitoidof larvae of Carpophilus spp. Its development, fecundity, survival and host preference werestudied by Blumberg et al. (31). In the laboratory, successful development occurred in C.hemipterus and in C. mutilatus, but not in C. humeralis or in E. luteola (31). In fieldpopulations of Carpophilus spp., Z. utilis was always quite rare, and therefore its contri-


bution to the reduction of sap beetles is probably not significant. To promote biologicalcontrol of sap beetles in Israel, trials were conducted during the early 1980s to acclimatizeadditional species of parasitoids. Two species of hymenopteran parasitoids were introducedfrom the USA: Microctonus nitidulidis Loan (Braconidae), which parasitizes the adultstage, and Brachyserphus abruptus Say (Proctotrupidae), which attacks the larvae. Theseparasitoids were released in date plantations in the northern valleys, but no evidence oftheir establishment was ever recorded (40).

(ii) Nematodes: Entomopathogenic nematodes received attention through their use asalternatives to chemicals for insect biological control (77). Preliminary laboratory studiessuggested that local species of sap beetles are susceptible to entomopathogenic nematodes(65), especially strains of Heterorhabditis sp. (64).

A.8.5 Management and controlControl of sap beetles in Israeli date plantations is based mainly on application of

insecticides. Agrotechnical and crop management measures, such as covering buncheswith plastic nets, phytosanitation procedures, and early harvesting of certain cultivars, helpto reduce populations and damage, as in the case of fruit moths (see section A.12, on controlof the raisin moth).

(i) Chemical control: A single application of an appropriate insecticide in midsummerand a second one 3–4 weeks before harvest were used as routine measures for controlof sap beetles, similarly to the measures against all moth species that attack the ripeningfruits. Since the 1960s, date growers have used various organophosphates for controllingfruit pests, and malathion provided the most satisfactory control of nitidulids (35,40,87).During the early 1980s, malathion was replaced with azinphosmethyl (a wettable pow-der) that was more effective against sap beetles. In addition, selective and supposedlymore environmentally friendly insecticides of various groups were tested. The syntheticpyrethroids cypermethrin and cyhalothrin, and the Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) di-flubenzuron, hexaflumuron and teflubenzuron were found effective, and these three IGRswere recommended for commercial use (24,89,93,139,140). The IGRs, although they donot affect the adult stage of the beetles, cause sterilization of their eggs and high mortalityof the beetle larvae (6,32). Additional trials, carried out during 2003–2006, indicated thatthe pyrethroids lambda-cyhalothrin and bifenthrin, the neonicotinoid imidacloprid, and thechloronicotinoid thiacloprid were highly effective in controlling sap beetles (S. Bitton, pers.comm.). The control of sap beetles in organic plantations is problematic and at present itshould be based on the agrotechnical measures described below.

(ii) Covering the fruit bunches with plastic netting: This agrotechnical measure wasfirst developed for the control of fruit moths (see details in section A.12, related to theraisin moth). In the mid-1970s, in some date plantations in the Jordan Valley, ’regular’plastic netting (2-mm mesh size) was replaced with ’dense’ plastic netting (0.8 × 0.5mm mesh size) to cover fruit bunches as protection against sap beetles, and it was foundvery efficient (88). However, following several years of successful use of these ’dense’nettings, a significant increase in fruit infestation by the greater date moth, Arenipsessabella Hampson, occurred in many plantations, for reasons that were not clear. As aresult, the use of the ’dense’ nettings was no longer recommended (35). In 2006, in the BetShe’an Valley, additional experiments with the same dense plastic netting demonstratedonce again the high efficacy of these covers in preventing infestation and damage by sapbeetles, so far without any damage by the greater date moth (24).

424 D. Blumberg

(iii-iv) Phytosanitation and early fruit harvest: As with the raisin moth (see detailsin section A.12), both phytosanitation of the plantation and early harvesting of certaindate cultivars, are very helpful in reducing sap beetle populations and infestation in dateplantations (40).

(v) Activation of pheromone traps: Male-produced aggregation pheromones, to whichboth males and females respond, were identified for several Carpophilus species (11-13),including those that are widely distributed in Israel. These pheromones are not entirelyspecies-specific; pheromones emitted by one species also attracted other Carpophilus spp.,but not E. luteola (36,148). The first series of studies with aggregation pheromonesof sap beetles in Israel were conducted during the early 1990s, in both the laboratory(with the aid of an olfactometer) and date plantations. The aggregation pheromonesacted synergistically in attracting C. hemipterus, C. mutilatus and C. humeralis to hostvolatiles. The pheromones were obtained from Great Lakes IPM, Inc. (Vestaburg, MI,USA). Captures in traps baited with combinations of the pheromone and host volatileswere much higher than in traps baited with either attractant alone. In further experiments,during 2002–2003, it was found that sap beetle capture was largely dependent on the typeof trap used. For example, captures were significantly higher in IPS white-yellow, MagnetFunnel traps (distributed by AgriSense BCS Ltd., Mid Glamorgan, UK) in California, thanin MacPhail traps (Shabtieli, Tel-Aviv, Israel), originally designed for mass-trapping offlies.

Use of pheromone traps revealed that the relative abundance of the four species of sapbeetle in date plantations varied among regions but not among date cultivars: C. hemipteruswas always trapped in the smallest numbers, and any of the three other nitidulids might bedominant in different sites. The relative prevalence of the studied sap beetles in ripeningdate fruits on the ground and in fruits collected from the bunches, in two date plots in theBet She’an Valley, did not match the trap-capture figures: in the fruits the most abundantspecies were C. hemipterus and E. luteola, whereas beetle capture rates were significantlyaffected by the suspension height of the traps on the date palms. Near ground level (0.2m) E. luteola was most abundant, whereas at the level of the fruit bunches (16 m), C.hemipterus was the dominant species. Thus, capture rates in traps suspended near theground may not necessarily indicate which species are responsible for most of the injuriesto the fruits on the palm. The abundance patterns of the studied nitidulids in other orchardcrops, such as figs, pomegranates, nectarines, citrus, apples and vines, were somewhatdifferent from those in date plantations (39).

A.9 Rhinoceros beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabeidae: Dynastinae)

A.9.1 Distribution and host rangeMany species of rhinoceros beetles are borers of palms in different regions of the world;

the most economically important species are members of the genus Oryctes (15,46,63).Oryctes spp. specialize on different parts of the palm. A subspecies, Oryctes agamemnonsinaicus Walker (V. Chikatunov, pers. comm.), is abundant in Israel, where it was firstrecorded in the late 1980s, and rapidly became an important pest in date plantations in theArava Valley and the southern Jordan Valley (52). O. agamemnon also occurs in the SinaiPeninsula (Egypt), Saudi Arabia, the Persian Gulf coast of Iran (15) and Tunisia (98).

