Review Article The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on...

14
Review Article The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on the Autonomic System and Attention Ido Amihai 1 and Maria Kozhevnikov 1,2 1 Psychology Department, National University of Singapore, Block AS4, No. 02 07, 9 Arts Link, Singapore 117570 2 Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, MGH and Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA Correspondence should be addressed to Maria Kozhevnikov; [email protected] Received 28 November 2014; Revised 1 February 2015; Accepted 9 February 2015 Academic Editor: Elisa H. Kozasa Copyright © 2015 I. Amihai and M. Kozhevnikov. is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Cognitive and neuroscience research from the past several years has shed new light on the influences that meditative traditions have on the meditation practice. Here we review new evidence that shows that types of meditation that developed out of certain traditions such as Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric lead to heightened sympathetic activation and phasic alertness, while types of meditation from other traditions such as eravada and Mahayana elicit heightened parasympathetic activity and tonic alertness. Such findings validate Buddhist scriptural descriptions of heightened arousal during Vajrayana practices and a calm and alert state of mind during eravada and Mahayana types of meditation and demonstrate the importance of the cultural and philosophical context out of which the meditation practices develop. 1. Introduction Providing scientific conceptualizations of meditation prac- tices has been one of the major concerns of recent scientific studies of meditation [14]. One of the first scientific concep- tualizations of meditation was proposed by Herbert Benson, who defined meditation as a technique that generates a “relax- ation response” [5, page 56]. Benson conducted his studies on Transcendental Meditation (TM), where the meditator recites a mantra provided to him or her by the meditation instructor, as well as on Mindfulness meditation, which is a form of meditation that emphasizes the stabilization of attention by acknowledging discursive sensory events as momentary, and observing them without affective reaction or attachment. Benson showed that TM and Mindfulness meditation result in physiological changes indicative of a heightened activation of the parasympathetic nervous system and lowered sympathetic activity, such as decreased oxy- gen consumption and carbon dioxide elimination, lowering of heart and respiratory rates, and a marked decrease in arterial blood lactate concentration (e.g., [6, 7]), as well as psychological outcome measures that indicate relaxation (e.g., [8]). As these physiological and psychological results are characteristic responses that occur during relaxation, Benson termed the responses that occur during meditation as a relaxation response. Although Benson discovered the relaxation response by investigating TM and Mindfulness, he assumed that it applies to meditation in general and that it is useful to decontextualize different types of meditation from their religious and cultural basis: “to understand the psychophysiological aspects of meditation, it should first be conceptually denuded of its cultural and religious biases” [9, page 2]. Importantly, the attainment of a relaxation response during meditation has been confirmed by many subsequent studies and consistently reported in the scientific literature (e.g., [1013]). Based on Benson’s approach, an evolutionary theory was proposed by Young and Taylor [14], where meditation was characterized as a “wakeful hypometabolic state of parasym- pathetic dominance” [14, page 149]. e hypometabolic state during meditation is a state of deep rest, which is similar to hibernation, but where the practitioner remains awake and vigilant [14, 15]. e state of being awake and vigilant was later termed “tonic alertness,” which indicates a state of optimal vigilance where attention is sustained for a prolonged period of time [16]. e state of “parasympathetic dominance” is Hindawi Publishing Corporation BioMed Research International Volume 2015, Article ID 731579, 13 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/731579

Transcript of Review Article The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on...

Page 1: Review Article The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2015/731579.pdf · 2019-07-31 · Review Article The Influence of Buddhist

Review ArticleThe Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions onthe Autonomic System and Attention

Ido Amihai1 and Maria Kozhevnikov12

1Psychology Department National University of Singapore Block AS4 No 02 07 9 Arts Link Singapore 1175702Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging MGH and Harvard Medical School 25 Shattuck Street Boston MA 02115 USA

Correspondence should be addressed to Maria Kozhevnikov mkozhevnnmrmghharvardedu

Received 28 November 2014 Revised 1 February 2015 Accepted 9 February 2015

Academic Editor Elisa H Kozasa

Copyright copy 2015 I Amihai and M Kozhevnikov This is an open access article distributed under the Creative CommonsAttribution License which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work isproperly cited

Cognitive and neuroscience research from the past several years has shed new light on the influences that meditative traditionshave on the meditation practice Here we review new evidence that shows that types of meditation that developed out of certaintraditions such as Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric lead to heightened sympathetic activation and phasic alertness while types ofmeditation from other traditions such as Theravada and Mahayana elicit heightened parasympathetic activity and tonic alertnessSuch findings validate Buddhist scriptural descriptions of heightened arousal during Vajrayana practices and a calm and alert stateof mind during Theravada and Mahayana types of meditation and demonstrate the importance of the cultural and philosophicalcontext out of which the meditation practices develop

1 Introduction

Providing scientific conceptualizations of meditation prac-tices has been one of the major concerns of recent scientificstudies of meditation [1ndash4] One of the first scientific concep-tualizations of meditation was proposed by Herbert Bensonwhodefinedmeditation as a technique that generates a ldquorelax-ation responserdquo [5 page 56] Benson conducted his studieson Transcendental Meditation (TM) where the meditatorrecites a mantra provided to him or her by the meditationinstructor as well as on Mindfulness meditation whichis a form of meditation that emphasizes the stabilizationof attention by acknowledging discursive sensory events asmomentary and observing them without affective reactionor attachment Benson showed that TM and Mindfulnessmeditation result in physiological changes indicative of aheightened activation of the parasympathetic nervous systemand lowered sympathetic activity such as decreased oxy-gen consumption and carbon dioxide elimination loweringof heart and respiratory rates and a marked decrease inarterial blood lactate concentration (eg [6 7]) as wellas psychological outcome measures that indicate relaxation(eg [8]) As these physiological and psychological results

are characteristic responses that occur during relaxationBenson termed the responses that occur during meditationas a relaxation response Although Benson discovered therelaxation response by investigating TM and Mindfulnesshe assumed that it applies to meditation in general and thatit is useful to decontextualize different types of meditationfrom their religious and cultural basis ldquoto understand thepsychophysiological aspects of meditation it should first beconceptually denuded of its cultural and religious biasesrdquo [9page 2] Importantly the attainment of a relaxation responseduring meditation has been confirmed by many subsequentstudies and consistently reported in the scientific literature(eg [10ndash13])

Based on Bensonrsquos approach an evolutionary theory wasproposed by Young and Taylor [14] where meditation wascharacterized as a ldquowakeful hypometabolic state of parasym-pathetic dominancerdquo [14 page 149] The hypometabolic stateduring meditation is a state of deep rest which is similar tohibernation but where the practitioner remains awake andvigilant [14 15]The state of being awake and vigilant was latertermed ldquotonic alertnessrdquo which indicates a state of optimalvigilance where attention is sustained for a prolonged periodof time [16] The state of ldquoparasympathetic dominancerdquo is

Hindawi Publishing CorporationBioMed Research InternationalVolume 2015 Article ID 731579 13 pageshttpdxdoiorg1011552015731579

2 BioMed Research International

generated by the increased activity of the parasympatheticbranch of the autonomic nervous system often referred to asthe ldquorest and digestrdquo system which slows down the heart ratelowers blood pressure increases intestinal and gland activityand relaxes sphincter muscles [17]

It is important to note that even though the character-ization of meditation as a wakeful hypometabolic state issupported by empirical findings (eg [10ndash12]) the scientificstudies that have led to this classification were conducted onvery specific types of meditation Specifically most previousscientific studies have been conducted on TM and types ofmeditation from the Theravada and Mahayana traditionssuch as Shamatha Vipassana or modern Mindfulness med-itation In particular a large number of scientific studieswere conducted on Shamatha or Vipassana [18 19] thatemphasize avoiding discursive thought by letting the prac-titioner concentrate on an object of meditation (Shamatha)or examine and generate insight out of hisher own mentalactivity (Vipassana) [20] Also many studies were conductedon Mindfulness meditation (eg [10 12 21]) which wasdeveloped by Jon Kabat-Zinn who defined it as ldquomostlyVipassana practice with a Zen attituderdquo (Kabat-Zinn emailcited in [22] page 238) where elements from Theravadaand Mahayana practices are taught alongside Vipassanameditation in order to create a secularized practice thatwouldappeal to people who might not possess a genuine interestin Buddhist culture or philosophy [22] (In accordance withthis definition Gilpin [22] who analyzed the influence ofBuddhist traditions on Mindfulness based on descriptionsgiven by the developers ofMindfulness practices (Kabat-Zinnand John Teasdale) concluded that Mindfulness practice ismainly derived from Vipassana Similar conclusions can bemade by examining the practice of Mindfulness itself whichsimilarly to Vipassana stresses avoiding discursive thoughtthrough nonjudgmental concentration on the content of onersquosmomentary mental activity [23 pages 141-142]) A numberof studies have also been conducted on Zen concentrationmeditation [24 25] which similarly to Shamatha requiresthe meditator to continually focus on a single object ofmeditation [26 page 97]

Along with the large number of studies that confirmedthat certain types of meditation can lead to a relaxationresponse recent scientific evidence suggests that the gener-ation of a relaxation response might not characterize med-itative practices of other traditions Specifically meditativepractices of the Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric traditionswhich will be detailed in a subsequent section of the reviewhave been demonstrated to elicit a state of arousal and notrelaxation [27ndash29] In contrast to relaxation arousal is aphysiological and psychological state of being awake andreactive to stimuli It is characterized by an increase inthe activity of the sympathetic system which is followedby the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from theendocrine system [30ndash32] and results in the state of phasicalertness a significant temporary boost in the capacity torespond to stimuli [16 33 34]Moreover while tonic alertnesscan happen concurrently with relaxation and a recent reviewof the literature showed that it can occur during Theravadaand Mahayana styles of meditation [25] phasic alertness is

a result of the activity of the sympathetic system and thereforeinconsistent with the state of relaxation

The goal of this review is to show that different typesof Buddhist meditation techniques can lead to relaxation orarousal depending on the type ofmeditation that is practicedWe also plan to show thatwhile some types ofmeditation gen-erate increased tonic alertness or vigilance along with a stateof relaxation and parasympathetic activation other types ofmeditation lead to increased phasic alertness and generate animmediate and dramatic increase in cognitive performanceon visual tasks consistent with the state of arousal andsympathetic activation In the following sections we willfirst provide an overview of the autonomic system and themanner in which it underlies psychological and physiologicalstates of relaxation and arousal and influences attentionalprocesses that relate to phasic and tonic alertness We willproceed with a review of scientific studies that demonstrate arelaxation response duringTheravada andMahayana types ofmeditation which will be followed by a review of studies thatdemonstrate tonic alertness during these practices Lastly wewill review studies that demonstrate an arousal response aswell as phasic alertness during Vajrayana and Hindu Tantricpractices

2 Measuring Relaxation and Arousalas well as Tonic and Phasic Alertness

Anatomically the autonomic nervous system (ANS) consistsof neurons from within both the central nervous systems(CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and receivesinput from anatomic regions that integrate information fromwithin the body and the external environment such as thehypothalamus nucleus of the solitary tract reticular forma-tion amygdala hippocampus and olfactory cortex [35] Thefunctional role of the ANS is to monitor important visceralprocesses that operate largely below the level of consciousawareness such as heart rate breathing and digestion [35]

The ANS is comprised of two major neurobiologicalsubsystems that function both independently and in concertthe parasympathetic nervous system and the sympatheticnervous system These two systems often elicit opposingactions so that when one system enhances or activates aphysiological response the other system inhibits it Thesympathetic nervous system is often called the ldquofight orflightrdquo system which accelerates the heart rate constrictsblood vessels and raises blood pressure in order to enablea quick and mobilizing response often as a reaction to animmediate threat On the other hand the parasympatheticsystem is often referred to as the ldquorest and digestrdquo systemwhich slows down the heart rate lowers blood pressureincreases intestinal and gland activity and relaxes sphinctermuscles [17] Asmentioned the increased capacity to respondto stimuli that is generated by the sympathetic system hasbeen termed phasic alertness [16 33 34] Therefore phasicalertness requires the activation of the sympathetic systemand cannot co-occur with a physiological state of parasym-pathetic dominance which is the relaxation response Onthe other hand although tonic alertness is inconsistent withdrowsiness and sleep it can nevertheless occur concurrently

BioMed Research International 3

with a moderate level of parasympathetic activation and asdescribed below can also occur during relaxed states

There are numerous experimental methods that havebeen used to demonstrate the activity of the sympathetic(arousal) and parasympathetic (relaxation) systems Onecommonly used method is related to the heart rate variabil-ity (HRV) which is determined by the autonomic system[30] and is assessed through electrocardiographic measures(abbreviated as EKGor ECG)HRV can bemeasured throughtime domain methods or frequency domain methods TheEKG frequencies that are used as autonomic activitymeasuresare high frequencies (HF) typically between 015 and 04Hz[36ndash40] and the ratio between low and high frequencies(LFHF) [30] While some researchers proposed that lowfrequencies (LF) typically between 004 and 015Hz [36ndash40]can be used as a marker of sympathetic modulation [41ndash44] others attribute LF to both sympathetic and parasym-pathetic influences [45 46] In contrast increases in HF areuniversally attributed to the activity of the parasympatheticsystem [41 45 47] Under ordinary circumstances HFdecreases indicate decreased parasympathetic and increasedsympathetic activation [36 48 49] although it should benoted that in some extreme cases (eg physical exercise orextreme stress) increases inHF could accompany an increasein sympathetic response [36 48] Ameasure that is associatedwith HF is the respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) whichmeasures vagal modulations on heart rate and is correlatedwith the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system [5051] Studies also investigated the heart rate pressure productmdashthe product of the systolic blood pressure and the heart ratemdashand the double productmdashthe product of the mean bloodpressure and the heart ratemdashwhich index the myocardialoxygen consumption and load on the heart and are increaseddue to sympathetic system activation [52]

Another commonly used measure of autonomic activa-tion is the galvanic skin response (GSR) where increases inGSR typically indicate increased sympathetic activation anddecreased GSR increased parasympathetic activity [53 54]Additionally body temperature increases or thermogenesisare also determined by the sympathetic system [55 56] Alsoseveral studies have used changes in blood pressure in orderto investigate the state of the autonomic system As describedabove decreases in blood pressure (mean systolic anddiastolic) are caused by the parasympathetic nervous systemand blood pressure increases by the sympathetic system [17]Moreover relaxation responses were measured through self-report scales that are correlated either with negative emotionssuch as distress that indicate reduced relaxation (eg GlobalSeverity Index (GSI) [57]) or positive emotional states thatindicate increased well-being and relaxation (eg PositiveStates of Mind (PSOM) [58])

Previous findings demonstrated that during arousal thereis a significant temporary boost in the capacity to respond tostimuli indicative of phasic alertness which is manifested byimproved performance on a number of visual and memorytasks [59ndash61] Hence phasic alertness was determined tooccur during states that lead to immediate improvements inperformance on cognitive tasks [27 29] In order to deter-mine the occurrence of tonic alertness previous studies have

used both neuroimaging and behavioral measures In termsof behavioral measures psychological studies have shownthat performance on target detection tasks can improve withincreased tonic alertness [62] In terms of neuroimagingstudies neuroscience research has shown that tonic alertnessis associated with neural activity in right hemisphere cor-tical areas and subcortical networks particularly the dorsalanterior cingulate cortex (dACC) the dorsolateral prefrontalcortex (DLPFC) the anterior insula the inferior parietallobule the thalamus and the brain stem [34 63 64]

3 Meditation Traditions

There are three main Buddhist traditions that exist todayTheravada Mahayana and Vajrayana Theravada has beenthe predominant religion of continental South Asia and theTipitaka or Pali Canon [20] is its canonical text whichcontains the earliest record of Buddharsquos teachings The mostprevalent meditative techniques of the Theravada traditionare Shamatha and Vipassana which emphasize avoidingdiscursive thought by letting the practitioner concentrate onan object of meditation (Shamatha) or hisher own mentalactivity (Vipassana) [65] In Buddhist scriptures Shamathapractice relates to training in the concentration of attentionso that the practitioners are instructed to place undistractedattention on the object ofmeditationwhilewithdrawing theirfocus from other objects [65 66] Vipassana refers to insightinto the true nature of reality entailing an understanding ofthe impermanence of everything that exists which is coupledwith pacification (serenity) of the mind [67 pages 1287-1288(IV1410)]

TheMahayana tradition incorporated the canonical textsof the Theravada tradition but also introduced a vast corpusof philosophical and devotional texts with the most distinc-tive feature being the ldquogreat compassionrdquo an inherent compo-nent of enlightenment which is manifested in bodhisattvas(enlightened beings) The Mahayana tradition is the largestmajor tradition of Buddhism and is prominent in NorthAsiaMahayanaBuddhists performan assortment of differenttypes of meditation practices many of which are rootedin Shamatha and Vipassana practices particularly types ofmeditation from the Tiantai Mahayana tradition [68] More-over Zen concentration meditation is similar to Shamathain the sense that it is also performed through prolongedconcentration on an object ofmeditationmost commonly onthe breath in order to experience one-pointedness ofmind orSamadhi [26 pages 57 97]

The third tradition is Vajrayana Buddhism which isoften called Tantric Buddhism and is a central tradition ofTibetan Buddhism that adopted elements of Hindu Tantricmethods and Mahayana Buddhism [69 70] Although anumber of practices in Vajrayana Buddhism originated inMahayana (eg training in compassionSix Paramitas) andTheravada (eg renunciation impermanence elements ofShamatha and Vipassana) they are practiced and integratedin a Vajrayana context [71] There are three streams ofVajrayana practice Generation Completion with Sign andCompletion without Sign Generation or development prac-tices are performed during the first stage of the meditation

4 BioMed Research International

practice [72] A central generation practice that will bediscussed in this review is self-generation-as-Deity practice(Tibetan ldquoKyerimrdquo hereafter referred to as Deity meditation)which involves visualizing oneself as a particular Deity andholding the focus of attention on the internally generatedimage surrounded by his or her entourage The completionstages are divided into completion practices ldquowithout signrdquothat include Rig-pa meditation a practice during whichthe meditator visualizes the dissolution of the Deity andits entourage into emptiness and aspires to achieve a stateof awareness that is devoid of conceptualization [73 74]Completion ldquowithout signrdquo are advanced tantric practicescalled ldquothe six Yogas of Naropardquo [75] one of which is g-Tummo whichwill be discussed in this reviewThe g-TummoVajrayana practice is also called ldquopsychic heatrdquo since it isassociated with intense sensations of bodily heat in the spine[76ndash78] and involves breathing and muscle exercises as wellas visualization techniques that enable the meditators togenerate and maintain mental images of flames at specificbodily locations that are accompanied by an intense sensationof heat in the spinal area

Vajrayana practices are related to Hindu Tantric prac-tices which were developed within ancient Hinduism anddescribed in the Yoga-Sutras [79] Hindu Tantric practicesalso distinguish different stages of practice In the Dharanastage the meditation consists of concentrative techniques ofabsorption in a single object of meditation often in objectswith religious significance such as deities [80 Chapter 8 page2] The practice of Dharana precedes Dhyana during whichthe meditator disengages from a single object of meditationto a complete absorption in meditation which leads to anonconceptual state of consciousness [81 82] Hindu andBuddhist Tantric practices share some commonalities in thesense that both practices place an emphasis on concentrativevisualization techniques on religious objects or deities bothdescribe similar stages of practice and both place an empha-sis on achieving a nonconceptual state of consciousness

While meditative techniques of all Buddhist teachingsstress liberation from all conceptual delusions the means ofachieving it are quite different Specifically Buddhist textsstate that Theravada styles of meditation such as ShamathaVipassana or Mindfulness are techniques that emphasizeldquointernally steadyingrdquo or stabilize the ldquounstable mindrdquo andcultivate the state of quiescence and tranquility throughwhich the nature of the mind could be seen without obstruc-tion [67 pages 1287-1288 (IV410)] [83 pages 152-153 (I165)335 (II290)] Similarly certain Mahayana practices such asZen concentration meditation also place an emphasis onone pointed concentration as well as calmness [26 pages 5797] Vajrayana scriptures by contrast emphasize the trainingldquowhich is not exactly the same as keeping the mind still andquietrdquo [84 page 118] but rather aims at the realization of ldquoself-existing wakefulnessrdquo or ldquoan awake qualityrdquo of the mind freefrom dualistic thoughts which is ldquolike a radiant flame of acandle which exists all by itself rdquo [84 page 88] FurthermoreVajrayana teaching emphasizes that the preoccupation withldquobeing too calmrdquo blocks ldquothe recognition of self-existingwakefulnessrdquo and that in aVajrayana context ldquoit is sometimessaid that stillness is not absolutely necessary rdquo [84 pages

85-86] Thus from a Vajrayana perspective the conceptu-alization of meditation as a relaxation response seems tobe incongruent with Tibetan views of Vajrayana Tantricpractices which do not presuppose relaxation but containdescriptions that are more consistent with the generation ofan arousal response

4 Relaxation and Tonic Alertnessduring Meditation

As alluded to the above Buddhist texts describe Theravadatypes of meditation as practices that promote not simply arelaxed state of mind but a state of relaxation and alert-ness [23] Moreover certain Mahayana practices notablyZen concentration meditation place a special emphasis oncalmness [26 page 57] Indeed empirical evidence thatsomemeditation practices generate a relaxation response canalready be found in Bensonrsquos studies from the 1970s and 1980s(eg [8 85]) Since then dozens of studies have demonstratedthat certain types of meditation from the Theravada andMahayana traditions elicit a relaxation response even aftera brief period of meditation (eg 20 minutes [86 87])Most of these studies investigated Mindfulness meditationalthough there have been studies on Zen concentration andVipassana as well (eg [10ndash13]) Such findings have beenreplicated many times in the past and it is now widelyaccepted that Mindfulness meditation can be reliably used toalleviate the effects of stress and depression and to increaserelaxation In fact before the term ldquoMindfulness Based StressReduction (MBSR)rdquo was introduced to describe interven-tions that implement Mindfulness in order to reduce stressthese interventions were explicitly called ldquoStress Reductionand Relaxation Programsrdquo (eg [88]) Moreover based onBuddhist scriptures that emphasize not only relaxation butalso warn against the hindrances of drowsiness and sleepduring the practice [89 90] Britton et al [25] hypothesizedthat meditation would promote not only relaxation but also astate of tonic alertness In line with this hypothesis Brittonet al [25] reviewed over 20 studies that demonstrate thatcertain types of meditation mostly from the Theravada andMahayana traditions can activate neural areas that are asso-ciated with tonic alertness Their review incorporated mostlyMindfulness and Zen practices but also a Vipassana andShamatha meditation study as well as studies on non-TantricTibetan practices that are different from Vajrayana (egfocusing on a single dot Brefczynski-Lewis et al [91]) andLoving-Kindness Meditation that is practiced in all Buddhisttraditions and is not specific to Theravada Mahayana orVajrayana [65 84] Importantly Britton et al [25] reviewedstudies that showed that Theravada and Mahayana typesof meditation can activate the dACC DLPFC the anteriorinsula the inferior parietal lobule the thalamus and the brainstem which are areas that are implicated in tonic alertness[25 63]

41 Relaxation Response during Theravada and MahayanaMeditation Several studies have used physiologicalmeasures in order to demonstrate increased parasympatheticactivation during Theravada and Mahayana types of

BioMed Research International 5

meditation An influential and highly cited study in thisregard was conducted by Tang et al [92] who comparedtwo groups of participants without Mindfulness meditationexperience who were randomly assigned to one of twoexperimental conditions half the subjects were required toperform ldquointegrative body-mind training (IBMT)rdquo whichincorporates aspects of Mindfulness training for 20 minutesduring a 5-day period and the other half underwent a formof relaxation training that involved squeezing and relaxingindividualmuscle groups Tang et al [92]measuredHRV andGSR before during and after training in either meditation orrelaxation and showed that the participants in the meditationgroup demonstrated significantly more parasympatheticactivation and less sympathetic activation than the relaxationcontrol Specifically the IBMT group demonstrated increasesin HF and lower GSR relative to the relaxation controlleading the authors to conclude that the meditation groupsignificantly increased the activity of the parasympatheticsystem and decreased the activity of the sympathetic systemrelative to the relaxation control Similarly Ditto et al [93]recruited 32 experimental subjects without meditationexperience who were randomly assigned to either a typeof Mindfulness meditation that involved body scanning acontrol condition during which subjects performed musclerelaxation exercises or a waiting-list control group Theauthors measured respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA)through a vagal tone monitor which as mentioned is ameasure of respiration that is synchronized to the HRV andgenerated by the parasympathetic nervous system Ditto et al[93] showed that RSA was increased for the participants whoperformed Mindfulness meditation relative to the controlsubjects indicating that the parasympathetic system wasactivated during the meditation and a relaxation responseoccurred Similar findings were demonstrated by Krygieret al [94] who observed increases in HF and decreases inLFHFduringVipassanameditation relative to a rest baselinefor 36 participants who participated in a Vipassana retreatMoreover recent physiological measures that were obtainedduring Zen concentration meditation also demonstrated anincrease in the activity of the parasympathetic system duringthis practice as well For example Wu and Lo [86] comparedthe EKG activity of a group of 10 experienced meditators(an average of 6 years of experience) who performed a typeof meditation called ldquoZen Chakrardquo where practitionersconcentrate on a ldquoChakrardquomdasha nonphysical ldquoenergy pointrdquomdashlocated inside the third ventricle of the human brain tothe EKG activity of a group of 10 participants withoutmeditation experience Wu and Lo [86] measured the EKGactivity during 2 sessions a 10-minute rest condition for bothmeditators and nonmeditators and a 20-minute conditionof either meditation (for the meditators group) or rest (forthe control group) and showed that the meditation resultedin an HF increase as well as decreased LFHF relative to thenonmeditation control group These results were interpretedto indicate that Zen Chakra meditation ldquoappears to pushthe sympathovagal balance to parasympathetic dominancerdquo[86] In another study Takahashi et al [87] measured theEKG activity of 20 participants who were taught to performSu-soku meditation which is a Zen concentration practice

that is performed by silently counting onersquos breaths so thatone inhales naturally and exhales when the numbers arerecited If other thoughts occur during the meditation theparticipant is instructed to let them pass and direct his orher attention back to the counting As a control conditionparticipants were trained to breath at a rate of 025Hz intempo with the sound of a metronome in order to accountfor the respiratory frequency influences on HRV Takahashiet al [87] measured the EKG activity during both themeditation and control condition and observed an increasein HF as well as a decrease in LFHF in the meditationrelative to the control condition which was interpreted tomean that the parasympathetic system was more activeduring the meditation relative to the control

In addition a multitude of studies have demonstratedthat Mindfulness meditation can elicit a relaxation responseusing self-reports that are correlatedwith relaxation and clin-ical stress reduction programs that implement Mindfulnessmeditation have been shown to reduce stress and increaserelaxation even after 4 to 5 weeks of training [95 96] Inone such study Jain et al [96] introduced a clinical inter-vention program that incorporated 5 sessions of Mindfulnessmeditation that was conducted in 4 sessions of 15 hours andan additional 6-hour session over a period of 4 weeks Theparticipants who performed meditation were compared toparticipants in a ldquosomatic relaxation (SR)rdquo intervention thatwas performed over an identical time period and number ofsessions where they performedmuscle relaxation techniquesand breathing and imagery exercises as well as to a waitinglist control group They found that the participantsrsquo ratingsof psychological well-being significantly increased followingthe meditation intervention in comparison to SR indicatingan enhancement in positive emotional states and decreasedstress Similarly inMackenzie et al [97] 30 participants wererandomly assigned to a short 4-weekMindfulnessmeditationintervention or a waiting list control group and they wereinstructed to practice meditation for at least 10 minutes aday 5 days a week The intervention and control participantscompleted a battery of questionnaires before and immediatelyafter the 4-week training program that assesses the emotionaland overall well-being Mackenzie et al [97] found thatreportedwell-being life satisfaction and relaxation increasedfor the intervention group but remained stable for the controlgroup demonstrating increased relaxation as a consequenceof Mindfulness meditation Similar findings have been con-sistently reported dozens of times in previous research whereMindfulness meditation was typically practiced for an 8-week period (eg [10ndash12]) and the ability of Mindfulnessmeditation to alleviate stress induce relaxation and regulateanxiety is now a widely accepted phenomenon in scientificresearch as well as clinical contexts (eg [12 98ndash101])

Furthermore several Yoga practices that emphasize relax-ation techniques (eg Yoga Nidra) as well as concentrationon a single object of meditation such as the breath fora prolonged period of time (and are therefore similar toTheravada and Mahayana forms of meditation) also lead toincreased relaxation and a reduction in stress Just as in thecase of Theravada and Mahayana types of meditation theability of these types of Yoga practices to induce relaxation

6 BioMed Research International

and relieve stress has been found in previous studies andextensively discussed in the scientific literature [102ndash104]

42 Tonic Alertness during Theravada and Mahayana Med-itation As reviewed in Britton et al [25] neuroimagingstudies have shown that the activity in brain regions relatedto tonic awareness can be enhanced during Theravada andMahayana types of meditation Asmentioned tonic alertnessis associated with neural activity in the dACC DLPFC theanterior insula the inferior parietal lobule the thalamus andthe brain stem [34 63 64] In a study that demonstratedtonic alertness in both Vipassana and Shamatha Manna etal [105] measured the fMRI BOLD signal in 8 Theravadamonks with an average of over 15000 hours of Shamatha andVipassana meditation experience as well as in 8 novices with10 days of meditation experience Both groups of participantsperformed 3 experimental blocks inside the fMRI scannereach of which began with a 3-minute rest condition and wasfollowed by 6 minutes of Shamatha meditation where theyfocused on their breathing and 6 minutes of Vipassana med-itation They found stronger BOLD activation in brain areasrelated to tonic alertness in highly experienced meditators(monks) that performed both Shamatha and Vipassana andin novices that performed Vipassana meditation SpecificallyManna et al [105] found that when monks performedShamatha the fMRI BOLD signal in the left and right dACCDLPFC and anterior insula was stronger than during therest control condition Moreover for the monks Vipassanameditation led to an increased signal in the DLPFC areaOn the other hand for the novice meditators Shamathameditation did not show an increased BOLD signal that isrelated to tonic alertness possibly due to insufficient expertisewith this practice but Vipassana meditation led to increasedactivation in the left dACC indicative of enhanced tonicalertness

Allen et al [106] recruited 61 participants without anymeditation experience who were randomly assigned toeither a 6-week Mindfulness meditation course or a 6-week ldquoactive-controlrdquo condition that involved group readingsand discussions This control condition was hypothesized toldquocultivate absorption and thought related processes into animaginary narrative in contrast to the present-centered andopen-monitoring aspect of mindfulnessrdquo [106] Allen et al[106] found increased DLPFC activation in the meditationgroup relative to the control and also found that the amountof meditation practice positively correlated with the level ofdACC activation that occurred during the meditation Asreviewed by Britton et al [25] similar findings of increasedactivation in neural areas related to tonic alertness have beenobserved in additional studies on Vipassana (eg [107 108])Mindfulness (eg [109]) and Zenmeditation (eg [110 111])

Additional evidence that Theravada types of meditationlead to tonic alertness was obtained by several recent studiesthat have shown that Mindfulness (eg [112 113]) andShamatha [114] types of meditation can lead to a decreasein the activity of neural structures that are more activeduring unfocused activity than during attention demandingtasks [115ndash117] These areas include the ventral medial pre-frontal cortex posterior cingulate inferior parietal lobule

and the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex which have beencollectively termed the brainrsquos ldquodefault networkrdquo [118]

Furthermore recent studies have investigated the influ-ence of meditation on tonic alertness using behavioural tasksthat are specifically designed tomeasure alerting attention InJha et al [119] the authors utilized the ldquoattentional networktestrdquo (ANT) where in each trial participants are presentedwith an arrow target that is surrounded by distractor arrowsthat point in either the same direction (congruent flankers)or a different direction (incongruent flankers) as the targetMoreover the target is preceded by one of three cue condi-tions a valid cue a spatially neutral central cue a spatiallyneutral double cue or a no cue condition Importantly theefficiency of alerting attentional processes is assessed by theANT as the reaction-time (RT) difference between the doublecue and the no cue conditions Jha et al [119] assessed changesin tonic alertness in 3 groups of participants one groupparticipated in an intensive Shamatha retreat for 30 minutesa day for 8 weeks The second group practiced Shamathafor 30 minutes a day for 8 weeks and a third group didnot undergo any meditation training They compared tonicalertness at the beginning of the study (Time-point 1) andfollowing the intervention (retreat or meditation programTime-point 2) Jha et al [119] showed that although theefficiency of alerting attention did not differ at Time-point1 between the three groups of participants at Time-point2 the alerting attentional mechanisms of participants whoattended the retreat became significantly more efficient (theRT difference between the no cue and double cue conditionswas reduced relative to Time-point 1) and the magnitude ofthe improvement in alerting attentionwas correlated with themeditation experience of the retreat participants Moreoverthe increase in alerting efficiency was driven by a decrease inRT to no cue trials and suggests that the meditators becamemore vigilant and their tonic alertness increased

In MacLean et al [120] the authors measured the influ-ences of Shamatha meditation on tonic alertness using asustained-attention task where single lines were presentedat the centre of the screen while participants fixated on asmall yellow dot The lines could be either long (90 of thetime) or short (10 of the time) and the participants wererequired to respond to the short lines by pressing a responsebutton They recruited 29 participants [120] with an averageexperience of 2668 hours of meditation who participated ina 3-month Shamatha meditation retreat that consisted of 5hours of meditation training per dayThe sustained attentiontest was administered before at the midpoint and after themeditation retreat The nonparametric index of perceptualsensitivity 1198601015840 was calculated from the hit rates and falsealarm rates for each of the 8 120-trial experimental blocksof the sustained attention task Since the decline in 1198601015840 waslargest during the first 4 blocks MacLean et al [120] definedimprovements in tonic alertness as positive changes in theslope of 1198601015840 during the first four blocks MacLean et al[120] showed that the slope of 1198601015840 was more positive at themidpoint and after the meditation retreat in comparisonto the pre-retreat baseline demonstrating that Shamathameditation reduced the decrement in 1198601015840 that occurs duringthe sustained attention task and therefore increased tonic

BioMed Research International 7

alertnessThe authors interpreted their results to indicate thatmeditation training can ldquodecrease resource demands and thusimprove vigilance (tonic alertness)rdquo [120]

Hence the findings of studies that investigated tonicalertness through behavioural measures complement neu-roimaging studies and together they demonstrate that certainTheravada and Mahayana types of meditation can increasethe activity in neural areas related to tonic alertness whichin turn leads to improvements on tasks that require tonicalertness The recent findings of tonic alertness during Ther-avada and Mahayana meditation are important because theycomplement the picture portrayed by Buddhist scriptureswhich describe meditation as a practice that generates botha relaxed and an alert state of mind [23 26] Moreoverour review is consistent with previous findings and reviewsthat consistently demonstrated a relaxation response duringTheravada and Mahayana types of meditation [10ndash13]

5 Arousal and Phasic Alertness inVajrayana Practices

As opposed to Theravada meditative practices Vajrayanapractice does not cultivate relaxation but an arousal responseVajrayana Buddhist scriptures emphasize the realization ofldquoself-existing wakefulnessrdquo or ldquoan awake qualityrdquo of the mindand warn against excessive tranquility [84] in contrast toTheravada scriptures that emphasize quiescence and tran-quility [67 pages 1287-1288 (IV410)] as well as Mahayanameditation instructions that also emphasize calmness (eg[26] page 57) Furthermore empirical evidence also suggeststhat arousal is generated during specific meditative practicesFor instance the generation of arousal during meditation hasbeen observed in Hindu Tantric practices (eg [121 122]) aswell as in several Vajrayana practices (eg [27 28]) althoughoverall there have been far fewer studies on Vajrayana andHindu Tantric practices than onTheravada and Mahayana

Based on Theravada Buddhist scriptures that empha-size calmness and relaxation and Vajrayana scripturesthat emphasize ldquowakefulnessrdquo Amihai and Kozhevnikov[27] hypothesized that Deity and Rig-pa practices of theVajrayana tradition would generate cognitive and physiologi-cal responses of arousal while Vipassana and Shamatha prac-tices of the Theravada tradition would generate a relaxationresponse In order to investigate the autonomic activationthat is generated during these types of practices Amihai andKozhevnikov [27] compared the EKG activity of experiencedTheravada and Vajrayana meditators (with 8 and 74 years ofmeditation experience resp) as they practiced meditationThe Theravada types of meditation that were investigatedwere Vipassana meditation and Kasina meditation which isa visualization type of Shamatha meditation in which themeditator focuses his or her attention on ldquoKasina objectsrdquothat are described in the Pali Tipitaka and are typicallycolored disks The Vajrayana practices studied were Deityand Rig-pa practices In this study the participants per-formed a 10-minute rest condition that was followed byShamatha and Vipassana meditation (15 minutes each) forthe Theravada meditators and Deity and Rig-pa meditation(15 minutes each) for the Vajrayana meditators Moreover

the participantsrsquo EKG activity was monitored throughout theexperiment Amihai andKozhevnikov [27] showed thatTher-avada types of meditation elicited increased HF (Vipassana)and decreased LFHF (both Vipassana and Kasina) relativeto the rest control condition which is consistent with arelaxation response On the other hand Vajrayana practicesproduced increased arousal as indexed by decreased HF(both Deity and Rig-pa) during the meditation relative tothe control condition Moreover Kozhevnikov et al [29]and Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] presented experiencedTheravada (an average of 8ndash123 years of experience) andVajrayana meditators (an average of 74ndash13 years of experi-ence) with 2 visual tests (the Mental Rotation Test (MRT)and Visual Memory Test (VMT [123]) see [29] for details)which were performed before and immediately following a20-minute session of Theravada meditation (Vipassana andKasina Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27]) or Vajrayana prac-tices (Deity Kozhevnikov et al [29] and Rig-pa Amihai andKozhevnikov [27]) As mentioned the dramatic improve-ments on visual tasks immediately following a stimulus oractivity are indicative of enhanced phasic alertness Hencethe authors hypothesized that improved performance onthe visual tests immediately after the meditation practicewould indicate that phasic alertness occurred during themeditation and that such an improvement would be observedfollowingVajrayana practices In linewith this hypothesis theexperimental results showed that onlyVajrayana practices ledto a large and immediate increase in performance on thesetasks while Theravada meditators did not demonstrate anyimprovement in their performance following the practiceHence these studies demonstrate that Vajrayana practicesand not Theravada types of meditation lead to an arousalresponse and phasic alertness

Additional studies that demonstrated that Vajrayanapractices can increase the activity of the sympathetic sys-tem and generate an arousal response were conducted onpractitioners of g-Tummo meditation which as mentionedis associated with intense sensations of bodily heat in thespine Interestingly Benson himself reported a phenomenonthat was unclear to him at the time that two of the three g-Tummo practitioners that participated in his study exhibitedan activation of the sympathetic system as evidenced byincreased metabolism and oxygen consumption [124] whichis consistent with arousal and not a relaxation responseMoreover in Kozhevnikov et al [28] it was demonstratedexperimentally that g-Tummo meditation can indeed raisethe temperature of the body which indicates a sympa-thetic response Nonshivering generation of body heatmdashthermogenesismdashis mediated by the sympathetic nervoussystem [55 56] In humans thermogenesis is caused mainlyby brown adipose tissue which shunts the energy obtainedfrom the oxidation of free fatty acids into heat whichis then distributed throughout the body via the adiposetissue vasculature [56] Importantly brown adipose tissueactivity in humans is stimulated by the sympathetic ner-vous system [55] Specifically an increased discharge fromsupraspinal sympathetic premotor pathways results in thesympathetic activation of brown adipose tissue which leadsto thermogenesis [56] By attaching a small thermometer in

8 BioMed Research International

the armpit of highly experienced g-Tummo meditators (6ndash32 years of experience) Kozhevnikov et al [28] were able todemonstrate for the first time that g-Tummo meditators canincrease not only their peripheral but more importantly corebody temperature during the meditation demonstrating thatthe activity of the sympathetic nervous system significantlyincreases as a consequence of this practice Notably the ther-mogenesis induced during g-Tummo was so substantial thatit raised the body temperature of the meditators above thenormal body temperature range and into the range of slightor moderate fever (up to 383∘C) reflecting an enhancedarousal response due to sympathetic activation It shouldbe noted that increases in the peripheral body (meditatorsrsquofingers and toes) temperature during g-Tummo were alsofound in Benson et al [125] however the authors did notattribute such changes to increased sympathetic activationIn contrast Benson et al [125] speculated that increasedsympathetic activation during meditation is ldquounlikelyrdquo as itwould be inconsistent with the parasympathetic activationthat they observed inTheravada and TM types of meditation

In addition to Vajrayana practices several studies con-ducted on Hindu Tantric meditators demonstrated increasedarousal In an early but influential and often cited studyCorby et al [121] recorded the GSR and heart rate duringa Dharana type of meditation called Ananda Marga whichincorporates a focus on breathing while repeating a two-syllable word and ignoring external stimuli They recruited30 experienced Ananda Marga meditators (an average of 21years and 31 hours of practice a day) as well as 10 subjectswithout meditation experience that served as controls TheGSR and heart rates were recorded during 3 experimentalconditions (1) a relaxation control (2) an Ananda Margameditation preparation condition which involves payingattention to the breath while ignoring external stimuli (3)Ananda Marga meditation where the subjects were toldto ignore external stimuli pay attention to their breathingand silently repeat a two-syllable word in phase with theirbreathing In the control group the participants chose theirown word while meditators used a personal mantra thatthey received from their meditation instructor The resultsof Corby et al [121] demonstrated that a state of arousaloccurred during AnandaMarga meditation (1) skin conduc-tance (GSR) increased from the relaxation baseline to themeditation condition but only for themeditators group (2) asmall heart rate increase was observed during the meditationcondition relative to the baseline for the meditators groupBoth of these measures indicated that sympathetic activationoccurred during the meditation demonstrating an arousalresponse

Additionally Telles and Desiraju [122] measured heartrate and GSR during a different type of meditation whichrequires concentration on a light source while contemplatinga universal force They recruited 18 experienced meditators(with an average of 101 years of experience) and compared thephysiological measures obtained during meditation to thoseobtained by the same subjects during a control conditionwhich was similar to the meditation condition but whererandom thinking was allowed and effortful concentrationwas not required The findings of Telles and Desiraju [122]

demonstrated that although therewere no significant changesin GSR an increase in heart rate occurred during the medita-tion condition but not during the nonmeditation conditionrelative to the baseline heart rate obtained prior to eachcondition Hence the findings of this study are indicativeof increased sympathetic activation and an arousal responseduring this type of meditation

To conclude this section as opposed to Theravada andMahayana types of meditation that demonstrate enhancedrelaxation investigations of Vajrayana and certain HinduTantric practices demonstrated increased arousal This onceagain emphasizes the importance of philosophical and cul-tural influences on meditation and demonstrates that theterm ldquomeditationrdquo is in many ways too general when used asa unified descriptor of all Buddhist and Hindu contemplativepractices These findings show that the supposition that ldquotounderstand the psychophysiological influences ofmeditationit should first be conceptually denuded of its cultural andreligious biases [9 page 2]rdquo is highly misleading The dia-metrically opposed findings of relaxation in Theravada andMahayana practices and arousal in Vajrayana and HinduTantric practices point to the opposite conclusion Namelyin order to understand the psychophysiological aspects ofmeditation one needs to carefully examine its cultural andreligious sources

6 Conclusions and Future Directions

The aim of this review was to examine the scientific studiesof meditation while focusing on the unique influences thatdifferent types of meditative traditions have on the activa-tion of the autonomic system and attentional mechanismsWe have presented evidence summarized in Table 1 whichshows that Theravada and Mahayana types of meditationlead to increased parasympathetic activation that underliesa relaxation response while Vajrayana and certain HinduTantric practices elicit enhanced sympathetic activation thatunderlies a robust arousal response In addition we out-lined the cultural and philosophical motivations that haveinfluenced these meditative practices While Theravada andMahayana scriptures emphasize that the purpose of medi-tation is to cultivate tranquility along with mental stabilityVajrayana scriptures describe practices whose purpose is toelicit states of enhanced arousal

It is important to stress that the influences of Vajrayanaand Hindu Tantric practices on physiology and behaviorare only beginning to receive their due attention from thescientific community and the long-term impact of Tantricpractices is still not well understood Hence while it has beendemonstrated that Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric practicescan lead to immediate physiological changes that are coupledwith improved cognitive performance future studies shouldinvestigate the long-term cognitive and physiological changesthat occur as a consequence of such practices As previouslymentioned in contrast to Vajrayana and Hindu Tantricpractices many scientific studies have been conducted onTheravada or Mahayana types of meditation and there isevidence that they can lead to long-term improvements onattentional tasks (eg [25 120 126]) It is thus prudent that

BioMed Research International 9

Table 1 Summary of meditation studies of autonomic activation and alerting attention

Study Meditation type Findings

Tang et al [92] Mindfulness (IBMT) Increased HF anddecreased GSR

Ditto et al [93] Mindfulness Increased RSA

Jain et al [96] Mindfulness Increased perceived positive emotions and decreasedperceived distress

Mackenzie et al [97] Mindfulness Increased perceived well-being life satisfaction andrelaxation

Wu and Lo [86] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHFTakahashi et al [87] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Manna et al [105] ShamathaIncreased fMRI BOLD signal in the dorsal anteriorcingulate cortex (dACC) dorsolateral prefrontal cortex(DLPFC) and anterior insula in meditation experts

Manna et al [105] Vipassana Increased dACC activation in meditation novicesAllen et al [106] Mindfulness Increased DLPFC and dACC activationJha et al [119] Shamatha Increased alerting network efficiencyMacLean et al [120] Shamatha Improvement in a sustained attention taskAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Shamatha (Kasina visualization) Decreased LFHFAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Vipassana Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Rig-pa (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HF and increased performance in mentalrotation (MRT) and visual memory (VMT)

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HFKozhevnikov et al [29] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased MRT and VMT performanceKozhevnikov et al [28] g-Tummo (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased thermogenesisCorby et al [121] Ananda Marga (Dharana) Increased GSR and heart rateTelles and Desiraju [122] Hindu Tantric meditation Increased heart rate

similar long-term studies would be conducted on Tantricpractices

Related to the above another important research direc-tion that has yet to be explored is the long-term influenceof Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric meditation on stress andwell-being As mentioned the finding that Theravada typesof meditation produce relaxation has resulted in their incor-poration into clinical practices as stress reduction techniques(eg [10 21 95 96]) Conversely the finding that Vajrayanaand Hindu Tantric types of meditation produce arousalsuggests that they could be more problematic for people whoare under a high level of stress However it is also likely thatas they gain additional meditation experience Vajrayana andHindu Tantric meditators develop unique strategies to helpthem cope with stressful situations that could arise duringtheir meditation practice for instance by transforming theirnegative emotions into the positive emotional states of thevisualized Deity Such possibilities should be examined infuture studies

In addition future studies should investigate the specificmechanisms that underlie ANS changes during meditationin order to understand the precise factors that mediate thearousal and relaxation responses One possible mediatingfactor could be respiration changes In this context previousstudies on Hindu breathing exercises called Pranayamawhich often serve as preparatory exercises for meditation

[79 page 310] showed that specific breathing techniques canbe used to activate the sympathetic or the parasympatheticnervous systems (eg [127]) A second factor that shouldbe considered is the specific visualization or other contentthat is used for meditation For instance it is plausible thata visualized Tibetan Deity would lead to a high degree ofarousal due to the emotional content that it holds in theeyes of a Tibetan meditator while the inward and outwardflow of the breath that is being attended to during Shamathameditation would not evoke intense emotional reactions

In conclusion although the scientific examination ofthe nature of meditative practices is not new it is onlyin recent years that cognitive scientists and neuroscientistshave begun to investigate the influences of the specificcultural and philosophical contexts out of which meditationpractices developed on the psychophysiological outcomes ofthe practices Such investigations have led to experimentalbreakthroughs that corroborate ideas laid down in Buddhistscriptures about the purpose and effects of meditationSpecifically the scriptural descriptions of heightened arousalduring Vajrayana practices and a relaxed and alert state ofmind during Theravada and Mahayana types of meditationreceived empirical support as research from the past severalyears demonstrated that Vajrayana as well as certain HinduTantric practices lead to heightened arousal and phasicalertness whileTheravada andMahayana types ofmeditation

10 BioMed Research International

elicit a relaxation response coupled with enhanced tonicalertness

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

References

[1] B Bodhi ldquoWhat does mindfulness really mean A canonicalperspectiverdquo Contemporary Buddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 19ndash392011

[2] R Gethin ldquoOn some definitions ofmindfulnessrdquoContemporaryBuddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 263ndash279 2011

[3] P Grossman and N T Van Dam ldquoMindfulness by any othername trials and tribulations of sati in western psychologyand sciencerdquo Contemporary Buddhism An InterdisciplinaryJournal vol 12 no 1 pp 219ndash239 2011

[4] Z Josipovic ldquoDuality and nonduality in meditation researchrdquoConsciousness and Cognition vol 19 no 4 pp 1119ndash1121 2010

[5] H Benson and W Proctor Relaxation Revolution The Scienceand Genetics of Mind Body Healing Scribner New York NYUSA 2011

[6] H Benson B A Rosner B R Marzetta and H P KlemchukldquoDecreased blood pressure in borderline hypertensive subjectswho practiced meditationrdquo Journal of Chronic Diseases vol 27no 3 pp 163ndash169 1974

[7] R K Wallace and H Benson ldquoThe physiology of meditationrdquoScientific American vol 226 no 2 pp 84ndash90 1972

[8] I Kutz J Leserman C Dorrington C H Morrison J ZBorysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation as an adjunct topsychotherapy An outcome studyrdquo Psychotherapy and Psycho-somatics vol 43 no 4 pp 209ndash218 1985

[9] I Kutz J Z Borysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation andpsychotherapy a rationale for the integration of dynamicpsychotherapy the relaxation response and mindfulness med-itationrdquo The American Journal of Psychiatry vol 142 no 1 pp1ndash8 1985

[10] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoMindfulness-based stress reduc-tion for stress management in healthy people a review andmeta-analysisrdquo The Journal of Alternative and ComplementaryMedicine vol 15 no 5 pp 593ndash600 2009

[11] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoA systematic review of neuro-biological and clinical features of mindfulness meditationsrdquoPsychological Medicine vol 40 no 8 pp 1239ndash1252 2010

[12] F Zeidan K T Martucci R Kraft J G McHaffie and R CCoghill ldquo Neural correlates of mindfulness meditation-relatedanxiety reliefrdquo Scandinavica vol 9 pp 751ndash759 2014

[13] B Ivanovski and G S Malhi ldquoThe psychological and neuro-physiological concomitants of mindfulness forms of medita-tionrdquo Acta Neuropsychiatrica vol 19 no 2 pp 76ndash91 2007

[14] J D-E Young and E Taylor ldquoMeditation as a voluntaryhypometabolic state of biological estivationrdquoNews in Physiolog-ical Sciences vol 13 no 3 pp 149ndash153 1998

[15] R Jevning R K Wallace and M Beidebach ldquoThe physiologyof meditation a review A wakeful hypometabolic integratedresponserdquo Neuroscience amp Biobehavioral Reviews vol 16 no 3pp 415ndash424 1992

[16] S E Petersen and M I Posner ldquoThe attention system of thehumanbrain 20 years afterrdquoAnnual Review ofNeuroscience vol35 pp 73ndash89 2012

[17] L K McCorry ldquoPhysiology of the autonomic nervous systemrdquoAmerican Journal of Pharmaceutical Education vol 71 no 4article 78 2007

[18] D R Morse J S Martin M L Furst and L L Dubin ldquoAphysiological and subjective evaluation ofmeditation hypnosisand relaxationrdquo Psychosomatic Medicine vol 39 no 5 pp 304ndash324 1977

[19] A Lutz ldquoMeditation and the neuroscience of consciousness anintroductionrdquo inThe Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness PD Zelazo M Moscovitch and EThompson Eds pp 499ndash551Cambridge University Press New York NY USA 2007

[20] Tipitaka The Pali Canon Legacy Edition 2005 httpwwwaccesstoinsightorgtipitaka

[21] P Grossman L Niemann S Schmidt and H Walach ldquoMind-fulness-based stress reduction and health benefits a meta-analysisrdquo Journal of Psychosomatic Research vol 57 no 1 pp35ndash43 2004

[22] R Gilpin ldquoThe use of Theravada Buddhist practices andperspectives in mindfulness-based cognitive therapyrdquo Contem-porary Buddhism vol 9 no 2 pp 227ndash251 2008

[23] B H GunaratanaMindfulness in Plain English Wisdom Publi-cations Somerville Mass USA 2002

[24] B R Cahn and J Polich ldquoMeditation states and traits EEG ERPand neuroimaging studiesrdquoPsychological Bulletin vol 132 no 2pp 180ndash211 2006

[25] W B Britton J R Lindahl B R Cahn J H Davis and R EGoldman ldquoAwakening is not ametaphor the effects of Buddhistmeditation practices on basic wakefulnessrdquo Annals of the NewYork Academy of Sciences vol 1307 no 1 pp 64ndash81 2014

[26] J D Buksbazen Zen Meditation in Plain English WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1st edition 2002

[27] I Amihai and M Kozhevnikov ldquoArousal vs relaxation acomparison of the neurophysiological and cognitive correlatesof Vajrayana and Theravada meditative practicesrdquo PLoS ONEvol 9 no 7 Article ID e102990 2014

[28] M Kozhevnikov J Elliott J Shephard and K Gramann ldquoNeu-rocognitive and somatic components of temperature increasesduring g-Tummo meditation legend and realityrdquo PLoS ONEvol 8 no 3 Article ID e58244 2013

[29] M Kozhevnikov O Louchakova Z Josipovic and M AMotes ldquoThe enhancement of visuospatial processing efficiencythrough buddhist deity meditationrdquo Psychological Science vol20 no 5 pp 645ndash653 2009

[30] A J CammMMalik J T Bigger G Breithardt S Cerutti andR J Cohen ldquoHeart rate variabilitymdashstandards of measurementphysiological interpretation and clinical userdquo Circulation vol93 no 5 pp 1043ndash1065 1996

[31] G F Chess R M K Tam and F R Calaresu ldquoInfluence ofcardiac neural inputs on rhythmic variations of heart period inthe catrdquoAmerican Journal of Physiology vol 228 no 3 pp 775ndash780 1975

[32] M N Levy ldquoSympathetic-parasympathetic interactions in theheartrdquo Circulation Research vol 29 no 5 pp 437ndash445 1971

[33] N Weinbach and A Henik ldquoPhasic alertness can modulateexecutive control by enhancing global processing of visualstimulirdquo Cognition vol 121 no 3 pp 454ndash458 2011

BioMed Research International 11

[34] W Sturm A de Simone B J Krause et al ldquoFunctional anatomyof intrinsic alertness evidence for a fronto-parietal-thalamic-brainstem network in the right hemisphererdquo Neuropsychologiavol 37 no 7 pp 797ndash805 1999

[35] P Low ldquoAutonomic nervous systemrdquo in The Merck ManualR S Porter and J L Kaplan Eds Merck Sharp amp DohmeWhitehouse Station NJ USA 2013

[36] G E Billman ldquoThe LFHF ratio does not accurately measurecardiac sympatho-vagal balancerdquo Frontiers in Physiology vol 4article 26 2013

[37] G G Berntson J T Bigger Jr D L Eckberg et al ldquoHeartrate variability origins methods and interpretive caveatsrdquoPsychophysiology vol 34 no 6 pp 623ndash648 1997

[38] K Molgaard K Hermansen and P Bjerregaard ldquoSpectralcomponents of short-term RR interval variability in healthysubjects and effects of risk factorsrdquo European Heart Journal vol15 no 9 pp 1174ndash1183 1994

[39] J T Bigger Jr J L Fleiss L M Rolnitzky and R C SteinmanldquoStability over time of heart period variability in patients withprevious myocardial infarction and ventricular arrhythmiasrdquoAmerican Journal of Cardiology vol 69 no 8 pp 718ndash723 1992

[40] K M Stein J S Borer C Hochreiter et al ldquoPrognostic valueand physiological correlates of heart rate variability in chronicsevere mitral regurgitationrdquo Circulation vol 88 no 1 pp 127ndash135 1993

[41] A Malliani M Pagani F Lombardi and S Cerutti ldquoCardio-vascular neural regulation explored in the frequency domainrdquoCirculation vol 84 no 2 pp 482ndash492 1991

[42] M V Kamath and E L Fallen ldquoPower spectral analysis of heartrate variability a noninvasive signature of cardiac autonomicfunctionrdquoCritical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering vol 21 no3 pp 245ndash311 1993

[43] O Rimoldi S Pierini A Ferrari S Cerutti M Pagani andA Malliani ldquoAnalysis of short-term oscillations of R-R andarterial pressure in conscious dogsrdquo The American Journal ofPhysiologymdashHeart and Circulatory Physiology vol 258 no 4pp H967ndashH976 1990

[44] N Montano T G Ruscone A Porta F Lombardi M Paganiand A Malliani ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart rate vari-ability to assess the changes in sympathovagal balance duringgraded orthostatic tiltrdquoCirculation vol 90 no 4 pp 1826ndash18311994

[45] S Akselrod D Gordon F A Ubel D C Shannon A CBerger and R J Cohen ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart ratefluctuation a quantitative probe of beat-to-beat cardiovascularcontrolrdquo Science vol 213 no 4504 pp 220ndash222 1981

[46] M L Appel R D Berger J P Saul J M Smith and R J CohenldquoBeat to beat variability in cardiovascular variables noise ormusicrdquo Journal of the American College of Cardiology vol 14no 5 pp 1139ndash1148 1989

[47] B Pomeranz R J Macaulay M A Caudill et al ldquoAssessment ofautonomic function in humans by heart rate spectral analysisrdquoThe American Journal of Physiology vol 248 no 1 pp H151ndashH153 1985

[48] F Morady W H Kou S D Nelson et al ldquoAccentuated antago-nism between beta-adrenergic and vagal effects on ventricularrefractoriness in humansrdquo Circulation vol 77 no 2 pp 289ndash297 1988

[49] D L Eckberg S KMohanty andM Raczkowska ldquoTrigeminal-baroreceptor reflex interactions modulate human cardiac vagalefferent activityrdquo Journal of Physiology vol 347 pp 75ndash83 1984

[50] F Yasuma and J-I Hayano ldquoRespiratory Sinus Arrhythmiawhy does the heartbeat synchronize with respiration rhythmrdquoChest vol 125 no 2 pp 683ndash690 2004

[51] P G Katona and F Jih ldquoRespiratory sinus arrhythmia nonin-vasive measure of parasympathetic cardiac controlrdquo Journal ofApplied Physiology vol 39 no 5 pp 801ndash805 1975

[52] F L Gobel L A Norstrom R R Nelson C R Jorgensen andY Wang ldquoThe rate-pressure product as an index of myocardialoxygen consumption during exercise in patients with anginapectorisrdquo Circulation vol 57 no 3 pp 549ndash556 1978

[53] H M Martini and E F Bartholomew Essentials of Anatomyand Physiology Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ USA 2ndedition 2001

[54] J A Gutrecht ldquoSympathetic skin responserdquo Journal of ClinicalNeurophysiology vol 11 no 5 pp 519ndash524 1994

[55] J Nedergaard T Bengtsson and B Cannon ldquoUnexpectedevidence for active brown adipose tissue in adult humansrdquoThe American Journal of PhysiologymdashEndocrinology andMetabolism vol 293 no 2 pp E444ndashE452 2007

[56] S F Morrison and W W Blessing ldquoCentral nervous systemregulation of body temperaturerdquo in Central Regulation of Auto-nomic Functions I J Llewellyn-Smith and A J M VerberneEds pp 1ndash34 Oxford Scholarship Online 2011

[57] L R Derogatis and N Melisaratos ldquoThe brief symptom inven-tory an introductory reportrdquo PsychologicalMedicine vol 13 no3 pp 595ndash605 1983

[58] M Horowitz N Adler and S Kegeles ldquoA scale for measuringthe occurrence of positive states of mind a preliminary reportrdquoPsychosomatic Medicine vol 50 no 5 pp 477ndash483 1988

[59] T W Robbins ldquoArousal systems and attentional processesrdquoBiological Psychology vol 45 no 1ndash3 pp 57ndash71 1997

[60] T W Robbins ldquoChemistry of the mind neurochemical mod-ulation of prefrontal cortical functionrdquo Journal of ComparativeNeurology vol 493 no 1 pp 140ndash146 2005

[61] R P Hasegawa A M Blitz N L Geller and M E GoldbergldquoNeurons inmonkey prefrontal cortex that track past or predictfuture performancerdquo Science vol 290 no 5497 pp 1786ndash17892000

[62] M I Posner ldquoMeasuring alertnessrdquo Annals of the New YorkAcademy of Sciences vol 1129 pp 193ndash199 2008

[63] W Sturm and K Willmes ldquoOn the functional neuroanatomyof intrinsic and phasic alertnessrdquo NeuroImage vol 14 no 1 ppS76ndashS84 2001

[64] S Sadaghiani R Scheeringa K Lehongre B Morillon A LGiraud and A Kleinschmidt ldquoIntrinsic connectivity networksalpha oscillations and tonic alertness a simultaneous elec-troencephalographyfunctional magnetic resonance imagingstudyrdquo The Journal of Neuroscience vol 30 no 30 pp 10243ndash10250 2010

[65] B Buddhaghosa Visuddhimagga The Path of Purificationtranslated byBNanamoli Buddhist Publication Society KandySri Lanka 4th edition 2010

[66] AWallaceTheAttention Revolution Unlocking the Power of theFocused Mind Wisdom Publications Somerville Mass USA2006

[67] B Bhikkhu The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha A Trans-lation of the Anguttara Nikaya Wisdom Publications BostonMass USA 2012

[68] S ZhiyiThe Essentials of Buddhist Meditation B Dharmamiratranslation Kalavinka Press Seattle Wash USA 2009

12 BioMed Research International

[69] G SamuelTheOrigins of Yoga and Tantra Indic Religions to theThirteenth Century vol 2013 Cambridge University Press NewDelhi India 2008

[70] K A Harper and R L Brown Eds The Roots of Tantra StateUniversity of New York Press New York NY USA 2002

[71] N Panchen and P W Gyalpo Perfect Conduct Ascertaining theThree Vows Wisdom Boston Mass USA 1999

[72] S RinpocheDzogchen and Padmasambhava Rigpa FellowshipSan Diego Calif USA 2nd edition 1990

[73] T Wangyal Wonders of the Natural Mind The Essence ofDzogchen in the Native Bon Tradition Snow Lion Ithaca NYUSA 1993

[74] D Goleman The Meditative Mind The Varieties of MeditativeExperience GP Putnamrsquos Sons New York NY USA 1996

[75] Tsong-Kha-Pa and G C MullinThe Six Yogas of Naropa SnowLion Publications Boston Mass USA 2005

[76] WY Evans-WentzTibetanYoga and Secret Doctorines PilgrimsPublishing Varanisa India 2002

[77] G H Mullin Readings on Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1997

[78] G H Mullin Tsongkhaparsquos Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1996

[79] I K TaimniThe Science of Yoga The Theosophical PublishingHouse Wheaton Ill USA 1961

[80] S Kripalvanand The Science of Meditation Sri DahyabhaiHirabhai Patel Bombay India 1977

[81] G FeuersteinThePhilosophy of Classical Yoga InnerTraditionsRochester NY USA 1996

[82] J D Nash and A Newberg ldquoToward a unifying taxonomy anddefinition for meditationrdquo Frontiers in Psychology vol 4 article806 2013

[83] M WalsheThe Long Discourses of the Buddha A Translation ofthe Digha Nikaya (Teachings of the Buddha) Wisdom Publica-tions Boston Mass USA 1995

[84] T U Rinpoche As It Is vol 2 Ranjung Yeshe PublicationsHong Kong 1999

[85] H Benson The Relaxation Response HyperCollins New YorkNY USA 1975

[86] S D Wu and P C Lo ldquoInward-attention meditation increasesparasympathetic activity a study based onheart rate variabilityrdquoBiomedical Research vol 29 no 5 pp 245ndash250 2008

[87] T Takahashi T Murata T Hamada et al ldquoChanges in EEGand autonomic nervous activity during meditation and theirassociation with personality traitsrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 55 no 2 pp 199ndash207 2005

[88] J Kabat-Zinn ldquoAn outpatient program in behavioral medicinefor chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulnessmeditation theoretical considerations and preliminary resultsrdquoGeneral Hospital Psychiatry vol 4 no 1 pp 33ndash47 1982

[89] B Nanamoli and B Bhikkhu ldquoSekha-patipada Sutta (thepractice for one in training)rdquo in The Middle Length Discoursesof the Buddha A New Translation of the Majjhima WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1995

[90] T Gyatso Stages of Meditation Snow Lion Publication IthacaNY USA 2001

[91] J A Brefczynski-Lewis A Lutz H S Schaefer D B Levinsonand R J Davidson ldquoNeural correlates of attentional expertise inlong-termmeditation practitionersrdquo Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences of the United States of America vol 104 no27 pp 11483ndash11488 2007

[92] Y-Y Tang Y Ma Y Fan et al ldquoCentral and autonomicnervous system interaction is altered by short-termmeditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 106 no 22 pp 8865ndash8870 2009

[93] B Ditto M Eclache and N Goldman ldquoShort-term autonomicand cardiovascular effects of mindfulness body scan medita-tionrdquo Annals of Behavioral Medicine vol 32 no 3 pp 227ndash2342006

[94] J R Krygier J A J Heathers S Shahrestani M Abbott J JGross and A H Kemp ldquoMindfulness meditation well-beingand heart rate variability a preliminary investigation into theimpact of intensive vipassanameditationrdquo International Journalof Psychophysiology vol 89 no 3 pp 305ndash313 2013

[95] J D Agee S Danoff-Burg and C A Grant ldquoComparingbrief stress management courses in a community samplemindfulness skills and progressive muscle relaxationrdquo Explorevol 5 no 2 pp 104ndash109 2009

[96] S Jain S L Shapiro S Swanick et al ldquoA randomized controlledtrial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation trainingeffects on distress positive states of mind rumination anddistractionrdquoAnnals of Behavioral Medicine vol 33 no 1 pp 11ndash21 2007

[97] C S Mackenzie P A Poulin and R Seidman-Carlson ldquoA briefmindfulness-based stress reduction intervention for nurses andnurse aidesrdquoAppliedNursing Research vol 19 no 2 pp 105ndash1092006

[98] O Singleton B K Holzel M Vangel N Brach J Carmody andS W Lazar ldquoChange in brainstem gray matter concentrationfollowing a mindfulness-based intervention is correlated withimprovement in psychological well-beingrdquo Frontiers in HumanNeuroscience vol 8 article 33 2014

[99] P Ekman R J Davidson M Ricard and B A WallaceldquoBuddhist and psychological perspectives on emotions andwell-beingrdquo Current Directions in Psychological Science vol 14no 2 pp 59ndash63 2005

[100] P Ekman and R J Davidson The Nature of Emotion Funda-mental Questions Series in Affective Science OxfordUniversityPress New York NY USA 1994

[101] R A Baer ldquoMindfulness training as a clinical intervention aconceptual and empirical reviewrdquo Clinical Psychology Scienceand Practice vol 10 no 2 pp 125ndash143 2003

[102] C C Streeter P L Gerbarg R B Saper D A Ciraulo and RP Brown ldquoEffects of yoga on the autonomic nervous systemgamma-aminobutyric-acid and allostasis in epilepsy depres-sion and post-traumatic stress disorderrdquo Medical Hypothesesvol 78 no 5 pp 571ndash579 2012

[103] M Balasubramaniam S Telles and P M Doraiswamy ldquoYogaon our minds a systematic review of yoga for neuropsychiatricdisordersrdquo Frontiers in Psychiatry vol 3 article 117 2013

[104] S Telles and N Singh ldquoScience of the mind ancient yoga textsand modern studiesrdquo Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol36 no 1 pp 93ndash108 2013

[105] A Manna A Raffone M G Perrucci et al ldquoNeural correlatesof focused attention and cognitive monitoring in meditationrdquoBrain Research Bulletin vol 82 no 1-2 pp 46ndash56 2010

[106] M Allen M Dietz K S Blair et al ldquoCognitive-affectiveneural plasticity following active-controlled mindfulness inter-ventionrdquoThe Journal of Neuroscience vol 32 no 44 pp 15601ndash15610 2012

[107] T Gard B K Holzel A T Sack et al ldquoPain attenuation throughmindfulness is associated with decreased cognitive control and

BioMed Research International 13

increased sensory processing in the brainrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol22 no 11 pp 2692ndash2702 2012

[108] B K Holzel U Ott T Gard et al ldquoInvestigation of mindful-ness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometryrdquoSocial Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 3 no 1 pp 55ndash61 2008

[109] N A S Farb A K Anderson HMayberg J Bean DMcKeonand Z V Segal ldquoMinding onersquos emotions mindfulness trainingalters the neural expression of sadnessrdquo Emotion vol 10 no 1pp 25ndash33 2010

[110] G Pagnoni and M Cekic ldquoAge effects on gray matter volumeand attentional performance in Zen meditationrdquo Neurobiologyof Aging vol 28 no 10 pp 1623ndash1627 2007

[111] X Yu M Fumoto Y Nakatani et al ldquoActivation of theanterior prefrontal cortex and serotonergic system is associatedwith improvements in mood and EEG changes induced byZen meditation practice in novicesrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 80 no 2 pp 103ndash111 2011

[112] N A S Farb Z V Segal H Mayberg et al ldquoAttending to thepresent mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modesof self-referencerdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neurosciencevol 2 no 4 pp 313ndash322 2007

[113] A Berkovich-Ohana J Glicksohn and A GoldsteinldquoMindfulness-induced changes in gamma band activitymdashimplications for the default mode network self-reference andattentionrdquo Clinical Neurophysiology vol 123 no 4 pp 700ndash7102012

[114] J A Brewer P D Worhunsky J R Gray Y-Y Tang JWeber andH Kober ldquoMeditation experience is associated withdifferences in default mode network activity and connectivityrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 108 no 50 pp 20254ndash20259 2011

[115] D A Gusnard and M E Raichle ldquoSearching for a baselinefunctional imaging and the resting human brainrdquo NatureReviews Neuroscience vol 2 no 10 pp 685ndash694 2001

[116] M E Raichle A M MacLeod A Z Snyder W J Powers D AGusnard andG L Shulman ldquoAdefaultmode of brain functionrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 98 no 2 pp 676ndash682 2001

[117] M E Raichle and A Z Snyder ldquoA default mode of brainfunction a brief history of an evolving ideardquo NeuroImage vol37 no 4 pp 1083ndash1090 2007

[118] R L Buckner J R Andrews-Hanna and D L Schacter ldquoThebrainrsquos default network anatomy function and relevance todiseaserdquo Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences vol 1124pp 1ndash38 2008

[119] A P Jha J Krompinger and M J Baime ldquoMindfulnesstraining modifies subsystems of attentionrdquo Cognitive Affectiveand Behavioral Neuroscience vol 7 no 2 pp 109ndash119 2007

[120] K A MacLean E Ferrer S R Aichele et al ldquoIntensivemeditation training improves perceptual discrimination andsustained attentionrdquo Psychological Science vol 21 no 6 pp829ndash839 2010

[121] J C Corby W T Roth V P Zarcone Jr and B S KopellldquoPsychophysiological correlates of the practice of Tantric Yogameditationrdquo Archives of General Psychiatry vol 35 no 5 pp571ndash577 1978

[122] S Telles and T Desiraju ldquoAutonomic changes in Brahmaku-maris Raja yoga meditationrdquo International Journal of Psy-chophysiology vol 15 no 2 pp 147ndash152 1993

[123] L MMVirtual Design Imagery Testing Battery [Computer Soft-ware] Newark NJ USA 2004

[124] H Benson M S Malhotra R F Goldman G D Jacobsand P J Hopkins ldquoThree case reports of the metabolic andelectroencephalographic changes during advanced buddhistmeditation techniquesrdquo Behavioral Medicine vol 16 no 2 pp90ndash95 1990

[125] H Benson J W Lehmann M S Malhotra R F Goldman JHopkins andMD Epstein ldquoBody temperature changes duringthe practice of g Tum-mo yogardquo Nature vol 295 no 5846 pp234ndash236 1982

[126] Y-Y Tang Q Lu M Fan Y Yang and M I PosnerldquoMechanisms of white matter changes induced by meditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 109 no 26 pp 10570ndash10574 2012

[127] P Raghuraj and S Telles ldquoImmediate effect of specific nostrilmanipulating yoga breathing practices on autonomic and respi-ratory variablesrdquo Applied Psychophysiology Biofeedback vol 33no 2 pp 65ndash75 2008

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Anatomy Research International

PeptidesInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Molecular Biology International

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioinformaticsAdvances in

Marine BiologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Signal TransductionJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Biochemistry Research International

ArchaeaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Genetics Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Advances in

Virolog y

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Nucleic AcidsJournal of

Volume 2014

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Enzyme Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Page 2: Review Article The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2015/731579.pdf · 2019-07-31 · Review Article The Influence of Buddhist

2 BioMed Research International

generated by the increased activity of the parasympatheticbranch of the autonomic nervous system often referred to asthe ldquorest and digestrdquo system which slows down the heart ratelowers blood pressure increases intestinal and gland activityand relaxes sphincter muscles [17]

It is important to note that even though the character-ization of meditation as a wakeful hypometabolic state issupported by empirical findings (eg [10ndash12]) the scientificstudies that have led to this classification were conducted onvery specific types of meditation Specifically most previousscientific studies have been conducted on TM and types ofmeditation from the Theravada and Mahayana traditionssuch as Shamatha Vipassana or modern Mindfulness med-itation In particular a large number of scientific studieswere conducted on Shamatha or Vipassana [18 19] thatemphasize avoiding discursive thought by letting the prac-titioner concentrate on an object of meditation (Shamatha)or examine and generate insight out of hisher own mentalactivity (Vipassana) [20] Also many studies were conductedon Mindfulness meditation (eg [10 12 21]) which wasdeveloped by Jon Kabat-Zinn who defined it as ldquomostlyVipassana practice with a Zen attituderdquo (Kabat-Zinn emailcited in [22] page 238) where elements from Theravadaand Mahayana practices are taught alongside Vipassanameditation in order to create a secularized practice thatwouldappeal to people who might not possess a genuine interestin Buddhist culture or philosophy [22] (In accordance withthis definition Gilpin [22] who analyzed the influence ofBuddhist traditions on Mindfulness based on descriptionsgiven by the developers ofMindfulness practices (Kabat-Zinnand John Teasdale) concluded that Mindfulness practice ismainly derived from Vipassana Similar conclusions can bemade by examining the practice of Mindfulness itself whichsimilarly to Vipassana stresses avoiding discursive thoughtthrough nonjudgmental concentration on the content of onersquosmomentary mental activity [23 pages 141-142]) A numberof studies have also been conducted on Zen concentrationmeditation [24 25] which similarly to Shamatha requiresthe meditator to continually focus on a single object ofmeditation [26 page 97]

Along with the large number of studies that confirmedthat certain types of meditation can lead to a relaxationresponse recent scientific evidence suggests that the gener-ation of a relaxation response might not characterize med-itative practices of other traditions Specifically meditativepractices of the Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric traditionswhich will be detailed in a subsequent section of the reviewhave been demonstrated to elicit a state of arousal and notrelaxation [27ndash29] In contrast to relaxation arousal is aphysiological and psychological state of being awake andreactive to stimuli It is characterized by an increase inthe activity of the sympathetic system which is followedby the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from theendocrine system [30ndash32] and results in the state of phasicalertness a significant temporary boost in the capacity torespond to stimuli [16 33 34]Moreover while tonic alertnesscan happen concurrently with relaxation and a recent reviewof the literature showed that it can occur during Theravadaand Mahayana styles of meditation [25] phasic alertness is

a result of the activity of the sympathetic system and thereforeinconsistent with the state of relaxation

The goal of this review is to show that different typesof Buddhist meditation techniques can lead to relaxation orarousal depending on the type ofmeditation that is practicedWe also plan to show thatwhile some types ofmeditation gen-erate increased tonic alertness or vigilance along with a stateof relaxation and parasympathetic activation other types ofmeditation lead to increased phasic alertness and generate animmediate and dramatic increase in cognitive performanceon visual tasks consistent with the state of arousal andsympathetic activation In the following sections we willfirst provide an overview of the autonomic system and themanner in which it underlies psychological and physiologicalstates of relaxation and arousal and influences attentionalprocesses that relate to phasic and tonic alertness We willproceed with a review of scientific studies that demonstrate arelaxation response duringTheravada andMahayana types ofmeditation which will be followed by a review of studies thatdemonstrate tonic alertness during these practices Lastly wewill review studies that demonstrate an arousal response aswell as phasic alertness during Vajrayana and Hindu Tantricpractices

2 Measuring Relaxation and Arousalas well as Tonic and Phasic Alertness

Anatomically the autonomic nervous system (ANS) consistsof neurons from within both the central nervous systems(CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and receivesinput from anatomic regions that integrate information fromwithin the body and the external environment such as thehypothalamus nucleus of the solitary tract reticular forma-tion amygdala hippocampus and olfactory cortex [35] Thefunctional role of the ANS is to monitor important visceralprocesses that operate largely below the level of consciousawareness such as heart rate breathing and digestion [35]

The ANS is comprised of two major neurobiologicalsubsystems that function both independently and in concertthe parasympathetic nervous system and the sympatheticnervous system These two systems often elicit opposingactions so that when one system enhances or activates aphysiological response the other system inhibits it Thesympathetic nervous system is often called the ldquofight orflightrdquo system which accelerates the heart rate constrictsblood vessels and raises blood pressure in order to enablea quick and mobilizing response often as a reaction to animmediate threat On the other hand the parasympatheticsystem is often referred to as the ldquorest and digestrdquo systemwhich slows down the heart rate lowers blood pressureincreases intestinal and gland activity and relaxes sphinctermuscles [17] Asmentioned the increased capacity to respondto stimuli that is generated by the sympathetic system hasbeen termed phasic alertness [16 33 34] Therefore phasicalertness requires the activation of the sympathetic systemand cannot co-occur with a physiological state of parasym-pathetic dominance which is the relaxation response Onthe other hand although tonic alertness is inconsistent withdrowsiness and sleep it can nevertheless occur concurrently

BioMed Research International 3

with a moderate level of parasympathetic activation and asdescribed below can also occur during relaxed states

There are numerous experimental methods that havebeen used to demonstrate the activity of the sympathetic(arousal) and parasympathetic (relaxation) systems Onecommonly used method is related to the heart rate variabil-ity (HRV) which is determined by the autonomic system[30] and is assessed through electrocardiographic measures(abbreviated as EKGor ECG)HRV can bemeasured throughtime domain methods or frequency domain methods TheEKG frequencies that are used as autonomic activitymeasuresare high frequencies (HF) typically between 015 and 04Hz[36ndash40] and the ratio between low and high frequencies(LFHF) [30] While some researchers proposed that lowfrequencies (LF) typically between 004 and 015Hz [36ndash40]can be used as a marker of sympathetic modulation [41ndash44] others attribute LF to both sympathetic and parasym-pathetic influences [45 46] In contrast increases in HF areuniversally attributed to the activity of the parasympatheticsystem [41 45 47] Under ordinary circumstances HFdecreases indicate decreased parasympathetic and increasedsympathetic activation [36 48 49] although it should benoted that in some extreme cases (eg physical exercise orextreme stress) increases inHF could accompany an increasein sympathetic response [36 48] Ameasure that is associatedwith HF is the respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) whichmeasures vagal modulations on heart rate and is correlatedwith the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system [5051] Studies also investigated the heart rate pressure productmdashthe product of the systolic blood pressure and the heart ratemdashand the double productmdashthe product of the mean bloodpressure and the heart ratemdashwhich index the myocardialoxygen consumption and load on the heart and are increaseddue to sympathetic system activation [52]

Another commonly used measure of autonomic activa-tion is the galvanic skin response (GSR) where increases inGSR typically indicate increased sympathetic activation anddecreased GSR increased parasympathetic activity [53 54]Additionally body temperature increases or thermogenesisare also determined by the sympathetic system [55 56] Alsoseveral studies have used changes in blood pressure in orderto investigate the state of the autonomic system As describedabove decreases in blood pressure (mean systolic anddiastolic) are caused by the parasympathetic nervous systemand blood pressure increases by the sympathetic system [17]Moreover relaxation responses were measured through self-report scales that are correlated either with negative emotionssuch as distress that indicate reduced relaxation (eg GlobalSeverity Index (GSI) [57]) or positive emotional states thatindicate increased well-being and relaxation (eg PositiveStates of Mind (PSOM) [58])

Previous findings demonstrated that during arousal thereis a significant temporary boost in the capacity to respond tostimuli indicative of phasic alertness which is manifested byimproved performance on a number of visual and memorytasks [59ndash61] Hence phasic alertness was determined tooccur during states that lead to immediate improvements inperformance on cognitive tasks [27 29] In order to deter-mine the occurrence of tonic alertness previous studies have

used both neuroimaging and behavioral measures In termsof behavioral measures psychological studies have shownthat performance on target detection tasks can improve withincreased tonic alertness [62] In terms of neuroimagingstudies neuroscience research has shown that tonic alertnessis associated with neural activity in right hemisphere cor-tical areas and subcortical networks particularly the dorsalanterior cingulate cortex (dACC) the dorsolateral prefrontalcortex (DLPFC) the anterior insula the inferior parietallobule the thalamus and the brain stem [34 63 64]

3 Meditation Traditions

There are three main Buddhist traditions that exist todayTheravada Mahayana and Vajrayana Theravada has beenthe predominant religion of continental South Asia and theTipitaka or Pali Canon [20] is its canonical text whichcontains the earliest record of Buddharsquos teachings The mostprevalent meditative techniques of the Theravada traditionare Shamatha and Vipassana which emphasize avoidingdiscursive thought by letting the practitioner concentrate onan object of meditation (Shamatha) or hisher own mentalactivity (Vipassana) [65] In Buddhist scriptures Shamathapractice relates to training in the concentration of attentionso that the practitioners are instructed to place undistractedattention on the object ofmeditationwhilewithdrawing theirfocus from other objects [65 66] Vipassana refers to insightinto the true nature of reality entailing an understanding ofthe impermanence of everything that exists which is coupledwith pacification (serenity) of the mind [67 pages 1287-1288(IV1410)]

TheMahayana tradition incorporated the canonical textsof the Theravada tradition but also introduced a vast corpusof philosophical and devotional texts with the most distinc-tive feature being the ldquogreat compassionrdquo an inherent compo-nent of enlightenment which is manifested in bodhisattvas(enlightened beings) The Mahayana tradition is the largestmajor tradition of Buddhism and is prominent in NorthAsiaMahayanaBuddhists performan assortment of differenttypes of meditation practices many of which are rootedin Shamatha and Vipassana practices particularly types ofmeditation from the Tiantai Mahayana tradition [68] More-over Zen concentration meditation is similar to Shamathain the sense that it is also performed through prolongedconcentration on an object ofmeditationmost commonly onthe breath in order to experience one-pointedness ofmind orSamadhi [26 pages 57 97]

The third tradition is Vajrayana Buddhism which isoften called Tantric Buddhism and is a central tradition ofTibetan Buddhism that adopted elements of Hindu Tantricmethods and Mahayana Buddhism [69 70] Although anumber of practices in Vajrayana Buddhism originated inMahayana (eg training in compassionSix Paramitas) andTheravada (eg renunciation impermanence elements ofShamatha and Vipassana) they are practiced and integratedin a Vajrayana context [71] There are three streams ofVajrayana practice Generation Completion with Sign andCompletion without Sign Generation or development prac-tices are performed during the first stage of the meditation