A.9.2 Natural historyMost of the rhinoceros beetles are large (30–60 mm), and black or dark brown in color,


with a velvety reddish-brown pubescence on the ventral surface. Both males and femalesof many species of the Dynastinae possess a dorsal horn on the head and a forward facingpronotal concavity; both features are larger in the male than in the female of the same size(63). O. agamemnon sinaicus produces one generation per year. Adult activity begins inearly May, peaks during June–July, and ends in September. The female lays approximately100 eggs that hatch in approximately 2–3 weeks; they are white when laid, but within a fewdays their color changes to glossy brown and they reach their final size of 4 x 3 mm. Thegrub-shaped larva has a soft, transparent cuticle, through which the internal white-brownorgans can be seen. The three grub instars differ clearly in the size of the head capsule,which grows from 2.5–3.0 mm in the first instar to ∼9 mm in the third. At the end of its 2-month development the larva measures 50–70 mm in length and ∼10 mm in width. Grubsare found from late June, and most reach the third and final instar by early September. Thebeetle overwinters as a fully grown grub and pupates in spring for 3–4 weeks. The pupaeare caramel-brown in color and occupy cells in the soil (52).

A.9.3 DamageThe major injury to the palm is caused by the grubs, which feed on the roots, and bore

into the underground bases and even the trunks. Severe damage is inflicted particularly tooffshoots and young palms, in which the mortality rates may be very high. Mature andold palms, also, may be infested with grubs, which results in yellowing of the palms andreduction in yield. This rhinoceros species is an opportunistic feeder and easily survives byfeeding on roots of grasses also (52). An attack by rhinoceros beetles may facilitate lethalsecondary attacks by palm weevils (Rhynchophorus spp.) and by pathogens (15).

A.9.4 Natural enemiesSo far, none has been recorded in Israel. Several arthropod parasitoids, such as

scoliid wasps (Hymenoptera: Scoliidae), and predators such as carabid beetles (Coleoptera:Carabidae), attack rhinoceros beetles, but they seem to have little effect on Oryctes numbers(15).

A.9.5 Management and control(i) Chemical control: Application of the organophosphate diazinon around the palm

trunk at the beginning of August effectively controlled young borer larvae in date planta-tions in the Arava Valley of Israel (52).

(ii) Cultural and biological methods: Traditional methods of controlling rhinocerosbeetles include removal of beetles from feeding holes in young palms and mass capture ofadults in light traps (15,146). In the Philippines the effects of baculoviruses in suppressingpopulations of O. rhinoceros larvae have been studied since the mid-1980s. Introduction ofthe baculovirus into disease-free islands lowered the pest population density to 10–20% ofthe pre-release levels, and over 40% of the adult beetles became infected (147). Palm snagscan play important roles, both in spreading the pathogen and in regulating O. rhinocerospopulations.

A.10 Red palm weevil (red strip weevil, coconut weevil, Asiatic palm weevil),Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

A.10.1 Distribution and host rangeThe red palm weevil (RPW) originated in South–East Asia, where it attacks a wide

range of tropical palms, including date, oil and coconut palms, and ornamentals; it is nowwidely distributed in Oceania, Asia, Africa, Europe (Spain) and the Middle East (63). The

426 D. Blumberg

weevil first appeared in the Middle East during the 1980s, since when it has caused severedamage to date production, destroying thousands of trees (108). It was first detected inIsrael in 1999 (84); among all insect pests affecting date palms, it poses the most seriousthreat to date palms in the Middle East (38,132).

In Egypt during 1992–2000, over 216,000 infested palms were recorded, of whichapproximately 60,000 were removed (55).

A.10.2 Natural historyThe adult is reddish-brown with a long proboscis that comprises one-third of the entire

body length; it measures approximately 35 × 12 mm. The male weevil has a tuft of softreddish-brown hairs. The egg is creamy white in color, long and oval in shape, and hasan average size of 2.6 × 1.1 mm. The fully grown larva is a conical, legless, fleshy grub,measuring 50 × 20 mm on average. It appears yellowish brown, whereas the newly hatchedlarva is yellowish white, with a brown head; its mouth parts are well developed and stronglychitinized, enabling the grub to burrow into the palm trunk. The pupa is brown-white, withan average size of 15 × 35 mm. After emergence, the adult weevil stays inside the cocoonfor ∼ 8 days, until attaining sexual maturity. The pre-oviposition period lasts 1–7 days,after which the female lays 300–500 eggs over a period of 8–10 weeks, in separate holes inthe bases of young palm leaves, mainly in the soft damp tissues of wounds caused by cuttingand by other pests such as rhinoceros beetles (Oryctes spp.). The RPW preferentially digsits burrows in the palm transport tissues and in the apical growing point. The eggs hatch in2–5 days into legless grubs which bore into the interior of the palms, moving by peristalticmuscular contractions of the body, and feed on the soft succulent tissues, discarding allfibrous material. The larval period varies from 1 to 3 months. The grubs pupate in elongate,oval, cylindrical cocoons made out of fibrous strands. The pre-pupal and pupal stages last3 and 12–20 days, respectively. At the end of 14–21 days of pupation the adult weevilsemerge. Thus, the life cycle is approximately 4 months (63,108).

The adults live for 2–3 months and feed on the palm; they are not able to survivefor more than 1 week without food. The threshold temperature for development rangesbetween 12◦ and 14◦C. The weevils may fly relatively long distances, ∼1 km per day,usually in the daytime, and are active for most of the year (115).

Mating in RPW is mediated by an aggregation pheromone produced by the male weevil.The pheromone is composed of a major component – ferrugineol (4-methyl-5-nonanol),and a minor component – 4-methyl-5-nonanone (122). The adults are strongly lured bythe combination of aggregation pheromone and volatiles secreted by palms. In Israel theweevil raises two generations each year (132).

A.10.3 DamageThe RPW is attracted to dying and damaged parts of palms, but also attacks undamaged

palms. Visible symptoms of infestation are difficult to detect, because the penetrationsites are usually covered with offshoots and fibers. Generally, infestation is detectedonly after the palm has been severely damaged. Careful observation may reveal severalindications of the presence of the pest: holes in the crown or trunk, from which chewed-up fibers are ejected, sometimes accompanied by oozing brown viscous liquid; crunchingnoises produced by the feeding grubs; and the presence of a withered bud/crown. Theimmature stages develop within the trunk, destroying its vascular system (63). Heavilyinfested palms may contain 80 or more simultaneously developing larvae, and more thanone generation may develop in the same palm (134). Infestation may adversely affect


the potential yield, lower the palm’s growth rate, and eventually cause its collapse anddeath. Since its discovery in Israel, almost no economic damage – in terms of numbers ofinfested palms – was reported, either in date plantations or in any ornamental plants of thefamily Arecaceae. This is due to the efficient management practices conducted in Israel(see A.10.5).