4 BioMed Research International

practice [72] A central generation practice that will bediscussed in this review is self-generation-as-Deity practice(Tibetan ldquoKyerimrdquo hereafter referred to as Deity meditation)which involves visualizing oneself as a particular Deity andholding the focus of attention on the internally generatedimage surrounded by his or her entourage The completionstages are divided into completion practices ldquowithout signrdquothat include Rig-pa meditation a practice during whichthe meditator visualizes the dissolution of the Deity andits entourage into emptiness and aspires to achieve a stateof awareness that is devoid of conceptualization [73 74]Completion ldquowithout signrdquo are advanced tantric practicescalled ldquothe six Yogas of Naropardquo [75] one of which is g-Tummo whichwill be discussed in this reviewThe g-TummoVajrayana practice is also called ldquopsychic heatrdquo since it isassociated with intense sensations of bodily heat in the spine[76ndash78] and involves breathing and muscle exercises as wellas visualization techniques that enable the meditators togenerate and maintain mental images of flames at specificbodily locations that are accompanied by an intense sensationof heat in the spinal area

Vajrayana practices are related to Hindu Tantric prac-tices which were developed within ancient Hinduism anddescribed in the Yoga-Sutras [79] Hindu Tantric practicesalso distinguish different stages of practice In the Dharanastage the meditation consists of concentrative techniques ofabsorption in a single object of meditation often in objectswith religious significance such as deities [80 Chapter 8 page2] The practice of Dharana precedes Dhyana during whichthe meditator disengages from a single object of meditationto a complete absorption in meditation which leads to anonconceptual state of consciousness [81 82] Hindu andBuddhist Tantric practices share some commonalities in thesense that both practices place an emphasis on concentrativevisualization techniques on religious objects or deities bothdescribe similar stages of practice and both place an empha-sis on achieving a nonconceptual state of consciousness

While meditative techniques of all Buddhist teachingsstress liberation from all conceptual delusions the means ofachieving it are quite different Specifically Buddhist textsstate that Theravada styles of meditation such as ShamathaVipassana or Mindfulness are techniques that emphasizeldquointernally steadyingrdquo or stabilize the ldquounstable mindrdquo andcultivate the state of quiescence and tranquility throughwhich the nature of the mind could be seen without obstruc-tion [67 pages 1287-1288 (IV410)] [83 pages 152-153 (I165)335 (II290)] Similarly certain Mahayana practices such asZen concentration meditation also place an emphasis onone pointed concentration as well as calmness [26 pages 5797] Vajrayana scriptures by contrast emphasize the trainingldquowhich is not exactly the same as keeping the mind still andquietrdquo [84 page 118] but rather aims at the realization of ldquoself-existing wakefulnessrdquo or ldquoan awake qualityrdquo of the mind freefrom dualistic thoughts which is ldquolike a radiant flame of acandle which exists all by itself rdquo [84 page 88] FurthermoreVajrayana teaching emphasizes that the preoccupation withldquobeing too calmrdquo blocks ldquothe recognition of self-existingwakefulnessrdquo and that in aVajrayana context ldquoit is sometimessaid that stillness is not absolutely necessary rdquo [84 pages

85-86] Thus from a Vajrayana perspective the conceptu-alization of meditation as a relaxation response seems tobe incongruent with Tibetan views of Vajrayana Tantricpractices which do not presuppose relaxation but containdescriptions that are more consistent with the generation ofan arousal response

4 Relaxation and Tonic Alertnessduring Meditation

As alluded to the above Buddhist texts describe Theravadatypes of meditation as practices that promote not simply arelaxed state of mind but a state of relaxation and alert-ness [23] Moreover certain Mahayana practices notablyZen concentration meditation place a special emphasis oncalmness [26 page 57] Indeed empirical evidence thatsomemeditation practices generate a relaxation response canalready be found in Bensonrsquos studies from the 1970s and 1980s(eg [8 85]) Since then dozens of studies have demonstratedthat certain types of meditation from the Theravada andMahayana traditions elicit a relaxation response even aftera brief period of meditation (eg 20 minutes [86 87])Most of these studies investigated Mindfulness meditationalthough there have been studies on Zen concentration andVipassana as well (eg [10ndash13]) Such findings have beenreplicated many times in the past and it is now widelyaccepted that Mindfulness meditation can be reliably used toalleviate the effects of stress and depression and to increaserelaxation In fact before the term ldquoMindfulness Based StressReduction (MBSR)rdquo was introduced to describe interven-tions that implement Mindfulness in order to reduce stressthese interventions were explicitly called ldquoStress Reductionand Relaxation Programsrdquo (eg [88]) Moreover based onBuddhist scriptures that emphasize not only relaxation butalso warn against the hindrances of drowsiness and sleepduring the practice [89 90] Britton et al [25] hypothesizedthat meditation would promote not only relaxation but also astate of tonic alertness In line with this hypothesis Brittonet al [25] reviewed over 20 studies that demonstrate thatcertain types of meditation mostly from the Theravada andMahayana traditions can activate neural areas that are asso-ciated with tonic alertness Their review incorporated mostlyMindfulness and Zen practices but also a Vipassana andShamatha meditation study as well as studies on non-TantricTibetan practices that are different from Vajrayana (egfocusing on a single dot Brefczynski-Lewis et al [91]) andLoving-Kindness Meditation that is practiced in all Buddhisttraditions and is not specific to Theravada Mahayana orVajrayana [65 84] Importantly Britton et al [25] reviewedstudies that showed that Theravada and Mahayana typesof meditation can activate the dACC DLPFC the anteriorinsula the inferior parietal lobule the thalamus and the brainstem which are areas that are implicated in tonic alertness[25 63]

41 Relaxation Response during Theravada and MahayanaMeditation Several studies have used physiologicalmeasures in order to demonstrate increased parasympatheticactivation during Theravada and Mahayana types of

BioMed Research International 5

meditation An influential and highly cited study in thisregard was conducted by Tang et al [92] who comparedtwo groups of participants without Mindfulness meditationexperience who were randomly assigned to one of twoexperimental conditions half the subjects were required toperform ldquointegrative body-mind training (IBMT)rdquo whichincorporates aspects of Mindfulness training for 20 minutesduring a 5-day period and the other half underwent a formof relaxation training that involved squeezing and relaxingindividualmuscle groups Tang et al [92]measuredHRV andGSR before during and after training in either meditation orrelaxation and showed that the participants in the meditationgroup demonstrated significantly more parasympatheticactivation and less sympathetic activation than the relaxationcontrol Specifically the IBMT group demonstrated increasesin HF and lower GSR relative to the relaxation controlleading the authors to conclude that the meditation groupsignificantly increased the activity of the parasympatheticsystem and decreased the activity of the sympathetic systemrelative to the relaxation control Similarly Ditto et al [93]recruited 32 experimental subjects without meditationexperience who were randomly assigned to either a typeof Mindfulness meditation that involved body scanning acontrol condition during which subjects performed musclerelaxation exercises or a waiting-list control group Theauthors measured respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA)through a vagal tone monitor which as mentioned is ameasure of respiration that is synchronized to the HRV andgenerated by the parasympathetic nervous system Ditto et al[93] showed that RSA was increased for the participants whoperformed Mindfulness meditation relative to the controlsubjects indicating that the parasympathetic system wasactivated during the meditation and a relaxation responseoccurred Similar findings were demonstrated by Krygieret al [94] who observed increases in HF and decreases inLFHFduringVipassanameditation relative to a rest baselinefor 36 participants who participated in a Vipassana retreatMoreover recent physiological measures that were obtainedduring Zen concentration meditation also demonstrated anincrease in the activity of the parasympathetic system duringthis practice as well For example Wu and Lo [86] comparedthe EKG activity of a group of 10 experienced meditators(an average of 6 years of experience) who performed a typeof meditation called ldquoZen Chakrardquo where practitionersconcentrate on a ldquoChakrardquomdasha nonphysical ldquoenergy pointrdquomdashlocated inside the third ventricle of the human brain tothe EKG activity of a group of 10 participants withoutmeditation experience Wu and Lo [86] measured the EKGactivity during 2 sessions a 10-minute rest condition for bothmeditators and nonmeditators and a 20-minute conditionof either meditation (for the meditators group) or rest (forthe control group) and showed that the meditation resultedin an HF increase as well as decreased LFHF relative to thenonmeditation control group These results were interpretedto indicate that Zen Chakra meditation ldquoappears to pushthe sympathovagal balance to parasympathetic dominancerdquo[86] In another study Takahashi et al [87] measured theEKG activity of 20 participants who were taught to performSu-soku meditation which is a Zen concentration practice

that is performed by silently counting onersquos breaths so thatone inhales naturally and exhales when the numbers arerecited If other thoughts occur during the meditation theparticipant is instructed to let them pass and direct his orher attention back to the counting As a control conditionparticipants were trained to breath at a rate of 025Hz intempo with the sound of a metronome in order to accountfor the respiratory frequency influences on HRV Takahashiet al [87] measured the EKG activity during both themeditation and control condition and observed an increasein HF as well as a decrease in LFHF in the meditationrelative to the control condition which was interpreted tomean that the parasympathetic system was more activeduring the meditation relative to the control

In addition a multitude of studies have demonstratedthat Mindfulness meditation can elicit a relaxation responseusing self-reports that are correlatedwith relaxation and clin-ical stress reduction programs that implement Mindfulnessmeditation have been shown to reduce stress and increaserelaxation even after 4 to 5 weeks of training [95 96] Inone such study Jain et al [96] introduced a clinical inter-vention program that incorporated 5 sessions of Mindfulnessmeditation that was conducted in 4 sessions of 15 hours andan additional 6-hour session over a period of 4 weeks Theparticipants who performed meditation were compared toparticipants in a ldquosomatic relaxation (SR)rdquo intervention thatwas performed over an identical time period and number ofsessions where they performedmuscle relaxation techniquesand breathing and imagery exercises as well as to a waitinglist control group They found that the participantsrsquo ratingsof psychological well-being significantly increased followingthe meditation intervention in comparison to SR indicatingan enhancement in positive emotional states and decreasedstress Similarly inMackenzie et al [97] 30 participants wererandomly assigned to a short 4-weekMindfulnessmeditationintervention or a waiting list control group and they wereinstructed to practice meditation for at least 10 minutes aday 5 days a week The intervention and control participantscompleted a battery of questionnaires before and immediatelyafter the 4-week training program that assesses the emotionaland overall well-being Mackenzie et al [97] found thatreportedwell-being life satisfaction and relaxation increasedfor the intervention group but remained stable for the controlgroup demonstrating increased relaxation as a consequenceof Mindfulness meditation Similar findings have been con-sistently reported dozens of times in previous research whereMindfulness meditation was typically practiced for an 8-week period (eg [10ndash12]) and the ability of Mindfulnessmeditation to alleviate stress induce relaxation and regulateanxiety is now a widely accepted phenomenon in scientificresearch as well as clinical contexts (eg [12 98ndash101])

Furthermore several Yoga practices that emphasize relax-ation techniques (eg Yoga Nidra) as well as concentrationon a single object of meditation such as the breath fora prolonged period of time (and are therefore similar toTheravada and Mahayana forms of meditation) also lead toincreased relaxation and a reduction in stress Just as in thecase of Theravada and Mahayana types of meditation theability of these types of Yoga practices to induce relaxation

6 BioMed Research International

and relieve stress has been found in previous studies andextensively discussed in the scientific literature [102ndash104]

42 Tonic Alertness during Theravada and Mahayana Med-itation As reviewed in Britton et al [25] neuroimagingstudies have shown that the activity in brain regions relatedto tonic awareness can be enhanced during Theravada andMahayana types of meditation Asmentioned tonic alertnessis associated with neural activity in the dACC DLPFC theanterior insula the inferior parietal lobule the thalamus andthe brain stem [34 63 64] In a study that demonstratedtonic alertness in both Vipassana and Shamatha Manna etal [105] measured the fMRI BOLD signal in 8 Theravadamonks with an average of over 15000 hours of Shamatha andVipassana meditation experience as well as in 8 novices with10 days of meditation experience Both groups of participantsperformed 3 experimental blocks inside the fMRI scannereach of which began with a 3-minute rest condition and wasfollowed by 6 minutes of Shamatha meditation where theyfocused on their breathing and 6 minutes of Vipassana med-itation They found stronger BOLD activation in brain areasrelated to tonic alertness in highly experienced meditators(monks) that performed both Shamatha and Vipassana andin novices that performed Vipassana meditation SpecificallyManna et al [105] found that when monks performedShamatha the fMRI BOLD signal in the left and right dACCDLPFC and anterior insula was stronger than during therest control condition Moreover for the monks Vipassanameditation led to an increased signal in the DLPFC areaOn the other hand for the novice meditators Shamathameditation did not show an increased BOLD signal that isrelated to tonic alertness possibly due to insufficient expertisewith this practice but Vipassana meditation led to increasedactivation in the left dACC indicative of enhanced tonicalertness

Allen et al [106] recruited 61 participants without anymeditation experience who were randomly assigned toeither a 6-week Mindfulness meditation course or a 6-week ldquoactive-controlrdquo condition that involved group readingsand discussions This control condition was hypothesized toldquocultivate absorption and thought related processes into animaginary narrative in contrast to the present-centered andopen-monitoring aspect of mindfulnessrdquo [106] Allen et al[106] found increased DLPFC activation in the meditationgroup relative to the control and also found that the amountof meditation practice positively correlated with the level ofdACC activation that occurred during the meditation Asreviewed by Britton et al [25] similar findings of increasedactivation in neural areas related to tonic alertness have beenobserved in additional studies on Vipassana (eg [107 108])Mindfulness (eg [109]) and Zenmeditation (eg [110 111])

Additional evidence that Theravada types of meditationlead to tonic alertness was obtained by several recent studiesthat have shown that Mindfulness (eg [112 113]) andShamatha [114] types of meditation can lead to a decreasein the activity of neural structures that are more activeduring unfocused activity than during attention demandingtasks [115ndash117] These areas include the ventral medial pre-frontal cortex posterior cingulate inferior parietal lobule

and the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex which have beencollectively termed the brainrsquos ldquodefault networkrdquo [118]

Furthermore recent studies have investigated the influ-ence of meditation on tonic alertness using behavioural tasksthat are specifically designed tomeasure alerting attention InJha et al [119] the authors utilized the ldquoattentional networktestrdquo (ANT) where in each trial participants are presentedwith an arrow target that is surrounded by distractor arrowsthat point in either the same direction (congruent flankers)or a different direction (incongruent flankers) as the targetMoreover the target is preceded by one of three cue condi-tions a valid cue a spatially neutral central cue a spatiallyneutral double cue or a no cue condition Importantly theefficiency of alerting attentional processes is assessed by theANT as the reaction-time (RT) difference between the doublecue and the no cue conditions Jha et al [119] assessed changesin tonic alertness in 3 groups of participants one groupparticipated in an intensive Shamatha retreat for 30 minutesa day for 8 weeks The second group practiced Shamathafor 30 minutes a day for 8 weeks and a third group didnot undergo any meditation training They compared tonicalertness at the beginning of the study (Time-point 1) andfollowing the intervention (retreat or meditation programTime-point 2) Jha et al [119] showed that although theefficiency of alerting attention did not differ at Time-point1 between the three groups of participants at Time-point2 the alerting attentional mechanisms of participants whoattended the retreat became significantly more efficient (theRT difference between the no cue and double cue conditionswas reduced relative to Time-point 1) and the magnitude ofthe improvement in alerting attentionwas correlated with themeditation experience of the retreat participants Moreoverthe increase in alerting efficiency was driven by a decrease inRT to no cue trials and suggests that the meditators becamemore vigilant and their tonic alertness increased

In MacLean et al [120] the authors measured the influ-ences of Shamatha meditation on tonic alertness using asustained-attention task where single lines were presentedat the centre of the screen while participants fixated on asmall yellow dot The lines could be either long (90 of thetime) or short (10 of the time) and the participants wererequired to respond to the short lines by pressing a responsebutton They recruited 29 participants [120] with an averageexperience of 2668 hours of meditation who participated ina 3-month Shamatha meditation retreat that consisted of 5hours of meditation training per dayThe sustained attentiontest was administered before at the midpoint and after themeditation retreat The nonparametric index of perceptualsensitivity 1198601015840 was calculated from the hit rates and falsealarm rates for each of the 8 120-trial experimental blocksof the sustained attention task Since the decline in 1198601015840 waslargest during the first 4 blocks MacLean et al [120] definedimprovements in tonic alertness as positive changes in theslope of 1198601015840 during the first four blocks MacLean et al[120] showed that the slope of 1198601015840 was more positive at themidpoint and after the meditation retreat in comparisonto the pre-retreat baseline demonstrating that Shamathameditation reduced the decrement in 1198601015840 that occurs duringthe sustained attention task and therefore increased tonic

BioMed Research International 7

alertnessThe authors interpreted their results to indicate thatmeditation training can ldquodecrease resource demands and thusimprove vigilance (tonic alertness)rdquo [120]

Hence the findings of studies that investigated tonicalertness through behavioural measures complement neu-roimaging studies and together they demonstrate that certainTheravada and Mahayana types of meditation can increasethe activity in neural areas related to tonic alertness whichin turn leads to improvements on tasks that require tonicalertness The recent findings of tonic alertness during Ther-avada and Mahayana meditation are important because theycomplement the picture portrayed by Buddhist scriptureswhich describe meditation as a practice that generates botha relaxed and an alert state of mind [23 26] Moreoverour review is consistent with previous findings and reviewsthat consistently demonstrated a relaxation response duringTheravada and Mahayana types of meditation [10ndash13]

5 Arousal and Phasic Alertness inVajrayana Practices

As opposed to Theravada meditative practices Vajrayanapractice does not cultivate relaxation but an arousal responseVajrayana Buddhist scriptures emphasize the realization ofldquoself-existing wakefulnessrdquo or ldquoan awake qualityrdquo of the mindand warn against excessive tranquility [84] in contrast toTheravada scriptures that emphasize quiescence and tran-quility [67 pages 1287-1288 (IV410)] as well as Mahayanameditation instructions that also emphasize calmness (eg[26] page 57) Furthermore empirical evidence also suggeststhat arousal is generated during specific meditative practicesFor instance the generation of arousal during meditation hasbeen observed in Hindu Tantric practices (eg [121 122]) aswell as in several Vajrayana practices (eg [27 28]) althoughoverall there have been far fewer studies on Vajrayana andHindu Tantric practices than onTheravada and Mahayana

Based on Theravada Buddhist scriptures that empha-size calmness and relaxation and Vajrayana scripturesthat emphasize ldquowakefulnessrdquo Amihai and Kozhevnikov[27] hypothesized that Deity and Rig-pa practices of theVajrayana tradition would generate cognitive and physiologi-cal responses of arousal while Vipassana and Shamatha prac-tices of the Theravada tradition would generate a relaxationresponse In order to investigate the autonomic activationthat is generated during these types of practices Amihai andKozhevnikov [27] compared the EKG activity of experiencedTheravada and Vajrayana meditators (with 8 and 74 years ofmeditation experience resp) as they practiced meditationThe Theravada types of meditation that were investigatedwere Vipassana meditation and Kasina meditation which isa visualization type of Shamatha meditation in which themeditator focuses his or her attention on ldquoKasina objectsrdquothat are described in the Pali Tipitaka and are typicallycolored disks The Vajrayana practices studied were Deityand Rig-pa practices In this study the participants per-formed a 10-minute rest condition that was followed byShamatha and Vipassana meditation (15 minutes each) forthe Theravada meditators and Deity and Rig-pa meditation(15 minutes each) for the Vajrayana meditators Moreover

the participantsrsquo EKG activity was monitored throughout theexperiment Amihai andKozhevnikov [27] showed thatTher-avada types of meditation elicited increased HF (Vipassana)and decreased LFHF (both Vipassana and Kasina) relativeto the rest control condition which is consistent with arelaxation response On the other hand Vajrayana practicesproduced increased arousal as indexed by decreased HF(both Deity and Rig-pa) during the meditation relative tothe control condition Moreover Kozhevnikov et al [29]and Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] presented experiencedTheravada (an average of 8ndash123 years of experience) andVajrayana meditators (an average of 74ndash13 years of experi-ence) with 2 visual tests (the Mental Rotation Test (MRT)and Visual Memory Test (VMT [123]) see [29] for details)which were performed before and immediately following a20-minute session of Theravada meditation (Vipassana andKasina Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27]) or Vajrayana prac-tices (Deity Kozhevnikov et al [29] and Rig-pa Amihai andKozhevnikov [27]) As mentioned the dramatic improve-ments on visual tasks immediately following a stimulus oractivity are indicative of enhanced phasic alertness Hencethe authors hypothesized that improved performance onthe visual tests immediately after the meditation practicewould indicate that phasic alertness occurred during themeditation and that such an improvement would be observedfollowingVajrayana practices In linewith this hypothesis theexperimental results showed that onlyVajrayana practices ledto a large and immediate increase in performance on thesetasks while Theravada meditators did not demonstrate anyimprovement in their performance following the practiceHence these studies demonstrate that Vajrayana practicesand not Theravada types of meditation lead to an arousalresponse and phasic alertness

Additional studies that demonstrated that Vajrayanapractices can increase the activity of the sympathetic sys-tem and generate an arousal response were conducted onpractitioners of g-Tummo meditation which as mentionedis associated with intense sensations of bodily heat in thespine Interestingly Benson himself reported a phenomenonthat was unclear to him at the time that two of the three g-Tummo practitioners that participated in his study exhibitedan activation of the sympathetic system as evidenced byincreased metabolism and oxygen consumption [124] whichis consistent with arousal and not a relaxation responseMoreover in Kozhevnikov et al [28] it was demonstratedexperimentally that g-Tummo meditation can indeed raisethe temperature of the body which indicates a sympa-thetic response Nonshivering generation of body heatmdashthermogenesismdashis mediated by the sympathetic nervoussystem [55 56] In humans thermogenesis is caused mainlyby brown adipose tissue which shunts the energy obtainedfrom the oxidation of free fatty acids into heat whichis then distributed throughout the body via the adiposetissue vasculature [56] Importantly brown adipose tissueactivity in humans is stimulated by the sympathetic ner-vous system [55] Specifically an increased discharge fromsupraspinal sympathetic premotor pathways results in thesympathetic activation of brown adipose tissue which leadsto thermogenesis [56] By attaching a small thermometer in

8 BioMed Research International

the armpit of highly experienced g-Tummo meditators (6ndash32 years of experience) Kozhevnikov et al [28] were able todemonstrate for the first time that g-Tummo meditators canincrease not only their peripheral but more importantly corebody temperature during the meditation demonstrating thatthe activity of the sympathetic nervous system significantlyincreases as a consequence of this practice Notably the ther-mogenesis induced during g-Tummo was so substantial thatit raised the body temperature of the meditators above thenormal body temperature range and into the range of slightor moderate fever (up to 383∘C) reflecting an enhancedarousal response due to sympathetic activation It shouldbe noted that increases in the peripheral body (meditatorsrsquofingers and toes) temperature during g-Tummo were alsofound in Benson et al [125] however the authors did notattribute such changes to increased sympathetic activationIn contrast Benson et al [125] speculated that increasedsympathetic activation during meditation is ldquounlikelyrdquo as itwould be inconsistent with the parasympathetic activationthat they observed inTheravada and TM types of meditation

In addition to Vajrayana practices several studies con-ducted on Hindu Tantric meditators demonstrated increasedarousal In an early but influential and often cited studyCorby et al [121] recorded the GSR and heart rate duringa Dharana type of meditation called Ananda Marga whichincorporates a focus on breathing while repeating a two-syllable word and ignoring external stimuli They recruited30 experienced Ananda Marga meditators (an average of 21years and 31 hours of practice a day) as well as 10 subjectswithout meditation experience that served as controls TheGSR and heart rates were recorded during 3 experimentalconditions (1) a relaxation control (2) an Ananda Margameditation preparation condition which involves payingattention to the breath while ignoring external stimuli (3)Ananda Marga meditation where the subjects were toldto ignore external stimuli pay attention to their breathingand silently repeat a two-syllable word in phase with theirbreathing In the control group the participants chose theirown word while meditators used a personal mantra thatthey received from their meditation instructor The resultsof Corby et al [121] demonstrated that a state of arousaloccurred during AnandaMarga meditation (1) skin conduc-tance (GSR) increased from the relaxation baseline to themeditation condition but only for themeditators group (2) asmall heart rate increase was observed during the meditationcondition relative to the baseline for the meditators groupBoth of these measures indicated that sympathetic activationoccurred during the meditation demonstrating an arousalresponse

Additionally Telles and Desiraju [122] measured heartrate and GSR during a different type of meditation whichrequires concentration on a light source while contemplatinga universal force They recruited 18 experienced meditators(with an average of 101 years of experience) and compared thephysiological measures obtained during meditation to thoseobtained by the same subjects during a control conditionwhich was similar to the meditation condition but whererandom thinking was allowed and effortful concentrationwas not required The findings of Telles and Desiraju [122]

demonstrated that although therewere no significant changesin GSR an increase in heart rate occurred during the medita-tion condition but not during the nonmeditation conditionrelative to the baseline heart rate obtained prior to eachcondition Hence the findings of this study are indicativeof increased sympathetic activation and an arousal responseduring this type of meditation

To conclude this section as opposed to Theravada andMahayana types of meditation that demonstrate enhancedrelaxation investigations of Vajrayana and certain HinduTantric practices demonstrated increased arousal This onceagain emphasizes the importance of philosophical and cul-tural influences on meditation and demonstrates that theterm ldquomeditationrdquo is in many ways too general when used asa unified descriptor of all Buddhist and Hindu contemplativepractices These findings show that the supposition that ldquotounderstand the psychophysiological influences ofmeditationit should first be conceptually denuded of its cultural andreligious biases [9 page 2]rdquo is highly misleading The dia-metrically opposed findings of relaxation in Theravada andMahayana practices and arousal in Vajrayana and HinduTantric practices point to the opposite conclusion Namelyin order to understand the psychophysiological aspects ofmeditation one needs to carefully examine its cultural andreligious sources

6 Conclusions and Future Directions

The aim of this review was to examine the scientific studiesof meditation while focusing on the unique influences thatdifferent types of meditative traditions have on the activa-tion of the autonomic system and attentional mechanismsWe have presented evidence summarized in Table 1 whichshows that Theravada and Mahayana types of meditationlead to increased parasympathetic activation that underliesa relaxation response while Vajrayana and certain HinduTantric practices elicit enhanced sympathetic activation thatunderlies a robust arousal response In addition we out-lined the cultural and philosophical motivations that haveinfluenced these meditative practices While Theravada andMahayana scriptures emphasize that the purpose of medi-tation is to cultivate tranquility along with mental stabilityVajrayana scriptures describe practices whose purpose is toelicit states of enhanced arousal

It is important to stress that the influences of Vajrayanaand Hindu Tantric practices on physiology and behaviorare only beginning to receive their due attention from thescientific community and the long-term impact of Tantricpractices is still not well understood Hence while it has beendemonstrated that Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric practicescan lead to immediate physiological changes that are coupledwith improved cognitive performance future studies shouldinvestigate the long-term cognitive and physiological changesthat occur as a consequence of such practices As previouslymentioned in contrast to Vajrayana and Hindu Tantricpractices many scientific studies have been conducted onTheravada or Mahayana types of meditation and there isevidence that they can lead to long-term improvements onattentional tasks (eg [25 120 126]) It is thus prudent that

BioMed Research International 9

Table 1 Summary of meditation studies of autonomic activation and alerting attention

Study Meditation type Findings

Tang et al [92] Mindfulness (IBMT) Increased HF anddecreased GSR

Ditto et al [93] Mindfulness Increased RSA

Jain et al [96] Mindfulness Increased perceived positive emotions and decreasedperceived distress

Mackenzie et al [97] Mindfulness Increased perceived well-being life satisfaction andrelaxation

Wu and Lo [86] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHFTakahashi et al [87] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Manna et al [105] ShamathaIncreased fMRI BOLD signal in the dorsal anteriorcingulate cortex (dACC) dorsolateral prefrontal cortex(DLPFC) and anterior insula in meditation experts

Manna et al [105] Vipassana Increased dACC activation in meditation novicesAllen et al [106] Mindfulness Increased DLPFC and dACC activationJha et al [119] Shamatha Increased alerting network efficiencyMacLean et al [120] Shamatha Improvement in a sustained attention taskAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Shamatha (Kasina visualization) Decreased LFHFAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Vipassana Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Rig-pa (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HF and increased performance in mentalrotation (MRT) and visual memory (VMT)

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HFKozhevnikov et al [29] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased MRT and VMT performanceKozhevnikov et al [28] g-Tummo (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased thermogenesisCorby et al [121] Ananda Marga (Dharana) Increased GSR and heart rateTelles and Desiraju [122] Hindu Tantric meditation Increased heart rate

similar long-term studies would be conducted on Tantricpractices

Related to the above another important research direc-tion that has yet to be explored is the long-term influenceof Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric meditation on stress andwell-being As mentioned the finding that Theravada typesof meditation produce relaxation has resulted in their incor-poration into clinical practices as stress reduction techniques(eg [10 21 95 96]) Conversely the finding that Vajrayanaand Hindu Tantric types of meditation produce arousalsuggests that they could be more problematic for people whoare under a high level of stress However it is also likely thatas they gain additional meditation experience Vajrayana andHindu Tantric meditators develop unique strategies to helpthem cope with stressful situations that could arise duringtheir meditation practice for instance by transforming theirnegative emotions into the positive emotional states of thevisualized Deity Such possibilities should be examined infuture studies

In addition future studies should investigate the specificmechanisms that underlie ANS changes during meditationin order to understand the precise factors that mediate thearousal and relaxation responses One possible mediatingfactor could be respiration changes In this context previousstudies on Hindu breathing exercises called Pranayamawhich often serve as preparatory exercises for meditation

[79 page 310] showed that specific breathing techniques canbe used to activate the sympathetic or the parasympatheticnervous systems (eg [127]) A second factor that shouldbe considered is the specific visualization or other contentthat is used for meditation For instance it is plausible thata visualized Tibetan Deity would lead to a high degree ofarousal due to the emotional content that it holds in theeyes of a Tibetan meditator while the inward and outwardflow of the breath that is being attended to during Shamathameditation would not evoke intense emotional reactions

In conclusion although the scientific examination ofthe nature of meditative practices is not new it is onlyin recent years that cognitive scientists and neuroscientistshave begun to investigate the influences of the specificcultural and philosophical contexts out of which meditationpractices developed on the psychophysiological outcomes ofthe practices Such investigations have led to experimentalbreakthroughs that corroborate ideas laid down in Buddhistscriptures about the purpose and effects of meditationSpecifically the scriptural descriptions of heightened arousalduring Vajrayana practices and a relaxed and alert state ofmind during Theravada and Mahayana types of meditationreceived empirical support as research from the past severalyears demonstrated that Vajrayana as well as certain HinduTantric practices lead to heightened arousal and phasicalertness whileTheravada andMahayana types ofmeditation

10 BioMed Research International

elicit a relaxation response coupled with enhanced tonicalertness

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

References

[1] B Bodhi ldquoWhat does mindfulness really mean A canonicalperspectiverdquo Contemporary Buddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 19ndash392011

[2] R Gethin ldquoOn some definitions ofmindfulnessrdquoContemporaryBuddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 263ndash279 2011

[3] P Grossman and N T Van Dam ldquoMindfulness by any othername trials and tribulations of sati in western psychologyand sciencerdquo Contemporary Buddhism An InterdisciplinaryJournal vol 12 no 1 pp 219ndash239 2011

[4] Z Josipovic ldquoDuality and nonduality in meditation researchrdquoConsciousness and Cognition vol 19 no 4 pp 1119ndash1121 2010

[5] H Benson and W Proctor Relaxation Revolution The Scienceand Genetics of Mind Body Healing Scribner New York NYUSA 2011

[6] H Benson B A Rosner B R Marzetta and H P KlemchukldquoDecreased blood pressure in borderline hypertensive subjectswho practiced meditationrdquo Journal of Chronic Diseases vol 27no 3 pp 163ndash169 1974

[7] R K Wallace and H Benson ldquoThe physiology of meditationrdquoScientific American vol 226 no 2 pp 84ndash90 1972

[8] I Kutz J Leserman C Dorrington C H Morrison J ZBorysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation as an adjunct topsychotherapy An outcome studyrdquo Psychotherapy and Psycho-somatics vol 43 no 4 pp 209ndash218 1985

[9] I Kutz J Z Borysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation andpsychotherapy a rationale for the integration of dynamicpsychotherapy the relaxation response and mindfulness med-itationrdquo The American Journal of Psychiatry vol 142 no 1 pp1ndash8 1985

[10] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoMindfulness-based stress reduc-tion for stress management in healthy people a review andmeta-analysisrdquo The Journal of Alternative and ComplementaryMedicine vol 15 no 5 pp 593ndash600 2009

[11] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoA systematic review of neuro-biological and clinical features of mindfulness meditationsrdquoPsychological Medicine vol 40 no 8 pp 1239ndash1252 2010

[12] F Zeidan K T Martucci R Kraft J G McHaffie and R CCoghill ldquo Neural correlates of mindfulness meditation-relatedanxiety reliefrdquo Scandinavica vol 9 pp 751ndash759 2014

[13] B Ivanovski and G S Malhi ldquoThe psychological and neuro-physiological concomitants of mindfulness forms of medita-tionrdquo Acta Neuropsychiatrica vol 19 no 2 pp 76ndash91 2007

[14] J D-E Young and E Taylor ldquoMeditation as a voluntaryhypometabolic state of biological estivationrdquoNews in Physiolog-ical Sciences vol 13 no 3 pp 149ndash153 1998

[15] R Jevning R K Wallace and M Beidebach ldquoThe physiologyof meditation a review A wakeful hypometabolic integratedresponserdquo Neuroscience amp Biobehavioral Reviews vol 16 no 3pp 415ndash424 1992

[16] S E Petersen and M I Posner ldquoThe attention system of thehumanbrain 20 years afterrdquoAnnual Review ofNeuroscience vol35 pp 73ndash89 2012

[17] L K McCorry ldquoPhysiology of the autonomic nervous systemrdquoAmerican Journal of Pharmaceutical Education vol 71 no 4article 78 2007

[18] D R Morse J S Martin M L Furst and L L Dubin ldquoAphysiological and subjective evaluation ofmeditation hypnosisand relaxationrdquo Psychosomatic Medicine vol 39 no 5 pp 304ndash324 1977

[19] A Lutz ldquoMeditation and the neuroscience of consciousness anintroductionrdquo inThe Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness PD Zelazo M Moscovitch and EThompson Eds pp 499ndash551Cambridge University Press New York NY USA 2007

[20] Tipitaka The Pali Canon Legacy Edition 2005 httpwwwaccesstoinsightorgtipitaka

[21] P Grossman L Niemann S Schmidt and H Walach ldquoMind-fulness-based stress reduction and health benefits a meta-analysisrdquo Journal of Psychosomatic Research vol 57 no 1 pp35ndash43 2004

[22] R Gilpin ldquoThe use of Theravada Buddhist practices andperspectives in mindfulness-based cognitive therapyrdquo Contem-porary Buddhism vol 9 no 2 pp 227ndash251 2008

[23] B H GunaratanaMindfulness in Plain English Wisdom Publi-cations Somerville Mass USA 2002

[24] B R Cahn and J Polich ldquoMeditation states and traits EEG ERPand neuroimaging studiesrdquoPsychological Bulletin vol 132 no 2pp 180ndash211 2006

[25] W B Britton J R Lindahl B R Cahn J H Davis and R EGoldman ldquoAwakening is not ametaphor the effects of Buddhistmeditation practices on basic wakefulnessrdquo Annals of the NewYork Academy of Sciences vol 1307 no 1 pp 64ndash81 2014

[26] J D Buksbazen Zen Meditation in Plain English WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1st edition 2002

[27] I Amihai and M Kozhevnikov ldquoArousal vs relaxation acomparison of the neurophysiological and cognitive correlatesof Vajrayana and Theravada meditative practicesrdquo PLoS ONEvol 9 no 7 Article ID e102990 2014

[28] M Kozhevnikov J Elliott J Shephard and K Gramann ldquoNeu-rocognitive and somatic components of temperature increasesduring g-Tummo meditation legend and realityrdquo PLoS ONEvol 8 no 3 Article ID e58244 2013

[29] M Kozhevnikov O Louchakova Z Josipovic and M AMotes ldquoThe enhancement of visuospatial processing efficiencythrough buddhist deity meditationrdquo Psychological Science vol20 no 5 pp 645ndash653 2009

[30] A J CammMMalik J T Bigger G Breithardt S Cerutti andR J Cohen ldquoHeart rate variabilitymdashstandards of measurementphysiological interpretation and clinical userdquo Circulation vol93 no 5 pp 1043ndash1065 1996

[31] G F Chess R M K Tam and F R Calaresu ldquoInfluence ofcardiac neural inputs on rhythmic variations of heart period inthe catrdquoAmerican Journal of Physiology vol 228 no 3 pp 775ndash780 1975

[32] M N Levy ldquoSympathetic-parasympathetic interactions in theheartrdquo Circulation Research vol 29 no 5 pp 437ndash445 1971

[33] N Weinbach and A Henik ldquoPhasic alertness can modulateexecutive control by enhancing global processing of visualstimulirdquo Cognition vol 121 no 3 pp 454ndash458 2011

BioMed Research International 11

[34] W Sturm A de Simone B J Krause et al ldquoFunctional anatomyof intrinsic alertness evidence for a fronto-parietal-thalamic-brainstem network in the right hemisphererdquo Neuropsychologiavol 37 no 7 pp 797ndash805 1999

[35] P Low ldquoAutonomic nervous systemrdquo in The Merck ManualR S Porter and J L Kaplan Eds Merck Sharp amp DohmeWhitehouse Station NJ USA 2013

[36] G E Billman ldquoThe LFHF ratio does not accurately measurecardiac sympatho-vagal balancerdquo Frontiers in Physiology vol 4article 26 2013

[37] G G Berntson J T Bigger Jr D L Eckberg et al ldquoHeartrate variability origins methods and interpretive caveatsrdquoPsychophysiology vol 34 no 6 pp 623ndash648 1997

[38] K Molgaard K Hermansen and P Bjerregaard ldquoSpectralcomponents of short-term RR interval variability in healthysubjects and effects of risk factorsrdquo European Heart Journal vol15 no 9 pp 1174ndash1183 1994

[39] J T Bigger Jr J L Fleiss L M Rolnitzky and R C SteinmanldquoStability over time of heart period variability in patients withprevious myocardial infarction and ventricular arrhythmiasrdquoAmerican Journal of Cardiology vol 69 no 8 pp 718ndash723 1992

[40] K M Stein J S Borer C Hochreiter et al ldquoPrognostic valueand physiological correlates of heart rate variability in chronicsevere mitral regurgitationrdquo Circulation vol 88 no 1 pp 127ndash135 1993

[41] A Malliani M Pagani F Lombardi and S Cerutti ldquoCardio-vascular neural regulation explored in the frequency domainrdquoCirculation vol 84 no 2 pp 482ndash492 1991

[42] M V Kamath and E L Fallen ldquoPower spectral analysis of heartrate variability a noninvasive signature of cardiac autonomicfunctionrdquoCritical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering vol 21 no3 pp 245ndash311 1993

[43] O Rimoldi S Pierini A Ferrari S Cerutti M Pagani andA Malliani ldquoAnalysis of short-term oscillations of R-R andarterial pressure in conscious dogsrdquo The American Journal ofPhysiologymdashHeart and Circulatory Physiology vol 258 no 4pp H967ndashH976 1990

[44] N Montano T G Ruscone A Porta F Lombardi M Paganiand A Malliani ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart rate vari-ability to assess the changes in sympathovagal balance duringgraded orthostatic tiltrdquoCirculation vol 90 no 4 pp 1826ndash18311994

[45] S Akselrod D Gordon F A Ubel D C Shannon A CBerger and R J Cohen ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart ratefluctuation a quantitative probe of beat-to-beat cardiovascularcontrolrdquo Science vol 213 no 4504 pp 220ndash222 1981

[46] M L Appel R D Berger J P Saul J M Smith and R J CohenldquoBeat to beat variability in cardiovascular variables noise ormusicrdquo Journal of the American College of Cardiology vol 14no 5 pp 1139ndash1148 1989

[47] B Pomeranz R J Macaulay M A Caudill et al ldquoAssessment ofautonomic function in humans by heart rate spectral analysisrdquoThe American Journal of Physiology vol 248 no 1 pp H151ndashH153 1985

[48] F Morady W H Kou S D Nelson et al ldquoAccentuated antago-nism between beta-adrenergic and vagal effects on ventricularrefractoriness in humansrdquo Circulation vol 77 no 2 pp 289ndash297 1988

[49] D L Eckberg S KMohanty andM Raczkowska ldquoTrigeminal-baroreceptor reflex interactions modulate human cardiac vagalefferent activityrdquo Journal of Physiology vol 347 pp 75ndash83 1984

[50] F Yasuma and J-I Hayano ldquoRespiratory Sinus Arrhythmiawhy does the heartbeat synchronize with respiration rhythmrdquoChest vol 125 no 2 pp 683ndash690 2004

[51] P G Katona and F Jih ldquoRespiratory sinus arrhythmia nonin-vasive measure of parasympathetic cardiac controlrdquo Journal ofApplied Physiology vol 39 no 5 pp 801ndash805 1975

[52] F L Gobel L A Norstrom R R Nelson C R Jorgensen andY Wang ldquoThe rate-pressure product as an index of myocardialoxygen consumption during exercise in patients with anginapectorisrdquo Circulation vol 57 no 3 pp 549ndash556 1978

[53] H M Martini and E F Bartholomew Essentials of Anatomyand Physiology Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ USA 2ndedition 2001

[54] J A Gutrecht ldquoSympathetic skin responserdquo Journal of ClinicalNeurophysiology vol 11 no 5 pp 519ndash524 1994

[55] J Nedergaard T Bengtsson and B Cannon ldquoUnexpectedevidence for active brown adipose tissue in adult humansrdquoThe American Journal of PhysiologymdashEndocrinology andMetabolism vol 293 no 2 pp E444ndashE452 2007

[56] S F Morrison and W W Blessing ldquoCentral nervous systemregulation of body temperaturerdquo in Central Regulation of Auto-nomic Functions I J Llewellyn-Smith and A J M VerberneEds pp 1ndash34 Oxford Scholarship Online 2011

[57] L R Derogatis and N Melisaratos ldquoThe brief symptom inven-tory an introductory reportrdquo PsychologicalMedicine vol 13 no3 pp 595ndash605 1983

[58] M Horowitz N Adler and S Kegeles ldquoA scale for measuringthe occurrence of positive states of mind a preliminary reportrdquoPsychosomatic Medicine vol 50 no 5 pp 477ndash483 1988

[59] T W Robbins ldquoArousal systems and attentional processesrdquoBiological Psychology vol 45 no 1ndash3 pp 57ndash71 1997

[60] T W Robbins ldquoChemistry of the mind neurochemical mod-ulation of prefrontal cortical functionrdquo Journal of ComparativeNeurology vol 493 no 1 pp 140ndash146 2005

[61] R P Hasegawa A M Blitz N L Geller and M E GoldbergldquoNeurons inmonkey prefrontal cortex that track past or predictfuture performancerdquo Science vol 290 no 5497 pp 1786ndash17892000

[62] M I Posner ldquoMeasuring alertnessrdquo Annals of the New YorkAcademy of Sciences vol 1129 pp 193ndash199 2008

[63] W Sturm and K Willmes ldquoOn the functional neuroanatomyof intrinsic and phasic alertnessrdquo NeuroImage vol 14 no 1 ppS76ndashS84 2001

[64] S Sadaghiani R Scheeringa K Lehongre B Morillon A LGiraud and A Kleinschmidt ldquoIntrinsic connectivity networksalpha oscillations and tonic alertness a simultaneous elec-troencephalographyfunctional magnetic resonance imagingstudyrdquo The Journal of Neuroscience vol 30 no 30 pp 10243ndash10250 2010

[65] B Buddhaghosa Visuddhimagga The Path of Purificationtranslated byBNanamoli Buddhist Publication Society KandySri Lanka 4th edition 2010

[66] AWallaceTheAttention Revolution Unlocking the Power of theFocused Mind Wisdom Publications Somerville Mass USA2006

[67] B Bhikkhu The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha A Trans-lation of the Anguttara Nikaya Wisdom Publications BostonMass USA 2012

[68] S ZhiyiThe Essentials of Buddhist Meditation B Dharmamiratranslation Kalavinka Press Seattle Wash USA 2009

12 BioMed Research International

[69] G SamuelTheOrigins of Yoga and Tantra Indic Religions to theThirteenth Century vol 2013 Cambridge University Press NewDelhi India 2008

[70] K A Harper and R L Brown Eds The Roots of Tantra StateUniversity of New York Press New York NY USA 2002

[71] N Panchen and P W Gyalpo Perfect Conduct Ascertaining theThree Vows Wisdom Boston Mass USA 1999

[72] S RinpocheDzogchen and Padmasambhava Rigpa FellowshipSan Diego Calif USA 2nd edition 1990

[73] T Wangyal Wonders of the Natural Mind The Essence ofDzogchen in the Native Bon Tradition Snow Lion Ithaca NYUSA 1993

[74] D Goleman The Meditative Mind The Varieties of MeditativeExperience GP Putnamrsquos Sons New York NY USA 1996

[75] Tsong-Kha-Pa and G C MullinThe Six Yogas of Naropa SnowLion Publications Boston Mass USA 2005

[76] WY Evans-WentzTibetanYoga and Secret Doctorines PilgrimsPublishing Varanisa India 2002

[77] G H Mullin Readings on Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1997

[78] G H Mullin Tsongkhaparsquos Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1996

[79] I K TaimniThe Science of Yoga The Theosophical PublishingHouse Wheaton Ill USA 1961

[80] S Kripalvanand The Science of Meditation Sri DahyabhaiHirabhai Patel Bombay India 1977

[81] G FeuersteinThePhilosophy of Classical Yoga InnerTraditionsRochester NY USA 1996

[82] J D Nash and A Newberg ldquoToward a unifying taxonomy anddefinition for meditationrdquo Frontiers in Psychology vol 4 article806 2013

[83] M WalsheThe Long Discourses of the Buddha A Translation ofthe Digha Nikaya (Teachings of the Buddha) Wisdom Publica-tions Boston Mass USA 1995

[84] T U Rinpoche As It Is vol 2 Ranjung Yeshe PublicationsHong Kong 1999

[85] H Benson The Relaxation Response HyperCollins New YorkNY USA 1975

[86] S D Wu and P C Lo ldquoInward-attention meditation increasesparasympathetic activity a study based onheart rate variabilityrdquoBiomedical Research vol 29 no 5 pp 245ndash250 2008

[87] T Takahashi T Murata T Hamada et al ldquoChanges in EEGand autonomic nervous activity during meditation and theirassociation with personality traitsrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 55 no 2 pp 199ndash207 2005

[88] J Kabat-Zinn ldquoAn outpatient program in behavioral medicinefor chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulnessmeditation theoretical considerations and preliminary resultsrdquoGeneral Hospital Psychiatry vol 4 no 1 pp 33ndash47 1982

[89] B Nanamoli and B Bhikkhu ldquoSekha-patipada Sutta (thepractice for one in training)rdquo in The Middle Length Discoursesof the Buddha A New Translation of the Majjhima WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1995

[90] T Gyatso Stages of Meditation Snow Lion Publication IthacaNY USA 2001

[91] J A Brefczynski-Lewis A Lutz H S Schaefer D B Levinsonand R J Davidson ldquoNeural correlates of attentional expertise inlong-termmeditation practitionersrdquo Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences of the United States of America vol 104 no27 pp 11483ndash11488 2007

[92] Y-Y Tang Y Ma Y Fan et al ldquoCentral and autonomicnervous system interaction is altered by short-termmeditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 106 no 22 pp 8865ndash8870 2009

[93] B Ditto M Eclache and N Goldman ldquoShort-term autonomicand cardiovascular effects of mindfulness body scan medita-tionrdquo Annals of Behavioral Medicine vol 32 no 3 pp 227ndash2342006

[94] J R Krygier J A J Heathers S Shahrestani M Abbott J JGross and A H Kemp ldquoMindfulness meditation well-beingand heart rate variability a preliminary investigation into theimpact of intensive vipassanameditationrdquo International Journalof Psychophysiology vol 89 no 3 pp 305ndash313 2013

[95] J D Agee S Danoff-Burg and C A Grant ldquoComparingbrief stress management courses in a community samplemindfulness skills and progressive muscle relaxationrdquo Explorevol 5 no 2 pp 104ndash109 2009

[96] S Jain S L Shapiro S Swanick et al ldquoA randomized controlledtrial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation trainingeffects on distress positive states of mind rumination anddistractionrdquoAnnals of Behavioral Medicine vol 33 no 1 pp 11ndash21 2007

[97] C S Mackenzie P A Poulin and R Seidman-Carlson ldquoA briefmindfulness-based stress reduction intervention for nurses andnurse aidesrdquoAppliedNursing Research vol 19 no 2 pp 105ndash1092006

[98] O Singleton B K Holzel M Vangel N Brach J Carmody andS W Lazar ldquoChange in brainstem gray matter concentrationfollowing a mindfulness-based intervention is correlated withimprovement in psychological well-beingrdquo Frontiers in HumanNeuroscience vol 8 article 33 2014

[99] P Ekman R J Davidson M Ricard and B A WallaceldquoBuddhist and psychological perspectives on emotions andwell-beingrdquo Current Directions in Psychological Science vol 14no 2 pp 59ndash63 2005

[100] P Ekman and R J Davidson The Nature of Emotion Funda-mental Questions Series in Affective Science OxfordUniversityPress New York NY USA 1994

[101] R A Baer ldquoMindfulness training as a clinical intervention aconceptual and empirical reviewrdquo Clinical Psychology Scienceand Practice vol 10 no 2 pp 125ndash143 2003

[102] C C Streeter P L Gerbarg R B Saper D A Ciraulo and RP Brown ldquoEffects of yoga on the autonomic nervous systemgamma-aminobutyric-acid and allostasis in epilepsy depres-sion and post-traumatic stress disorderrdquo Medical Hypothesesvol 78 no 5 pp 571ndash579 2012

[103] M Balasubramaniam S Telles and P M Doraiswamy ldquoYogaon our minds a systematic review of yoga for neuropsychiatricdisordersrdquo Frontiers in Psychiatry vol 3 article 117 2013

[104] S Telles and N Singh ldquoScience of the mind ancient yoga textsand modern studiesrdquo Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol36 no 1 pp 93ndash108 2013

[105] A Manna A Raffone M G Perrucci et al ldquoNeural correlatesof focused attention and cognitive monitoring in meditationrdquoBrain Research Bulletin vol 82 no 1-2 pp 46ndash56 2010

[106] M Allen M Dietz K S Blair et al ldquoCognitive-affectiveneural plasticity following active-controlled mindfulness inter-ventionrdquoThe Journal of Neuroscience vol 32 no 44 pp 15601ndash15610 2012

[107] T Gard B K Holzel A T Sack et al ldquoPain attenuation throughmindfulness is associated with decreased cognitive control and

BioMed Research International 13

increased sensory processing in the brainrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol22 no 11 pp 2692ndash2702 2012

[108] B K Holzel U Ott T Gard et al ldquoInvestigation of mindful-ness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometryrdquoSocial Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 3 no 1 pp 55ndash61 2008

[109] N A S Farb A K Anderson HMayberg J Bean DMcKeonand Z V Segal ldquoMinding onersquos emotions mindfulness trainingalters the neural expression of sadnessrdquo Emotion vol 10 no 1pp 25ndash33 2010

[110] G Pagnoni and M Cekic ldquoAge effects on gray matter volumeand attentional performance in Zen meditationrdquo Neurobiologyof Aging vol 28 no 10 pp 1623ndash1627 2007

[111] X Yu M Fumoto Y Nakatani et al ldquoActivation of theanterior prefrontal cortex and serotonergic system is associatedwith improvements in mood and EEG changes induced byZen meditation practice in novicesrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 80 no 2 pp 103ndash111 2011

[112] N A S Farb Z V Segal H Mayberg et al ldquoAttending to thepresent mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modesof self-referencerdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neurosciencevol 2 no 4 pp 313ndash322 2007

[113] A Berkovich-Ohana J Glicksohn and A GoldsteinldquoMindfulness-induced changes in gamma band activitymdashimplications for the default mode network self-reference andattentionrdquo Clinical Neurophysiology vol 123 no 4 pp 700ndash7102012

[114] J A Brewer P D Worhunsky J R Gray Y-Y Tang JWeber andH Kober ldquoMeditation experience is associated withdifferences in default mode network activity and connectivityrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 108 no 50 pp 20254ndash20259 2011

[115] D A Gusnard and M E Raichle ldquoSearching for a baselinefunctional imaging and the resting human brainrdquo NatureReviews Neuroscience vol 2 no 10 pp 685ndash694 2001

[116] M E Raichle A M MacLeod A Z Snyder W J Powers D AGusnard andG L Shulman ldquoAdefaultmode of brain functionrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 98 no 2 pp 676ndash682 2001

[117] M E Raichle and A Z Snyder ldquoA default mode of brainfunction a brief history of an evolving ideardquo NeuroImage vol37 no 4 pp 1083ndash1090 2007

[118] R L Buckner J R Andrews-Hanna and D L Schacter ldquoThebrainrsquos default network anatomy function and relevance todiseaserdquo Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences vol 1124pp 1ndash38 2008

[119] A P Jha J Krompinger and M J Baime ldquoMindfulnesstraining modifies subsystems of attentionrdquo Cognitive Affectiveand Behavioral Neuroscience vol 7 no 2 pp 109ndash119 2007

[120] K A MacLean E Ferrer S R Aichele et al ldquoIntensivemeditation training improves perceptual discrimination andsustained attentionrdquo Psychological Science vol 21 no 6 pp829ndash839 2010

[121] J C Corby W T Roth V P Zarcone Jr and B S KopellldquoPsychophysiological correlates of the practice of Tantric Yogameditationrdquo Archives of General Psychiatry vol 35 no 5 pp571ndash577 1978

[122] S Telles and T Desiraju ldquoAutonomic changes in Brahmaku-maris Raja yoga meditationrdquo International Journal of Psy-chophysiology vol 15 no 2 pp 147ndash152 1993

[123] L MMVirtual Design Imagery Testing Battery [Computer Soft-ware] Newark NJ USA 2004

[124] H Benson M S Malhotra R F Goldman G D Jacobsand P J Hopkins ldquoThree case reports of the metabolic andelectroencephalographic changes during advanced buddhistmeditation techniquesrdquo Behavioral Medicine vol 16 no 2 pp90ndash95 1990

[125] H Benson J W Lehmann M S Malhotra R F Goldman JHopkins andMD Epstein ldquoBody temperature changes duringthe practice of g Tum-mo yogardquo Nature vol 295 no 5846 pp234ndash236 1982

[126] Y-Y Tang Q Lu M Fan Y Yang and M I PosnerldquoMechanisms of white matter changes induced by meditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 109 no 26 pp 10570ndash10574 2012

[127] P Raghuraj and S Telles ldquoImmediate effect of specific nostrilmanipulating yoga breathing practices on autonomic and respi-ratory variablesrdquo Applied Psychophysiology Biofeedback vol 33no 2 pp 65ndash75 2008

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Anatomy Research International

PeptidesInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Molecular Biology International

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioinformaticsAdvances in

Marine BiologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Signal TransductionJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Biochemistry Research International

ArchaeaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Genetics Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Advances in

Virolog y

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Nucleic AcidsJournal of

Volume 2014

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Enzyme Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Page 3: Review Article The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2015/731579.pdf · 2019-07-31 · Review Article The Influence of Buddhist

BioMed Research International 3

with a moderate level of parasympathetic activation and asdescribed below can also occur during relaxed states

There are numerous experimental methods that havebeen used to demonstrate the activity of the sympathetic(arousal) and parasympathetic (relaxation) systems Onecommonly used method is related to the heart rate variabil-ity (HRV) which is determined by the autonomic system[30] and is assessed through electrocardiographic measures(abbreviated as EKGor ECG)HRV can bemeasured throughtime domain methods or frequency domain methods TheEKG frequencies that are used as autonomic activitymeasuresare high frequencies (HF) typically between 015 and 04Hz[36ndash40] and the ratio between low and high frequencies(LFHF) [30] While some researchers proposed that lowfrequencies (LF) typically between 004 and 015Hz [36ndash40]can be used as a marker of sympathetic modulation [41ndash44] others attribute LF to both sympathetic and parasym-pathetic influences [45 46] In contrast increases in HF areuniversally attributed to the activity of the parasympatheticsystem [41 45 47] Under ordinary circumstances HFdecreases indicate decreased parasympathetic and increasedsympathetic activation [36 48 49] although it should benoted that in some extreme cases (eg physical exercise orextreme stress) increases inHF could accompany an increasein sympathetic response [36 48] Ameasure that is associatedwith HF is the respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) whichmeasures vagal modulations on heart rate and is correlatedwith the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system [5051] Studies also investigated the heart rate pressure productmdashthe product of the systolic blood pressure and the heart ratemdashand the double productmdashthe product of the mean bloodpressure and the heart ratemdashwhich index the myocardialoxygen consumption and load on the heart and are increaseddue to sympathetic system activation [52]

Another commonly used measure of autonomic activa-tion is the galvanic skin response (GSR) where increases inGSR typically indicate increased sympathetic activation anddecreased GSR increased parasympathetic activity [53 54]Additionally body temperature increases or thermogenesisare also determined by the sympathetic system [55 56] Alsoseveral studies have used changes in blood pressure in orderto investigate the state of the autonomic system As describedabove decreases in blood pressure (mean systolic anddiastolic) are caused by the parasympathetic nervous systemand blood pressure increases by the sympathetic system [17]Moreover relaxation responses were measured through self-report scales that are correlated either with negative emotionssuch as distress that indicate reduced relaxation (eg GlobalSeverity Index (GSI) [57]) or positive emotional states thatindicate increased well-being and relaxation (eg PositiveStates of Mind (PSOM) [58])

Previous findings demonstrated that during arousal thereis a significant temporary boost in the capacity to respond tostimuli indicative of phasic alertness which is manifested byimproved performance on a number of visual and memorytasks [59ndash61] Hence phasic alertness was determined tooccur during states that lead to immediate improvements inperformance on cognitive tasks [27 29] In order to deter-mine the occurrence of tonic alertness previous studies have

used both neuroimaging and behavioral measures In termsof behavioral measures psychological studies have shownthat performance on target detection tasks can improve withincreased tonic alertness [62] In terms of neuroimagingstudies neuroscience research has shown that tonic alertnessis associated with neural activity in right hemisphere cor-tical areas and subcortical networks particularly the dorsalanterior cingulate cortex (dACC) the dorsolateral prefrontalcortex (DLPFC) the anterior insula the inferior parietallobule the thalamus and the brain stem [34 63 64]

3 Meditation Traditions

There are three main Buddhist traditions that exist todayTheravada Mahayana and Vajrayana Theravada has beenthe predominant religion of continental South Asia and theTipitaka or Pali Canon [20] is its canonical text whichcontains the earliest record of Buddharsquos teachings The mostprevalent meditative techniques of the Theravada traditionare Shamatha and Vipassana which emphasize avoidingdiscursive thought by letting the practitioner concentrate onan object of meditation (Shamatha) or hisher own mentalactivity (Vipassana) [65] In Buddhist scriptures Shamathapractice relates to training in the concentration of attentionso that the practitioners are instructed to place undistractedattention on the object ofmeditationwhilewithdrawing theirfocus from other objects [65 66] Vipassana refers to insightinto the true nature of reality entailing an understanding ofthe impermanence of everything that exists which is coupledwith pacification (serenity) of the mind [67 pages 1287-1288(IV1410)]

TheMahayana tradition incorporated the canonical textsof the Theravada tradition but also introduced a vast corpusof philosophical and devotional texts with the most distinc-tive feature being the ldquogreat compassionrdquo an inherent compo-nent of enlightenment which is manifested in bodhisattvas(enlightened beings) The Mahayana tradition is the largestmajor tradition of Buddhism and is prominent in NorthAsiaMahayanaBuddhists performan assortment of differenttypes of meditation practices many of which are rootedin Shamatha and Vipassana practices particularly types ofmeditation from the Tiantai Mahayana tradition [68] More-over Zen concentration meditation is similar to Shamathain the sense that it is also performed through prolongedconcentration on an object ofmeditationmost commonly onthe breath in order to experience one-pointedness ofmind orSamadhi [26 pages 57 97]

The third tradition is Vajrayana Buddhism which isoften called Tantric Buddhism and is a central tradition ofTibetan Buddhism that adopted elements of Hindu Tantricmethods and Mahayana Buddhism [69 70] Although anumber of practices in Vajrayana Buddhism originated inMahayana (eg training in compassionSix Paramitas) andTheravada (eg renunciation impermanence elements ofShamatha and Vipassana) they are practiced and integratedin a Vajrayana context [71] There are three streams ofVajrayana practice Generation Completion with Sign andCompletion without Sign Generation or development prac-tices are performed during the first stage of the meditation

4 BioMed Research International

practice [72] A central generation practice that will bediscussed in this review is self-generation-as-Deity practice(Tibetan ldquoKyerimrdquo hereafter referred to as Deity meditation)which involves visualizing oneself as a particular Deity andholding the focus of attention on the internally generatedimage surrounded by his or her entourage The completionstages are divided into completion practices ldquowithout signrdquothat include Rig-pa meditation a practice during whichthe meditator visualizes the dissolution of the Deity andits entourage into emptiness and aspires to achieve a stateof awareness that is devoid of conceptualization [73 74]Completion ldquowithout signrdquo are advanced tantric practicescalled ldquothe six Yogas of Naropardquo [75] one of which is g-Tummo whichwill be discussed in this reviewThe g-TummoVajrayana practice is also called ldquopsychic heatrdquo since it isassociated with intense sensations of bodily heat in the spine[76ndash78] and involves breathing and muscle exercises as wellas visualization techniques that enable the meditators togenerate and maintain mental images of flames at specificbodily locations that are accompanied by an intense sensationof heat in the spinal area

Vajrayana practices are related to Hindu Tantric prac-tices which were developed within ancient Hinduism anddescribed in the Yoga-Sutras [79] Hindu Tantric practicesalso distinguish different stages of practice In the Dharanastage the meditation consists of concentrative techniques ofabsorption in a single object of meditation often in objectswith religious significance such as deities [80 Chapter 8 page2] The practice of Dharana precedes Dhyana during whichthe meditator disengages from a single object of meditationto a complete absorption in meditation which leads to anonconceptual state of consciousness [81 82] Hindu andBuddhist Tantric practices share some commonalities in thesense that both practices place an emphasis on concentrativevisualization techniques on religious objects or deities bothdescribe similar stages of practice and both place an empha-sis on achieving a nonconceptual state of consciousness

While meditative techniques of all Buddhist teachingsstress liberation from all conceptual delusions the means ofachieving it are quite different Specifically Buddhist textsstate that Theravada styles of meditation such as ShamathaVipassana or Mindfulness are techniques that emphasizeldquointernally steadyingrdquo or stabilize the ldquounstable mindrdquo andcultivate the state of quiescence and tranquility throughwhich the nature of the mind could be seen without obstruc-tion [67 pages 1287-1288 (IV410)] [83 pages 152-153 (I165)335 (II290)] Similarly certain Mahayana practices such asZen concentration meditation also place an emphasis onone pointed concentration as well as calmness [26 pages 5797] Vajrayana scriptures by contrast emphasize the trainingldquowhich is not exactly the same as keeping the mind still andquietrdquo [84 page 118] but rather aims at the realization of ldquoself-existing wakefulnessrdquo or ldquoan awake qualityrdquo of the mind freefrom dualistic thoughts which is ldquolike a radiant flame of acandle which exists all by itself rdquo [84 page 88] FurthermoreVajrayana teaching emphasizes that the preoccupation withldquobeing too calmrdquo blocks ldquothe recognition of self-existingwakefulnessrdquo and that in aVajrayana context ldquoit is sometimessaid that stillness is not absolutely necessary rdquo [84 pages

85-86] Thus from a Vajrayana perspective the conceptu-alization of meditation as a relaxation response seems tobe incongruent with Tibetan views of Vajrayana Tantricpractices which do not presuppose relaxation but containdescriptions that are more consistent with the generation ofan arousal response

4 Relaxation and Tonic Alertnessduring Meditation

As alluded to the above Buddhist texts describe Theravadatypes of meditation as practices that promote not simply arelaxed state of mind but a state of relaxation and alert-ness [23] Moreover certain Mahayana practices notablyZen concentration meditation place a special emphasis oncalmness [26 page 57] Indeed empirical evidence thatsomemeditation practices generate a relaxation response canalready be found in Bensonrsquos studies from the 1970s and 1980s(eg [8 85]) Since then dozens of studies have demonstratedthat certain types of meditation from the Theravada andMahayana traditions elicit a relaxation response even aftera brief period of meditation (eg 20 minutes [86 87])Most of these studies investigated Mindfulness meditationalthough there have been studies on Zen concentration andVipassana as well (eg [10ndash13]) Such findings have beenreplicated many times in the past and it is now widelyaccepted that Mindfulness meditation can be reliably used toalleviate the effects of stress and depression and to increaserelaxation In fact before the term ldquoMindfulness Based StressReduction (MBSR)rdquo was introduced to describe interven-tions that implement Mindfulness in order to reduce stressthese interventions were explicitly called ldquoStress Reductionand Relaxation Programsrdquo (eg [88]) Moreover based onBuddhist scriptures that emphasize not only relaxation butalso warn against the hindrances of drowsiness and sleepduring the practice [89 90] Britton et al [25] hypothesizedthat meditation would promote not only relaxation but also astate of tonic alertness In line with this hypothesis Brittonet al [25] reviewed over 20 studies that demonstrate thatcertain types of meditation mostly from the Theravada andMahayana traditions can activate neural areas that are asso-ciated with tonic alertness Their review incorporated mostlyMindfulness and Zen practices but also a Vipassana andShamatha meditation study as well as studies on non-TantricTibetan practices that are different from Vajrayana (egfocusing on a single dot Brefczynski-Lewis et al [91]) andLoving-Kindness Meditation that is practiced in all Buddhisttraditions and is not specific to Theravada Mahayana orVajrayana [65 84] Importantly Britton et al [25] reviewedstudies that showed that Theravada and Mahayana typesof meditation can activate the dACC DLPFC the anteriorinsula the inferior parietal lobule the thalamus and the brainstem which are areas that are implicated in tonic alertness[25 63]

41 Relaxation Response during Theravada and MahayanaMeditation Several studies have used physiologicalmeasures in order to demonstrate increased parasympatheticactivation during Theravada and Mahayana types of

BioMed Research International 5

meditation An influential and highly cited study in thisregard was conducted by Tang et al [92] who comparedtwo groups of participants without Mindfulness meditationexperience who were randomly assigned to one of twoexperimental conditions half the subjects were required toperform ldquointegrative body-mind training (IBMT)rdquo whichincorporates aspects of Mindfulness training for 20 minutesduring a 5-day period and the other half underwent a formof relaxation training that involved squeezing and relaxingindividualmuscle groups Tang et al [92]measuredHRV andGSR before during and after training in either meditation orrelaxation and showed that the participants in the meditationgroup demonstrated significantly more parasympatheticactivation and less sympathetic activation than the relaxationcontrol Specifically the IBMT group demonstrated increasesin HF and lower GSR relative to the relaxation controlleading the authors to conclude that the meditation groupsignificantly increased the activity of the parasympatheticsystem and decreased the activity of the sympathetic systemrelative to the relaxation control Similarly Ditto et al [93]recruited 32 experimental subjects without meditationexperience who were randomly assigned to either a typeof Mindfulness meditation that involved body scanning acontrol condition during which subjects performed musclerelaxation exercises or a waiting-list control group Theauthors measured respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA)through a vagal tone monitor which as mentioned is ameasure of respiration that is synchronized to the HRV andgenerated by the parasympathetic nervous system Ditto et al[93] showed that RSA was increased for the participants whoperformed Mindfulness meditation relative to the controlsubjects indicating that the parasympathetic system wasactivated during the meditation and a relaxation responseoccurred Similar findings were demonstrated by Krygieret al [94] who observed increases in HF and decreases inLFHFduringVipassanameditation relative to a rest baselinefor 36 participants who participated in a Vipassana retreatMoreover recent physiological measures that were obtainedduring Zen concentration meditation also demonstrated anincrease in the activity of the parasympathetic system duringthis practice as well For example Wu and Lo [86] comparedthe EKG activity of a group of 10 experienced meditators(an average of 6 years of experience) who performed a typeof meditation called ldquoZen Chakrardquo where practitionersconcentrate on a ldquoChakrardquomdasha nonphysical ldquoenergy pointrdquomdashlocated inside the third ventricle of the human brain tothe EKG activity of a group of 10 participants withoutmeditation experience Wu and Lo [86] measured the EKGactivity during 2 sessions a 10-minute rest condition for bothmeditators and nonmeditators and a 20-minute conditionof either meditation (for the meditators group) or rest (forthe control group) and showed that the meditation resultedin an HF increase as well as decreased LFHF relative to thenonmeditation control group These results were interpretedto indicate that Zen Chakra meditation ldquoappears to pushthe sympathovagal balance to parasympathetic dominancerdquo[86] In another study Takahashi et al [87] measured theEKG activity of 20 participants who were taught to performSu-soku meditation which is a Zen concentration practice

that is performed by silently counting onersquos breaths so thatone inhales naturally and exhales when the numbers arerecited If other thoughts occur during the meditation theparticipant is instructed to let them pass and direct his orher attention back to the counting As a control conditionparticipants were trained to breath at a rate of 025Hz intempo with the sound of a metronome in order to accountfor the respiratory frequency influences on HRV Takahashiet al [87] measured the EKG activity during both themeditation and control condition and observed an increasein HF as well as a decrease in LFHF in the meditationrelative to the control condition which was interpreted tomean that the parasympathetic system was more activeduring the meditation relative to the control

In addition a multitude of studies have demonstratedthat Mindfulness meditation can elicit a relaxation responseusing self-reports that are correlatedwith relaxation and clin-ical stress reduction programs that implement Mindfulnessmeditation have been shown to reduce stress and increaserelaxation even after 4 to 5 weeks of training [95 96] Inone such study Jain et al [96] introduced a clinical inter-vention program that incorporated 5 sessions of Mindfulnessmeditation that was conducted in 4 sessions of 15 hours andan additional 6-hour session over a period of 4 weeks Theparticipants who performed meditation were compared toparticipants in a ldquosomatic relaxation (SR)rdquo intervention thatwas performed over an identical time period and number ofsessions where they performedmuscle relaxation techniquesand breathing and imagery exercises as well as to a waitinglist control group They found that the participantsrsquo ratingsof psychological well-being significantly increased followingthe meditation intervention in comparison to SR indicatingan enhancement in positive emotional states and decreasedstress Similarly inMackenzie et al [97] 30 participants wererandomly assigned to a short 4-weekMindfulnessmeditationintervention or a waiting list control group and they wereinstructed to practice meditation for at least 10 minutes aday 5 days a week The intervention and control participantscompleted a battery of questionnaires before and immediatelyafter the 4-week training program that assesses the emotionaland overall well-being Mackenzie et al [97] found thatreportedwell-being life satisfaction and relaxation increasedfor the intervention group but remained stable for the controlgroup demonstrating increased relaxation as a consequenceof Mindfulness meditation Similar findings have been con-sistently reported dozens of times in previous research whereMindfulness meditation was typically practiced for an 8-week period (eg [10ndash12]) and the ability of Mindfulnessmeditation to alleviate stress induce relaxation and regulateanxiety is now a widely accepted phenomenon in scientificresearch as well as clinical contexts (eg [12 98ndash101])

Furthermore several Yoga practices that emphasize relax-ation techniques (eg Yoga Nidra) as well as concentrationon a single object of meditation such as the breath fora prolonged period of time (and are therefore similar toTheravada and Mahayana forms of meditation) also lead toincreased relaxation and a reduction in stress Just as in thecase of Theravada and Mahayana types of meditation theability of these types of Yoga practices to induce relaxation

6 BioMed Research International

and relieve stress has been found in previous studies andextensively discussed in the scientific literature [102ndash104]

42 Tonic Alertness during Theravada and Mahayana Med-itation As reviewed in Britton et al [25] neuroimagingstudies have shown that the activity in brain regions relatedto tonic awareness can be enhanced during Theravada andMahayana types of meditation Asmentioned tonic alertnessis associated with neural activity in the dACC DLPFC theanterior insula the inferior parietal lobule the thalamus andthe brain stem [34 63 64] In a study that demonstratedtonic alertness in both Vipassana and Shamatha Manna etal [105] measured the fMRI BOLD signal in 8 Theravadamonks with an average of over 15000 hours of Shamatha andVipassana meditation experience as well as in 8 novices with10 days of meditation experience Both groups of participantsperformed 3 experimental blocks inside the fMRI scannereach of which began with a 3-minute rest condition and wasfollowed by 6 minutes of Shamatha meditation where theyfocused on their breathing and 6 minutes of Vipassana med-itation They found stronger BOLD activation in brain areasrelated to tonic alertness in highly experienced meditators(monks) that performed both Shamatha and Vipassana andin novices that performed Vipassana meditation SpecificallyManna et al [105] found that when monks performedShamatha the fMRI BOLD signal in the left and right dACCDLPFC and anterior insula was stronger than during therest control condition Moreover for the monks Vipassanameditation led to an increased signal in the DLPFC areaOn the other hand for the novice meditators Shamathameditation did not show an increased BOLD signal that isrelated to tonic alertness possibly due to insufficient expertisewith this practice but Vipassana meditation led to increasedactivation in the left dACC indicative of enhanced tonicalertness

Allen et al [106] recruited 61 participants without anymeditation experience who were randomly assigned toeither a 6-week Mindfulness meditation course or a 6-week ldquoactive-controlrdquo condition that involved group readingsand discussions This control condition was hypothesized toldquocultivate absorption and thought related processes into animaginary narrative in contrast to the present-centered andopen-monitoring aspect of mindfulnessrdquo [106] Allen et al[106] found increased DLPFC activation in the meditationgroup relative to the control and also found that the amountof meditation practice positively correlated with the level ofdACC activation that occurred during the meditation Asreviewed by Britton et al [25] similar findings of increasedactivation in neural areas related to tonic alertness have beenobserved in additional studies on Vipassana (eg [107 108])Mindfulness (eg [109]) and Zenmeditation (eg [110 111])

Additional evidence that Theravada types of meditationlead to tonic alertness was obtained by several recent studiesthat have shown that Mindfulness (eg [112 113]) andShamatha [114] types of meditation can lead to a decreasein the activity of neural structures that are more activeduring unfocused activity than during attention demandingtasks [115ndash117] These areas include the ventral medial pre-frontal cortex posterior cingulate inferior parietal lobule

and the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex which have beencollectively termed the brainrsquos ldquodefault networkrdquo [118]

Furthermore recent studies have investigated the influ-ence of meditation on tonic alertness using behavioural tasksthat are specifically designed tomeasure alerting attention InJha et al [119] the authors utilized the ldquoattentional networktestrdquo (ANT) where in each trial participants are presentedwith an arrow target that is surrounded by distractor arrowsthat point in either the same direction (congruent flankers)or a different direction (incongruent flankers) as the targetMoreover the target is preceded by one of three cue condi-tions a valid cue a spatially neutral central cue a spatiallyneutral double cue or a no cue condition Importantly theefficiency of alerting attentional processes is assessed by theANT as the reaction-time (RT) difference between the doublecue and the no cue conditions Jha et al [119] assessed changesin tonic alertness in 3 groups of participants one groupparticipated in an intensive Shamatha retreat for 30 minutesa day for 8 weeks The second group practiced Shamathafor 30 minutes a day for 8 weeks and a third group didnot undergo any meditation training They compared tonicalertness at the beginning of the study (Time-point 1) andfollowing the intervention (retreat or meditation programTime-point 2) Jha et al [119] showed that although theefficiency of alerting attention did not differ at Time-point1 between the three groups of participants at Time-point2 the alerting attentional mechanisms of participants whoattended the retreat became significantly more efficient (theRT difference between the no cue and double cue conditionswas reduced relative to Time-point 1) and the magnitude ofthe improvement in alerting attentionwas correlated with themeditation experience of the retreat participants Moreoverthe increase in alerting efficiency was driven by a decrease inRT to no cue trials and suggests that the meditators becamemore vigilant and their tonic alertness increased

In MacLean et al [120] the authors measured the influ-ences of Shamatha meditation on tonic alertness using asustained-attention task where single lines were presentedat the centre of the screen while participants fixated on asmall yellow dot The lines could be either long (90 of thetime) or short (10 of the time) and the participants wererequired to respond to the short lines by pressing a responsebutton They recruited 29 participants [120] with an averageexperience of 2668 hours of meditation who participated ina 3-month Shamatha meditation retreat that consisted of 5hours of meditation training per dayThe sustained attentiontest was administered before at the midpoint and after themeditation retreat The nonparametric index of perceptualsensitivity 1198601015840 was calculated from the hit rates and falsealarm rates for each of the 8 120-trial experimental blocksof the sustained attention task Since the decline in 1198601015840 waslargest during the first 4 blocks MacLean et al [120] definedimprovements in tonic alertness as positive changes in theslope of 1198601015840 during the first four blocks MacLean et al[120] showed that the slope of 1198601015840 was more positive at themidpoint and after the meditation retreat in comparisonto the pre-retreat baseline demonstrating that Shamathameditation reduced the decrement in 1198601015840 that occurs duringthe sustained attention task and therefore increased tonic

BioMed Research International 7

alertnessThe authors interpreted their results to indicate thatmeditation training can ldquodecrease resource demands and thusimprove vigilance (tonic alertness)rdquo [120]

Hence the findings of studies that investigated tonicalertness through behavioural measures complement neu-roimaging studies and together they demonstrate that certainTheravada and Mahayana types of meditation can increasethe activity in neural areas related to tonic alertness whichin turn leads to improvements on tasks that require tonicalertness The recent findings of tonic alertness during Ther-avada and Mahayana meditation are important because theycomplement the picture portrayed by Buddhist scriptureswhich describe meditation as a practice that generates botha relaxed and an alert state of mind [23 26] Moreoverour review is consistent with previous findings and reviewsthat consistently demonstrated a relaxation response duringTheravada and Mahayana types of meditation [10ndash13]

5 Arousal and Phasic Alertness inVajrayana Practices

As opposed to Theravada meditative practices Vajrayanapractice does not cultivate relaxation but an arousal responseVajrayana Buddhist scriptures emphasize the realization ofldquoself-existing wakefulnessrdquo or ldquoan awake qualityrdquo of the mindand warn against excessive tranquility [84] in contrast toTheravada scriptures that emphasize quiescence and tran-quility [67 pages 1287-1288 (IV410)] as well as Mahayanameditation instructions that also emphasize calmness (eg[26] page 57) Furthermore empirical evidence also suggeststhat arousal is generated during specific meditative practicesFor instance the generation of arousal during meditation hasbeen observed in Hindu Tantric practices (eg [121 122]) aswell as in several Vajrayana practices (eg [27 28]) althoughoverall there have been far fewer studies on Vajrayana andHindu Tantric practices than onTheravada and Mahayana

Based on Theravada Buddhist scriptures that empha-size calmness and relaxation and Vajrayana scripturesthat emphasize ldquowakefulnessrdquo Amihai and Kozhevnikov[27] hypothesized that Deity and Rig-pa practices of theVajrayana tradition would generate cognitive and physiologi-cal responses of arousal while Vipassana and Shamatha prac-tices of the Theravada tradition would generate a relaxationresponse In order to investigate the autonomic activationthat is generated during these types of practices Amihai andKozhevnikov [27] compared the EKG activity of experiencedTheravada and Vajrayana meditators (with 8 and 74 years ofmeditation experience resp) as they practiced meditationThe Theravada types of meditation that were investigatedwere Vipassana meditation and Kasina meditation which isa visualization type of Shamatha meditation in which themeditator focuses his or her attention on ldquoKasina objectsrdquothat are described in the Pali Tipitaka and are typicallycolored disks The Vajrayana practices studied were Deityand Rig-pa practices In this study the participants per-formed a 10-minute rest condition that was followed byShamatha and Vipassana meditation (15 minutes each) forthe Theravada meditators and Deity and Rig-pa meditation(15 minutes each) for the Vajrayana meditators Moreover

the participantsrsquo EKG activity was monitored throughout theexperiment Amihai andKozhevnikov [27] showed thatTher-avada types of meditation elicited increased HF (Vipassana)and decreased LFHF (both Vipassana and Kasina) relativeto the rest control condition which is consistent with arelaxation response On the other hand Vajrayana practicesproduced increased arousal as indexed by decreased HF(both Deity and Rig-pa) during the meditation relative tothe control condition Moreover Kozhevnikov et al [29]and Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] presented experiencedTheravada (an average of 8ndash123 years of experience) andVajrayana meditators (an average of 74ndash13 years of experi-ence) with 2 visual tests (the Mental Rotation Test (MRT)and Visual Memory Test (VMT [123]) see [29] for details)which were performed before and immediately following a20-minute session of Theravada meditation (Vipassana andKasina Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27]) or Vajrayana prac-tices (Deity Kozhevnikov et al [29] and Rig-pa Amihai andKozhevnikov [27]) As mentioned the dramatic improve-ments on visual tasks immediately following a stimulus oractivity are indicative of enhanced phasic alertness Hencethe authors hypothesized that improved performance onthe visual tests immediately after the meditation practicewould indicate that phasic alertness occurred during themeditation and that such an improvement would be observedfollowingVajrayana practices In linewith this hypothesis theexperimental results showed that onlyVajrayana practices ledto a large and immediate increase in performance on thesetasks while Theravada meditators did not demonstrate anyimprovement in their performance following the practiceHence these studies demonstrate that Vajrayana practicesand not Theravada types of meditation lead to an arousalresponse and phasic alertness

Additional studies that demonstrated that Vajrayanapractices can increase the activity of the sympathetic sys-tem and generate an arousal response were conducted onpractitioners of g-Tummo meditation which as mentionedis associated with intense sensations of bodily heat in thespine Interestingly Benson himself reported a phenomenonthat was unclear to him at the time that two of the three g-Tummo practitioners that participated in his study exhibitedan activation of the sympathetic system as evidenced byincreased metabolism and oxygen consumption [124] whichis consistent with arousal and not a relaxation responseMoreover in Kozhevnikov et al [28] it was demonstratedexperimentally that g-Tummo meditation can indeed raisethe temperature of the body which indicates a sympa-thetic response Nonshivering generation of body heatmdashthermogenesismdashis mediated by the sympathetic nervoussystem [55 56] In humans thermogenesis is caused mainlyby brown adipose tissue which shunts the energy obtainedfrom the oxidation of free fatty acids into heat whichis then distributed throughout the body via the adiposetissue vasculature [56] Importantly brown adipose tissueactivity in humans is stimulated by the sympathetic ner-vous system [55] Specifically an increased discharge fromsupraspinal sympathetic premotor pathways results in thesympathetic activation of brown adipose tissue which leadsto thermogenesis [56] By attaching a small thermometer in

8 BioMed Research International

the armpit of highly experienced g-Tummo meditators (6ndash32 years of experience) Kozhevnikov et al [28] were able todemonstrate for the first time that g-Tummo meditators canincrease not only their peripheral but more importantly corebody temperature during the meditation demonstrating thatthe activity of the sympathetic nervous system significantlyincreases as a consequence of this practice Notably the ther-mogenesis induced during g-Tummo was so substantial thatit raised the body temperature of the meditators above thenormal body temperature range and into the range of slightor moderate fever (up to 383∘C) reflecting an enhancedarousal response due to sympathetic activation It shouldbe noted that increases in the peripheral body (meditatorsrsquofingers and toes) temperature during g-Tummo were alsofound in Benson et al [125] however the authors did notattribute such changes to increased sympathetic activationIn contrast Benson et al [125] speculated that increasedsympathetic activation during meditation is ldquounlikelyrdquo as itwould be inconsistent with the parasympathetic activationthat they observed inTheravada and TM types of meditation