A.10.4 Natural enemiesReginald (127) reported a fortuitous occurrence of the predatory bug Platymeris lae-

vicollis Distant (Reduviidae) which was imported into Sri Lanka for use against Oryctesrhinoceros (L.) and was found to prefer R. ferrugineus. In India various species of miteshave been reported to be predators of the red palm weevil (124), but their harmful effects onthe weevil are not known. Various pathogens are known to affect the weevil larvae (22,68).Laboratory studies found that several strains of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhiziumanisopliae, were highly virulent to larvae of the RPW (133).

A.10.5 Management and controlEfficient control of RPW can be achieved by combining several means, such as: pro-

phylactic measures, chemical control, and routine monitoring with aggregation pheromonetraps.

(i) Prophylactic measures(a) Quarantine regulations: To prevent spread of the RPW to new plantations, strictquarantine regulations are recommended to prohibit the trade and transport of palms andoffshoots outside the infested areas (38,132).(b) Early detection of infestation: This is the most important stage in preventing distributionof the weevil, and the subsequent damage it can cause. Experimental data suggested thatearly detection can be achieved partially by: regular inspection and visual checking of thepalms by experts; the use of trained dogs (110); or using sound equipment that amplifiesthe burrowing noises of the weevil larvae in palm offshoots (125,134). Emergence holes ofadults in the trunk are a significant sign of infestation.(c) Phytosanitation: Maintaining satisfactory phytosanitary conditions in the plantation isimportant and can be done by removing damaged palm parts, and burning or removingthem.

(ii) Chemical controlEarly symptoms of RPW damage are difficult to detect; therefore, emphasis generally

is placed on prevention which, however, is not always possible. The common and mostpractical curative measure is the use of insecticides. Preventive and curative measuresinclude: injection of systemic insecticides such as monocrotophos into the trunk (126);treatment of wounds with repellents and filling leaf axils with insecticide dusts, suchas BHC or chlordane mixed with sand (104); and drenching of the crown of infestedpalms with insecticides (101). High mortality of RPW was obtained in the United ArabEmirates when the insecticides carbosulfan and pirimiphos-ethyl were injected into smalldate palms (P. dactylifera) that had been artificially infested with larvae (53). In India,trunk injections of fenthion or carbaryl, or use of Phostoxin tablets (aluminum phosphide,which releases phosphine) were effective (126). Applications of sevin (carbaryl) effectivelycontrolled RPW in Indonesia (131). Successful prophylactic and curative experimentswere conducted in Israel during the early 2000s. In the prophylactic treatments offshootsand trunk received applications of the organophosphates: azinphos methyl, diazinon andchlorpyriphos. The curative method involved trunk infusion with dichlorvos and/or soil

428 D. Blumberg

application of Confidor (imidacloprid). Laboratory experiments with potted young datepalms indicated that imidacloprid was effective in preventing development of RPW larvae(133).

In Egypt during the years 1992–2000, more than 270 tons of insecticides were appliedagainst the RPW. However, this intensive use of chemicals did not prevent the weevils fromovertaking the plantations in the northern areas of the country (55).

A method to control RPW larvae on young date palm seedlings by disinfection withmethyl bromide (bromomethane) has recently been developed in Israel (125).

(ii) Monitoring with aggregation-pheromone trapsSince 1999, traps baited with a combination of the synthetic aggregation pheromone of

RPW and fruit volatiles have been used regularly in most of the date plantations in Israel formonitoring and mass trapping (132). The traps are loaded with the commercial pheromoneFerrugineol (4S5S-ferrugineol), supplemented with ethyl acetate and a fermenting mixtureof dates and sugarcane molasses; they are posted at a high density of about ten traps perhectare (132). Approximately 700 weevils were caught in pheromone traps during 1999–2005; 72% of them were females. Significant decreases in the numbers of trapped beetlesand of infested palms in Israel were observed during 2001 and the following years. Noinfested palms have been found since 2002, indicating a decrease in the RPW population(133). The decrease in the number of weevils caught in traps baited with aggregationpheromone since the initiation of the use of such traps, and the small number of infectedpalms recorded are attributed to the mass capture of adults in the traps. This findingsuggested that pheromone traps might have played a significant role in the suppressionof RPW populations in date plantations (132). Coping with RPW is especially difficult inthe organic plantation, because of the lack of effective chemical compounds permitted foruse in these plantations (66).

A.11 Date stone beetle, Coccotrypes dactyliperda Fabricius (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)

A.11.1 Distribution and host rangeThe date stone beetle (DSB) is widespread in most of the date-growing areas of the

world: North America, North Africa, the Middle East and India (46,102). In Israel it isprevalent mainly in the Jordan and Bet She’an Valleys. It is also common in the Gazastrip. The absence of the DSB from date plantations in the Arava Valley, as well asfrom the northern areas of the Dead Sea, is probably due to the low humidity and lowprecipitation in those two regions, conditions that lead to desiccation of the date kernels,making them unsuitable for development of the beetle (10). Evidence of the presence ofDSB, as well as other stored product pests, in the Dead Sea area in the past, was provided bythe discovery of almost 2000-year-old date kernels from the Roman and Byzantine periodsin archaeological excavations at Masada (99). This discovery is indicative of the long-established presence of the pest in the area. The date stone beetle is probably specific to thefamily Arecaceae (Palmae). Species belonging to 18 genera of palms have been reportedas hosts for DSB (107).

A.11.2 Natural historyThe adult beetle is elongate, 1.5–2.5 mm in length, chestnut-brown in color. The female

is longer than the male (102). The reproduction mode is arrhenotoky, and females arepredominant (85–93%) in both field and laboratory populations. The threshold temperaturefor development is 12.3◦C. At 28◦C the average egg incubation period is approximately 6


days, larval duration 12–15 days, and pupal development period 4 days. Development fromegg to adult is slightly longer for females than for males: ∼25 and 22 days, respectively.The mean number of progeny per mated female (30.4) was significantly higher than thatrecorded for unmated females (6.6), but the latter lived significantly longer: approximately73 and 63 days, respectively (34). During spring, early summer and summer (April toAugust), the DSB can develop three or four generations. Date fruits that fall to the groundfrom mid-June onwards are the most suitable for development of the beetles, which developon fresh kernels of both mature and immature fruits, and of those that dried up duringthe summer and absorbed water during the rainy season. The beetle population level is,therefore, directly affected by the number of fresh kernels in the plantation (10).