In addition to Vajrayana practices several studies con-ducted on Hindu Tantric meditators demonstrated increasedarousal In an early but influential and often cited studyCorby et al [121] recorded the GSR and heart rate duringa Dharana type of meditation called Ananda Marga whichincorporates a focus on breathing while repeating a two-syllable word and ignoring external stimuli They recruited30 experienced Ananda Marga meditators (an average of 21years and 31 hours of practice a day) as well as 10 subjectswithout meditation experience that served as controls TheGSR and heart rates were recorded during 3 experimentalconditions (1) a relaxation control (2) an Ananda Margameditation preparation condition which involves payingattention to the breath while ignoring external stimuli (3)Ananda Marga meditation where the subjects were toldto ignore external stimuli pay attention to their breathingand silently repeat a two-syllable word in phase with theirbreathing In the control group the participants chose theirown word while meditators used a personal mantra thatthey received from their meditation instructor The resultsof Corby et al [121] demonstrated that a state of arousaloccurred during AnandaMarga meditation (1) skin conduc-tance (GSR) increased from the relaxation baseline to themeditation condition but only for themeditators group (2) asmall heart rate increase was observed during the meditationcondition relative to the baseline for the meditators groupBoth of these measures indicated that sympathetic activationoccurred during the meditation demonstrating an arousalresponse

Additionally Telles and Desiraju [122] measured heartrate and GSR during a different type of meditation whichrequires concentration on a light source while contemplatinga universal force They recruited 18 experienced meditators(with an average of 101 years of experience) and compared thephysiological measures obtained during meditation to thoseobtained by the same subjects during a control conditionwhich was similar to the meditation condition but whererandom thinking was allowed and effortful concentrationwas not required The findings of Telles and Desiraju [122]

demonstrated that although therewere no significant changesin GSR an increase in heart rate occurred during the medita-tion condition but not during the nonmeditation conditionrelative to the baseline heart rate obtained prior to eachcondition Hence the findings of this study are indicativeof increased sympathetic activation and an arousal responseduring this type of meditation

To conclude this section as opposed to Theravada andMahayana types of meditation that demonstrate enhancedrelaxation investigations of Vajrayana and certain HinduTantric practices demonstrated increased arousal This onceagain emphasizes the importance of philosophical and cul-tural influences on meditation and demonstrates that theterm ldquomeditationrdquo is in many ways too general when used asa unified descriptor of all Buddhist and Hindu contemplativepractices These findings show that the supposition that ldquotounderstand the psychophysiological influences ofmeditationit should first be conceptually denuded of its cultural andreligious biases [9 page 2]rdquo is highly misleading The dia-metrically opposed findings of relaxation in Theravada andMahayana practices and arousal in Vajrayana and HinduTantric practices point to the opposite conclusion Namelyin order to understand the psychophysiological aspects ofmeditation one needs to carefully examine its cultural andreligious sources

6 Conclusions and Future Directions

The aim of this review was to examine the scientific studiesof meditation while focusing on the unique influences thatdifferent types of meditative traditions have on the activa-tion of the autonomic system and attentional mechanismsWe have presented evidence summarized in Table 1 whichshows that Theravada and Mahayana types of meditationlead to increased parasympathetic activation that underliesa relaxation response while Vajrayana and certain HinduTantric practices elicit enhanced sympathetic activation thatunderlies a robust arousal response In addition we out-lined the cultural and philosophical motivations that haveinfluenced these meditative practices While Theravada andMahayana scriptures emphasize that the purpose of medi-tation is to cultivate tranquility along with mental stabilityVajrayana scriptures describe practices whose purpose is toelicit states of enhanced arousal

It is important to stress that the influences of Vajrayanaand Hindu Tantric practices on physiology and behaviorare only beginning to receive their due attention from thescientific community and the long-term impact of Tantricpractices is still not well understood Hence while it has beendemonstrated that Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric practicescan lead to immediate physiological changes that are coupledwith improved cognitive performance future studies shouldinvestigate the long-term cognitive and physiological changesthat occur as a consequence of such practices As previouslymentioned in contrast to Vajrayana and Hindu Tantricpractices many scientific studies have been conducted onTheravada or Mahayana types of meditation and there isevidence that they can lead to long-term improvements onattentional tasks (eg [25 120 126]) It is thus prudent that

BioMed Research International 9

Table 1 Summary of meditation studies of autonomic activation and alerting attention

Study Meditation type Findings

Tang et al [92] Mindfulness (IBMT) Increased HF anddecreased GSR

Ditto et al [93] Mindfulness Increased RSA

Jain et al [96] Mindfulness Increased perceived positive emotions and decreasedperceived distress

Mackenzie et al [97] Mindfulness Increased perceived well-being life satisfaction andrelaxation

Wu and Lo [86] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHFTakahashi et al [87] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Manna et al [105] ShamathaIncreased fMRI BOLD signal in the dorsal anteriorcingulate cortex (dACC) dorsolateral prefrontal cortex(DLPFC) and anterior insula in meditation experts

Manna et al [105] Vipassana Increased dACC activation in meditation novicesAllen et al [106] Mindfulness Increased DLPFC and dACC activationJha et al [119] Shamatha Increased alerting network efficiencyMacLean et al [120] Shamatha Improvement in a sustained attention taskAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Shamatha (Kasina visualization) Decreased LFHFAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Vipassana Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Rig-pa (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HF and increased performance in mentalrotation (MRT) and visual memory (VMT)

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HFKozhevnikov et al [29] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased MRT and VMT performanceKozhevnikov et al [28] g-Tummo (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased thermogenesisCorby et al [121] Ananda Marga (Dharana) Increased GSR and heart rateTelles and Desiraju [122] Hindu Tantric meditation Increased heart rate

similar long-term studies would be conducted on Tantricpractices

Related to the above another important research direc-tion that has yet to be explored is the long-term influenceof Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric meditation on stress andwell-being As mentioned the finding that Theravada typesof meditation produce relaxation has resulted in their incor-poration into clinical practices as stress reduction techniques(eg [10 21 95 96]) Conversely the finding that Vajrayanaand Hindu Tantric types of meditation produce arousalsuggests that they could be more problematic for people whoare under a high level of stress However it is also likely thatas they gain additional meditation experience Vajrayana andHindu Tantric meditators develop unique strategies to helpthem cope with stressful situations that could arise duringtheir meditation practice for instance by transforming theirnegative emotions into the positive emotional states of thevisualized Deity Such possibilities should be examined infuture studies

In addition future studies should investigate the specificmechanisms that underlie ANS changes during meditationin order to understand the precise factors that mediate thearousal and relaxation responses One possible mediatingfactor could be respiration changes In this context previousstudies on Hindu breathing exercises called Pranayamawhich often serve as preparatory exercises for meditation

[79 page 310] showed that specific breathing techniques canbe used to activate the sympathetic or the parasympatheticnervous systems (eg [127]) A second factor that shouldbe considered is the specific visualization or other contentthat is used for meditation For instance it is plausible thata visualized Tibetan Deity would lead to a high degree ofarousal due to the emotional content that it holds in theeyes of a Tibetan meditator while the inward and outwardflow of the breath that is being attended to during Shamathameditation would not evoke intense emotional reactions

In conclusion although the scientific examination ofthe nature of meditative practices is not new it is onlyin recent years that cognitive scientists and neuroscientistshave begun to investigate the influences of the specificcultural and philosophical contexts out of which meditationpractices developed on the psychophysiological outcomes ofthe practices Such investigations have led to experimentalbreakthroughs that corroborate ideas laid down in Buddhistscriptures about the purpose and effects of meditationSpecifically the scriptural descriptions of heightened arousalduring Vajrayana practices and a relaxed and alert state ofmind during Theravada and Mahayana types of meditationreceived empirical support as research from the past severalyears demonstrated that Vajrayana as well as certain HinduTantric practices lead to heightened arousal and phasicalertness whileTheravada andMahayana types ofmeditation

10 BioMed Research International

elicit a relaxation response coupled with enhanced tonicalertness

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

References

[1] B Bodhi ldquoWhat does mindfulness really mean A canonicalperspectiverdquo Contemporary Buddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 19ndash392011

[2] R Gethin ldquoOn some definitions ofmindfulnessrdquoContemporaryBuddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 263ndash279 2011

[3] P Grossman and N T Van Dam ldquoMindfulness by any othername trials and tribulations of sati in western psychologyand sciencerdquo Contemporary Buddhism An InterdisciplinaryJournal vol 12 no 1 pp 219ndash239 2011

[4] Z Josipovic ldquoDuality and nonduality in meditation researchrdquoConsciousness and Cognition vol 19 no 4 pp 1119ndash1121 2010

[5] H Benson and W Proctor Relaxation Revolution The Scienceand Genetics of Mind Body Healing Scribner New York NYUSA 2011

[6] H Benson B A Rosner B R Marzetta and H P KlemchukldquoDecreased blood pressure in borderline hypertensive subjectswho practiced meditationrdquo Journal of Chronic Diseases vol 27no 3 pp 163ndash169 1974

[7] R K Wallace and H Benson ldquoThe physiology of meditationrdquoScientific American vol 226 no 2 pp 84ndash90 1972

[8] I Kutz J Leserman C Dorrington C H Morrison J ZBorysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation as an adjunct topsychotherapy An outcome studyrdquo Psychotherapy and Psycho-somatics vol 43 no 4 pp 209ndash218 1985

[9] I Kutz J Z Borysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation andpsychotherapy a rationale for the integration of dynamicpsychotherapy the relaxation response and mindfulness med-itationrdquo The American Journal of Psychiatry vol 142 no 1 pp1ndash8 1985

[10] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoMindfulness-based stress reduc-tion for stress management in healthy people a review andmeta-analysisrdquo The Journal of Alternative and ComplementaryMedicine vol 15 no 5 pp 593ndash600 2009

[11] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoA systematic review of neuro-biological and clinical features of mindfulness meditationsrdquoPsychological Medicine vol 40 no 8 pp 1239ndash1252 2010

[12] F Zeidan K T Martucci R Kraft J G McHaffie and R CCoghill ldquo Neural correlates of mindfulness meditation-relatedanxiety reliefrdquo Scandinavica vol 9 pp 751ndash759 2014

[13] B Ivanovski and G S Malhi ldquoThe psychological and neuro-physiological concomitants of mindfulness forms of medita-tionrdquo Acta Neuropsychiatrica vol 19 no 2 pp 76ndash91 2007

[14] J D-E Young and E Taylor ldquoMeditation as a voluntaryhypometabolic state of biological estivationrdquoNews in Physiolog-ical Sciences vol 13 no 3 pp 149ndash153 1998

[15] R Jevning R K Wallace and M Beidebach ldquoThe physiologyof meditation a review A wakeful hypometabolic integratedresponserdquo Neuroscience amp Biobehavioral Reviews vol 16 no 3pp 415ndash424 1992

[16] S E Petersen and M I Posner ldquoThe attention system of thehumanbrain 20 years afterrdquoAnnual Review ofNeuroscience vol35 pp 73ndash89 2012

[17] L K McCorry ldquoPhysiology of the autonomic nervous systemrdquoAmerican Journal of Pharmaceutical Education vol 71 no 4article 78 2007

[18] D R Morse J S Martin M L Furst and L L Dubin ldquoAphysiological and subjective evaluation ofmeditation hypnosisand relaxationrdquo Psychosomatic Medicine vol 39 no 5 pp 304ndash324 1977

[19] A Lutz ldquoMeditation and the neuroscience of consciousness anintroductionrdquo inThe Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness PD Zelazo M Moscovitch and EThompson Eds pp 499ndash551Cambridge University Press New York NY USA 2007

[20] Tipitaka The Pali Canon Legacy Edition 2005 httpwwwaccesstoinsightorgtipitaka

[21] P Grossman L Niemann S Schmidt and H Walach ldquoMind-fulness-based stress reduction and health benefits a meta-analysisrdquo Journal of Psychosomatic Research vol 57 no 1 pp35ndash43 2004

[22] R Gilpin ldquoThe use of Theravada Buddhist practices andperspectives in mindfulness-based cognitive therapyrdquo Contem-porary Buddhism vol 9 no 2 pp 227ndash251 2008

[23] B H GunaratanaMindfulness in Plain English Wisdom Publi-cations Somerville Mass USA 2002

[24] B R Cahn and J Polich ldquoMeditation states and traits EEG ERPand neuroimaging studiesrdquoPsychological Bulletin vol 132 no 2pp 180ndash211 2006

[25] W B Britton J R Lindahl B R Cahn J H Davis and R EGoldman ldquoAwakening is not ametaphor the effects of Buddhistmeditation practices on basic wakefulnessrdquo Annals of the NewYork Academy of Sciences vol 1307 no 1 pp 64ndash81 2014

[26] J D Buksbazen Zen Meditation in Plain English WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1st edition 2002

[27] I Amihai and M Kozhevnikov ldquoArousal vs relaxation acomparison of the neurophysiological and cognitive correlatesof Vajrayana and Theravada meditative practicesrdquo PLoS ONEvol 9 no 7 Article ID e102990 2014

[28] M Kozhevnikov J Elliott J Shephard and K Gramann ldquoNeu-rocognitive and somatic components of temperature increasesduring g-Tummo meditation legend and realityrdquo PLoS ONEvol 8 no 3 Article ID e58244 2013

[29] M Kozhevnikov O Louchakova Z Josipovic and M AMotes ldquoThe enhancement of visuospatial processing efficiencythrough buddhist deity meditationrdquo Psychological Science vol20 no 5 pp 645ndash653 2009

[30] A J CammMMalik J T Bigger G Breithardt S Cerutti andR J Cohen ldquoHeart rate variabilitymdashstandards of measurementphysiological interpretation and clinical userdquo Circulation vol93 no 5 pp 1043ndash1065 1996

[31] G F Chess R M K Tam and F R Calaresu ldquoInfluence ofcardiac neural inputs on rhythmic variations of heart period inthe catrdquoAmerican Journal of Physiology vol 228 no 3 pp 775ndash780 1975

[32] M N Levy ldquoSympathetic-parasympathetic interactions in theheartrdquo Circulation Research vol 29 no 5 pp 437ndash445 1971

[33] N Weinbach and A Henik ldquoPhasic alertness can modulateexecutive control by enhancing global processing of visualstimulirdquo Cognition vol 121 no 3 pp 454ndash458 2011

BioMed Research International 11

[34] W Sturm A de Simone B J Krause et al ldquoFunctional anatomyof intrinsic alertness evidence for a fronto-parietal-thalamic-brainstem network in the right hemisphererdquo Neuropsychologiavol 37 no 7 pp 797ndash805 1999

[35] P Low ldquoAutonomic nervous systemrdquo in The Merck ManualR S Porter and J L Kaplan Eds Merck Sharp amp DohmeWhitehouse Station NJ USA 2013

[36] G E Billman ldquoThe LFHF ratio does not accurately measurecardiac sympatho-vagal balancerdquo Frontiers in Physiology vol 4article 26 2013

[37] G G Berntson J T Bigger Jr D L Eckberg et al ldquoHeartrate variability origins methods and interpretive caveatsrdquoPsychophysiology vol 34 no 6 pp 623ndash648 1997

[38] K Molgaard K Hermansen and P Bjerregaard ldquoSpectralcomponents of short-term RR interval variability in healthysubjects and effects of risk factorsrdquo European Heart Journal vol15 no 9 pp 1174ndash1183 1994

[39] J T Bigger Jr J L Fleiss L M Rolnitzky and R C SteinmanldquoStability over time of heart period variability in patients withprevious myocardial infarction and ventricular arrhythmiasrdquoAmerican Journal of Cardiology vol 69 no 8 pp 718ndash723 1992

[40] K M Stein J S Borer C Hochreiter et al ldquoPrognostic valueand physiological correlates of heart rate variability in chronicsevere mitral regurgitationrdquo Circulation vol 88 no 1 pp 127ndash135 1993

[41] A Malliani M Pagani F Lombardi and S Cerutti ldquoCardio-vascular neural regulation explored in the frequency domainrdquoCirculation vol 84 no 2 pp 482ndash492 1991

[42] M V Kamath and E L Fallen ldquoPower spectral analysis of heartrate variability a noninvasive signature of cardiac autonomicfunctionrdquoCritical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering vol 21 no3 pp 245ndash311 1993

[43] O Rimoldi S Pierini A Ferrari S Cerutti M Pagani andA Malliani ldquoAnalysis of short-term oscillations of R-R andarterial pressure in conscious dogsrdquo The American Journal ofPhysiologymdashHeart and Circulatory Physiology vol 258 no 4pp H967ndashH976 1990

[44] N Montano T G Ruscone A Porta F Lombardi M Paganiand A Malliani ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart rate vari-ability to assess the changes in sympathovagal balance duringgraded orthostatic tiltrdquoCirculation vol 90 no 4 pp 1826ndash18311994

[45] S Akselrod D Gordon F A Ubel D C Shannon A CBerger and R J Cohen ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart ratefluctuation a quantitative probe of beat-to-beat cardiovascularcontrolrdquo Science vol 213 no 4504 pp 220ndash222 1981

[46] M L Appel R D Berger J P Saul J M Smith and R J CohenldquoBeat to beat variability in cardiovascular variables noise ormusicrdquo Journal of the American College of Cardiology vol 14no 5 pp 1139ndash1148 1989

[47] B Pomeranz R J Macaulay M A Caudill et al ldquoAssessment ofautonomic function in humans by heart rate spectral analysisrdquoThe American Journal of Physiology vol 248 no 1 pp H151ndashH153 1985

[48] F Morady W H Kou S D Nelson et al ldquoAccentuated antago-nism between beta-adrenergic and vagal effects on ventricularrefractoriness in humansrdquo Circulation vol 77 no 2 pp 289ndash297 1988

[49] D L Eckberg S KMohanty andM Raczkowska ldquoTrigeminal-baroreceptor reflex interactions modulate human cardiac vagalefferent activityrdquo Journal of Physiology vol 347 pp 75ndash83 1984

[50] F Yasuma and J-I Hayano ldquoRespiratory Sinus Arrhythmiawhy does the heartbeat synchronize with respiration rhythmrdquoChest vol 125 no 2 pp 683ndash690 2004

[51] P G Katona and F Jih ldquoRespiratory sinus arrhythmia nonin-vasive measure of parasympathetic cardiac controlrdquo Journal ofApplied Physiology vol 39 no 5 pp 801ndash805 1975

[52] F L Gobel L A Norstrom R R Nelson C R Jorgensen andY Wang ldquoThe rate-pressure product as an index of myocardialoxygen consumption during exercise in patients with anginapectorisrdquo Circulation vol 57 no 3 pp 549ndash556 1978

[53] H M Martini and E F Bartholomew Essentials of Anatomyand Physiology Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ USA 2ndedition 2001

[54] J A Gutrecht ldquoSympathetic skin responserdquo Journal of ClinicalNeurophysiology vol 11 no 5 pp 519ndash524 1994

[55] J Nedergaard T Bengtsson and B Cannon ldquoUnexpectedevidence for active brown adipose tissue in adult humansrdquoThe American Journal of PhysiologymdashEndocrinology andMetabolism vol 293 no 2 pp E444ndashE452 2007

[56] S F Morrison and W W Blessing ldquoCentral nervous systemregulation of body temperaturerdquo in Central Regulation of Auto-nomic Functions I J Llewellyn-Smith and A J M VerberneEds pp 1ndash34 Oxford Scholarship Online 2011

[57] L R Derogatis and N Melisaratos ldquoThe brief symptom inven-tory an introductory reportrdquo PsychologicalMedicine vol 13 no3 pp 595ndash605 1983

[58] M Horowitz N Adler and S Kegeles ldquoA scale for measuringthe occurrence of positive states of mind a preliminary reportrdquoPsychosomatic Medicine vol 50 no 5 pp 477ndash483 1988

[59] T W Robbins ldquoArousal systems and attentional processesrdquoBiological Psychology vol 45 no 1ndash3 pp 57ndash71 1997

[60] T W Robbins ldquoChemistry of the mind neurochemical mod-ulation of prefrontal cortical functionrdquo Journal of ComparativeNeurology vol 493 no 1 pp 140ndash146 2005

[61] R P Hasegawa A M Blitz N L Geller and M E GoldbergldquoNeurons inmonkey prefrontal cortex that track past or predictfuture performancerdquo Science vol 290 no 5497 pp 1786ndash17892000

[62] M I Posner ldquoMeasuring alertnessrdquo Annals of the New YorkAcademy of Sciences vol 1129 pp 193ndash199 2008

[63] W Sturm and K Willmes ldquoOn the functional neuroanatomyof intrinsic and phasic alertnessrdquo NeuroImage vol 14 no 1 ppS76ndashS84 2001

[64] S Sadaghiani R Scheeringa K Lehongre B Morillon A LGiraud and A Kleinschmidt ldquoIntrinsic connectivity networksalpha oscillations and tonic alertness a simultaneous elec-troencephalographyfunctional magnetic resonance imagingstudyrdquo The Journal of Neuroscience vol 30 no 30 pp 10243ndash10250 2010

[65] B Buddhaghosa Visuddhimagga The Path of Purificationtranslated byBNanamoli Buddhist Publication Society KandySri Lanka 4th edition 2010

[66] AWallaceTheAttention Revolution Unlocking the Power of theFocused Mind Wisdom Publications Somerville Mass USA2006

[67] B Bhikkhu The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha A Trans-lation of the Anguttara Nikaya Wisdom Publications BostonMass USA 2012

[68] S ZhiyiThe Essentials of Buddhist Meditation B Dharmamiratranslation Kalavinka Press Seattle Wash USA 2009

12 BioMed Research International

[69] G SamuelTheOrigins of Yoga and Tantra Indic Religions to theThirteenth Century vol 2013 Cambridge University Press NewDelhi India 2008

[70] K A Harper and R L Brown Eds The Roots of Tantra StateUniversity of New York Press New York NY USA 2002

[71] N Panchen and P W Gyalpo Perfect Conduct Ascertaining theThree Vows Wisdom Boston Mass USA 1999

[72] S RinpocheDzogchen and Padmasambhava Rigpa FellowshipSan Diego Calif USA 2nd edition 1990

[73] T Wangyal Wonders of the Natural Mind The Essence ofDzogchen in the Native Bon Tradition Snow Lion Ithaca NYUSA 1993

[74] D Goleman The Meditative Mind The Varieties of MeditativeExperience GP Putnamrsquos Sons New York NY USA 1996

[75] Tsong-Kha-Pa and G C MullinThe Six Yogas of Naropa SnowLion Publications Boston Mass USA 2005

[76] WY Evans-WentzTibetanYoga and Secret Doctorines PilgrimsPublishing Varanisa India 2002

[77] G H Mullin Readings on Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1997

[78] G H Mullin Tsongkhaparsquos Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1996

[79] I K TaimniThe Science of Yoga The Theosophical PublishingHouse Wheaton Ill USA 1961

[80] S Kripalvanand The Science of Meditation Sri DahyabhaiHirabhai Patel Bombay India 1977

[81] G FeuersteinThePhilosophy of Classical Yoga InnerTraditionsRochester NY USA 1996

[82] J D Nash and A Newberg ldquoToward a unifying taxonomy anddefinition for meditationrdquo Frontiers in Psychology vol 4 article806 2013

[83] M WalsheThe Long Discourses of the Buddha A Translation ofthe Digha Nikaya (Teachings of the Buddha) Wisdom Publica-tions Boston Mass USA 1995

[84] T U Rinpoche As It Is vol 2 Ranjung Yeshe PublicationsHong Kong 1999

[85] H Benson The Relaxation Response HyperCollins New YorkNY USA 1975

[86] S D Wu and P C Lo ldquoInward-attention meditation increasesparasympathetic activity a study based onheart rate variabilityrdquoBiomedical Research vol 29 no 5 pp 245ndash250 2008

[87] T Takahashi T Murata T Hamada et al ldquoChanges in EEGand autonomic nervous activity during meditation and theirassociation with personality traitsrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 55 no 2 pp 199ndash207 2005

[88] J Kabat-Zinn ldquoAn outpatient program in behavioral medicinefor chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulnessmeditation theoretical considerations and preliminary resultsrdquoGeneral Hospital Psychiatry vol 4 no 1 pp 33ndash47 1982

[89] B Nanamoli and B Bhikkhu ldquoSekha-patipada Sutta (thepractice for one in training)rdquo in The Middle Length Discoursesof the Buddha A New Translation of the Majjhima WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1995

[90] T Gyatso Stages of Meditation Snow Lion Publication IthacaNY USA 2001

[91] J A Brefczynski-Lewis A Lutz H S Schaefer D B Levinsonand R J Davidson ldquoNeural correlates of attentional expertise inlong-termmeditation practitionersrdquo Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences of the United States of America vol 104 no27 pp 11483ndash11488 2007

[92] Y-Y Tang Y Ma Y Fan et al ldquoCentral and autonomicnervous system interaction is altered by short-termmeditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 106 no 22 pp 8865ndash8870 2009

[93] B Ditto M Eclache and N Goldman ldquoShort-term autonomicand cardiovascular effects of mindfulness body scan medita-tionrdquo Annals of Behavioral Medicine vol 32 no 3 pp 227ndash2342006

[94] J R Krygier J A J Heathers S Shahrestani M Abbott J JGross and A H Kemp ldquoMindfulness meditation well-beingand heart rate variability a preliminary investigation into theimpact of intensive vipassanameditationrdquo International Journalof Psychophysiology vol 89 no 3 pp 305ndash313 2013

[95] J D Agee S Danoff-Burg and C A Grant ldquoComparingbrief stress management courses in a community samplemindfulness skills and progressive muscle relaxationrdquo Explorevol 5 no 2 pp 104ndash109 2009

[96] S Jain S L Shapiro S Swanick et al ldquoA randomized controlledtrial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation trainingeffects on distress positive states of mind rumination anddistractionrdquoAnnals of Behavioral Medicine vol 33 no 1 pp 11ndash21 2007

[97] C S Mackenzie P A Poulin and R Seidman-Carlson ldquoA briefmindfulness-based stress reduction intervention for nurses andnurse aidesrdquoAppliedNursing Research vol 19 no 2 pp 105ndash1092006

[98] O Singleton B K Holzel M Vangel N Brach J Carmody andS W Lazar ldquoChange in brainstem gray matter concentrationfollowing a mindfulness-based intervention is correlated withimprovement in psychological well-beingrdquo Frontiers in HumanNeuroscience vol 8 article 33 2014

[99] P Ekman R J Davidson M Ricard and B A WallaceldquoBuddhist and psychological perspectives on emotions andwell-beingrdquo Current Directions in Psychological Science vol 14no 2 pp 59ndash63 2005

[100] P Ekman and R J Davidson The Nature of Emotion Funda-mental Questions Series in Affective Science OxfordUniversityPress New York NY USA 1994

[101] R A Baer ldquoMindfulness training as a clinical intervention aconceptual and empirical reviewrdquo Clinical Psychology Scienceand Practice vol 10 no 2 pp 125ndash143 2003

[102] C C Streeter P L Gerbarg R B Saper D A Ciraulo and RP Brown ldquoEffects of yoga on the autonomic nervous systemgamma-aminobutyric-acid and allostasis in epilepsy depres-sion and post-traumatic stress disorderrdquo Medical Hypothesesvol 78 no 5 pp 571ndash579 2012

[103] M Balasubramaniam S Telles and P M Doraiswamy ldquoYogaon our minds a systematic review of yoga for neuropsychiatricdisordersrdquo Frontiers in Psychiatry vol 3 article 117 2013

[104] S Telles and N Singh ldquoScience of the mind ancient yoga textsand modern studiesrdquo Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol36 no 1 pp 93ndash108 2013

[105] A Manna A Raffone M G Perrucci et al ldquoNeural correlatesof focused attention and cognitive monitoring in meditationrdquoBrain Research Bulletin vol 82 no 1-2 pp 46ndash56 2010

[106] M Allen M Dietz K S Blair et al ldquoCognitive-affectiveneural plasticity following active-controlled mindfulness inter-ventionrdquoThe Journal of Neuroscience vol 32 no 44 pp 15601ndash15610 2012

[107] T Gard B K Holzel A T Sack et al ldquoPain attenuation throughmindfulness is associated with decreased cognitive control and

BioMed Research International 13

increased sensory processing in the brainrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol22 no 11 pp 2692ndash2702 2012

[108] B K Holzel U Ott T Gard et al ldquoInvestigation of mindful-ness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometryrdquoSocial Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 3 no 1 pp 55ndash61 2008

[109] N A S Farb A K Anderson HMayberg J Bean DMcKeonand Z V Segal ldquoMinding onersquos emotions mindfulness trainingalters the neural expression of sadnessrdquo Emotion vol 10 no 1pp 25ndash33 2010

[110] G Pagnoni and M Cekic ldquoAge effects on gray matter volumeand attentional performance in Zen meditationrdquo Neurobiologyof Aging vol 28 no 10 pp 1623ndash1627 2007

[111] X Yu M Fumoto Y Nakatani et al ldquoActivation of theanterior prefrontal cortex and serotonergic system is associatedwith improvements in mood and EEG changes induced byZen meditation practice in novicesrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 80 no 2 pp 103ndash111 2011

[112] N A S Farb Z V Segal H Mayberg et al ldquoAttending to thepresent mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modesof self-referencerdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neurosciencevol 2 no 4 pp 313ndash322 2007

[113] A Berkovich-Ohana J Glicksohn and A GoldsteinldquoMindfulness-induced changes in gamma band activitymdashimplications for the default mode network self-reference andattentionrdquo Clinical Neurophysiology vol 123 no 4 pp 700ndash7102012

[114] J A Brewer P D Worhunsky J R Gray Y-Y Tang JWeber andH Kober ldquoMeditation experience is associated withdifferences in default mode network activity and connectivityrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 108 no 50 pp 20254ndash20259 2011

[115] D A Gusnard and M E Raichle ldquoSearching for a baselinefunctional imaging and the resting human brainrdquo NatureReviews Neuroscience vol 2 no 10 pp 685ndash694 2001

[116] M E Raichle A M MacLeod A Z Snyder W J Powers D AGusnard andG L Shulman ldquoAdefaultmode of brain functionrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 98 no 2 pp 676ndash682 2001

[117] M E Raichle and A Z Snyder ldquoA default mode of brainfunction a brief history of an evolving ideardquo NeuroImage vol37 no 4 pp 1083ndash1090 2007

[118] R L Buckner J R Andrews-Hanna and D L Schacter ldquoThebrainrsquos default network anatomy function and relevance todiseaserdquo Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences vol 1124pp 1ndash38 2008

[119] A P Jha J Krompinger and M J Baime ldquoMindfulnesstraining modifies subsystems of attentionrdquo Cognitive Affectiveand Behavioral Neuroscience vol 7 no 2 pp 109ndash119 2007

[120] K A MacLean E Ferrer S R Aichele et al ldquoIntensivemeditation training improves perceptual discrimination andsustained attentionrdquo Psychological Science vol 21 no 6 pp829ndash839 2010

[121] J C Corby W T Roth V P Zarcone Jr and B S KopellldquoPsychophysiological correlates of the practice of Tantric Yogameditationrdquo Archives of General Psychiatry vol 35 no 5 pp571ndash577 1978

[122] S Telles and T Desiraju ldquoAutonomic changes in Brahmaku-maris Raja yoga meditationrdquo International Journal of Psy-chophysiology vol 15 no 2 pp 147ndash152 1993

[123] L MMVirtual Design Imagery Testing Battery [Computer Soft-ware] Newark NJ USA 2004

[124] H Benson M S Malhotra R F Goldman G D Jacobsand P J Hopkins ldquoThree case reports of the metabolic andelectroencephalographic changes during advanced buddhistmeditation techniquesrdquo Behavioral Medicine vol 16 no 2 pp90ndash95 1990

[125] H Benson J W Lehmann M S Malhotra R F Goldman JHopkins andMD Epstein ldquoBody temperature changes duringthe practice of g Tum-mo yogardquo Nature vol 295 no 5846 pp234ndash236 1982

[126] Y-Y Tang Q Lu M Fan Y Yang and M I PosnerldquoMechanisms of white matter changes induced by meditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 109 no 26 pp 10570ndash10574 2012

[127] P Raghuraj and S Telles ldquoImmediate effect of specific nostrilmanipulating yoga breathing practices on autonomic and respi-ratory variablesrdquo Applied Psychophysiology Biofeedback vol 33no 2 pp 65ndash75 2008

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Anatomy Research International

PeptidesInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Molecular Biology International

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioinformaticsAdvances in

Marine BiologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Signal TransductionJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Biochemistry Research International

ArchaeaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Genetics Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Advances in

Virolog y

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Nucleic AcidsJournal of

Volume 2014

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Enzyme Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Page 4: Review Article The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2015/731579.pdf · 2019-07-31 · Review Article The Influence of Buddhist

4 BioMed Research International

practice [72] A central generation practice that will bediscussed in this review is self-generation-as-Deity practice(Tibetan ldquoKyerimrdquo hereafter referred to as Deity meditation)which involves visualizing oneself as a particular Deity andholding the focus of attention on the internally generatedimage surrounded by his or her entourage The completionstages are divided into completion practices ldquowithout signrdquothat include Rig-pa meditation a practice during whichthe meditator visualizes the dissolution of the Deity andits entourage into emptiness and aspires to achieve a stateof awareness that is devoid of conceptualization [73 74]Completion ldquowithout signrdquo are advanced tantric practicescalled ldquothe six Yogas of Naropardquo [75] one of which is g-Tummo whichwill be discussed in this reviewThe g-TummoVajrayana practice is also called ldquopsychic heatrdquo since it isassociated with intense sensations of bodily heat in the spine[76ndash78] and involves breathing and muscle exercises as wellas visualization techniques that enable the meditators togenerate and maintain mental images of flames at specificbodily locations that are accompanied by an intense sensationof heat in the spinal area

Vajrayana practices are related to Hindu Tantric prac-tices which were developed within ancient Hinduism anddescribed in the Yoga-Sutras [79] Hindu Tantric practicesalso distinguish different stages of practice In the Dharanastage the meditation consists of concentrative techniques ofabsorption in a single object of meditation often in objectswith religious significance such as deities [80 Chapter 8 page2] The practice of Dharana precedes Dhyana during whichthe meditator disengages from a single object of meditationto a complete absorption in meditation which leads to anonconceptual state of consciousness [81 82] Hindu andBuddhist Tantric practices share some commonalities in thesense that both practices place an emphasis on concentrativevisualization techniques on religious objects or deities bothdescribe similar stages of practice and both place an empha-sis on achieving a nonconceptual state of consciousness

While meditative techniques of all Buddhist teachingsstress liberation from all conceptual delusions the means ofachieving it are quite different Specifically Buddhist textsstate that Theravada styles of meditation such as ShamathaVipassana or Mindfulness are techniques that emphasizeldquointernally steadyingrdquo or stabilize the ldquounstable mindrdquo andcultivate the state of quiescence and tranquility throughwhich the nature of the mind could be seen without obstruc-tion [67 pages 1287-1288 (IV410)] [83 pages 152-153 (I165)335 (II290)] Similarly certain Mahayana practices such asZen concentration meditation also place an emphasis onone pointed concentration as well as calmness [26 pages 5797] Vajrayana scriptures by contrast emphasize the trainingldquowhich is not exactly the same as keeping the mind still andquietrdquo [84 page 118] but rather aims at the realization of ldquoself-existing wakefulnessrdquo or ldquoan awake qualityrdquo of the mind freefrom dualistic thoughts which is ldquolike a radiant flame of acandle which exists all by itself rdquo [84 page 88] FurthermoreVajrayana teaching emphasizes that the preoccupation withldquobeing too calmrdquo blocks ldquothe recognition of self-existingwakefulnessrdquo and that in aVajrayana context ldquoit is sometimessaid that stillness is not absolutely necessary rdquo [84 pages

85-86] Thus from a Vajrayana perspective the conceptu-alization of meditation as a relaxation response seems tobe incongruent with Tibetan views of Vajrayana Tantricpractices which do not presuppose relaxation but containdescriptions that are more consistent with the generation ofan arousal response

4 Relaxation and Tonic Alertnessduring Meditation

As alluded to the above Buddhist texts describe Theravadatypes of meditation as practices that promote not simply arelaxed state of mind but a state of relaxation and alert-ness [23] Moreover certain Mahayana practices notablyZen concentration meditation place a special emphasis oncalmness [26 page 57] Indeed empirical evidence thatsomemeditation practices generate a relaxation response canalready be found in Bensonrsquos studies from the 1970s and 1980s(eg [8 85]) Since then dozens of studies have demonstratedthat certain types of meditation from the Theravada andMahayana traditions elicit a relaxation response even aftera brief period of meditation (eg 20 minutes [86 87])Most of these studies investigated Mindfulness meditationalthough there have been studies on Zen concentration andVipassana as well (eg [10ndash13]) Such findings have beenreplicated many times in the past and it is now widelyaccepted that Mindfulness meditation can be reliably used toalleviate the effects of stress and depression and to increaserelaxation In fact before the term ldquoMindfulness Based StressReduction (MBSR)rdquo was introduced to describe interven-tions that implement Mindfulness in order to reduce stressthese interventions were explicitly called ldquoStress Reductionand Relaxation Programsrdquo (eg [88]) Moreover based onBuddhist scriptures that emphasize not only relaxation butalso warn against the hindrances of drowsiness and sleepduring the practice [89 90] Britton et al [25] hypothesizedthat meditation would promote not only relaxation but also astate of tonic alertness In line with this hypothesis Brittonet al [25] reviewed over 20 studies that demonstrate thatcertain types of meditation mostly from the Theravada andMahayana traditions can activate neural areas that are asso-ciated with tonic alertness Their review incorporated mostlyMindfulness and Zen practices but also a Vipassana andShamatha meditation study as well as studies on non-TantricTibetan practices that are different from Vajrayana (egfocusing on a single dot Brefczynski-Lewis et al [91]) andLoving-Kindness Meditation that is practiced in all Buddhisttraditions and is not specific to Theravada Mahayana orVajrayana [65 84] Importantly Britton et al [25] reviewedstudies that showed that Theravada and Mahayana typesof meditation can activate the dACC DLPFC the anteriorinsula the inferior parietal lobule the thalamus and the brainstem which are areas that are implicated in tonic alertness[25 63]

41 Relaxation Response during Theravada and MahayanaMeditation Several studies have used physiologicalmeasures in order to demonstrate increased parasympatheticactivation during Theravada and Mahayana types of

BioMed Research International 5

meditation An influential and highly cited study in thisregard was conducted by Tang et al [92] who comparedtwo groups of participants without Mindfulness meditationexperience who were randomly assigned to one of twoexperimental conditions half the subjects were required toperform ldquointegrative body-mind training (IBMT)rdquo whichincorporates aspects of Mindfulness training for 20 minutesduring a 5-day period and the other half underwent a formof relaxation training that involved squeezing and relaxingindividualmuscle groups Tang et al [92]measuredHRV andGSR before during and after training in either meditation orrelaxation and showed that the participants in the meditationgroup demonstrated significantly more parasympatheticactivation and less sympathetic activation than the relaxationcontrol Specifically the IBMT group demonstrated increasesin HF and lower GSR relative to the relaxation controlleading the authors to conclude that the meditation groupsignificantly increased the activity of the parasympatheticsystem and decreased the activity of the sympathetic systemrelative to the relaxation control Similarly Ditto et al [93]recruited 32 experimental subjects without meditationexperience who were randomly assigned to either a typeof Mindfulness meditation that involved body scanning acontrol condition during which subjects performed musclerelaxation exercises or a waiting-list control group Theauthors measured respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA)through a vagal tone monitor which as mentioned is ameasure of respiration that is synchronized to the HRV andgenerated by the parasympathetic nervous system Ditto et al[93] showed that RSA was increased for the participants whoperformed Mindfulness meditation relative to the controlsubjects indicating that the parasympathetic system wasactivated during the meditation and a relaxation responseoccurred Similar findings were demonstrated by Krygieret al [94] who observed increases in HF and decreases inLFHFduringVipassanameditation relative to a rest baselinefor 36 participants who participated in a Vipassana retreatMoreover recent physiological measures that were obtainedduring Zen concentration meditation also demonstrated anincrease in the activity of the parasympathetic system duringthis practice as well For example Wu and Lo [86] comparedthe EKG activity of a group of 10 experienced meditators(an average of 6 years of experience) who performed a typeof meditation called ldquoZen Chakrardquo where practitionersconcentrate on a ldquoChakrardquomdasha nonphysical ldquoenergy pointrdquomdashlocated inside the third ventricle of the human brain tothe EKG activity of a group of 10 participants withoutmeditation experience Wu and Lo [86] measured the EKGactivity during 2 sessions a 10-minute rest condition for bothmeditators and nonmeditators and a 20-minute conditionof either meditation (for the meditators group) or rest (forthe control group) and showed that the meditation resultedin an HF increase as well as decreased LFHF relative to thenonmeditation control group These results were interpretedto indicate that Zen Chakra meditation ldquoappears to pushthe sympathovagal balance to parasympathetic dominancerdquo[86] In another study Takahashi et al [87] measured theEKG activity of 20 participants who were taught to performSu-soku meditation which is a Zen concentration practice

that is performed by silently counting onersquos breaths so thatone inhales naturally and exhales when the numbers arerecited If other thoughts occur during the meditation theparticipant is instructed to let them pass and direct his orher attention back to the counting As a control conditionparticipants were trained to breath at a rate of 025Hz intempo with the sound of a metronome in order to accountfor the respiratory frequency influences on HRV Takahashiet al [87] measured the EKG activity during both themeditation and control condition and observed an increasein HF as well as a decrease in LFHF in the meditationrelative to the control condition which was interpreted tomean that the parasympathetic system was more activeduring the meditation relative to the control

In addition a multitude of studies have demonstratedthat Mindfulness meditation can elicit a relaxation responseusing self-reports that are correlatedwith relaxation and clin-ical stress reduction programs that implement Mindfulnessmeditation have been shown to reduce stress and increaserelaxation even after 4 to 5 weeks of training [95 96] Inone such study Jain et al [96] introduced a clinical inter-vention program that incorporated 5 sessions of Mindfulnessmeditation that was conducted in 4 sessions of 15 hours andan additional 6-hour session over a period of 4 weeks Theparticipants who performed meditation were compared toparticipants in a ldquosomatic relaxation (SR)rdquo intervention thatwas performed over an identical time period and number ofsessions where they performedmuscle relaxation techniquesand breathing and imagery exercises as well as to a waitinglist control group They found that the participantsrsquo ratingsof psychological well-being significantly increased followingthe meditation intervention in comparison to SR indicatingan enhancement in positive emotional states and decreasedstress Similarly inMackenzie et al [97] 30 participants wererandomly assigned to a short 4-weekMindfulnessmeditationintervention or a waiting list control group and they wereinstructed to practice meditation for at least 10 minutes aday 5 days a week The intervention and control participantscompleted a battery of questionnaires before and immediatelyafter the 4-week training program that assesses the emotionaland overall well-being Mackenzie et al [97] found thatreportedwell-being life satisfaction and relaxation increasedfor the intervention group but remained stable for the controlgroup demonstrating increased relaxation as a consequenceof Mindfulness meditation Similar findings have been con-sistently reported dozens of times in previous research whereMindfulness meditation was typically practiced for an 8-week period (eg [10ndash12]) and the ability of Mindfulnessmeditation to alleviate stress induce relaxation and regulateanxiety is now a widely accepted phenomenon in scientificresearch as well as clinical contexts (eg [12 98ndash101])

Furthermore several Yoga practices that emphasize relax-ation techniques (eg Yoga Nidra) as well as concentrationon a single object of meditation such as the breath fora prolonged period of time (and are therefore similar toTheravada and Mahayana forms of meditation) also lead toincreased relaxation and a reduction in stress Just as in thecase of Theravada and Mahayana types of meditation theability of these types of Yoga practices to induce relaxation

6 BioMed Research International

and relieve stress has been found in previous studies andextensively discussed in the scientific literature [102ndash104]

42 Tonic Alertness during Theravada and Mahayana Med-itation As reviewed in Britton et al [25] neuroimagingstudies have shown that the activity in brain regions relatedto tonic awareness can be enhanced during Theravada andMahayana types of meditation Asmentioned tonic alertnessis associated with neural activity in the dACC DLPFC theanterior insula the inferior parietal lobule the thalamus andthe brain stem [34 63 64] In a study that demonstratedtonic alertness in both Vipassana and Shamatha Manna etal [105] measured the fMRI BOLD signal in 8 Theravadamonks with an average of over 15000 hours of Shamatha andVipassana meditation experience as well as in 8 novices with10 days of meditation experience Both groups of participantsperformed 3 experimental blocks inside the fMRI scannereach of which began with a 3-minute rest condition and wasfollowed by 6 minutes of Shamatha meditation where theyfocused on their breathing and 6 minutes of Vipassana med-itation They found stronger BOLD activation in brain areasrelated to tonic alertness in highly experienced meditators(monks) that performed both Shamatha and Vipassana andin novices that performed Vipassana meditation SpecificallyManna et al [105] found that when monks performedShamatha the fMRI BOLD signal in the left and right dACCDLPFC and anterior insula was stronger than during therest control condition Moreover for the monks Vipassanameditation led to an increased signal in the DLPFC areaOn the other hand for the novice meditators Shamathameditation did not show an increased BOLD signal that isrelated to tonic alertness possibly due to insufficient expertisewith this practice but Vipassana meditation led to increasedactivation in the left dACC indicative of enhanced tonicalertness

Allen et al [106] recruited 61 participants without anymeditation experience who were randomly assigned toeither a 6-week Mindfulness meditation course or a 6-week ldquoactive-controlrdquo condition that involved group readingsand discussions This control condition was hypothesized toldquocultivate absorption and thought related processes into animaginary narrative in contrast to the present-centered andopen-monitoring aspect of mindfulnessrdquo [106] Allen et al[106] found increased DLPFC activation in the meditationgroup relative to the control and also found that the amountof meditation practice positively correlated with the level ofdACC activation that occurred during the meditation Asreviewed by Britton et al [25] similar findings of increasedactivation in neural areas related to tonic alertness have beenobserved in additional studies on Vipassana (eg [107 108])Mindfulness (eg [109]) and Zenmeditation (eg [110 111])

Additional evidence that Theravada types of meditationlead to tonic alertness was obtained by several recent studiesthat have shown that Mindfulness (eg [112 113]) andShamatha [114] types of meditation can lead to a decreasein the activity of neural structures that are more activeduring unfocused activity than during attention demandingtasks [115ndash117] These areas include the ventral medial pre-frontal cortex posterior cingulate inferior parietal lobule

and the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex which have beencollectively termed the brainrsquos ldquodefault networkrdquo [118]

Furthermore recent studies have investigated the influ-ence of meditation on tonic alertness using behavioural tasksthat are specifically designed tomeasure alerting attention InJha et al [119] the authors utilized the ldquoattentional networktestrdquo (ANT) where in each trial participants are presentedwith an arrow target that is surrounded by distractor arrowsthat point in either the same direction (congruent flankers)or a different direction (incongruent flankers) as the targetMoreover the target is preceded by one of three cue condi-tions a valid cue a spatially neutral central cue a spatiallyneutral double cue or a no cue condition Importantly theefficiency of alerting attentional processes is assessed by theANT as the reaction-time (RT) difference between the doublecue and the no cue conditions Jha et al [119] assessed changesin tonic alertness in 3 groups of participants one groupparticipated in an intensive Shamatha retreat for 30 minutesa day for 8 weeks The second group practiced Shamathafor 30 minutes a day for 8 weeks and a third group didnot undergo any meditation training They compared tonicalertness at the beginning of the study (Time-point 1) andfollowing the intervention (retreat or meditation programTime-point 2) Jha et al [119] showed that although theefficiency of alerting attention did not differ at Time-point1 between the three groups of participants at Time-point2 the alerting attentional mechanisms of participants whoattended the retreat became significantly more efficient (theRT difference between the no cue and double cue conditionswas reduced relative to Time-point 1) and the magnitude ofthe improvement in alerting attentionwas correlated with themeditation experience of the retreat participants Moreoverthe increase in alerting efficiency was driven by a decrease inRT to no cue trials and suggests that the meditators becamemore vigilant and their tonic alertness increased

In MacLean et al [120] the authors measured the influ-ences of Shamatha meditation on tonic alertness using asustained-attention task where single lines were presentedat the centre of the screen while participants fixated on asmall yellow dot The lines could be either long (90 of thetime) or short (10 of the time) and the participants wererequired to respond to the short lines by pressing a responsebutton They recruited 29 participants [120] with an averageexperience of 2668 hours of meditation who participated ina 3-month Shamatha meditation retreat that consisted of 5hours of meditation training per dayThe sustained attentiontest was administered before at the midpoint and after themeditation retreat The nonparametric index of perceptualsensitivity 1198601015840 was calculated from the hit rates and falsealarm rates for each of the 8 120-trial experimental blocksof the sustained attention task Since the decline in 1198601015840 waslargest during the first 4 blocks MacLean et al [120] definedimprovements in tonic alertness as positive changes in theslope of 1198601015840 during the first four blocks MacLean et al[120] showed that the slope of 1198601015840 was more positive at themidpoint and after the meditation retreat in comparisonto the pre-retreat baseline demonstrating that Shamathameditation reduced the decrement in 1198601015840 that occurs duringthe sustained attention task and therefore increased tonic

BioMed Research International 7

alertnessThe authors interpreted their results to indicate thatmeditation training can ldquodecrease resource demands and thusimprove vigilance (tonic alertness)rdquo [120]

Hence the findings of studies that investigated tonicalertness through behavioural measures complement neu-roimaging studies and together they demonstrate that certainTheravada and Mahayana types of meditation can increasethe activity in neural areas related to tonic alertness whichin turn leads to improvements on tasks that require tonicalertness The recent findings of tonic alertness during Ther-avada and Mahayana meditation are important because theycomplement the picture portrayed by Buddhist scriptureswhich describe meditation as a practice that generates botha relaxed and an alert state of mind [23 26] Moreoverour review is consistent with previous findings and reviewsthat consistently demonstrated a relaxation response duringTheravada and Mahayana types of meditation [10ndash13]

5 Arousal and Phasic Alertness inVajrayana Practices

As opposed to Theravada meditative practices Vajrayanapractice does not cultivate relaxation but an arousal responseVajrayana Buddhist scriptures emphasize the realization ofldquoself-existing wakefulnessrdquo or ldquoan awake qualityrdquo of the mindand warn against excessive tranquility [84] in contrast toTheravada scriptures that emphasize quiescence and tran-quility [67 pages 1287-1288 (IV410)] as well as Mahayanameditation instructions that also emphasize calmness (eg[26] page 57) Furthermore empirical evidence also suggeststhat arousal is generated during specific meditative practicesFor instance the generation of arousal during meditation hasbeen observed in Hindu Tantric practices (eg [121 122]) aswell as in several Vajrayana practices (eg [27 28]) althoughoverall there have been far fewer studies on Vajrayana andHindu Tantric practices than onTheravada and Mahayana

Based on Theravada Buddhist scriptures that empha-size calmness and relaxation and Vajrayana scripturesthat emphasize ldquowakefulnessrdquo Amihai and Kozhevnikov[27] hypothesized that Deity and Rig-pa practices of theVajrayana tradition would generate cognitive and physiologi-cal responses of arousal while Vipassana and Shamatha prac-tices of the Theravada tradition would generate a relaxationresponse In order to investigate the autonomic activationthat is generated during these types of practices Amihai andKozhevnikov [27] compared the EKG activity of experiencedTheravada and Vajrayana meditators (with 8 and 74 years ofmeditation experience resp) as they practiced meditationThe Theravada types of meditation that were investigatedwere Vipassana meditation and Kasina meditation which isa visualization type of Shamatha meditation in which themeditator focuses his or her attention on ldquoKasina objectsrdquothat are described in the Pali Tipitaka and are typicallycolored disks The Vajrayana practices studied were Deityand Rig-pa practices In this study the participants per-formed a 10-minute rest condition that was followed byShamatha and Vipassana meditation (15 minutes each) forthe Theravada meditators and Deity and Rig-pa meditation(15 minutes each) for the Vajrayana meditators Moreover

the participantsrsquo EKG activity was monitored throughout theexperiment Amihai andKozhevnikov [27] showed thatTher-avada types of meditation elicited increased HF (Vipassana)and decreased LFHF (both Vipassana and Kasina) relativeto the rest control condition which is consistent with arelaxation response On the other hand Vajrayana practicesproduced increased arousal as indexed by decreased HF(both Deity and Rig-pa) during the meditation relative tothe control condition Moreover Kozhevnikov et al [29]and Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] presented experiencedTheravada (an average of 8ndash123 years of experience) andVajrayana meditators (an average of 74ndash13 years of experi-ence) with 2 visual tests (the Mental Rotation Test (MRT)and Visual Memory Test (VMT [123]) see [29] for details)which were performed before and immediately following a20-minute session of Theravada meditation (Vipassana andKasina Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27]) or Vajrayana prac-tices (Deity Kozhevnikov et al [29] and Rig-pa Amihai andKozhevnikov [27]) As mentioned the dramatic improve-ments on visual tasks immediately following a stimulus oractivity are indicative of enhanced phasic alertness Hencethe authors hypothesized that improved performance onthe visual tests immediately after the meditation practicewould indicate that phasic alertness occurred during themeditation and that such an improvement would be observedfollowingVajrayana practices In linewith this hypothesis theexperimental results showed that onlyVajrayana practices ledto a large and immediate increase in performance on thesetasks while Theravada meditators did not demonstrate anyimprovement in their performance following the practiceHence these studies demonstrate that Vajrayana practicesand not Theravada types of meditation lead to an arousalresponse and phasic alertness

Additional studies that demonstrated that Vajrayanapractices can increase the activity of the sympathetic sys-tem and generate an arousal response were conducted onpractitioners of g-Tummo meditation which as mentionedis associated with intense sensations of bodily heat in thespine Interestingly Benson himself reported a phenomenonthat was unclear to him at the time that two of the three g-Tummo practitioners that participated in his study exhibitedan activation of the sympathetic system as evidenced byincreased metabolism and oxygen consumption [124] whichis consistent with arousal and not a relaxation responseMoreover in Kozhevnikov et al [28] it was demonstratedexperimentally that g-Tummo meditation can indeed raisethe temperature of the body which indicates a sympa-thetic response Nonshivering generation of body heatmdashthermogenesismdashis mediated by the sympathetic nervoussystem [55 56] In humans thermogenesis is caused mainlyby brown adipose tissue which shunts the energy obtainedfrom the oxidation of free fatty acids into heat whichis then distributed throughout the body via the adiposetissue vasculature [56] Importantly brown adipose tissueactivity in humans is stimulated by the sympathetic ner-vous system [55] Specifically an increased discharge fromsupraspinal sympathetic premotor pathways results in thesympathetic activation of brown adipose tissue which leadsto thermogenesis [56] By attaching a small thermometer in

8 BioMed Research International

the armpit of highly experienced g-Tummo meditators (6ndash32 years of experience) Kozhevnikov et al [28] were able todemonstrate for the first time that g-Tummo meditators canincrease not only their peripheral but more importantly corebody temperature during the meditation demonstrating thatthe activity of the sympathetic nervous system significantlyincreases as a consequence of this practice Notably the ther-mogenesis induced during g-Tummo was so substantial thatit raised the body temperature of the meditators above thenormal body temperature range and into the range of slightor moderate fever (up to 383∘C) reflecting an enhancedarousal response due to sympathetic activation It shouldbe noted that increases in the peripheral body (meditatorsrsquofingers and toes) temperature during g-Tummo were alsofound in Benson et al [125] however the authors did notattribute such changes to increased sympathetic activationIn contrast Benson et al [125] speculated that increasedsympathetic activation during meditation is ldquounlikelyrdquo as itwould be inconsistent with the parasympathetic activationthat they observed inTheravada and TM types of meditation

In addition to Vajrayana practices several studies con-ducted on Hindu Tantric meditators demonstrated increasedarousal In an early but influential and often cited studyCorby et al [121] recorded the GSR and heart rate duringa Dharana type of meditation called Ananda Marga whichincorporates a focus on breathing while repeating a two-syllable word and ignoring external stimuli They recruited30 experienced Ananda Marga meditators (an average of 21years and 31 hours of practice a day) as well as 10 subjectswithout meditation experience that served as controls TheGSR and heart rates were recorded during 3 experimentalconditions (1) a relaxation control (2) an Ananda Margameditation preparation condition which involves payingattention to the breath while ignoring external stimuli (3)Ananda Marga meditation where the subjects were toldto ignore external stimuli pay attention to their breathingand silently repeat a two-syllable word in phase with theirbreathing In the control group the participants chose theirown word while meditators used a personal mantra thatthey received from their meditation instructor The resultsof Corby et al [121] demonstrated that a state of arousaloccurred during AnandaMarga meditation (1) skin conduc-tance (GSR) increased from the relaxation baseline to themeditation condition but only for themeditators group (2) asmall heart rate increase was observed during the meditationcondition relative to the baseline for the meditators groupBoth of these measures indicated that sympathetic activationoccurred during the meditation demonstrating an arousalresponse

Additionally Telles and Desiraju [122] measured heartrate and GSR during a different type of meditation whichrequires concentration on a light source while contemplatinga universal force They recruited 18 experienced meditators(with an average of 101 years of experience) and compared thephysiological measures obtained during meditation to thoseobtained by the same subjects during a control conditionwhich was similar to the meditation condition but whererandom thinking was allowed and effortful concentrationwas not required The findings of Telles and Desiraju [122]

demonstrated that although therewere no significant changesin GSR an increase in heart rate occurred during the medita-tion condition but not during the nonmeditation conditionrelative to the baseline heart rate obtained prior to eachcondition Hence the findings of this study are indicativeof increased sympathetic activation and an arousal responseduring this type of meditation

To conclude this section as opposed to Theravada andMahayana types of meditation that demonstrate enhancedrelaxation investigations of Vajrayana and certain HinduTantric practices demonstrated increased arousal This onceagain emphasizes the importance of philosophical and cul-tural influences on meditation and demonstrates that theterm ldquomeditationrdquo is in many ways too general when used asa unified descriptor of all Buddhist and Hindu contemplativepractices These findings show that the supposition that ldquotounderstand the psychophysiological influences ofmeditationit should first be conceptually denuded of its cultural andreligious biases [9 page 2]rdquo is highly misleading The dia-metrically opposed findings of relaxation in Theravada andMahayana practices and arousal in Vajrayana and HinduTantric practices point to the opposite conclusion Namelyin order to understand the psychophysiological aspects ofmeditation one needs to carefully examine its cultural andreligious sources

6 Conclusions and Future Directions

The aim of this review was to examine the scientific studiesof meditation while focusing on the unique influences thatdifferent types of meditative traditions have on the activa-tion of the autonomic system and attentional mechanismsWe have presented evidence summarized in Table 1 whichshows that Theravada and Mahayana types of meditationlead to increased parasympathetic activation that underliesa relaxation response while Vajrayana and certain HinduTantric practices elicit enhanced sympathetic activation thatunderlies a robust arousal response In addition we out-lined the cultural and philosophical motivations that haveinfluenced these meditative practices While Theravada andMahayana scriptures emphasize that the purpose of medi-tation is to cultivate tranquility along with mental stabilityVajrayana scriptures describe practices whose purpose is toelicit states of enhanced arousal

It is important to stress that the influences of Vajrayanaand Hindu Tantric practices on physiology and behaviorare only beginning to receive their due attention from thescientific community and the long-term impact of Tantricpractices is still not well understood Hence while it has beendemonstrated that Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric practicescan lead to immediate physiological changes that are coupledwith improved cognitive performance future studies shouldinvestigate the long-term cognitive and physiological changesthat occur as a consequence of such practices As previouslymentioned in contrast to Vajrayana and Hindu Tantricpractices many scientific studies have been conducted onTheravada or Mahayana types of meditation and there isevidence that they can lead to long-term improvements onattentional tasks (eg [25 120 126]) It is thus prudent that

BioMed Research International 9

Table 1 Summary of meditation studies of autonomic activation and alerting attention

Study Meditation type Findings

Tang et al [92] Mindfulness (IBMT) Increased HF anddecreased GSR

Ditto et al [93] Mindfulness Increased RSA

Jain et al [96] Mindfulness Increased perceived positive emotions and decreasedperceived distress

Mackenzie et al [97] Mindfulness Increased perceived well-being life satisfaction andrelaxation

Wu and Lo [86] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHFTakahashi et al [87] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Manna et al [105] ShamathaIncreased fMRI BOLD signal in the dorsal anteriorcingulate cortex (dACC) dorsolateral prefrontal cortex(DLPFC) and anterior insula in meditation experts

Manna et al [105] Vipassana Increased dACC activation in meditation novicesAllen et al [106] Mindfulness Increased DLPFC and dACC activationJha et al [119] Shamatha Increased alerting network efficiencyMacLean et al [120] Shamatha Improvement in a sustained attention taskAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Shamatha (Kasina visualization) Decreased LFHFAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Vipassana Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Rig-pa (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HF and increased performance in mentalrotation (MRT) and visual memory (VMT)

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HFKozhevnikov et al [29] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased MRT and VMT performanceKozhevnikov et al [28] g-Tummo (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased thermogenesisCorby et al [121] Ananda Marga (Dharana) Increased GSR and heart rateTelles and Desiraju [122] Hindu Tantric meditation Increased heart rate

similar long-term studies would be conducted on Tantricpractices

Related to the above another important research direc-tion that has yet to be explored is the long-term influenceof Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric meditation on stress andwell-being As mentioned the finding that Theravada typesof meditation produce relaxation has resulted in their incor-poration into clinical practices as stress reduction techniques(eg [10 21 95 96]) Conversely the finding that Vajrayanaand Hindu Tantric types of meditation produce arousalsuggests that they could be more problematic for people whoare under a high level of stress However it is also likely thatas they gain additional meditation experience Vajrayana andHindu Tantric meditators develop unique strategies to helpthem cope with stressful situations that could arise duringtheir meditation practice for instance by transforming theirnegative emotions into the positive emotional states of thevisualized Deity Such possibilities should be examined infuture studies

In addition future studies should investigate the specificmechanisms that underlie ANS changes during meditationin order to understand the precise factors that mediate thearousal and relaxation responses One possible mediatingfactor could be respiration changes In this context previousstudies on Hindu breathing exercises called Pranayamawhich often serve as preparatory exercises for meditation

[79 page 310] showed that specific breathing techniques canbe used to activate the sympathetic or the parasympatheticnervous systems (eg [127]) A second factor that shouldbe considered is the specific visualization or other contentthat is used for meditation For instance it is plausible thata visualized Tibetan Deity would lead to a high degree ofarousal due to the emotional content that it holds in theeyes of a Tibetan meditator while the inward and outwardflow of the breath that is being attended to during Shamathameditation would not evoke intense emotional reactions

In conclusion although the scientific examination ofthe nature of meditative practices is not new it is onlyin recent years that cognitive scientists and neuroscientistshave begun to investigate the influences of the specificcultural and philosophical contexts out of which meditationpractices developed on the psychophysiological outcomes ofthe practices Such investigations have led to experimentalbreakthroughs that corroborate ideas laid down in Buddhistscriptures about the purpose and effects of meditationSpecifically the scriptural descriptions of heightened arousalduring Vajrayana practices and a relaxed and alert state ofmind during Theravada and Mahayana types of meditationreceived empirical support as research from the past severalyears demonstrated that Vajrayana as well as certain HinduTantric practices lead to heightened arousal and phasicalertness whileTheravada andMahayana types ofmeditation

10 BioMed Research International

elicit a relaxation response coupled with enhanced tonicalertness

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

References

[1] B Bodhi ldquoWhat does mindfulness really mean A canonicalperspectiverdquo Contemporary Buddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 19ndash392011

[2] R Gethin ldquoOn some definitions ofmindfulnessrdquoContemporaryBuddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 263ndash279 2011

[3] P Grossman and N T Van Dam ldquoMindfulness by any othername trials and tribulations of sati in western psychologyand sciencerdquo Contemporary Buddhism An InterdisciplinaryJournal vol 12 no 1 pp 219ndash239 2011

[4] Z Josipovic ldquoDuality and nonduality in meditation researchrdquoConsciousness and Cognition vol 19 no 4 pp 1119ndash1121 2010

[5] H Benson and W Proctor Relaxation Revolution The Scienceand Genetics of Mind Body Healing Scribner New York NYUSA 2011

[6] H Benson B A Rosner B R Marzetta and H P KlemchukldquoDecreased blood pressure in borderline hypertensive subjectswho practiced meditationrdquo Journal of Chronic Diseases vol 27no 3 pp 163ndash169 1974

[7] R K Wallace and H Benson ldquoThe physiology of meditationrdquoScientific American vol 226 no 2 pp 84ndash90 1972

[8] I Kutz J Leserman C Dorrington C H Morrison J ZBorysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation as an adjunct topsychotherapy An outcome studyrdquo Psychotherapy and Psycho-somatics vol 43 no 4 pp 209ndash218 1985

[9] I Kutz J Z Borysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation andpsychotherapy a rationale for the integration of dynamicpsychotherapy the relaxation response and mindfulness med-itationrdquo The American Journal of Psychiatry vol 142 no 1 pp1ndash8 1985

[10] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoMindfulness-based stress reduc-tion for stress management in healthy people a review andmeta-analysisrdquo The Journal of Alternative and ComplementaryMedicine vol 15 no 5 pp 593ndash600 2009

[11] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoA systematic review of neuro-biological and clinical features of mindfulness meditationsrdquoPsychological Medicine vol 40 no 8 pp 1239ndash1252 2010

[12] F Zeidan K T Martucci R Kraft J G McHaffie and R CCoghill ldquo Neural correlates of mindfulness meditation-relatedanxiety reliefrdquo Scandinavica vol 9 pp 751ndash759 2014

[13] B Ivanovski and G S Malhi ldquoThe psychological and neuro-physiological concomitants of mindfulness forms of medita-tionrdquo Acta Neuropsychiatrica vol 19 no 2 pp 76ndash91 2007

[14] J D-E Young and E Taylor ldquoMeditation as a voluntaryhypometabolic state of biological estivationrdquoNews in Physiolog-ical Sciences vol 13 no 3 pp 149ndash153 1998

[15] R Jevning R K Wallace and M Beidebach ldquoThe physiologyof meditation a review A wakeful hypometabolic integratedresponserdquo Neuroscience amp Biobehavioral Reviews vol 16 no 3pp 415ndash424 1992

[16] S E Petersen and M I Posner ldquoThe attention system of thehumanbrain 20 years afterrdquoAnnual Review ofNeuroscience vol35 pp 73ndash89 2012

[17] L K McCorry ldquoPhysiology of the autonomic nervous systemrdquoAmerican Journal of Pharmaceutical Education vol 71 no 4article 78 2007

[18] D R Morse J S Martin M L Furst and L L Dubin ldquoAphysiological and subjective evaluation ofmeditation hypnosisand relaxationrdquo Psychosomatic Medicine vol 39 no 5 pp 304ndash324 1977

[19] A Lutz ldquoMeditation and the neuroscience of consciousness anintroductionrdquo inThe Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness PD Zelazo M Moscovitch and EThompson Eds pp 499ndash551Cambridge University Press New York NY USA 2007

[20] Tipitaka The Pali Canon Legacy Edition 2005 httpwwwaccesstoinsightorgtipitaka

[21] P Grossman L Niemann S Schmidt and H Walach ldquoMind-fulness-based stress reduction and health benefits a meta-analysisrdquo Journal of Psychosomatic Research vol 57 no 1 pp35ndash43 2004

[22] R Gilpin ldquoThe use of Theravada Buddhist practices andperspectives in mindfulness-based cognitive therapyrdquo Contem-porary Buddhism vol 9 no 2 pp 227ndash251 2008

[23] B H GunaratanaMindfulness in Plain English Wisdom Publi-cations Somerville Mass USA 2002

[24] B R Cahn and J Polich ldquoMeditation states and traits EEG ERPand neuroimaging studiesrdquoPsychological Bulletin vol 132 no 2pp 180ndash211 2006

[25] W B Britton J R Lindahl B R Cahn J H Davis and R EGoldman ldquoAwakening is not ametaphor the effects of Buddhistmeditation practices on basic wakefulnessrdquo Annals of the NewYork Academy of Sciences vol 1307 no 1 pp 64ndash81 2014

[26] J D Buksbazen Zen Meditation in Plain English WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1st edition 2002

[27] I Amihai and M Kozhevnikov ldquoArousal vs relaxation acomparison of the neurophysiological and cognitive correlatesof Vajrayana and Theravada meditative practicesrdquo PLoS ONEvol 9 no 7 Article ID e102990 2014

[28] M Kozhevnikov J Elliott J Shephard and K Gramann ldquoNeu-rocognitive and somatic components of temperature increasesduring g-Tummo meditation legend and realityrdquo PLoS ONEvol 8 no 3 Article ID e58244 2013

[29] M Kozhevnikov O Louchakova Z Josipovic and M AMotes ldquoThe enhancement of visuospatial processing efficiencythrough buddhist deity meditationrdquo Psychological Science vol20 no 5 pp 645ndash653 2009

[30] A J CammMMalik J T Bigger G Breithardt S Cerutti andR J Cohen ldquoHeart rate variabilitymdashstandards of measurementphysiological interpretation and clinical userdquo Circulation vol93 no 5 pp 1043ndash1065 1996

[31] G F Chess R M K Tam and F R Calaresu ldquoInfluence ofcardiac neural inputs on rhythmic variations of heart period inthe catrdquoAmerican Journal of Physiology vol 228 no 3 pp 775ndash780 1975

[32] M N Levy ldquoSympathetic-parasympathetic interactions in theheartrdquo Circulation Research vol 29 no 5 pp 437ndash445 1971

[33] N Weinbach and A Henik ldquoPhasic alertness can modulateexecutive control by enhancing global processing of visualstimulirdquo Cognition vol 121 no 3 pp 454ndash458 2011

BioMed Research International 11

[34] W Sturm A de Simone B J Krause et al ldquoFunctional anatomyof intrinsic alertness evidence for a fronto-parietal-thalamic-brainstem network in the right hemisphererdquo Neuropsychologiavol 37 no 7 pp 797ndash805 1999

[35] P Low ldquoAutonomic nervous systemrdquo in The Merck ManualR S Porter and J L Kaplan Eds Merck Sharp amp DohmeWhitehouse Station NJ USA 2013

[36] G E Billman ldquoThe LFHF ratio does not accurately measurecardiac sympatho-vagal balancerdquo Frontiers in Physiology vol 4article 26 2013

[37] G G Berntson J T Bigger Jr D L Eckberg et al ldquoHeartrate variability origins methods and interpretive caveatsrdquoPsychophysiology vol 34 no 6 pp 623ndash648 1997

[38] K Molgaard K Hermansen and P Bjerregaard ldquoSpectralcomponents of short-term RR interval variability in healthysubjects and effects of risk factorsrdquo European Heart Journal vol15 no 9 pp 1174ndash1183 1994

[39] J T Bigger Jr J L Fleiss L M Rolnitzky and R C SteinmanldquoStability over time of heart period variability in patients withprevious myocardial infarction and ventricular arrhythmiasrdquoAmerican Journal of Cardiology vol 69 no 8 pp 718ndash723 1992

[40] K M Stein J S Borer C Hochreiter et al ldquoPrognostic valueand physiological correlates of heart rate variability in chronicsevere mitral regurgitationrdquo Circulation vol 88 no 1 pp 127ndash135 1993

[41] A Malliani M Pagani F Lombardi and S Cerutti ldquoCardio-vascular neural regulation explored in the frequency domainrdquoCirculation vol 84 no 2 pp 482ndash492 1991

[42] M V Kamath and E L Fallen ldquoPower spectral analysis of heartrate variability a noninvasive signature of cardiac autonomicfunctionrdquoCritical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering vol 21 no3 pp 245ndash311 1993

[43] O Rimoldi S Pierini A Ferrari S Cerutti M Pagani andA Malliani ldquoAnalysis of short-term oscillations of R-R andarterial pressure in conscious dogsrdquo The American Journal ofPhysiologymdashHeart and Circulatory Physiology vol 258 no 4pp H967ndashH976 1990

[44] N Montano T G Ruscone A Porta F Lombardi M Paganiand A Malliani ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart rate vari-ability to assess the changes in sympathovagal balance duringgraded orthostatic tiltrdquoCirculation vol 90 no 4 pp 1826ndash18311994

[45] S Akselrod D Gordon F A Ubel D C Shannon A CBerger and R J Cohen ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart ratefluctuation a quantitative probe of beat-to-beat cardiovascularcontrolrdquo Science vol 213 no 4504 pp 220ndash222 1981

[46] M L Appel R D Berger J P Saul J M Smith and R J CohenldquoBeat to beat variability in cardiovascular variables noise ormusicrdquo Journal of the American College of Cardiology vol 14no 5 pp 1139ndash1148 1989

[47] B Pomeranz R J Macaulay M A Caudill et al ldquoAssessment ofautonomic function in humans by heart rate spectral analysisrdquoThe American Journal of Physiology vol 248 no 1 pp H151ndashH153 1985

[48] F Morady W H Kou S D Nelson et al ldquoAccentuated antago-nism between beta-adrenergic and vagal effects on ventricularrefractoriness in humansrdquo Circulation vol 77 no 2 pp 289ndash297 1988

[49] D L Eckberg S KMohanty andM Raczkowska ldquoTrigeminal-baroreceptor reflex interactions modulate human cardiac vagalefferent activityrdquo Journal of Physiology vol 347 pp 75ndash83 1984

[50] F Yasuma and J-I Hayano ldquoRespiratory Sinus Arrhythmiawhy does the heartbeat synchronize with respiration rhythmrdquoChest vol 125 no 2 pp 683ndash690 2004

[51] P G Katona and F Jih ldquoRespiratory sinus arrhythmia nonin-vasive measure of parasympathetic cardiac controlrdquo Journal ofApplied Physiology vol 39 no 5 pp 801ndash805 1975

[52] F L Gobel L A Norstrom R R Nelson C R Jorgensen andY Wang ldquoThe rate-pressure product as an index of myocardialoxygen consumption during exercise in patients with anginapectorisrdquo Circulation vol 57 no 3 pp 549ndash556 1978

[53] H M Martini and E F Bartholomew Essentials of Anatomyand Physiology Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ USA 2ndedition 2001

[54] J A Gutrecht ldquoSympathetic skin responserdquo Journal of ClinicalNeurophysiology vol 11 no 5 pp 519ndash524 1994

[55] J Nedergaard T Bengtsson and B Cannon ldquoUnexpectedevidence for active brown adipose tissue in adult humansrdquoThe American Journal of PhysiologymdashEndocrinology andMetabolism vol 293 no 2 pp E444ndashE452 2007

[56] S F Morrison and W W Blessing ldquoCentral nervous systemregulation of body temperaturerdquo in Central Regulation of Auto-nomic Functions I J Llewellyn-Smith and A J M VerberneEds pp 1ndash34 Oxford Scholarship Online 2011

[57] L R Derogatis and N Melisaratos ldquoThe brief symptom inven-tory an introductory reportrdquo PsychologicalMedicine vol 13 no3 pp 595ndash605 1983

[58] M Horowitz N Adler and S Kegeles ldquoA scale for measuringthe occurrence of positive states of mind a preliminary reportrdquoPsychosomatic Medicine vol 50 no 5 pp 477ndash483 1988

[59] T W Robbins ldquoArousal systems and attentional processesrdquoBiological Psychology vol 45 no 1ndash3 pp 57ndash71 1997

[60] T W Robbins ldquoChemistry of the mind neurochemical mod-ulation of prefrontal cortical functionrdquo Journal of ComparativeNeurology vol 493 no 1 pp 140ndash146 2005

[61] R P Hasegawa A M Blitz N L Geller and M E GoldbergldquoNeurons inmonkey prefrontal cortex that track past or predictfuture performancerdquo Science vol 290 no 5497 pp 1786ndash17892000

[62] M I Posner ldquoMeasuring alertnessrdquo Annals of the New YorkAcademy of Sciences vol 1129 pp 193ndash199 2008

[63] W Sturm and K Willmes ldquoOn the functional neuroanatomyof intrinsic and phasic alertnessrdquo NeuroImage vol 14 no 1 ppS76ndashS84 2001

[64] S Sadaghiani R Scheeringa K Lehongre B Morillon A LGiraud and A Kleinschmidt ldquoIntrinsic connectivity networksalpha oscillations and tonic alertness a simultaneous elec-troencephalographyfunctional magnetic resonance imagingstudyrdquo The Journal of Neuroscience vol 30 no 30 pp 10243ndash10250 2010

[65] B Buddhaghosa Visuddhimagga The Path of Purificationtranslated byBNanamoli Buddhist Publication Society KandySri Lanka 4th edition 2010

[66] AWallaceTheAttention Revolution Unlocking the Power of theFocused Mind Wisdom Publications Somerville Mass USA2006

[67] B Bhikkhu The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha A Trans-lation of the Anguttara Nikaya Wisdom Publications BostonMass USA 2012

[68] S ZhiyiThe Essentials of Buddhist Meditation B Dharmamiratranslation Kalavinka Press Seattle Wash USA 2009

12 BioMed Research International

[69] G SamuelTheOrigins of Yoga and Tantra Indic Religions to theThirteenth Century vol 2013 Cambridge University Press NewDelhi India 2008

[70] K A Harper and R L Brown Eds The Roots of Tantra StateUniversity of New York Press New York NY USA 2002

[71] N Panchen and P W Gyalpo Perfect Conduct Ascertaining theThree Vows Wisdom Boston Mass USA 1999

[72] S RinpocheDzogchen and Padmasambhava Rigpa FellowshipSan Diego Calif USA 2nd edition 1990

[73] T Wangyal Wonders of the Natural Mind The Essence ofDzogchen in the Native Bon Tradition Snow Lion Ithaca NYUSA 1993

[74] D Goleman The Meditative Mind The Varieties of MeditativeExperience GP Putnamrsquos Sons New York NY USA 1996

[75] Tsong-Kha-Pa and G C MullinThe Six Yogas of Naropa SnowLion Publications Boston Mass USA 2005

[76] WY Evans-WentzTibetanYoga and Secret Doctorines PilgrimsPublishing Varanisa India 2002

[77] G H Mullin Readings on Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1997

[78] G H Mullin Tsongkhaparsquos Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1996

[79] I K TaimniThe Science of Yoga The Theosophical PublishingHouse Wheaton Ill USA 1961

[80] S Kripalvanand The Science of Meditation Sri DahyabhaiHirabhai Patel Bombay India 1977

[81] G FeuersteinThePhilosophy of Classical Yoga InnerTraditionsRochester NY USA 1996

[82] J D Nash and A Newberg ldquoToward a unifying taxonomy anddefinition for meditationrdquo Frontiers in Psychology vol 4 article806 2013

[83] M WalsheThe Long Discourses of the Buddha A Translation ofthe Digha Nikaya (Teachings of the Buddha) Wisdom Publica-tions Boston Mass USA 1995

[84] T U Rinpoche As It Is vol 2 Ranjung Yeshe PublicationsHong Kong 1999

[85] H Benson The Relaxation Response HyperCollins New YorkNY USA 1975

[86] S D Wu and P C Lo ldquoInward-attention meditation increasesparasympathetic activity a study based onheart rate variabilityrdquoBiomedical Research vol 29 no 5 pp 245ndash250 2008

[87] T Takahashi T Murata T Hamada et al ldquoChanges in EEGand autonomic nervous activity during meditation and theirassociation with personality traitsrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 55 no 2 pp 199ndash207 2005

[88] J Kabat-Zinn ldquoAn outpatient program in behavioral medicinefor chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulnessmeditation theoretical considerations and preliminary resultsrdquoGeneral Hospital Psychiatry vol 4 no 1 pp 33ndash47 1982

[89] B Nanamoli and B Bhikkhu ldquoSekha-patipada Sutta (thepractice for one in training)rdquo in The Middle Length Discoursesof the Buddha A New Translation of the Majjhima WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1995

[90] T Gyatso Stages of Meditation Snow Lion Publication IthacaNY USA 2001

[91] J A Brefczynski-Lewis A Lutz H S Schaefer D B Levinsonand R J Davidson ldquoNeural correlates of attentional expertise inlong-termmeditation practitionersrdquo Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences of the United States of America vol 104 no27 pp 11483ndash11488 2007

[92] Y-Y Tang Y Ma Y Fan et al ldquoCentral and autonomicnervous system interaction is altered by short-termmeditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 106 no 22 pp 8865ndash8870 2009

[93] B Ditto M Eclache and N Goldman ldquoShort-term autonomicand cardiovascular effects of mindfulness body scan medita-tionrdquo Annals of Behavioral Medicine vol 32 no 3 pp 227ndash2342006

[94] J R Krygier J A J Heathers S Shahrestani M Abbott J JGross and A H Kemp ldquoMindfulness meditation well-beingand heart rate variability a preliminary investigation into theimpact of intensive vipassanameditationrdquo International Journalof Psychophysiology vol 89 no 3 pp 305ndash313 2013

[95] J D Agee S Danoff-Burg and C A Grant ldquoComparingbrief stress management courses in a community samplemindfulness skills and progressive muscle relaxationrdquo Explorevol 5 no 2 pp 104ndash109 2009

[96] S Jain S L Shapiro S Swanick et al ldquoA randomized controlledtrial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation trainingeffects on distress positive states of mind rumination anddistractionrdquoAnnals of Behavioral Medicine vol 33 no 1 pp 11ndash21 2007

[97] C S Mackenzie P A Poulin and R Seidman-Carlson ldquoA briefmindfulness-based stress reduction intervention for nurses andnurse aidesrdquoAppliedNursing Research vol 19 no 2 pp 105ndash1092006

[98] O Singleton B K Holzel M Vangel N Brach J Carmody andS W Lazar ldquoChange in brainstem gray matter concentrationfollowing a mindfulness-based intervention is correlated withimprovement in psychological well-beingrdquo Frontiers in HumanNeuroscience vol 8 article 33 2014

[99] P Ekman R J Davidson M Ricard and B A WallaceldquoBuddhist and psychological perspectives on emotions andwell-beingrdquo Current Directions in Psychological Science vol 14no 2 pp 59ndash63 2005

[100] P Ekman and R J Davidson The Nature of Emotion Funda-mental Questions Series in Affective Science OxfordUniversityPress New York NY USA 1994

[101] R A Baer ldquoMindfulness training as a clinical intervention aconceptual and empirical reviewrdquo Clinical Psychology Scienceand Practice vol 10 no 2 pp 125ndash143 2003

[102] C C Streeter P L Gerbarg R B Saper D A Ciraulo and RP Brown ldquoEffects of yoga on the autonomic nervous systemgamma-aminobutyric-acid and allostasis in epilepsy depres-sion and post-traumatic stress disorderrdquo Medical Hypothesesvol 78 no 5 pp 571ndash579 2012

[103] M Balasubramaniam S Telles and P M Doraiswamy ldquoYogaon our minds a systematic review of yoga for neuropsychiatricdisordersrdquo Frontiers in Psychiatry vol 3 article 117 2013

[104] S Telles and N Singh ldquoScience of the mind ancient yoga textsand modern studiesrdquo Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol36 no 1 pp 93ndash108 2013

[105] A Manna A Raffone M G Perrucci et al ldquoNeural correlatesof focused attention and cognitive monitoring in meditationrdquoBrain Research Bulletin vol 82 no 1-2 pp 46ndash56 2010

[106] M Allen M Dietz K S Blair et al ldquoCognitive-affectiveneural plasticity following active-controlled mindfulness inter-ventionrdquoThe Journal of Neuroscience vol 32 no 44 pp 15601ndash15610 2012

[107] T Gard B K Holzel A T Sack et al ldquoPain attenuation throughmindfulness is associated with decreased cognitive control and

BioMed Research International 13

increased sensory processing in the brainrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol22 no 11 pp 2692ndash2702 2012

[108] B K Holzel U Ott T Gard et al ldquoInvestigation of mindful-ness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometryrdquoSocial Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 3 no 1 pp 55ndash61 2008

[109] N A S Farb A K Anderson HMayberg J Bean DMcKeonand Z V Segal ldquoMinding onersquos emotions mindfulness trainingalters the neural expression of sadnessrdquo Emotion vol 10 no 1pp 25ndash33 2010