A.11.3 DamageThe DSB is known as a primary pest of green, unripe date fruits. Considerable damage

has been reported from North Africa, India and Israel (34,94). Observations of attackson unripe fruits revealed that the beetles chewed a round hole, 2–3 mm deep, but rarelyreached the seed. In most observed cases fluids coming from the wound ejected or evenkilled the boring individuals and thereby stopped the attack (10,34). The injured fruitsusually drop from the bunches, but some of them remain and complete ripening. However,a scar is formed around the penetration site, rendering the infected fruits unmarketable.Yield losses as a result of the beetle attacks can reach 30–40% (88). Feeding on the unripefruit contributes to maturation of the beetles; it is not clear whether the individual beetlesbenefit from feeding on the green fruits in the bunches, but the dropped unripe fruits servefor reproduction during periods when kernels are scarce (10). The beetles feed on the greenfruits between May and July, and the fruit flesh is injured when the beetles fly to the fruitbunches to feed. In most cases the hole burrowed into the injured fruit does not reach theseed. A single female is able to injure several fruits and cause them to drop, before shepenetrates the seed to reproduce. In Israel heavy damage was recorded in the followingvarieties: ’Khadrawy’, ’Hayany’, ’Helawy’, ’Barhee’, ’Zahidi’ and ’Deglat Noor’ (34).The damaged fallen fruits are also suitable for reproduction of sap beetles (Nitidulidae), andtherefore support the build-up of the latter’s population as early as midsummer. Damagecaused by DSB may, therefore, indirectly enhance infestation of the fruit by sap beetlesduring the ripening season (August to October) (40).

A.11.4 Natural enemiesNot known.A.11.5 Management and control(i) Chemical control: An effective chemical control program for DSB would require

several applications of organophosphate insecticides throughout the season. However, sucha program is not acceptable, because it would interfere with the biological control in thedate plantation (88). In fact, chemical treatments applied against other pests that attackthe green unripe fruit, especially the lesser date moth, may contribute considerably to thecontrol of DSB.

(ii) Agrotechnical measures: The removal of fallen dates and kernels from the planta-tion (phytosanitation) may reduce the level of the overwintering population of DSB and,consequently, the potential damage expected in the subsequent season (40).

A.12 Raisin moth, Cadra (= Ephestia) figulilella Gregson (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

A.12.1 Distribution and host range

430 D. Blumberg

The raisin moth (RM) is widely distributed in date plantations in California and inNorth Africa including Egypt (46). In California, the RM is a pest of the growing fruitonly, whereas in North Africa and the Middle East it attacks the stored fruit (107). InIsrael, especially in the Arava Valley, it is prevalent in most of the date plantations, whereit attacks the ripening fruit.

Fig. 2. Infestation of ’Deglat Noor’ fruits with moth larvae (mainly of the raisin moth) in Yotvataplantation (southern Arava Valley) in 1968 and 1991. The data indicate the moth’s development ofresistance to organophosphate compounds.

A.12.2 Natural historyThe adult RM is gray in color and ∼1 cm long, with a few obscure dark bands and

spots on the forewings. The pupa is brown and is covered in a silken cocoon, which itspins in hiding places on the palm, in topsoil, or in convenient cracks. The adults are mostactive in the early evening and remain in shaded, protected areas during the day (46,92).If present, they can usually be found in hidden places in the date palm and in fallen fruits.The year-round presence of larvae in decaying fruits enables continuous development inthe plantation without the need for alternative host plants. At 30◦C, the RM requires 54to 65 days for complete development. The female lays 100–200 eggs on the surface of thedates, most of them in the second and third day after her emergence. At 30◦C, incubationof the eggs takes 3–4 days, and that of the larva and the pupa 51–61 days.

A.12.3 DamageIn Israel and the USA, the RM is considered an important pest of date fruits, both in

the plantation and in storage (8,46,49). It attacks fruits still on the palms as they begin toripen and, if the fruits are not fumigated, the larvae may feed in the dates and develop intoadults even after harvest. Ripe fruits are attacked both on the ground and in bunches on thepalms. The inside of the fruit is gnawed and filled with feces, and dead larvae are left inthe fruit even after fumigation.

The larvae open the way for secondary organisms, and infestation rates may exceed


50%. Injury inflicted on the fruit within a relatively short period is of great economicimportance and necessitates control measures. Larvae can be found year round in theplantation, in fallen and decaying fruits; fruits on bunches are attacked only after theyare completely ripe (45,92,87).

A.12.4 Natural enemiesNo specific parasitoids of RM have been reported in the literature. Several hy-

menopteran parasitoids were surveyed in a chilled fig warehouse in California; amongthem were Habrobracon hebetor (Say) (Braconidae), Venturia canescens (Gravenhorst)(Ichneumonidae), and a Goniozus Forster sp. (Bethylidae) (76).

A.12.5 Management and control(i) Chemical control: The first experiments on controlling the RM were conducted in

date plantations in Israel’s southern Arava Valley in the late 1960s. Spraying with theorganophosphates azinphosmethyl and diazinon, when the color of the fruit changed andagain 3 weeks later, gave satisfactory control and reduced fruit damage considerably (87).However, the continuous use of these compounds created two problems: organophosphateresidues on the harvested fruits, and development of resistance in the RM in the mid1980s. Experiments indicated that a single treatment of azinphosmethyl during the season,instead of two, and washing the fruits in the packing house after harvest, significantlydecreased the level of residues (37). In the early 1990s, after about 20 years of use,organophosphates lost their efficacy against date moths, a phenomenon that was reflectedalso in the development of resistance to the organophosphates used, and also in the raisinmoth (Fig. 2) (33). Since then, pyrethroids such as cypermethrin and cyhalothrin havedisplaced the organophosphates in the management of all fruit moths that attack ripeningfruits (33,139).

(ii) Agrotechnical measures: Several agrotechnical methods and crop managementprocedures have been developed and are currently employed in date plantations in Israel.These methods, developed mainly for enhancing profitability of the date palm crop, alsoindirectly play an important role in protecting the ripening date fruit from injury by variousfruit pests, among which is the RM. The agrotechnical measures used were: covering fruitbunches with plastic nets, phytosanitation, and early harvesting.

Plastic nets were first used to protect the ripening date fruits from casual large pests,such as birds, lizards, etc. Later, various types of nets were used also to protect the ripeningfruits from infestation by the raisin moth, the carob moth, the greater date moth, and sapbeetles (33,87). Among the various types of covers tested, a ‘regular’ type of wire or plasticnetting, with 2.0× 2.0 mm mesh size, proved to be the most efficient agrotechnical measurefor preventing damage by RM and other moth species (30,33,87). The fruit bunches areusually covered with nets in mid August when the fruit color starts to change. Besidesprotecting the date fruits from insect pests, the net also enables easy gathering of dates thatdrop before harvest time (87).

Phytosanitation, i.e., maintaining a satisfactory phytosanitary level in the plantation, byremoving waste, and especially fruit waste, from the ground helps to reduce RM damage,as well as that of other pest species that attack the ripening fruit. In some cases suchsanitation is achieved by grazing animals, especially and mainly horses and donkeys, indate plantations (30).

Early harvesting has recently been applied to several date cultivars, such as ‘DeglatNoor’, ‘Medjhool’, ‘Barhee’ and ‘Hayany’ , with the aim of enhancing the growers’

432 D. Blumberg

incomes. This procedure was found very effective in preventing infestation and damageby all fruit moths (including RM) and sap beetles, since it shortens the period during whichthe ripening fruits are subjected to attack by each of the above pest species from 4 weeksto approximately 1 week. Thus, early fruit harvest of the above cultivars prevents, almostentirely, the need to use any control measures against pests that attack the ripening fruit(30).