[110] G Pagnoni and M Cekic ldquoAge effects on gray matter volumeand attentional performance in Zen meditationrdquo Neurobiologyof Aging vol 28 no 10 pp 1623ndash1627 2007

[111] X Yu M Fumoto Y Nakatani et al ldquoActivation of theanterior prefrontal cortex and serotonergic system is associatedwith improvements in mood and EEG changes induced byZen meditation practice in novicesrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 80 no 2 pp 103ndash111 2011

[112] N A S Farb Z V Segal H Mayberg et al ldquoAttending to thepresent mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modesof self-referencerdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neurosciencevol 2 no 4 pp 313ndash322 2007

[113] A Berkovich-Ohana J Glicksohn and A GoldsteinldquoMindfulness-induced changes in gamma band activitymdashimplications for the default mode network self-reference andattentionrdquo Clinical Neurophysiology vol 123 no 4 pp 700ndash7102012

[114] J A Brewer P D Worhunsky J R Gray Y-Y Tang JWeber andH Kober ldquoMeditation experience is associated withdifferences in default mode network activity and connectivityrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 108 no 50 pp 20254ndash20259 2011

[115] D A Gusnard and M E Raichle ldquoSearching for a baselinefunctional imaging and the resting human brainrdquo NatureReviews Neuroscience vol 2 no 10 pp 685ndash694 2001

[116] M E Raichle A M MacLeod A Z Snyder W J Powers D AGusnard andG L Shulman ldquoAdefaultmode of brain functionrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 98 no 2 pp 676ndash682 2001

[117] M E Raichle and A Z Snyder ldquoA default mode of brainfunction a brief history of an evolving ideardquo NeuroImage vol37 no 4 pp 1083ndash1090 2007

[118] R L Buckner J R Andrews-Hanna and D L Schacter ldquoThebrainrsquos default network anatomy function and relevance todiseaserdquo Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences vol 1124pp 1ndash38 2008

[119] A P Jha J Krompinger and M J Baime ldquoMindfulnesstraining modifies subsystems of attentionrdquo Cognitive Affectiveand Behavioral Neuroscience vol 7 no 2 pp 109ndash119 2007

[120] K A MacLean E Ferrer S R Aichele et al ldquoIntensivemeditation training improves perceptual discrimination andsustained attentionrdquo Psychological Science vol 21 no 6 pp829ndash839 2010

[121] J C Corby W T Roth V P Zarcone Jr and B S KopellldquoPsychophysiological correlates of the practice of Tantric Yogameditationrdquo Archives of General Psychiatry vol 35 no 5 pp571ndash577 1978

[122] S Telles and T Desiraju ldquoAutonomic changes in Brahmaku-maris Raja yoga meditationrdquo International Journal of Psy-chophysiology vol 15 no 2 pp 147ndash152 1993

[123] L MMVirtual Design Imagery Testing Battery [Computer Soft-ware] Newark NJ USA 2004

[124] H Benson M S Malhotra R F Goldman G D Jacobsand P J Hopkins ldquoThree case reports of the metabolic andelectroencephalographic changes during advanced buddhistmeditation techniquesrdquo Behavioral Medicine vol 16 no 2 pp90ndash95 1990

[125] H Benson J W Lehmann M S Malhotra R F Goldman JHopkins andMD Epstein ldquoBody temperature changes duringthe practice of g Tum-mo yogardquo Nature vol 295 no 5846 pp234ndash236 1982

[126] Y-Y Tang Q Lu M Fan Y Yang and M I PosnerldquoMechanisms of white matter changes induced by meditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 109 no 26 pp 10570ndash10574 2012

[127] P Raghuraj and S Telles ldquoImmediate effect of specific nostrilmanipulating yoga breathing practices on autonomic and respi-ratory variablesrdquo Applied Psychophysiology Biofeedback vol 33no 2 pp 65ndash75 2008

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Anatomy Research International

PeptidesInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Molecular Biology International

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioinformaticsAdvances in

Marine BiologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Signal TransductionJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Biochemistry Research International

ArchaeaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Genetics Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Advances in

Virolog y

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Nucleic AcidsJournal of

Volume 2014

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Enzyme Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Page 5: Review Article The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2015/731579.pdf · 2019-07-31 · Review Article The Influence of Buddhist

BioMed Research International 5

meditation An influential and highly cited study in thisregard was conducted by Tang et al [92] who comparedtwo groups of participants without Mindfulness meditationexperience who were randomly assigned to one of twoexperimental conditions half the subjects were required toperform ldquointegrative body-mind training (IBMT)rdquo whichincorporates aspects of Mindfulness training for 20 minutesduring a 5-day period and the other half underwent a formof relaxation training that involved squeezing and relaxingindividualmuscle groups Tang et al [92]measuredHRV andGSR before during and after training in either meditation orrelaxation and showed that the participants in the meditationgroup demonstrated significantly more parasympatheticactivation and less sympathetic activation than the relaxationcontrol Specifically the IBMT group demonstrated increasesin HF and lower GSR relative to the relaxation controlleading the authors to conclude that the meditation groupsignificantly increased the activity of the parasympatheticsystem and decreased the activity of the sympathetic systemrelative to the relaxation control Similarly Ditto et al [93]recruited 32 experimental subjects without meditationexperience who were randomly assigned to either a typeof Mindfulness meditation that involved body scanning acontrol condition during which subjects performed musclerelaxation exercises or a waiting-list control group Theauthors measured respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA)through a vagal tone monitor which as mentioned is ameasure of respiration that is synchronized to the HRV andgenerated by the parasympathetic nervous system Ditto et al[93] showed that RSA was increased for the participants whoperformed Mindfulness meditation relative to the controlsubjects indicating that the parasympathetic system wasactivated during the meditation and a relaxation responseoccurred Similar findings were demonstrated by Krygieret al [94] who observed increases in HF and decreases inLFHFduringVipassanameditation relative to a rest baselinefor 36 participants who participated in a Vipassana retreatMoreover recent physiological measures that were obtainedduring Zen concentration meditation also demonstrated anincrease in the activity of the parasympathetic system duringthis practice as well For example Wu and Lo [86] comparedthe EKG activity of a group of 10 experienced meditators(an average of 6 years of experience) who performed a typeof meditation called ldquoZen Chakrardquo where practitionersconcentrate on a ldquoChakrardquomdasha nonphysical ldquoenergy pointrdquomdashlocated inside the third ventricle of the human brain tothe EKG activity of a group of 10 participants withoutmeditation experience Wu and Lo [86] measured the EKGactivity during 2 sessions a 10-minute rest condition for bothmeditators and nonmeditators and a 20-minute conditionof either meditation (for the meditators group) or rest (forthe control group) and showed that the meditation resultedin an HF increase as well as decreased LFHF relative to thenonmeditation control group These results were interpretedto indicate that Zen Chakra meditation ldquoappears to pushthe sympathovagal balance to parasympathetic dominancerdquo[86] In another study Takahashi et al [87] measured theEKG activity of 20 participants who were taught to performSu-soku meditation which is a Zen concentration practice

that is performed by silently counting onersquos breaths so thatone inhales naturally and exhales when the numbers arerecited If other thoughts occur during the meditation theparticipant is instructed to let them pass and direct his orher attention back to the counting As a control conditionparticipants were trained to breath at a rate of 025Hz intempo with the sound of a metronome in order to accountfor the respiratory frequency influences on HRV Takahashiet al [87] measured the EKG activity during both themeditation and control condition and observed an increasein HF as well as a decrease in LFHF in the meditationrelative to the control condition which was interpreted tomean that the parasympathetic system was more activeduring the meditation relative to the control

In addition a multitude of studies have demonstratedthat Mindfulness meditation can elicit a relaxation responseusing self-reports that are correlatedwith relaxation and clin-ical stress reduction programs that implement Mindfulnessmeditation have been shown to reduce stress and increaserelaxation even after 4 to 5 weeks of training [95 96] Inone such study Jain et al [96] introduced a clinical inter-vention program that incorporated 5 sessions of Mindfulnessmeditation that was conducted in 4 sessions of 15 hours andan additional 6-hour session over a period of 4 weeks Theparticipants who performed meditation were compared toparticipants in a ldquosomatic relaxation (SR)rdquo intervention thatwas performed over an identical time period and number ofsessions where they performedmuscle relaxation techniquesand breathing and imagery exercises as well as to a waitinglist control group They found that the participantsrsquo ratingsof psychological well-being significantly increased followingthe meditation intervention in comparison to SR indicatingan enhancement in positive emotional states and decreasedstress Similarly inMackenzie et al [97] 30 participants wererandomly assigned to a short 4-weekMindfulnessmeditationintervention or a waiting list control group and they wereinstructed to practice meditation for at least 10 minutes aday 5 days a week The intervention and control participantscompleted a battery of questionnaires before and immediatelyafter the 4-week training program that assesses the emotionaland overall well-being Mackenzie et al [97] found thatreportedwell-being life satisfaction and relaxation increasedfor the intervention group but remained stable for the controlgroup demonstrating increased relaxation as a consequenceof Mindfulness meditation Similar findings have been con-sistently reported dozens of times in previous research whereMindfulness meditation was typically practiced for an 8-week period (eg [10ndash12]) and the ability of Mindfulnessmeditation to alleviate stress induce relaxation and regulateanxiety is now a widely accepted phenomenon in scientificresearch as well as clinical contexts (eg [12 98ndash101])

Furthermore several Yoga practices that emphasize relax-ation techniques (eg Yoga Nidra) as well as concentrationon a single object of meditation such as the breath fora prolonged period of time (and are therefore similar toTheravada and Mahayana forms of meditation) also lead toincreased relaxation and a reduction in stress Just as in thecase of Theravada and Mahayana types of meditation theability of these types of Yoga practices to induce relaxation

6 BioMed Research International

and relieve stress has been found in previous studies andextensively discussed in the scientific literature [102ndash104]

42 Tonic Alertness during Theravada and Mahayana Med-itation As reviewed in Britton et al [25] neuroimagingstudies have shown that the activity in brain regions relatedto tonic awareness can be enhanced during Theravada andMahayana types of meditation Asmentioned tonic alertnessis associated with neural activity in the dACC DLPFC theanterior insula the inferior parietal lobule the thalamus andthe brain stem [34 63 64] In a study that demonstratedtonic alertness in both Vipassana and Shamatha Manna etal [105] measured the fMRI BOLD signal in 8 Theravadamonks with an average of over 15000 hours of Shamatha andVipassana meditation experience as well as in 8 novices with10 days of meditation experience Both groups of participantsperformed 3 experimental blocks inside the fMRI scannereach of which began with a 3-minute rest condition and wasfollowed by 6 minutes of Shamatha meditation where theyfocused on their breathing and 6 minutes of Vipassana med-itation They found stronger BOLD activation in brain areasrelated to tonic alertness in highly experienced meditators(monks) that performed both Shamatha and Vipassana andin novices that performed Vipassana meditation SpecificallyManna et al [105] found that when monks performedShamatha the fMRI BOLD signal in the left and right dACCDLPFC and anterior insula was stronger than during therest control condition Moreover for the monks Vipassanameditation led to an increased signal in the DLPFC areaOn the other hand for the novice meditators Shamathameditation did not show an increased BOLD signal that isrelated to tonic alertness possibly due to insufficient expertisewith this practice but Vipassana meditation led to increasedactivation in the left dACC indicative of enhanced tonicalertness

Allen et al [106] recruited 61 participants without anymeditation experience who were randomly assigned toeither a 6-week Mindfulness meditation course or a 6-week ldquoactive-controlrdquo condition that involved group readingsand discussions This control condition was hypothesized toldquocultivate absorption and thought related processes into animaginary narrative in contrast to the present-centered andopen-monitoring aspect of mindfulnessrdquo [106] Allen et al[106] found increased DLPFC activation in the meditationgroup relative to the control and also found that the amountof meditation practice positively correlated with the level ofdACC activation that occurred during the meditation Asreviewed by Britton et al [25] similar findings of increasedactivation in neural areas related to tonic alertness have beenobserved in additional studies on Vipassana (eg [107 108])Mindfulness (eg [109]) and Zenmeditation (eg [110 111])

Additional evidence that Theravada types of meditationlead to tonic alertness was obtained by several recent studiesthat have shown that Mindfulness (eg [112 113]) andShamatha [114] types of meditation can lead to a decreasein the activity of neural structures that are more activeduring unfocused activity than during attention demandingtasks [115ndash117] These areas include the ventral medial pre-frontal cortex posterior cingulate inferior parietal lobule

and the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex which have beencollectively termed the brainrsquos ldquodefault networkrdquo [118]

Furthermore recent studies have investigated the influ-ence of meditation on tonic alertness using behavioural tasksthat are specifically designed tomeasure alerting attention InJha et al [119] the authors utilized the ldquoattentional networktestrdquo (ANT) where in each trial participants are presentedwith an arrow target that is surrounded by distractor arrowsthat point in either the same direction (congruent flankers)or a different direction (incongruent flankers) as the targetMoreover the target is preceded by one of three cue condi-tions a valid cue a spatially neutral central cue a spatiallyneutral double cue or a no cue condition Importantly theefficiency of alerting attentional processes is assessed by theANT as the reaction-time (RT) difference between the doublecue and the no cue conditions Jha et al [119] assessed changesin tonic alertness in 3 groups of participants one groupparticipated in an intensive Shamatha retreat for 30 minutesa day for 8 weeks The second group practiced Shamathafor 30 minutes a day for 8 weeks and a third group didnot undergo any meditation training They compared tonicalertness at the beginning of the study (Time-point 1) andfollowing the intervention (retreat or meditation programTime-point 2) Jha et al [119] showed that although theefficiency of alerting attention did not differ at Time-point1 between the three groups of participants at Time-point2 the alerting attentional mechanisms of participants whoattended the retreat became significantly more efficient (theRT difference between the no cue and double cue conditionswas reduced relative to Time-point 1) and the magnitude ofthe improvement in alerting attentionwas correlated with themeditation experience of the retreat participants Moreoverthe increase in alerting efficiency was driven by a decrease inRT to no cue trials and suggests that the meditators becamemore vigilant and their tonic alertness increased

In MacLean et al [120] the authors measured the influ-ences of Shamatha meditation on tonic alertness using asustained-attention task where single lines were presentedat the centre of the screen while participants fixated on asmall yellow dot The lines could be either long (90 of thetime) or short (10 of the time) and the participants wererequired to respond to the short lines by pressing a responsebutton They recruited 29 participants [120] with an averageexperience of 2668 hours of meditation who participated ina 3-month Shamatha meditation retreat that consisted of 5hours of meditation training per dayThe sustained attentiontest was administered before at the midpoint and after themeditation retreat The nonparametric index of perceptualsensitivity 1198601015840 was calculated from the hit rates and falsealarm rates for each of the 8 120-trial experimental blocksof the sustained attention task Since the decline in 1198601015840 waslargest during the first 4 blocks MacLean et al [120] definedimprovements in tonic alertness as positive changes in theslope of 1198601015840 during the first four blocks MacLean et al[120] showed that the slope of 1198601015840 was more positive at themidpoint and after the meditation retreat in comparisonto the pre-retreat baseline demonstrating that Shamathameditation reduced the decrement in 1198601015840 that occurs duringthe sustained attention task and therefore increased tonic

BioMed Research International 7

alertnessThe authors interpreted their results to indicate thatmeditation training can ldquodecrease resource demands and thusimprove vigilance (tonic alertness)rdquo [120]

Hence the findings of studies that investigated tonicalertness through behavioural measures complement neu-roimaging studies and together they demonstrate that certainTheravada and Mahayana types of meditation can increasethe activity in neural areas related to tonic alertness whichin turn leads to improvements on tasks that require tonicalertness The recent findings of tonic alertness during Ther-avada and Mahayana meditation are important because theycomplement the picture portrayed by Buddhist scriptureswhich describe meditation as a practice that generates botha relaxed and an alert state of mind [23 26] Moreoverour review is consistent with previous findings and reviewsthat consistently demonstrated a relaxation response duringTheravada and Mahayana types of meditation [10ndash13]

5 Arousal and Phasic Alertness inVajrayana Practices

As opposed to Theravada meditative practices Vajrayanapractice does not cultivate relaxation but an arousal responseVajrayana Buddhist scriptures emphasize the realization ofldquoself-existing wakefulnessrdquo or ldquoan awake qualityrdquo of the mindand warn against excessive tranquility [84] in contrast toTheravada scriptures that emphasize quiescence and tran-quility [67 pages 1287-1288 (IV410)] as well as Mahayanameditation instructions that also emphasize calmness (eg[26] page 57) Furthermore empirical evidence also suggeststhat arousal is generated during specific meditative practicesFor instance the generation of arousal during meditation hasbeen observed in Hindu Tantric practices (eg [121 122]) aswell as in several Vajrayana practices (eg [27 28]) althoughoverall there have been far fewer studies on Vajrayana andHindu Tantric practices than onTheravada and Mahayana

Based on Theravada Buddhist scriptures that empha-size calmness and relaxation and Vajrayana scripturesthat emphasize ldquowakefulnessrdquo Amihai and Kozhevnikov[27] hypothesized that Deity and Rig-pa practices of theVajrayana tradition would generate cognitive and physiologi-cal responses of arousal while Vipassana and Shamatha prac-tices of the Theravada tradition would generate a relaxationresponse In order to investigate the autonomic activationthat is generated during these types of practices Amihai andKozhevnikov [27] compared the EKG activity of experiencedTheravada and Vajrayana meditators (with 8 and 74 years ofmeditation experience resp) as they practiced meditationThe Theravada types of meditation that were investigatedwere Vipassana meditation and Kasina meditation which isa visualization type of Shamatha meditation in which themeditator focuses his or her attention on ldquoKasina objectsrdquothat are described in the Pali Tipitaka and are typicallycolored disks The Vajrayana practices studied were Deityand Rig-pa practices In this study the participants per-formed a 10-minute rest condition that was followed byShamatha and Vipassana meditation (15 minutes each) forthe Theravada meditators and Deity and Rig-pa meditation(15 minutes each) for the Vajrayana meditators Moreover

the participantsrsquo EKG activity was monitored throughout theexperiment Amihai andKozhevnikov [27] showed thatTher-avada types of meditation elicited increased HF (Vipassana)and decreased LFHF (both Vipassana and Kasina) relativeto the rest control condition which is consistent with arelaxation response On the other hand Vajrayana practicesproduced increased arousal as indexed by decreased HF(both Deity and Rig-pa) during the meditation relative tothe control condition Moreover Kozhevnikov et al [29]and Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] presented experiencedTheravada (an average of 8ndash123 years of experience) andVajrayana meditators (an average of 74ndash13 years of experi-ence) with 2 visual tests (the Mental Rotation Test (MRT)and Visual Memory Test (VMT [123]) see [29] for details)which were performed before and immediately following a20-minute session of Theravada meditation (Vipassana andKasina Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27]) or Vajrayana prac-tices (Deity Kozhevnikov et al [29] and Rig-pa Amihai andKozhevnikov [27]) As mentioned the dramatic improve-ments on visual tasks immediately following a stimulus oractivity are indicative of enhanced phasic alertness Hencethe authors hypothesized that improved performance onthe visual tests immediately after the meditation practicewould indicate that phasic alertness occurred during themeditation and that such an improvement would be observedfollowingVajrayana practices In linewith this hypothesis theexperimental results showed that onlyVajrayana practices ledto a large and immediate increase in performance on thesetasks while Theravada meditators did not demonstrate anyimprovement in their performance following the practiceHence these studies demonstrate that Vajrayana practicesand not Theravada types of meditation lead to an arousalresponse and phasic alertness

Additional studies that demonstrated that Vajrayanapractices can increase the activity of the sympathetic sys-tem and generate an arousal response were conducted onpractitioners of g-Tummo meditation which as mentionedis associated with intense sensations of bodily heat in thespine Interestingly Benson himself reported a phenomenonthat was unclear to him at the time that two of the three g-Tummo practitioners that participated in his study exhibitedan activation of the sympathetic system as evidenced byincreased metabolism and oxygen consumption [124] whichis consistent with arousal and not a relaxation responseMoreover in Kozhevnikov et al [28] it was demonstratedexperimentally that g-Tummo meditation can indeed raisethe temperature of the body which indicates a sympa-thetic response Nonshivering generation of body heatmdashthermogenesismdashis mediated by the sympathetic nervoussystem [55 56] In humans thermogenesis is caused mainlyby brown adipose tissue which shunts the energy obtainedfrom the oxidation of free fatty acids into heat whichis then distributed throughout the body via the adiposetissue vasculature [56] Importantly brown adipose tissueactivity in humans is stimulated by the sympathetic ner-vous system [55] Specifically an increased discharge fromsupraspinal sympathetic premotor pathways results in thesympathetic activation of brown adipose tissue which leadsto thermogenesis [56] By attaching a small thermometer in

8 BioMed Research International

the armpit of highly experienced g-Tummo meditators (6ndash32 years of experience) Kozhevnikov et al [28] were able todemonstrate for the first time that g-Tummo meditators canincrease not only their peripheral but more importantly corebody temperature during the meditation demonstrating thatthe activity of the sympathetic nervous system significantlyincreases as a consequence of this practice Notably the ther-mogenesis induced during g-Tummo was so substantial thatit raised the body temperature of the meditators above thenormal body temperature range and into the range of slightor moderate fever (up to 383∘C) reflecting an enhancedarousal response due to sympathetic activation It shouldbe noted that increases in the peripheral body (meditatorsrsquofingers and toes) temperature during g-Tummo were alsofound in Benson et al [125] however the authors did notattribute such changes to increased sympathetic activationIn contrast Benson et al [125] speculated that increasedsympathetic activation during meditation is ldquounlikelyrdquo as itwould be inconsistent with the parasympathetic activationthat they observed inTheravada and TM types of meditation

In addition to Vajrayana practices several studies con-ducted on Hindu Tantric meditators demonstrated increasedarousal In an early but influential and often cited studyCorby et al [121] recorded the GSR and heart rate duringa Dharana type of meditation called Ananda Marga whichincorporates a focus on breathing while repeating a two-syllable word and ignoring external stimuli They recruited30 experienced Ananda Marga meditators (an average of 21years and 31 hours of practice a day) as well as 10 subjectswithout meditation experience that served as controls TheGSR and heart rates were recorded during 3 experimentalconditions (1) a relaxation control (2) an Ananda Margameditation preparation condition which involves payingattention to the breath while ignoring external stimuli (3)Ananda Marga meditation where the subjects were toldto ignore external stimuli pay attention to their breathingand silently repeat a two-syllable word in phase with theirbreathing In the control group the participants chose theirown word while meditators used a personal mantra thatthey received from their meditation instructor The resultsof Corby et al [121] demonstrated that a state of arousaloccurred during AnandaMarga meditation (1) skin conduc-tance (GSR) increased from the relaxation baseline to themeditation condition but only for themeditators group (2) asmall heart rate increase was observed during the meditationcondition relative to the baseline for the meditators groupBoth of these measures indicated that sympathetic activationoccurred during the meditation demonstrating an arousalresponse

Additionally Telles and Desiraju [122] measured heartrate and GSR during a different type of meditation whichrequires concentration on a light source while contemplatinga universal force They recruited 18 experienced meditators(with an average of 101 years of experience) and compared thephysiological measures obtained during meditation to thoseobtained by the same subjects during a control conditionwhich was similar to the meditation condition but whererandom thinking was allowed and effortful concentrationwas not required The findings of Telles and Desiraju [122]

demonstrated that although therewere no significant changesin GSR an increase in heart rate occurred during the medita-tion condition but not during the nonmeditation conditionrelative to the baseline heart rate obtained prior to eachcondition Hence the findings of this study are indicativeof increased sympathetic activation and an arousal responseduring this type of meditation

To conclude this section as opposed to Theravada andMahayana types of meditation that demonstrate enhancedrelaxation investigations of Vajrayana and certain HinduTantric practices demonstrated increased arousal This onceagain emphasizes the importance of philosophical and cul-tural influences on meditation and demonstrates that theterm ldquomeditationrdquo is in many ways too general when used asa unified descriptor of all Buddhist and Hindu contemplativepractices These findings show that the supposition that ldquotounderstand the psychophysiological influences ofmeditationit should first be conceptually denuded of its cultural andreligious biases [9 page 2]rdquo is highly misleading The dia-metrically opposed findings of relaxation in Theravada andMahayana practices and arousal in Vajrayana and HinduTantric practices point to the opposite conclusion Namelyin order to understand the psychophysiological aspects ofmeditation one needs to carefully examine its cultural andreligious sources

6 Conclusions and Future Directions

The aim of this review was to examine the scientific studiesof meditation while focusing on the unique influences thatdifferent types of meditative traditions have on the activa-tion of the autonomic system and attentional mechanismsWe have presented evidence summarized in Table 1 whichshows that Theravada and Mahayana types of meditationlead to increased parasympathetic activation that underliesa relaxation response while Vajrayana and certain HinduTantric practices elicit enhanced sympathetic activation thatunderlies a robust arousal response In addition we out-lined the cultural and philosophical motivations that haveinfluenced these meditative practices While Theravada andMahayana scriptures emphasize that the purpose of medi-tation is to cultivate tranquility along with mental stabilityVajrayana scriptures describe practices whose purpose is toelicit states of enhanced arousal

It is important to stress that the influences of Vajrayanaand Hindu Tantric practices on physiology and behaviorare only beginning to receive their due attention from thescientific community and the long-term impact of Tantricpractices is still not well understood Hence while it has beendemonstrated that Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric practicescan lead to immediate physiological changes that are coupledwith improved cognitive performance future studies shouldinvestigate the long-term cognitive and physiological changesthat occur as a consequence of such practices As previouslymentioned in contrast to Vajrayana and Hindu Tantricpractices many scientific studies have been conducted onTheravada or Mahayana types of meditation and there isevidence that they can lead to long-term improvements onattentional tasks (eg [25 120 126]) It is thus prudent that

BioMed Research International 9

Table 1 Summary of meditation studies of autonomic activation and alerting attention

Study Meditation type Findings

Tang et al [92] Mindfulness (IBMT) Increased HF anddecreased GSR

Ditto et al [93] Mindfulness Increased RSA

Jain et al [96] Mindfulness Increased perceived positive emotions and decreasedperceived distress

Mackenzie et al [97] Mindfulness Increased perceived well-being life satisfaction andrelaxation

Wu and Lo [86] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHFTakahashi et al [87] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Manna et al [105] ShamathaIncreased fMRI BOLD signal in the dorsal anteriorcingulate cortex (dACC) dorsolateral prefrontal cortex(DLPFC) and anterior insula in meditation experts

Manna et al [105] Vipassana Increased dACC activation in meditation novicesAllen et al [106] Mindfulness Increased DLPFC and dACC activationJha et al [119] Shamatha Increased alerting network efficiencyMacLean et al [120] Shamatha Improvement in a sustained attention taskAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Shamatha (Kasina visualization) Decreased LFHFAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Vipassana Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Rig-pa (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HF and increased performance in mentalrotation (MRT) and visual memory (VMT)

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HFKozhevnikov et al [29] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased MRT and VMT performanceKozhevnikov et al [28] g-Tummo (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased thermogenesisCorby et al [121] Ananda Marga (Dharana) Increased GSR and heart rateTelles and Desiraju [122] Hindu Tantric meditation Increased heart rate

similar long-term studies would be conducted on Tantricpractices

Related to the above another important research direc-tion that has yet to be explored is the long-term influenceof Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric meditation on stress andwell-being As mentioned the finding that Theravada typesof meditation produce relaxation has resulted in their incor-poration into clinical practices as stress reduction techniques(eg [10 21 95 96]) Conversely the finding that Vajrayanaand Hindu Tantric types of meditation produce arousalsuggests that they could be more problematic for people whoare under a high level of stress However it is also likely thatas they gain additional meditation experience Vajrayana andHindu Tantric meditators develop unique strategies to helpthem cope with stressful situations that could arise duringtheir meditation practice for instance by transforming theirnegative emotions into the positive emotional states of thevisualized Deity Such possibilities should be examined infuture studies

In addition future studies should investigate the specificmechanisms that underlie ANS changes during meditationin order to understand the precise factors that mediate thearousal and relaxation responses One possible mediatingfactor could be respiration changes In this context previousstudies on Hindu breathing exercises called Pranayamawhich often serve as preparatory exercises for meditation

[79 page 310] showed that specific breathing techniques canbe used to activate the sympathetic or the parasympatheticnervous systems (eg [127]) A second factor that shouldbe considered is the specific visualization or other contentthat is used for meditation For instance it is plausible thata visualized Tibetan Deity would lead to a high degree ofarousal due to the emotional content that it holds in theeyes of a Tibetan meditator while the inward and outwardflow of the breath that is being attended to during Shamathameditation would not evoke intense emotional reactions

In conclusion although the scientific examination ofthe nature of meditative practices is not new it is onlyin recent years that cognitive scientists and neuroscientistshave begun to investigate the influences of the specificcultural and philosophical contexts out of which meditationpractices developed on the psychophysiological outcomes ofthe practices Such investigations have led to experimentalbreakthroughs that corroborate ideas laid down in Buddhistscriptures about the purpose and effects of meditationSpecifically the scriptural descriptions of heightened arousalduring Vajrayana practices and a relaxed and alert state ofmind during Theravada and Mahayana types of meditationreceived empirical support as research from the past severalyears demonstrated that Vajrayana as well as certain HinduTantric practices lead to heightened arousal and phasicalertness whileTheravada andMahayana types ofmeditation

10 BioMed Research International

elicit a relaxation response coupled with enhanced tonicalertness

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

References

[1] B Bodhi ldquoWhat does mindfulness really mean A canonicalperspectiverdquo Contemporary Buddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 19ndash392011

[2] R Gethin ldquoOn some definitions ofmindfulnessrdquoContemporaryBuddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 263ndash279 2011

[3] P Grossman and N T Van Dam ldquoMindfulness by any othername trials and tribulations of sati in western psychologyand sciencerdquo Contemporary Buddhism An InterdisciplinaryJournal vol 12 no 1 pp 219ndash239 2011

[4] Z Josipovic ldquoDuality and nonduality in meditation researchrdquoConsciousness and Cognition vol 19 no 4 pp 1119ndash1121 2010

[5] H Benson and W Proctor Relaxation Revolution The Scienceand Genetics of Mind Body Healing Scribner New York NYUSA 2011

[6] H Benson B A Rosner B R Marzetta and H P KlemchukldquoDecreased blood pressure in borderline hypertensive subjectswho practiced meditationrdquo Journal of Chronic Diseases vol 27no 3 pp 163ndash169 1974

[7] R K Wallace and H Benson ldquoThe physiology of meditationrdquoScientific American vol 226 no 2 pp 84ndash90 1972

[8] I Kutz J Leserman C Dorrington C H Morrison J ZBorysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation as an adjunct topsychotherapy An outcome studyrdquo Psychotherapy and Psycho-somatics vol 43 no 4 pp 209ndash218 1985

[9] I Kutz J Z Borysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation andpsychotherapy a rationale for the integration of dynamicpsychotherapy the relaxation response and mindfulness med-itationrdquo The American Journal of Psychiatry vol 142 no 1 pp1ndash8 1985

[10] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoMindfulness-based stress reduc-tion for stress management in healthy people a review andmeta-analysisrdquo The Journal of Alternative and ComplementaryMedicine vol 15 no 5 pp 593ndash600 2009

[11] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoA systematic review of neuro-biological and clinical features of mindfulness meditationsrdquoPsychological Medicine vol 40 no 8 pp 1239ndash1252 2010

[12] F Zeidan K T Martucci R Kraft J G McHaffie and R CCoghill ldquo Neural correlates of mindfulness meditation-relatedanxiety reliefrdquo Scandinavica vol 9 pp 751ndash759 2014

[13] B Ivanovski and G S Malhi ldquoThe psychological and neuro-physiological concomitants of mindfulness forms of medita-tionrdquo Acta Neuropsychiatrica vol 19 no 2 pp 76ndash91 2007

[14] J D-E Young and E Taylor ldquoMeditation as a voluntaryhypometabolic state of biological estivationrdquoNews in Physiolog-ical Sciences vol 13 no 3 pp 149ndash153 1998

[15] R Jevning R K Wallace and M Beidebach ldquoThe physiologyof meditation a review A wakeful hypometabolic integratedresponserdquo Neuroscience amp Biobehavioral Reviews vol 16 no 3pp 415ndash424 1992

[16] S E Petersen and M I Posner ldquoThe attention system of thehumanbrain 20 years afterrdquoAnnual Review ofNeuroscience vol35 pp 73ndash89 2012

[17] L K McCorry ldquoPhysiology of the autonomic nervous systemrdquoAmerican Journal of Pharmaceutical Education vol 71 no 4article 78 2007

[18] D R Morse J S Martin M L Furst and L L Dubin ldquoAphysiological and subjective evaluation ofmeditation hypnosisand relaxationrdquo Psychosomatic Medicine vol 39 no 5 pp 304ndash324 1977

[19] A Lutz ldquoMeditation and the neuroscience of consciousness anintroductionrdquo inThe Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness PD Zelazo M Moscovitch and EThompson Eds pp 499ndash551Cambridge University Press New York NY USA 2007

[20] Tipitaka The Pali Canon Legacy Edition 2005 httpwwwaccesstoinsightorgtipitaka

[21] P Grossman L Niemann S Schmidt and H Walach ldquoMind-fulness-based stress reduction and health benefits a meta-analysisrdquo Journal of Psychosomatic Research vol 57 no 1 pp35ndash43 2004

[22] R Gilpin ldquoThe use of Theravada Buddhist practices andperspectives in mindfulness-based cognitive therapyrdquo Contem-porary Buddhism vol 9 no 2 pp 227ndash251 2008

[23] B H GunaratanaMindfulness in Plain English Wisdom Publi-cations Somerville Mass USA 2002

[24] B R Cahn and J Polich ldquoMeditation states and traits EEG ERPand neuroimaging studiesrdquoPsychological Bulletin vol 132 no 2pp 180ndash211 2006

[25] W B Britton J R Lindahl B R Cahn J H Davis and R EGoldman ldquoAwakening is not ametaphor the effects of Buddhistmeditation practices on basic wakefulnessrdquo Annals of the NewYork Academy of Sciences vol 1307 no 1 pp 64ndash81 2014

[26] J D Buksbazen Zen Meditation in Plain English WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1st edition 2002

[27] I Amihai and M Kozhevnikov ldquoArousal vs relaxation acomparison of the neurophysiological and cognitive correlatesof Vajrayana and Theravada meditative practicesrdquo PLoS ONEvol 9 no 7 Article ID e102990 2014

[28] M Kozhevnikov J Elliott J Shephard and K Gramann ldquoNeu-rocognitive and somatic components of temperature increasesduring g-Tummo meditation legend and realityrdquo PLoS ONEvol 8 no 3 Article ID e58244 2013

[29] M Kozhevnikov O Louchakova Z Josipovic and M AMotes ldquoThe enhancement of visuospatial processing efficiencythrough buddhist deity meditationrdquo Psychological Science vol20 no 5 pp 645ndash653 2009

[30] A J CammMMalik J T Bigger G Breithardt S Cerutti andR J Cohen ldquoHeart rate variabilitymdashstandards of measurementphysiological interpretation and clinical userdquo Circulation vol93 no 5 pp 1043ndash1065 1996

[31] G F Chess R M K Tam and F R Calaresu ldquoInfluence ofcardiac neural inputs on rhythmic variations of heart period inthe catrdquoAmerican Journal of Physiology vol 228 no 3 pp 775ndash780 1975

[32] M N Levy ldquoSympathetic-parasympathetic interactions in theheartrdquo Circulation Research vol 29 no 5 pp 437ndash445 1971

[33] N Weinbach and A Henik ldquoPhasic alertness can modulateexecutive control by enhancing global processing of visualstimulirdquo Cognition vol 121 no 3 pp 454ndash458 2011

BioMed Research International 11

[34] W Sturm A de Simone B J Krause et al ldquoFunctional anatomyof intrinsic alertness evidence for a fronto-parietal-thalamic-brainstem network in the right hemisphererdquo Neuropsychologiavol 37 no 7 pp 797ndash805 1999

[35] P Low ldquoAutonomic nervous systemrdquo in The Merck ManualR S Porter and J L Kaplan Eds Merck Sharp amp DohmeWhitehouse Station NJ USA 2013

[36] G E Billman ldquoThe LFHF ratio does not accurately measurecardiac sympatho-vagal balancerdquo Frontiers in Physiology vol 4article 26 2013

[37] G G Berntson J T Bigger Jr D L Eckberg et al ldquoHeartrate variability origins methods and interpretive caveatsrdquoPsychophysiology vol 34 no 6 pp 623ndash648 1997

[38] K Molgaard K Hermansen and P Bjerregaard ldquoSpectralcomponents of short-term RR interval variability in healthysubjects and effects of risk factorsrdquo European Heart Journal vol15 no 9 pp 1174ndash1183 1994

[39] J T Bigger Jr J L Fleiss L M Rolnitzky and R C SteinmanldquoStability over time of heart period variability in patients withprevious myocardial infarction and ventricular arrhythmiasrdquoAmerican Journal of Cardiology vol 69 no 8 pp 718ndash723 1992

[40] K M Stein J S Borer C Hochreiter et al ldquoPrognostic valueand physiological correlates of heart rate variability in chronicsevere mitral regurgitationrdquo Circulation vol 88 no 1 pp 127ndash135 1993

[41] A Malliani M Pagani F Lombardi and S Cerutti ldquoCardio-vascular neural regulation explored in the frequency domainrdquoCirculation vol 84 no 2 pp 482ndash492 1991

[42] M V Kamath and E L Fallen ldquoPower spectral analysis of heartrate variability a noninvasive signature of cardiac autonomicfunctionrdquoCritical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering vol 21 no3 pp 245ndash311 1993

[43] O Rimoldi S Pierini A Ferrari S Cerutti M Pagani andA Malliani ldquoAnalysis of short-term oscillations of R-R andarterial pressure in conscious dogsrdquo The American Journal ofPhysiologymdashHeart and Circulatory Physiology vol 258 no 4pp H967ndashH976 1990

[44] N Montano T G Ruscone A Porta F Lombardi M Paganiand A Malliani ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart rate vari-ability to assess the changes in sympathovagal balance duringgraded orthostatic tiltrdquoCirculation vol 90 no 4 pp 1826ndash18311994

[45] S Akselrod D Gordon F A Ubel D C Shannon A CBerger and R J Cohen ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart ratefluctuation a quantitative probe of beat-to-beat cardiovascularcontrolrdquo Science vol 213 no 4504 pp 220ndash222 1981

[46] M L Appel R D Berger J P Saul J M Smith and R J CohenldquoBeat to beat variability in cardiovascular variables noise ormusicrdquo Journal of the American College of Cardiology vol 14no 5 pp 1139ndash1148 1989

[47] B Pomeranz R J Macaulay M A Caudill et al ldquoAssessment ofautonomic function in humans by heart rate spectral analysisrdquoThe American Journal of Physiology vol 248 no 1 pp H151ndashH153 1985

[48] F Morady W H Kou S D Nelson et al ldquoAccentuated antago-nism between beta-adrenergic and vagal effects on ventricularrefractoriness in humansrdquo Circulation vol 77 no 2 pp 289ndash297 1988

[49] D L Eckberg S KMohanty andM Raczkowska ldquoTrigeminal-baroreceptor reflex interactions modulate human cardiac vagalefferent activityrdquo Journal of Physiology vol 347 pp 75ndash83 1984

[50] F Yasuma and J-I Hayano ldquoRespiratory Sinus Arrhythmiawhy does the heartbeat synchronize with respiration rhythmrdquoChest vol 125 no 2 pp 683ndash690 2004

[51] P G Katona and F Jih ldquoRespiratory sinus arrhythmia nonin-vasive measure of parasympathetic cardiac controlrdquo Journal ofApplied Physiology vol 39 no 5 pp 801ndash805 1975

[52] F L Gobel L A Norstrom R R Nelson C R Jorgensen andY Wang ldquoThe rate-pressure product as an index of myocardialoxygen consumption during exercise in patients with anginapectorisrdquo Circulation vol 57 no 3 pp 549ndash556 1978

[53] H M Martini and E F Bartholomew Essentials of Anatomyand Physiology Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ USA 2ndedition 2001

[54] J A Gutrecht ldquoSympathetic skin responserdquo Journal of ClinicalNeurophysiology vol 11 no 5 pp 519ndash524 1994

[55] J Nedergaard T Bengtsson and B Cannon ldquoUnexpectedevidence for active brown adipose tissue in adult humansrdquoThe American Journal of PhysiologymdashEndocrinology andMetabolism vol 293 no 2 pp E444ndashE452 2007

[56] S F Morrison and W W Blessing ldquoCentral nervous systemregulation of body temperaturerdquo in Central Regulation of Auto-nomic Functions I J Llewellyn-Smith and A J M VerberneEds pp 1ndash34 Oxford Scholarship Online 2011

[57] L R Derogatis and N Melisaratos ldquoThe brief symptom inven-tory an introductory reportrdquo PsychologicalMedicine vol 13 no3 pp 595ndash605 1983

[58] M Horowitz N Adler and S Kegeles ldquoA scale for measuringthe occurrence of positive states of mind a preliminary reportrdquoPsychosomatic Medicine vol 50 no 5 pp 477ndash483 1988

[59] T W Robbins ldquoArousal systems and attentional processesrdquoBiological Psychology vol 45 no 1ndash3 pp 57ndash71 1997

[60] T W Robbins ldquoChemistry of the mind neurochemical mod-ulation of prefrontal cortical functionrdquo Journal of ComparativeNeurology vol 493 no 1 pp 140ndash146 2005

[61] R P Hasegawa A M Blitz N L Geller and M E GoldbergldquoNeurons inmonkey prefrontal cortex that track past or predictfuture performancerdquo Science vol 290 no 5497 pp 1786ndash17892000

[62] M I Posner ldquoMeasuring alertnessrdquo Annals of the New YorkAcademy of Sciences vol 1129 pp 193ndash199 2008