In plantations where early fruit harvest is not usual, covering the bunches with ‘regular’(2 × 2 mm mesh) plastic nets may provide good protection from infestation by fruit moths,but not from sap beetles, which can penetrate through these covers.

(iii) Sex pheromone traps: The results of preliminary field studies with synthetic RMsex pheromone in a date plantation in the southern Arava Valley in the early 1990s indicatedthat the pheromone component (Z,E)-9,12-tetradecadienyl acetate (Z9,E12-14:Ac), at aload of 1 mg, impregnated into a rubber dispenser, was most effective in attracting malesof the moth to funnel traps of the IPS type (see A.8.5 subsection (v)). These traps serve asan effective tool for monitoring moth populations in the field, and for determining thenecessity for and timing of insecticide application (91). It was found that pheromonestrands of the moth Spodoptera exigua (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), whose acetatecomponent is also the main pheromone component of RM, can be effective in matingdisruption of RM (86).

A.13 Carob moth, Spectrobates (= Ectomyelois) ceratoniae (Zeller) (Lepidoptera:Pyralidae)

A.13.1 Distribution and host rangeThe carob moth (CM) is a polyphagous fruit pest widespread in many tropical and

subtropical regions. It is known as a pest of citrus, dates, figs, carob and almonds inMediterranean countries, of almonds in Australia, of citrus in South Africa, and of datesin California (69,111). It is also found in Florida, Central America and in northern SouthAmerica and, as a pest of date palms, in North Africa (Algeria and Morocco) (46).

A.13.2 Natural historyThe body length of the CM is 8–10 mm. Its wings are creamy white to gray, brownish,

or even dark brown in color, with a spread of 22–24 mm; across their width there are twobright stripes with dark margins. The rear wings are white-gray with light-brown veins.The egg is elliptical and elongate in shape, measuring 0.75 × 0.5 mm; its color is whiteat oviposition, becoming brown-red later. The larva is pink, with brown head and frontdorsum; its length can reach 15 mm; on its back are small dark-brown bumps.

The eggs hatch in 3–7 days. The larval stage may last from 1 to 8 months, and pupationusually occurs at the feeding sites of the larvae. In summer, the females start to ovipositthe day after their emergence, and may lay 60 to 120 eggs during the adult lifespan of 3–6days. Three to four generations are produced annually, in the approximate sequence ofApril–May, June–July, August–November, and November–March (46). Calcat (45) notedthat only the last two of these generations develop on dates in the bunch. The CM candevelop in dried fruits in storage. Mean development time from egg to adult ranges from45 to 62 days according to fruit (almond) condition (111).

A.13.3 DamageDamage by the CM in date plantations in Israel was first recorded during the late 1980s,

in the southern Arava Valley (40).


A.13.4 Natural enemiesIn southeast Morocco, CM is parasitized by hymenopteran parasitoids Phanerotoma

ocuralis Kohl [Phanerotoma leucobasis] on the bunch and by Bracon hebetor on fallenfruits (71).

A.13.5 Management and controlChemical control and agrotechnical measures applied for the raisin moth (section A.12)

are also effective against the CM.Sex pheromone traps: The sex pheromone of the CM was isolated and identified in

1989 (9). Preliminary trials with traps baited with this pheromone in date plantations in thesouthern Arava Valley in 1994, did not yield satisfactory results (86). ISCA TechnologiesInc. (Riverside, CA, USA) (74) recently announced the successful synthesizing of carobmoth mimic to attract the moths to monitoring traps in dates in California.

A.14 Greater date moth, Arenipses sabella Hampson (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

A.14.1 Distribution and host rangeThe greater date moth (GDM) generally occurs throughout the date-growing regions of

North Africa, the Middle East and northern India (1,46,92,138). In Israel it is found in alldate-growing areas, and so far the date palm is its only known host.

A.14.2 Natural historyThe adult has gray wings, and its body length is 15–20 mm. The larvae are hairy;

gray-black in color, and reach a length of 30–35 mm. Egg incubation lasts 4–5 days at30◦C. Development times of the larva and the pupa are each approximately 34–40 days.At 27◦C adult survival is 7–8 days, and the female lays 200–400 eggs. Between April andSeptember each year, four generations may develop. The spring generation is characterizedby the massive population of larvae in April; larvae of the summer generation are foundmainly in unripe fruits on the plantation floor, whereas those of the autumn generation arefound in the ripening fruit on the bunches. Overwintering larvae can be found hidden at thebase of the trunk and in fruits on the ground (46,92); they pupate in the following springand establish the spring generation.

A.14.3 DamageDamage is caused by both the spring and the summer generations. Larvae of the spring

generation infest mainly tender fronds of young leaves; they feed upon inflorescences andimmature dates, and burrow through fruit stalks at the point where the fruit strands arise.In addition to the burrows, which sometimes reach a depth of 10 cm, their activity canbe recognized by the presence of considerable amounts of silken threads with dark brownpellets of frass attached to them. Attacked bunches gradually wither and degenerate. Larvaeof the summer generation attack mainly the ripe dates; they burrow through the center ofthe date bunch, spoiling the entire bunch, which decays.

Damage to palms is more severe in the southern Arava Valley than in the northernvalleys. The intensity of infestation fluctuates widely from year to year (92). In thenorthern area of the Dead Sea, high infestation rates were sometimes observed in femaleinflorescences that burst in male palms during the summer.

A.14.4 Natural enemiesSeveral species of the Braconidae parasitize the GDM (73). In Israel unidentified

braconids were frequently observed in association with GDM during the high-densityperiod of the moth. In Iraq, pseudoscorpions are abundant among the fibers at the bases of

434 D. Blumberg

petioles, and are thought to be important in the control of the caterpillars (73).A.14.5 Management and control(i) Chemical control: In most cases, infestation by A. sabella does not require a specific

application of insecticides. Chemical treatments applied against the date stone beetle or thelesser date moth (see section A.15) during April–May may also be efficient in preventingdamage by the spring generation of GDM. Likewise, treatments applied during September–October against other fruit moths and sap beetles, may also reduce GDM populations andtheir damage.

(ii) Agrotechnical measures: Covering bunches with plastic nets, phytosanitationactivities, and early harvesting of certain varieties, almost entirely avert the need to usecontrol measures against the GDM.

A.15 Lesser date moth, Batrachedra amydraula Meyerick (Lepidoptera:Batrachedridae)

Fig. 3. Infestation of ’Deglat Noor’ fruits by the lesser date moth, Batrachedra amydraula in Eilotplantation (Arava Valley) in 1972 and 1981. The data indicate the moth’s development of resistanceto thionex (endosulfan).

A.15.1 Distribution and host rangeThe lesser date moth (LDM) is distributed mainly in Libya, Egypt, Iran and Iraq (46).

In Israel, it was first observed in 1970 in the Arava Valley, where it probably had invadedfrom the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt). In the following year, extreme damage was caused intwo date plantations in the area: Eilot (southern Arava Valley) and En Gedi (Dead Searegion) (28). Since the 1980s, it has gradually spread throughout most of the date-growingplantations of the country, where it has become a major pest of newly set and young greendate fruits. The LDM is highly specific to the date palm, and no reports are known ofinfestation of other host plants by this moth. Attempts to rear the moth on artificial diets inthe laboratory were so far unsuccessful.

A.15.2 Natural history


The adult moth is gray-brown in color; its length is 8–10 mm, and its wingspan 11–14mm. The wings are characterized by a marked longitudinal gray stripe in their center. Theegg is white-yellow, with a diameter of 0.7 mm. The larva is white-gray and reaches alength of 12 mm.

Three annual generations of LDM were recorded in date plantations in the Arava Valley(142). Larvae of the first generation were observed in the field from late March to late April;those of the second generation, from early to late May; and those of the third generationfrom about mid- to end of June. During August the number of larvae observed in the fielddiminished considerably, and all were in the third stage. From the end of August no larvaeor further damage were detected, nor were larvae found on bunches or on decaying fruitduring autumn or winter. Thus, the occurrence of larvae and the damage they inflict onthe trees are restricted to a relatively short period (April to early July) (142). Observationsin the southern Arava Valley showed that LDM undergoes diapause in the larval stage.Larvae of the last generation of each year construct elongated white cocoons which arewell hidden inside the fibers at the bases of the palm fronds; they apparently remain in thiscondition during the second half of the summer and the winter (late August to early March),pupate in the following spring (probably during early to mid March), and give rise to thefirst generation adults of the new year. The larvae of this first generation attack the newlyset date fruits. The shortening of the insects’ exposure to daylight during late summer isprobably the main factor in inducing diapause in the larvae and, conversely, the increase inday length in early spring probably triggers the termination of the larval diapause (28).

A.15.3 DamageThe larvae attack newly formed inflorescences, but the main injury is to the young

green fruits. Approximately 80% of the fruits are attacked while between 0.6 and 1.0 cmin diameter. The larva chews a hole near the calyx, through which it penetrates the fruitand feeds on the pulp and the soft immature seed. A damaged fruit is easily recognizableby the black feces attached to the penetration site. The larvae can move from fruit to fruitwithin the bunch, thus increasing the damage; a larva seldom eats more than one-third ofa fruit before seeking another one, and can damage three or four fruits during its lifetime.About 4 weeks are required for the attacked fruits to darken, dry and fall to the ground.In severe infestation most of the infested fruits drop to the ground; the bunch ceases togrow, and then dries. Thus LDM injuries to the palms cause considerable fruit drop andlosses of up to 75% of the yield (28,106). Late-season infestation of large fruits may causefruit decay and fermentation, which may accelerate the build-up of sap beetle (Nitidulidae)populations.

A.15.4 Natural enemiesThe parasitic wasp Parasierola swirskiana Argaman (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) at-

tacks the LDM. The parasitoid is common in date plantations in the Arava Valley, and isknown also from Jordan and Afghanistan (4). In the Arava Valley the parasitoid was rearedmainly from larvae of the second generation. Laboratory studies suggest that P. swirskianais not an efficient control agent (51). Bracon sp. (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) attacks larvaeof LDM as well as those of other fruit moths, but its contribution to the control of LDM hasnot yet been studied (40). Artificial releases of the egg parasitoid Trichogramma cacoeciaeMarchal (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) and the entomophagous fungus Beauveriabassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin (Deuteromycotina: Hyphomycetes) were tested against B.amydraula during the last decade (113), but so far have not shown any promise.

436 D. Blumberg

A.15.5 Management and control(i) Chemical control: Among several insecticides tested against the LDM, endosulfan

(thionex) was the most effective, and when the first application was timed with the firstdetection of infestation and the second 3–4 weeks later, the treatments usually providedseason-long control and a marked yield improvement (44). In the early 1980s, however, themoth became resistant to endosulfan, which no longer provided satisfactory control (Fig.1) (142), probably because of its excessive use (30). The growers replaced endosulfan withorgano-phosphates, mainly chlorpyriphos. Later, additional compounds, mostly IGRs such astriflumuron (Alsystin) and teflubenzuron (Molit), were added to the arsenal (30,139). Astudy conducted in 2006 revealed that in the Bet She’an Valley, triflumuron, applied witha mixture of date pollen during pollination, effectively controlled LDM larvae (S. Bitton,pers. comm,). In Egypt, in 1999 and 2000, spinosad (Tracer) at 10 ml 100 l−1 gave 94%and 86% control of B. amydraula, respectively (128).

(ii) Microbial control: Several commercial products based on the bacterium Bacillusthuringiensis Berliner (Bt) were found to be effective against the LDM, and they are usedfor control, mainly in organic plantations (112). These products are used either in sprayingor in dusting formulations; the latter offers better capability of penetrating into the centerof the date bunches (40). The compound Bitayon (Rimi Chemicals Co.), applied witha sub-species of the bacterium, B. kurstaki, or on feeding bait for the larva, was foundeffective in controlling the pest larvae (113), especially when applied together with the datepollen. The mixture of Bitayon and date pollen protects the young setting fruits againstfirst generation moth larvae immediately at the time of pollination. The efficiency of Btcompounds is higher at the beginning of the season, when a larva consumes more than onefruit to complete its development. Later in the season, when the fruits are bigger, the larvaeusually complete their development in a single date fruit, and are not exposed to the Btcompounds (30,40).

(iii) Biological control: An experiment conducted in the late 1990s, involving aninundating release of the egg parasitoid T. cacoeciae, at approximately 1000 adults perpalm, together with an application of a commercial product of the fungus B. bassiana,indicated a potential for use of each of these two control agents against the moth (113; J.Nakash, pers. comm.).

In organic plantations the LDM is controlled by application of several permittedinsecticides, such as Bt compounds and Kryocide (cryolite), which is an inorganic stomachand contact poison. Since 2001 in a young organic ’Hayany’ plot at the Eden ExperimentStation (Bet She’an Valley), and since 2005 in organic plantations in Samar (southern AravaValley), experimental inundating releases of the egg parasitoid T. cacoeciae gave effectivecontrol of B. amydraula (J. Nakash, pers. comm.).

A.16 Spider mites (Acarina)

Several species of phytophagous mites damage date palms throughout the world (46).Mite infestation and damage to date palms were first recorded in Israel in the southernArava Valley during the late 1970s (62,117). Several species of mites, belonging totwo families, were found on date fruits, mainly of cv. ‘Deglat Noor’. They were:Raoiella indica Hirst, Phyllotetranychus aegyptiacus Sayed, Tenuipalpus pareriophyoidesMeyer and Gerson (all Tenuipalpidae, false spider mites); Eutetranychus palmatus Attiah,


Oligonychus afrasiaticus (McGregor) and Oligonychus senegalensis Gutierrez and Etienne(Tetranychidae, spider mites) (62). Only O. afrasiaticus and E. palmatus caused economicdamage.

A.16a Old world date mite, Oligonychus afrasiaticus (McGregor)

A.16a.1 DistributionThis is a serious pest of dates in North Africa and the Near East (45,116). In Israel it is

the dominant spider mite pest of date fruit in the southern Arava Valley (120).A.16a.2 Natural historyThe adult mite is 0.4 mm long, greenish in color, and the body bears 13 pairs of simple

dorsal setae. The mites infest the fruits during the summer, as long as they are green.During a 1999–2002 survey of mites on ’Deglat Noor’ and ’Barhee’ date palms in the AravaValley of Israel, other spider mites were rarely collected (118). Infestation of ‘Medjhool’starts in early May, whereas infestation of ’Deglat Noor’ was detected only during thefirst week of July. The initiation of infestation on ‘Barhee’ varied between plots and years,ranging from the second half of May to the beginning of July, but was always earlier than on’Deglat Noor’. Mite populations on the pinnae remained low from June through October.The sex ratio of O. afrasiaticus on fruits of all cultivars was highly female-biased, usuallyabove 0.85. The mite is not specific to date palms and was found also on Bermuda grass(Cynodon dactylon) in the orchard ground cover, as well as on fronds of all three above-mentioned cultivars (119).

A.16a.3 DamageThe mite feeds on the green fruits, causing them to become reddish-brown, and their

skins to display numerous minute cracks that emit gum-like exudations. The mites remainactive even at 45◦C, and spin copious amounts of whitish webs in which dust accumulates.Heavy infestations can cause significant yield reductions, because the scars and the websthat are formed on the exocarp of the unripe fruits render them unfit even for processing,and thereby impair their commercial value (62,118).

A.16b Date palm mite, Eutetranychus palmatus Attiah

A.16b.1 DistributionPrior to its discovery in Israel, E. palmatus had been known only from Egypt, where it

was found on date palms (7). Recorded hosts included the Washington palm, Washingtoniafilifera, the African doum palm, Hyphaene thebaica, the Canary Island date, Phoenixcanariensis and the date palm, Phoenix dactylifera. In Israel it is distributed all over theArava Valley, and also infests ornamental palms in the southernmost Israeli town of Elat(62; E. Palevsky, pers. comm.)

A.16b.2 Natural historyEutetranychus palmatus is 0.4–0.5 mm long, reddish-brown in color; the body is oval

and the legs are longer than the body. The eggs are round, pale brown in color. Sporadicobservations indicated that E. palmatus occurs on date fronds throughout the year, infeststhe fruit during mid summer, and then, as the dates turn yellow, is restricted to the fronds.This species does not spin webs. Little is known about its biology (62).

A.16b.3 DamageThe mite is a minor pest of date fruits; its feeding results in exudates that become

covered with dust, as well as with the shed whitish exuviae of the mites. It has been

438 D. Blumberg

suggested that, under certain conditions, E. palmatus should be considered a potential pestof date fruit, at least on cv. ‘Barhee’, and that it could become a more important pest inareas where O. afrasiaticus does not occur.

A.16b.4 Natural enemiesNot known.A.16b.5 Management and controlDate growers in Israel have dusted fruit bunches prophylactically with sulfur since

1990. As many as five treatments per year were applied in the past, but the efficacy of sulfurhas recently declined. Several alternative control techniques were investigated: reducingthe density of the overwintering populations by burning tree trunks; deploying physicalbarriers to prevent ambulatory and airborne mites from reaching fruit bunches; and usingindigenous phytoseiid mites to control the pest. None of these methods yielded satisfactoryresults (119). On the other hand, a single treatment with the acaricides fenbutatin oxide,hexythiazox, or abamectin, applied when the first mites were found on the fruit, providedseasonal pest control. A post-harvest re-hydration treatment, intended to mitigate anyevidence of mite damage was also effective; it increased the amount of marketable freshfruit of the economically important Medjool cultivar by approximately 20% (120).

In organic plantations mites are controlled by dusting the fruit bunches with sulfurcompounds. The recommended steps for decreasing mite injuries include maintenanceof highly phytosanitary conditions by methods such as eradication of weeds and removalof fruit waste and kernels, as well as control operations in the packing house after fruitharvesting.

B. PESTS OF RARE OCCURRENCE (OCCASIONAL AND/OR MINOR PESTS)

Pests clustered in this group are considered accidental or minor pests of the date palmin Israel (Table 2).

SYNTHESIS AND CONCLUSIONS

Since the early 1960s, major efforts have been dedicated to generating knowledge onthe ecology of date palm pests in Israel and on means to manage them. Most of the majorarthropod pests attacking the date palm in Israel are native to the Near East, and the keypests among them are host-specific. Those that display wide host ranges are either fruitpests or stem borers. This pattern of host-plant range is typical of the pest fauna of othernative fruit trees such as stone fruits and olives (Table 1).

Chemical controlOutbreaks of scale insects in Israeli date plantations since the late 1950s resulted from

the application of synthetic nonspecific insecticides, which led to adverse effects on theirnatural enemies. This had happened due to the application of organophosphates againstinvasive swarms of the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria, or treatments with syntheticinsecticides in the plantation or on adjacent field crops, such as cotton.

The seasonal outbreaks of the lesser date moth and date stone beetle on unripefruits are related to insecticide applications during the previous season and the level ofphytosanitation. Poor phytosanitation also may cause outbreaks of sap beetles and datestone beetle, which develop on the fruits and kernels on the plantation floor.


TAB

LE

2.D

ate

palm

pest

sof

rare

occu

rren

ce

Pest

spec

ies

Rem

arks

Ref

eren

ces

1.M

onol

epta

lepi

daR

eich

e(C

oleo

pter

a:C

hrys

omel

idae

)K

now

nas

ape

stof

man

go.

Foun

don

palm

sdu

ring

Apr

il–Ju

nein

mos

tda

te-g

row

ing

area

s,at

tack

ing

gree

nfr

uit.

30,1

37

2.Po

tosi

aan

gust

ata

Ger

mar

(Col

eopt

era:

Scar

abae

idae

)(fl

ower

chaf

er)

Dam

agin

gfr

uits

oflit

chee

,pea

r,an

dgr

aftin

gsof

avoc

ado.

Lar

vae

wer

efo

und

atth

eba

seof

date

palm

leav

esin

the

Coa

stal

Plai

n.75

3.C

hrys

omph

alus

aoni

dum

Lin

naeu

s(C

occo

idea

:D

iasp

idid

ae)

(Flo

rida

red

scal

e)13

7

4.Ve

spa

orie

ntal

isL

inna

eus

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440 D. Blumberg

Integrated Pest ManagementAn IPM program was developed in date plantations in Israel during the second half of

the 20th Century. It was first implemented successfully against the parlatoria date scale,and later against fruit pests, also with satisfactory results (30,97).

In most cases date palm pests can be controlled efficiently by chemical insecticides.During the 1960s and 1970s, date growers used non-selective insecticides, mainly organo-phosphate compounds, as a routine measure for the control of scale insects, fruit mothsand sap beetles. Since the early 1980s, selective insecticides gradually replaced the non-selective ones. They included mineral oils, IGRs, pyrethroids, carbamates, nicotinoidsand acaricides – all considered to be selective compounds, ’friendly’ to the environment,and less toxic to humans. Chemical treatments can be effective against several pestssimultaneously. Thus, for example, insecticides applied during April to June can efficientlycontrol the lesser date moth, the date stone beetle and the greater date moth. Similarly,insecticides applied during mid August to late October can efficiently control fruit mothsand sap beetles that attack the date fruits during the ripening season (30). This proceduremay, therefore, prevent unnecessary applications of insecticides. Fruit moths and beetlepests are not well controlled by biological agents. Most of these are cryptic feeding speciesand are protected from contact insecticides (30). Hence, chemical control of these pests isaimed at preventing an attack rather than reducing their population by direct control.

Decades of upgrading the chemical treatments have resulted in a decrease in the overallamount of insecticide residues in the ripening fruits at harvest time. This was achieved by:(i) improving application precision so as to enable reduction of the chemical concentration,e.g. from 0.5% to 0.01–0.02%, and lowering the number of treatments applied during thegrowing season, from two or more to one; and (ii) washing the fruit in the packing house(89,93). Nevertheless, in spite of the significant reduction of azinphosmethyl residues inthe harvested fruits, the use of this compound and others of the same group was bannedunder the regulations issued in 2002 by the European Trade Corporations (EUREP-GAP)(57). This new situation called for the examination of alternative compounds to replacethose that were no longer permitted (30).

Agrotechnical measures, such as the use of plastic nets to cover the fruit bunches at thebeginning of the ripening season, maintaining a satisfactory level of phytosanitation in theplantation, and early fruit harvest of certain date cultivars, all constitute an important partof the IPM program.

Biological controlBiological control of most of the major date palm pests is problematic. The reason is the

paucity of local natural enemies; some usually are not host-specific and are not effective.An exception is the case of the parlatoria date scale, biological control of which wasachieved by intentional manipulation and management of local natural enemies. However,this is true only as long as the use of chemical treatments is considerably reduced. Theparlatoria date scale represents the only example of achievement of successful control ofa date palm pest in Israel by manipulation of local natural enemies. Trials to introducenatural enemies of sap beetles and acclimatize them in date plantations were not successful(40).

With regard to application of microbial products such as Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt):these were found to be useful against lepidopterous insects, either in spraying or in dustingformulations (112). In local plantations, commercial Bt preparations are used against the


lesser date moth, mainly in organic plantations.PheromonesTraps baited with synthetic sex pheromones are commercially available for use against

the raisin moth (123) and the carob moth (74). However, the use of these pheromonesfor monitoring and control (96) became almost unnecessary because of the successfulapplication of nettings, or of the early harvest procedure that is widely used in dateplantations. Traps baited with aggregation pheromones are commercially available for useagainst the red palm weevil and in Israel they have been used since 1999 for preventive andmonitoring purposes (132). For sap beetles, aggregation pheromones are commerciallyavailable; however, this group of insects needs more study before a suitable monitoringand mass-trapping system can be developed that could be commercially employed in dateplantations in Israel.

ProspectsNo satisfactory solutions are yet available for some of the major pests, especially the

lesser date moth, sap beetles (in all areas where there are date plantations) and spider mites(in the Arava Valley). The control of the remaining major pests depends greatly on theirabundance and the amount of damage they cause. An exception is the red palm weevil,which has the potential to inflict very extensive damage, and which therefore necessitatespreventive measures on a regular basis.

In the coming decade the date growers in Israel will need to cope with several differentchallenges. Because of the banning of the routinely applied insecticides, the damageinflicted by the lesser date moth is likely to increase. Therefore, future management ofthis pest should rely on an improved monitoring system and integration of pheromoneapplications in the form of mating disruption or lure and kill techniques, with employmentof biological agents and techniques such as inundating releases of egg parasitoids, e.g. T.cacoeciae, and entomopathogenic fungi, e.g. B. bassiana. Since the control of sap beetlesis still problematic, the R&D efforts should focus on: (i) re-examination of entire-bunchnetting; (ii) upgrading the use of aggregation pheromones in mass trapping and lure and killtechniques; and (iii) placing more emphasis on botanical insecticides and micro-organism-based formulations. The red palm weevil still poses a major threat, not only because ofits aggressiveness, but especially because of the intensive use of systemic insecticides asprotective measures. Intensive monitoring is required in all date palm areas.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am greatly indebted to Prof. Zvi Mendel, of the Dept. of Entomology, Agricultural Research Organization,The Volcani Center, Israel, for his important remarks and critical reviewing of the manuscript; to Prof. Uri Gerson,of the Dept. of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel, for criticalreading of the section on ‘Mites’; and to Prof. J.E. Pena, University of Florida, Tropical Research & EducationCenter, Homestead, Florida, Prof. J.H. Frank, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, and Prof. F.W. Howard,University of Florida, IFAS, Fort Lauderdale Research & Education Center, Florida, for their valuable commentson the manuscript.

My appreciation is expressed to Mr. Baruch (Bukki) Glazner, of Hadiklaim, the Israel Date Growers’Cooperative, for providing relevant information on growing date palms in Israel; to Dr. Vladimir Chikatunov,of the Dept. of Zoology, Tel-Aviv University, for identifying the nitidulid beetles; and to Dr. Laurence Mound, ofCSIRO Entomology, Canberra, Australia, for identifying the thrips species found in date flowers.

This work was inspired by Dr. Amos Navon, Dr. Ezra Dunkelblum, the late Prof. Eliahu Swirski, and thelate Dr. Moshe Kehat, all of the Dept. of Entomology, The Volcani Center, Israel; they were always true friendsand sincere colleagues during the extended years of cooperation in this field of research. Thanks are also due toDr. Alex Protasov, Ms. Miriam Eliahu, Mrs. Devora Gordon, Mr. Shaul Greenberg, and the late Mr. Shmuel

442 D. Blumberg

Goldenberg of the Entomology Department, for their long assistance and partnership. I also thank Dr. Oded BarShalom (Keshet Integrated Crop Management, Israel), Mrs. Orna Ucko, Mrs. Sheli Gantz, Mr. Shimon Bitton(Extension Service, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development), Mr. Ya’akov Nakash (Eden ExperimentStation, Bet She’an Valley); Mr. Uri Landau (Kibbutz Shluchot, Bet She’an Valley) and the many date growers ofIsrael, for always being supportive, and who participated in the field experiments conducted in their plantations.

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Review: Date palm arthropod pests and their management in Israel

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