[63] W Sturm and K Willmes ldquoOn the functional neuroanatomyof intrinsic and phasic alertnessrdquo NeuroImage vol 14 no 1 ppS76ndashS84 2001

[64] S Sadaghiani R Scheeringa K Lehongre B Morillon A LGiraud and A Kleinschmidt ldquoIntrinsic connectivity networksalpha oscillations and tonic alertness a simultaneous elec-troencephalographyfunctional magnetic resonance imagingstudyrdquo The Journal of Neuroscience vol 30 no 30 pp 10243ndash10250 2010

[65] B Buddhaghosa Visuddhimagga The Path of Purificationtranslated byBNanamoli Buddhist Publication Society KandySri Lanka 4th edition 2010

[66] AWallaceTheAttention Revolution Unlocking the Power of theFocused Mind Wisdom Publications Somerville Mass USA2006

[67] B Bhikkhu The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha A Trans-lation of the Anguttara Nikaya Wisdom Publications BostonMass USA 2012

[68] S ZhiyiThe Essentials of Buddhist Meditation B Dharmamiratranslation Kalavinka Press Seattle Wash USA 2009

12 BioMed Research International

[69] G SamuelTheOrigins of Yoga and Tantra Indic Religions to theThirteenth Century vol 2013 Cambridge University Press NewDelhi India 2008

[70] K A Harper and R L Brown Eds The Roots of Tantra StateUniversity of New York Press New York NY USA 2002

[71] N Panchen and P W Gyalpo Perfect Conduct Ascertaining theThree Vows Wisdom Boston Mass USA 1999

[72] S RinpocheDzogchen and Padmasambhava Rigpa FellowshipSan Diego Calif USA 2nd edition 1990

[73] T Wangyal Wonders of the Natural Mind The Essence ofDzogchen in the Native Bon Tradition Snow Lion Ithaca NYUSA 1993

[74] D Goleman The Meditative Mind The Varieties of MeditativeExperience GP Putnamrsquos Sons New York NY USA 1996

[75] Tsong-Kha-Pa and G C MullinThe Six Yogas of Naropa SnowLion Publications Boston Mass USA 2005

[76] WY Evans-WentzTibetanYoga and Secret Doctorines PilgrimsPublishing Varanisa India 2002

[77] G H Mullin Readings on Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1997

[78] G H Mullin Tsongkhaparsquos Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1996

[79] I K TaimniThe Science of Yoga The Theosophical PublishingHouse Wheaton Ill USA 1961

[80] S Kripalvanand The Science of Meditation Sri DahyabhaiHirabhai Patel Bombay India 1977

[81] G FeuersteinThePhilosophy of Classical Yoga InnerTraditionsRochester NY USA 1996

[82] J D Nash and A Newberg ldquoToward a unifying taxonomy anddefinition for meditationrdquo Frontiers in Psychology vol 4 article806 2013

[83] M WalsheThe Long Discourses of the Buddha A Translation ofthe Digha Nikaya (Teachings of the Buddha) Wisdom Publica-tions Boston Mass USA 1995

[84] T U Rinpoche As It Is vol 2 Ranjung Yeshe PublicationsHong Kong 1999

[85] H Benson The Relaxation Response HyperCollins New YorkNY USA 1975

[86] S D Wu and P C Lo ldquoInward-attention meditation increasesparasympathetic activity a study based onheart rate variabilityrdquoBiomedical Research vol 29 no 5 pp 245ndash250 2008

[87] T Takahashi T Murata T Hamada et al ldquoChanges in EEGand autonomic nervous activity during meditation and theirassociation with personality traitsrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 55 no 2 pp 199ndash207 2005

[88] J Kabat-Zinn ldquoAn outpatient program in behavioral medicinefor chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulnessmeditation theoretical considerations and preliminary resultsrdquoGeneral Hospital Psychiatry vol 4 no 1 pp 33ndash47 1982

[89] B Nanamoli and B Bhikkhu ldquoSekha-patipada Sutta (thepractice for one in training)rdquo in The Middle Length Discoursesof the Buddha A New Translation of the Majjhima WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1995

[90] T Gyatso Stages of Meditation Snow Lion Publication IthacaNY USA 2001

[91] J A Brefczynski-Lewis A Lutz H S Schaefer D B Levinsonand R J Davidson ldquoNeural correlates of attentional expertise inlong-termmeditation practitionersrdquo Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences of the United States of America vol 104 no27 pp 11483ndash11488 2007

[92] Y-Y Tang Y Ma Y Fan et al ldquoCentral and autonomicnervous system interaction is altered by short-termmeditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 106 no 22 pp 8865ndash8870 2009

[93] B Ditto M Eclache and N Goldman ldquoShort-term autonomicand cardiovascular effects of mindfulness body scan medita-tionrdquo Annals of Behavioral Medicine vol 32 no 3 pp 227ndash2342006

[94] J R Krygier J A J Heathers S Shahrestani M Abbott J JGross and A H Kemp ldquoMindfulness meditation well-beingand heart rate variability a preliminary investigation into theimpact of intensive vipassanameditationrdquo International Journalof Psychophysiology vol 89 no 3 pp 305ndash313 2013

[95] J D Agee S Danoff-Burg and C A Grant ldquoComparingbrief stress management courses in a community samplemindfulness skills and progressive muscle relaxationrdquo Explorevol 5 no 2 pp 104ndash109 2009

[96] S Jain S L Shapiro S Swanick et al ldquoA randomized controlledtrial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation trainingeffects on distress positive states of mind rumination anddistractionrdquoAnnals of Behavioral Medicine vol 33 no 1 pp 11ndash21 2007

[97] C S Mackenzie P A Poulin and R Seidman-Carlson ldquoA briefmindfulness-based stress reduction intervention for nurses andnurse aidesrdquoAppliedNursing Research vol 19 no 2 pp 105ndash1092006

[98] O Singleton B K Holzel M Vangel N Brach J Carmody andS W Lazar ldquoChange in brainstem gray matter concentrationfollowing a mindfulness-based intervention is correlated withimprovement in psychological well-beingrdquo Frontiers in HumanNeuroscience vol 8 article 33 2014

[99] P Ekman R J Davidson M Ricard and B A WallaceldquoBuddhist and psychological perspectives on emotions andwell-beingrdquo Current Directions in Psychological Science vol 14no 2 pp 59ndash63 2005

[100] P Ekman and R J Davidson The Nature of Emotion Funda-mental Questions Series in Affective Science OxfordUniversityPress New York NY USA 1994

[101] R A Baer ldquoMindfulness training as a clinical intervention aconceptual and empirical reviewrdquo Clinical Psychology Scienceand Practice vol 10 no 2 pp 125ndash143 2003

[102] C C Streeter P L Gerbarg R B Saper D A Ciraulo and RP Brown ldquoEffects of yoga on the autonomic nervous systemgamma-aminobutyric-acid and allostasis in epilepsy depres-sion and post-traumatic stress disorderrdquo Medical Hypothesesvol 78 no 5 pp 571ndash579 2012

[103] M Balasubramaniam S Telles and P M Doraiswamy ldquoYogaon our minds a systematic review of yoga for neuropsychiatricdisordersrdquo Frontiers in Psychiatry vol 3 article 117 2013

[104] S Telles and N Singh ldquoScience of the mind ancient yoga textsand modern studiesrdquo Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol36 no 1 pp 93ndash108 2013

[105] A Manna A Raffone M G Perrucci et al ldquoNeural correlatesof focused attention and cognitive monitoring in meditationrdquoBrain Research Bulletin vol 82 no 1-2 pp 46ndash56 2010

[106] M Allen M Dietz K S Blair et al ldquoCognitive-affectiveneural plasticity following active-controlled mindfulness inter-ventionrdquoThe Journal of Neuroscience vol 32 no 44 pp 15601ndash15610 2012

[107] T Gard B K Holzel A T Sack et al ldquoPain attenuation throughmindfulness is associated with decreased cognitive control and

BioMed Research International 13

increased sensory processing in the brainrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol22 no 11 pp 2692ndash2702 2012

[108] B K Holzel U Ott T Gard et al ldquoInvestigation of mindful-ness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometryrdquoSocial Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 3 no 1 pp 55ndash61 2008

[109] N A S Farb A K Anderson HMayberg J Bean DMcKeonand Z V Segal ldquoMinding onersquos emotions mindfulness trainingalters the neural expression of sadnessrdquo Emotion vol 10 no 1pp 25ndash33 2010

[110] G Pagnoni and M Cekic ldquoAge effects on gray matter volumeand attentional performance in Zen meditationrdquo Neurobiologyof Aging vol 28 no 10 pp 1623ndash1627 2007

[111] X Yu M Fumoto Y Nakatani et al ldquoActivation of theanterior prefrontal cortex and serotonergic system is associatedwith improvements in mood and EEG changes induced byZen meditation practice in novicesrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 80 no 2 pp 103ndash111 2011

[112] N A S Farb Z V Segal H Mayberg et al ldquoAttending to thepresent mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modesof self-referencerdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neurosciencevol 2 no 4 pp 313ndash322 2007

[113] A Berkovich-Ohana J Glicksohn and A GoldsteinldquoMindfulness-induced changes in gamma band activitymdashimplications for the default mode network self-reference andattentionrdquo Clinical Neurophysiology vol 123 no 4 pp 700ndash7102012

[114] J A Brewer P D Worhunsky J R Gray Y-Y Tang JWeber andH Kober ldquoMeditation experience is associated withdifferences in default mode network activity and connectivityrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 108 no 50 pp 20254ndash20259 2011

[115] D A Gusnard and M E Raichle ldquoSearching for a baselinefunctional imaging and the resting human brainrdquo NatureReviews Neuroscience vol 2 no 10 pp 685ndash694 2001

[116] M E Raichle A M MacLeod A Z Snyder W J Powers D AGusnard andG L Shulman ldquoAdefaultmode of brain functionrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 98 no 2 pp 676ndash682 2001

[117] M E Raichle and A Z Snyder ldquoA default mode of brainfunction a brief history of an evolving ideardquo NeuroImage vol37 no 4 pp 1083ndash1090 2007

[118] R L Buckner J R Andrews-Hanna and D L Schacter ldquoThebrainrsquos default network anatomy function and relevance todiseaserdquo Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences vol 1124pp 1ndash38 2008

[119] A P Jha J Krompinger and M J Baime ldquoMindfulnesstraining modifies subsystems of attentionrdquo Cognitive Affectiveand Behavioral Neuroscience vol 7 no 2 pp 109ndash119 2007

[120] K A MacLean E Ferrer S R Aichele et al ldquoIntensivemeditation training improves perceptual discrimination andsustained attentionrdquo Psychological Science vol 21 no 6 pp829ndash839 2010

[121] J C Corby W T Roth V P Zarcone Jr and B S KopellldquoPsychophysiological correlates of the practice of Tantric Yogameditationrdquo Archives of General Psychiatry vol 35 no 5 pp571ndash577 1978

[122] S Telles and T Desiraju ldquoAutonomic changes in Brahmaku-maris Raja yoga meditationrdquo International Journal of Psy-chophysiology vol 15 no 2 pp 147ndash152 1993

[123] L MMVirtual Design Imagery Testing Battery [Computer Soft-ware] Newark NJ USA 2004

[124] H Benson M S Malhotra R F Goldman G D Jacobsand P J Hopkins ldquoThree case reports of the metabolic andelectroencephalographic changes during advanced buddhistmeditation techniquesrdquo Behavioral Medicine vol 16 no 2 pp90ndash95 1990

[125] H Benson J W Lehmann M S Malhotra R F Goldman JHopkins andMD Epstein ldquoBody temperature changes duringthe practice of g Tum-mo yogardquo Nature vol 295 no 5846 pp234ndash236 1982

[126] Y-Y Tang Q Lu M Fan Y Yang and M I PosnerldquoMechanisms of white matter changes induced by meditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 109 no 26 pp 10570ndash10574 2012

[127] P Raghuraj and S Telles ldquoImmediate effect of specific nostrilmanipulating yoga breathing practices on autonomic and respi-ratory variablesrdquo Applied Psychophysiology Biofeedback vol 33no 2 pp 65ndash75 2008

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Anatomy Research International

PeptidesInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Molecular Biology International

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioinformaticsAdvances in

Marine BiologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Signal TransductionJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Biochemistry Research International

ArchaeaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Genetics Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Advances in

Virolog y

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Nucleic AcidsJournal of

Volume 2014

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Enzyme Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Page 6: Review Article The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2015/731579.pdf · 2019-07-31 · Review Article The Influence of Buddhist

6 BioMed Research International

and relieve stress has been found in previous studies andextensively discussed in the scientific literature [102ndash104]

42 Tonic Alertness during Theravada and Mahayana Med-itation As reviewed in Britton et al [25] neuroimagingstudies have shown that the activity in brain regions relatedto tonic awareness can be enhanced during Theravada andMahayana types of meditation Asmentioned tonic alertnessis associated with neural activity in the dACC DLPFC theanterior insula the inferior parietal lobule the thalamus andthe brain stem [34 63 64] In a study that demonstratedtonic alertness in both Vipassana and Shamatha Manna etal [105] measured the fMRI BOLD signal in 8 Theravadamonks with an average of over 15000 hours of Shamatha andVipassana meditation experience as well as in 8 novices with10 days of meditation experience Both groups of participantsperformed 3 experimental blocks inside the fMRI scannereach of which began with a 3-minute rest condition and wasfollowed by 6 minutes of Shamatha meditation where theyfocused on their breathing and 6 minutes of Vipassana med-itation They found stronger BOLD activation in brain areasrelated to tonic alertness in highly experienced meditators(monks) that performed both Shamatha and Vipassana andin novices that performed Vipassana meditation SpecificallyManna et al [105] found that when monks performedShamatha the fMRI BOLD signal in the left and right dACCDLPFC and anterior insula was stronger than during therest control condition Moreover for the monks Vipassanameditation led to an increased signal in the DLPFC areaOn the other hand for the novice meditators Shamathameditation did not show an increased BOLD signal that isrelated to tonic alertness possibly due to insufficient expertisewith this practice but Vipassana meditation led to increasedactivation in the left dACC indicative of enhanced tonicalertness

Allen et al [106] recruited 61 participants without anymeditation experience who were randomly assigned toeither a 6-week Mindfulness meditation course or a 6-week ldquoactive-controlrdquo condition that involved group readingsand discussions This control condition was hypothesized toldquocultivate absorption and thought related processes into animaginary narrative in contrast to the present-centered andopen-monitoring aspect of mindfulnessrdquo [106] Allen et al[106] found increased DLPFC activation in the meditationgroup relative to the control and also found that the amountof meditation practice positively correlated with the level ofdACC activation that occurred during the meditation Asreviewed by Britton et al [25] similar findings of increasedactivation in neural areas related to tonic alertness have beenobserved in additional studies on Vipassana (eg [107 108])Mindfulness (eg [109]) and Zenmeditation (eg [110 111])

Additional evidence that Theravada types of meditationlead to tonic alertness was obtained by several recent studiesthat have shown that Mindfulness (eg [112 113]) andShamatha [114] types of meditation can lead to a decreasein the activity of neural structures that are more activeduring unfocused activity than during attention demandingtasks [115ndash117] These areas include the ventral medial pre-frontal cortex posterior cingulate inferior parietal lobule

and the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex which have beencollectively termed the brainrsquos ldquodefault networkrdquo [118]

Furthermore recent studies have investigated the influ-ence of meditation on tonic alertness using behavioural tasksthat are specifically designed tomeasure alerting attention InJha et al [119] the authors utilized the ldquoattentional networktestrdquo (ANT) where in each trial participants are presentedwith an arrow target that is surrounded by distractor arrowsthat point in either the same direction (congruent flankers)or a different direction (incongruent flankers) as the targetMoreover the target is preceded by one of three cue condi-tions a valid cue a spatially neutral central cue a spatiallyneutral double cue or a no cue condition Importantly theefficiency of alerting attentional processes is assessed by theANT as the reaction-time (RT) difference between the doublecue and the no cue conditions Jha et al [119] assessed changesin tonic alertness in 3 groups of participants one groupparticipated in an intensive Shamatha retreat for 30 minutesa day for 8 weeks The second group practiced Shamathafor 30 minutes a day for 8 weeks and a third group didnot undergo any meditation training They compared tonicalertness at the beginning of the study (Time-point 1) andfollowing the intervention (retreat or meditation programTime-point 2) Jha et al [119] showed that although theefficiency of alerting attention did not differ at Time-point1 between the three groups of participants at Time-point2 the alerting attentional mechanisms of participants whoattended the retreat became significantly more efficient (theRT difference between the no cue and double cue conditionswas reduced relative to Time-point 1) and the magnitude ofthe improvement in alerting attentionwas correlated with themeditation experience of the retreat participants Moreoverthe increase in alerting efficiency was driven by a decrease inRT to no cue trials and suggests that the meditators becamemore vigilant and their tonic alertness increased

In MacLean et al [120] the authors measured the influ-ences of Shamatha meditation on tonic alertness using asustained-attention task where single lines were presentedat the centre of the screen while participants fixated on asmall yellow dot The lines could be either long (90 of thetime) or short (10 of the time) and the participants wererequired to respond to the short lines by pressing a responsebutton They recruited 29 participants [120] with an averageexperience of 2668 hours of meditation who participated ina 3-month Shamatha meditation retreat that consisted of 5hours of meditation training per dayThe sustained attentiontest was administered before at the midpoint and after themeditation retreat The nonparametric index of perceptualsensitivity 1198601015840 was calculated from the hit rates and falsealarm rates for each of the 8 120-trial experimental blocksof the sustained attention task Since the decline in 1198601015840 waslargest during the first 4 blocks MacLean et al [120] definedimprovements in tonic alertness as positive changes in theslope of 1198601015840 during the first four blocks MacLean et al[120] showed that the slope of 1198601015840 was more positive at themidpoint and after the meditation retreat in comparisonto the pre-retreat baseline demonstrating that Shamathameditation reduced the decrement in 1198601015840 that occurs duringthe sustained attention task and therefore increased tonic

BioMed Research International 7

alertnessThe authors interpreted their results to indicate thatmeditation training can ldquodecrease resource demands and thusimprove vigilance (tonic alertness)rdquo [120]

Hence the findings of studies that investigated tonicalertness through behavioural measures complement neu-roimaging studies and together they demonstrate that certainTheravada and Mahayana types of meditation can increasethe activity in neural areas related to tonic alertness whichin turn leads to improvements on tasks that require tonicalertness The recent findings of tonic alertness during Ther-avada and Mahayana meditation are important because theycomplement the picture portrayed by Buddhist scriptureswhich describe meditation as a practice that generates botha relaxed and an alert state of mind [23 26] Moreoverour review is consistent with previous findings and reviewsthat consistently demonstrated a relaxation response duringTheravada and Mahayana types of meditation [10ndash13]

5 Arousal and Phasic Alertness inVajrayana Practices

As opposed to Theravada meditative practices Vajrayanapractice does not cultivate relaxation but an arousal responseVajrayana Buddhist scriptures emphasize the realization ofldquoself-existing wakefulnessrdquo or ldquoan awake qualityrdquo of the mindand warn against excessive tranquility [84] in contrast toTheravada scriptures that emphasize quiescence and tran-quility [67 pages 1287-1288 (IV410)] as well as Mahayanameditation instructions that also emphasize calmness (eg[26] page 57) Furthermore empirical evidence also suggeststhat arousal is generated during specific meditative practicesFor instance the generation of arousal during meditation hasbeen observed in Hindu Tantric practices (eg [121 122]) aswell as in several Vajrayana practices (eg [27 28]) althoughoverall there have been far fewer studies on Vajrayana andHindu Tantric practices than onTheravada and Mahayana

Based on Theravada Buddhist scriptures that empha-size calmness and relaxation and Vajrayana scripturesthat emphasize ldquowakefulnessrdquo Amihai and Kozhevnikov[27] hypothesized that Deity and Rig-pa practices of theVajrayana tradition would generate cognitive and physiologi-cal responses of arousal while Vipassana and Shamatha prac-tices of the Theravada tradition would generate a relaxationresponse In order to investigate the autonomic activationthat is generated during these types of practices Amihai andKozhevnikov [27] compared the EKG activity of experiencedTheravada and Vajrayana meditators (with 8 and 74 years ofmeditation experience resp) as they practiced meditationThe Theravada types of meditation that were investigatedwere Vipassana meditation and Kasina meditation which isa visualization type of Shamatha meditation in which themeditator focuses his or her attention on ldquoKasina objectsrdquothat are described in the Pali Tipitaka and are typicallycolored disks The Vajrayana practices studied were Deityand Rig-pa practices In this study the participants per-formed a 10-minute rest condition that was followed byShamatha and Vipassana meditation (15 minutes each) forthe Theravada meditators and Deity and Rig-pa meditation(15 minutes each) for the Vajrayana meditators Moreover

the participantsrsquo EKG activity was monitored throughout theexperiment Amihai andKozhevnikov [27] showed thatTher-avada types of meditation elicited increased HF (Vipassana)and decreased LFHF (both Vipassana and Kasina) relativeto the rest control condition which is consistent with arelaxation response On the other hand Vajrayana practicesproduced increased arousal as indexed by decreased HF(both Deity and Rig-pa) during the meditation relative tothe control condition Moreover Kozhevnikov et al [29]and Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] presented experiencedTheravada (an average of 8ndash123 years of experience) andVajrayana meditators (an average of 74ndash13 years of experi-ence) with 2 visual tests (the Mental Rotation Test (MRT)and Visual Memory Test (VMT [123]) see [29] for details)which were performed before and immediately following a20-minute session of Theravada meditation (Vipassana andKasina Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27]) or Vajrayana prac-tices (Deity Kozhevnikov et al [29] and Rig-pa Amihai andKozhevnikov [27]) As mentioned the dramatic improve-ments on visual tasks immediately following a stimulus oractivity are indicative of enhanced phasic alertness Hencethe authors hypothesized that improved performance onthe visual tests immediately after the meditation practicewould indicate that phasic alertness occurred during themeditation and that such an improvement would be observedfollowingVajrayana practices In linewith this hypothesis theexperimental results showed that onlyVajrayana practices ledto a large and immediate increase in performance on thesetasks while Theravada meditators did not demonstrate anyimprovement in their performance following the practiceHence these studies demonstrate that Vajrayana practicesand not Theravada types of meditation lead to an arousalresponse and phasic alertness

Additional studies that demonstrated that Vajrayanapractices can increase the activity of the sympathetic sys-tem and generate an arousal response were conducted onpractitioners of g-Tummo meditation which as mentionedis associated with intense sensations of bodily heat in thespine Interestingly Benson himself reported a phenomenonthat was unclear to him at the time that two of the three g-Tummo practitioners that participated in his study exhibitedan activation of the sympathetic system as evidenced byincreased metabolism and oxygen consumption [124] whichis consistent with arousal and not a relaxation responseMoreover in Kozhevnikov et al [28] it was demonstratedexperimentally that g-Tummo meditation can indeed raisethe temperature of the body which indicates a sympa-thetic response Nonshivering generation of body heatmdashthermogenesismdashis mediated by the sympathetic nervoussystem [55 56] In humans thermogenesis is caused mainlyby brown adipose tissue which shunts the energy obtainedfrom the oxidation of free fatty acids into heat whichis then distributed throughout the body via the adiposetissue vasculature [56] Importantly brown adipose tissueactivity in humans is stimulated by the sympathetic ner-vous system [55] Specifically an increased discharge fromsupraspinal sympathetic premotor pathways results in thesympathetic activation of brown adipose tissue which leadsto thermogenesis [56] By attaching a small thermometer in

8 BioMed Research International

the armpit of highly experienced g-Tummo meditators (6ndash32 years of experience) Kozhevnikov et al [28] were able todemonstrate for the first time that g-Tummo meditators canincrease not only their peripheral but more importantly corebody temperature during the meditation demonstrating thatthe activity of the sympathetic nervous system significantlyincreases as a consequence of this practice Notably the ther-mogenesis induced during g-Tummo was so substantial thatit raised the body temperature of the meditators above thenormal body temperature range and into the range of slightor moderate fever (up to 383∘C) reflecting an enhancedarousal response due to sympathetic activation It shouldbe noted that increases in the peripheral body (meditatorsrsquofingers and toes) temperature during g-Tummo were alsofound in Benson et al [125] however the authors did notattribute such changes to increased sympathetic activationIn contrast Benson et al [125] speculated that increasedsympathetic activation during meditation is ldquounlikelyrdquo as itwould be inconsistent with the parasympathetic activationthat they observed inTheravada and TM types of meditation

In addition to Vajrayana practices several studies con-ducted on Hindu Tantric meditators demonstrated increasedarousal In an early but influential and often cited studyCorby et al [121] recorded the GSR and heart rate duringa Dharana type of meditation called Ananda Marga whichincorporates a focus on breathing while repeating a two-syllable word and ignoring external stimuli They recruited30 experienced Ananda Marga meditators (an average of 21years and 31 hours of practice a day) as well as 10 subjectswithout meditation experience that served as controls TheGSR and heart rates were recorded during 3 experimentalconditions (1) a relaxation control (2) an Ananda Margameditation preparation condition which involves payingattention to the breath while ignoring external stimuli (3)Ananda Marga meditation where the subjects were toldto ignore external stimuli pay attention to their breathingand silently repeat a two-syllable word in phase with theirbreathing In the control group the participants chose theirown word while meditators used a personal mantra thatthey received from their meditation instructor The resultsof Corby et al [121] demonstrated that a state of arousaloccurred during AnandaMarga meditation (1) skin conduc-tance (GSR) increased from the relaxation baseline to themeditation condition but only for themeditators group (2) asmall heart rate increase was observed during the meditationcondition relative to the baseline for the meditators groupBoth of these measures indicated that sympathetic activationoccurred during the meditation demonstrating an arousalresponse

Additionally Telles and Desiraju [122] measured heartrate and GSR during a different type of meditation whichrequires concentration on a light source while contemplatinga universal force They recruited 18 experienced meditators(with an average of 101 years of experience) and compared thephysiological measures obtained during meditation to thoseobtained by the same subjects during a control conditionwhich was similar to the meditation condition but whererandom thinking was allowed and effortful concentrationwas not required The findings of Telles and Desiraju [122]

demonstrated that although therewere no significant changesin GSR an increase in heart rate occurred during the medita-tion condition but not during the nonmeditation conditionrelative to the baseline heart rate obtained prior to eachcondition Hence the findings of this study are indicativeof increased sympathetic activation and an arousal responseduring this type of meditation

To conclude this section as opposed to Theravada andMahayana types of meditation that demonstrate enhancedrelaxation investigations of Vajrayana and certain HinduTantric practices demonstrated increased arousal This onceagain emphasizes the importance of philosophical and cul-tural influences on meditation and demonstrates that theterm ldquomeditationrdquo is in many ways too general when used asa unified descriptor of all Buddhist and Hindu contemplativepractices These findings show that the supposition that ldquotounderstand the psychophysiological influences ofmeditationit should first be conceptually denuded of its cultural andreligious biases [9 page 2]rdquo is highly misleading The dia-metrically opposed findings of relaxation in Theravada andMahayana practices and arousal in Vajrayana and HinduTantric practices point to the opposite conclusion Namelyin order to understand the psychophysiological aspects ofmeditation one needs to carefully examine its cultural andreligious sources

6 Conclusions and Future Directions

The aim of this review was to examine the scientific studiesof meditation while focusing on the unique influences thatdifferent types of meditative traditions have on the activa-tion of the autonomic system and attentional mechanismsWe have presented evidence summarized in Table 1 whichshows that Theravada and Mahayana types of meditationlead to increased parasympathetic activation that underliesa relaxation response while Vajrayana and certain HinduTantric practices elicit enhanced sympathetic activation thatunderlies a robust arousal response In addition we out-lined the cultural and philosophical motivations that haveinfluenced these meditative practices While Theravada andMahayana scriptures emphasize that the purpose of medi-tation is to cultivate tranquility along with mental stabilityVajrayana scriptures describe practices whose purpose is toelicit states of enhanced arousal

It is important to stress that the influences of Vajrayanaand Hindu Tantric practices on physiology and behaviorare only beginning to receive their due attention from thescientific community and the long-term impact of Tantricpractices is still not well understood Hence while it has beendemonstrated that Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric practicescan lead to immediate physiological changes that are coupledwith improved cognitive performance future studies shouldinvestigate the long-term cognitive and physiological changesthat occur as a consequence of such practices As previouslymentioned in contrast to Vajrayana and Hindu Tantricpractices many scientific studies have been conducted onTheravada or Mahayana types of meditation and there isevidence that they can lead to long-term improvements onattentional tasks (eg [25 120 126]) It is thus prudent that

BioMed Research International 9

Table 1 Summary of meditation studies of autonomic activation and alerting attention

Study Meditation type Findings

Tang et al [92] Mindfulness (IBMT) Increased HF anddecreased GSR

Ditto et al [93] Mindfulness Increased RSA

Jain et al [96] Mindfulness Increased perceived positive emotions and decreasedperceived distress

Mackenzie et al [97] Mindfulness Increased perceived well-being life satisfaction andrelaxation

Wu and Lo [86] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHFTakahashi et al [87] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Manna et al [105] ShamathaIncreased fMRI BOLD signal in the dorsal anteriorcingulate cortex (dACC) dorsolateral prefrontal cortex(DLPFC) and anterior insula in meditation experts

Manna et al [105] Vipassana Increased dACC activation in meditation novicesAllen et al [106] Mindfulness Increased DLPFC and dACC activationJha et al [119] Shamatha Increased alerting network efficiencyMacLean et al [120] Shamatha Improvement in a sustained attention taskAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Shamatha (Kasina visualization) Decreased LFHFAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Vipassana Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Rig-pa (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HF and increased performance in mentalrotation (MRT) and visual memory (VMT)

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HFKozhevnikov et al [29] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased MRT and VMT performanceKozhevnikov et al [28] g-Tummo (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased thermogenesisCorby et al [121] Ananda Marga (Dharana) Increased GSR and heart rateTelles and Desiraju [122] Hindu Tantric meditation Increased heart rate

similar long-term studies would be conducted on Tantricpractices

Related to the above another important research direc-tion that has yet to be explored is the long-term influenceof Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric meditation on stress andwell-being As mentioned the finding that Theravada typesof meditation produce relaxation has resulted in their incor-poration into clinical practices as stress reduction techniques(eg [10 21 95 96]) Conversely the finding that Vajrayanaand Hindu Tantric types of meditation produce arousalsuggests that they could be more problematic for people whoare under a high level of stress However it is also likely thatas they gain additional meditation experience Vajrayana andHindu Tantric meditators develop unique strategies to helpthem cope with stressful situations that could arise duringtheir meditation practice for instance by transforming theirnegative emotions into the positive emotional states of thevisualized Deity Such possibilities should be examined infuture studies

In addition future studies should investigate the specificmechanisms that underlie ANS changes during meditationin order to understand the precise factors that mediate thearousal and relaxation responses One possible mediatingfactor could be respiration changes In this context previousstudies on Hindu breathing exercises called Pranayamawhich often serve as preparatory exercises for meditation

[79 page 310] showed that specific breathing techniques canbe used to activate the sympathetic or the parasympatheticnervous systems (eg [127]) A second factor that shouldbe considered is the specific visualization or other contentthat is used for meditation For instance it is plausible thata visualized Tibetan Deity would lead to a high degree ofarousal due to the emotional content that it holds in theeyes of a Tibetan meditator while the inward and outwardflow of the breath that is being attended to during Shamathameditation would not evoke intense emotional reactions

In conclusion although the scientific examination ofthe nature of meditative practices is not new it is onlyin recent years that cognitive scientists and neuroscientistshave begun to investigate the influences of the specificcultural and philosophical contexts out of which meditationpractices developed on the psychophysiological outcomes ofthe practices Such investigations have led to experimentalbreakthroughs that corroborate ideas laid down in Buddhistscriptures about the purpose and effects of meditationSpecifically the scriptural descriptions of heightened arousalduring Vajrayana practices and a relaxed and alert state ofmind during Theravada and Mahayana types of meditationreceived empirical support as research from the past severalyears demonstrated that Vajrayana as well as certain HinduTantric practices lead to heightened arousal and phasicalertness whileTheravada andMahayana types ofmeditation

10 BioMed Research International

elicit a relaxation response coupled with enhanced tonicalertness

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

References

[1] B Bodhi ldquoWhat does mindfulness really mean A canonicalperspectiverdquo Contemporary Buddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 19ndash392011

[2] R Gethin ldquoOn some definitions ofmindfulnessrdquoContemporaryBuddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 263ndash279 2011

[3] P Grossman and N T Van Dam ldquoMindfulness by any othername trials and tribulations of sati in western psychologyand sciencerdquo Contemporary Buddhism An InterdisciplinaryJournal vol 12 no 1 pp 219ndash239 2011

[4] Z Josipovic ldquoDuality and nonduality in meditation researchrdquoConsciousness and Cognition vol 19 no 4 pp 1119ndash1121 2010

[5] H Benson and W Proctor Relaxation Revolution The Scienceand Genetics of Mind Body Healing Scribner New York NYUSA 2011

[6] H Benson B A Rosner B R Marzetta and H P KlemchukldquoDecreased blood pressure in borderline hypertensive subjectswho practiced meditationrdquo Journal of Chronic Diseases vol 27no 3 pp 163ndash169 1974

[7] R K Wallace and H Benson ldquoThe physiology of meditationrdquoScientific American vol 226 no 2 pp 84ndash90 1972

[8] I Kutz J Leserman C Dorrington C H Morrison J ZBorysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation as an adjunct topsychotherapy An outcome studyrdquo Psychotherapy and Psycho-somatics vol 43 no 4 pp 209ndash218 1985

[9] I Kutz J Z Borysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation andpsychotherapy a rationale for the integration of dynamicpsychotherapy the relaxation response and mindfulness med-itationrdquo The American Journal of Psychiatry vol 142 no 1 pp1ndash8 1985

[10] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoMindfulness-based stress reduc-tion for stress management in healthy people a review andmeta-analysisrdquo The Journal of Alternative and ComplementaryMedicine vol 15 no 5 pp 593ndash600 2009

[11] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoA systematic review of neuro-biological and clinical features of mindfulness meditationsrdquoPsychological Medicine vol 40 no 8 pp 1239ndash1252 2010

[12] F Zeidan K T Martucci R Kraft J G McHaffie and R CCoghill ldquo Neural correlates of mindfulness meditation-relatedanxiety reliefrdquo Scandinavica vol 9 pp 751ndash759 2014

[13] B Ivanovski and G S Malhi ldquoThe psychological and neuro-physiological concomitants of mindfulness forms of medita-tionrdquo Acta Neuropsychiatrica vol 19 no 2 pp 76ndash91 2007

[14] J D-E Young and E Taylor ldquoMeditation as a voluntaryhypometabolic state of biological estivationrdquoNews in Physiolog-ical Sciences vol 13 no 3 pp 149ndash153 1998

[15] R Jevning R K Wallace and M Beidebach ldquoThe physiologyof meditation a review A wakeful hypometabolic integratedresponserdquo Neuroscience amp Biobehavioral Reviews vol 16 no 3pp 415ndash424 1992

[16] S E Petersen and M I Posner ldquoThe attention system of thehumanbrain 20 years afterrdquoAnnual Review ofNeuroscience vol35 pp 73ndash89 2012

[17] L K McCorry ldquoPhysiology of the autonomic nervous systemrdquoAmerican Journal of Pharmaceutical Education vol 71 no 4article 78 2007

[18] D R Morse J S Martin M L Furst and L L Dubin ldquoAphysiological and subjective evaluation ofmeditation hypnosisand relaxationrdquo Psychosomatic Medicine vol 39 no 5 pp 304ndash324 1977

[19] A Lutz ldquoMeditation and the neuroscience of consciousness anintroductionrdquo inThe Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness PD Zelazo M Moscovitch and EThompson Eds pp 499ndash551Cambridge University Press New York NY USA 2007

[20] Tipitaka The Pali Canon Legacy Edition 2005 httpwwwaccesstoinsightorgtipitaka

[21] P Grossman L Niemann S Schmidt and H Walach ldquoMind-fulness-based stress reduction and health benefits a meta-analysisrdquo Journal of Psychosomatic Research vol 57 no 1 pp35ndash43 2004

[22] R Gilpin ldquoThe use of Theravada Buddhist practices andperspectives in mindfulness-based cognitive therapyrdquo Contem-porary Buddhism vol 9 no 2 pp 227ndash251 2008

[23] B H GunaratanaMindfulness in Plain English Wisdom Publi-cations Somerville Mass USA 2002

[24] B R Cahn and J Polich ldquoMeditation states and traits EEG ERPand neuroimaging studiesrdquoPsychological Bulletin vol 132 no 2pp 180ndash211 2006

[25] W B Britton J R Lindahl B R Cahn J H Davis and R EGoldman ldquoAwakening is not ametaphor the effects of Buddhistmeditation practices on basic wakefulnessrdquo Annals of the NewYork Academy of Sciences vol 1307 no 1 pp 64ndash81 2014

[26] J D Buksbazen Zen Meditation in Plain English WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1st edition 2002

[27] I Amihai and M Kozhevnikov ldquoArousal vs relaxation acomparison of the neurophysiological and cognitive correlatesof Vajrayana and Theravada meditative practicesrdquo PLoS ONEvol 9 no 7 Article ID e102990 2014

[28] M Kozhevnikov J Elliott J Shephard and K Gramann ldquoNeu-rocognitive and somatic components of temperature increasesduring g-Tummo meditation legend and realityrdquo PLoS ONEvol 8 no 3 Article ID e58244 2013

[29] M Kozhevnikov O Louchakova Z Josipovic and M AMotes ldquoThe enhancement of visuospatial processing efficiencythrough buddhist deity meditationrdquo Psychological Science vol20 no 5 pp 645ndash653 2009

[30] A J CammMMalik J T Bigger G Breithardt S Cerutti andR J Cohen ldquoHeart rate variabilitymdashstandards of measurementphysiological interpretation and clinical userdquo Circulation vol93 no 5 pp 1043ndash1065 1996

[31] G F Chess R M K Tam and F R Calaresu ldquoInfluence ofcardiac neural inputs on rhythmic variations of heart period inthe catrdquoAmerican Journal of Physiology vol 228 no 3 pp 775ndash780 1975

[32] M N Levy ldquoSympathetic-parasympathetic interactions in theheartrdquo Circulation Research vol 29 no 5 pp 437ndash445 1971

[33] N Weinbach and A Henik ldquoPhasic alertness can modulateexecutive control by enhancing global processing of visualstimulirdquo Cognition vol 121 no 3 pp 454ndash458 2011

BioMed Research International 11

[34] W Sturm A de Simone B J Krause et al ldquoFunctional anatomyof intrinsic alertness evidence for a fronto-parietal-thalamic-brainstem network in the right hemisphererdquo Neuropsychologiavol 37 no 7 pp 797ndash805 1999

[35] P Low ldquoAutonomic nervous systemrdquo in The Merck ManualR S Porter and J L Kaplan Eds Merck Sharp amp DohmeWhitehouse Station NJ USA 2013

[36] G E Billman ldquoThe LFHF ratio does not accurately measurecardiac sympatho-vagal balancerdquo Frontiers in Physiology vol 4article 26 2013

[37] G G Berntson J T Bigger Jr D L Eckberg et al ldquoHeartrate variability origins methods and interpretive caveatsrdquoPsychophysiology vol 34 no 6 pp 623ndash648 1997

[38] K Molgaard K Hermansen and P Bjerregaard ldquoSpectralcomponents of short-term RR interval variability in healthysubjects and effects of risk factorsrdquo European Heart Journal vol15 no 9 pp 1174ndash1183 1994

[39] J T Bigger Jr J L Fleiss L M Rolnitzky and R C SteinmanldquoStability over time of heart period variability in patients withprevious myocardial infarction and ventricular arrhythmiasrdquoAmerican Journal of Cardiology vol 69 no 8 pp 718ndash723 1992

[40] K M Stein J S Borer C Hochreiter et al ldquoPrognostic valueand physiological correlates of heart rate variability in chronicsevere mitral regurgitationrdquo Circulation vol 88 no 1 pp 127ndash135 1993

[41] A Malliani M Pagani F Lombardi and S Cerutti ldquoCardio-vascular neural regulation explored in the frequency domainrdquoCirculation vol 84 no 2 pp 482ndash492 1991

[42] M V Kamath and E L Fallen ldquoPower spectral analysis of heartrate variability a noninvasive signature of cardiac autonomicfunctionrdquoCritical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering vol 21 no3 pp 245ndash311 1993

[43] O Rimoldi S Pierini A Ferrari S Cerutti M Pagani andA Malliani ldquoAnalysis of short-term oscillations of R-R andarterial pressure in conscious dogsrdquo The American Journal ofPhysiologymdashHeart and Circulatory Physiology vol 258 no 4pp H967ndashH976 1990

[44] N Montano T G Ruscone A Porta F Lombardi M Paganiand A Malliani ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart rate vari-ability to assess the changes in sympathovagal balance duringgraded orthostatic tiltrdquoCirculation vol 90 no 4 pp 1826ndash18311994

[45] S Akselrod D Gordon F A Ubel D C Shannon A CBerger and R J Cohen ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart ratefluctuation a quantitative probe of beat-to-beat cardiovascularcontrolrdquo Science vol 213 no 4504 pp 220ndash222 1981

[46] M L Appel R D Berger J P Saul J M Smith and R J CohenldquoBeat to beat variability in cardiovascular variables noise ormusicrdquo Journal of the American College of Cardiology vol 14no 5 pp 1139ndash1148 1989

[47] B Pomeranz R J Macaulay M A Caudill et al ldquoAssessment ofautonomic function in humans by heart rate spectral analysisrdquoThe American Journal of Physiology vol 248 no 1 pp H151ndashH153 1985

[48] F Morady W H Kou S D Nelson et al ldquoAccentuated antago-nism between beta-adrenergic and vagal effects on ventricularrefractoriness in humansrdquo Circulation vol 77 no 2 pp 289ndash297 1988

[49] D L Eckberg S KMohanty andM Raczkowska ldquoTrigeminal-baroreceptor reflex interactions modulate human cardiac vagalefferent activityrdquo Journal of Physiology vol 347 pp 75ndash83 1984

[50] F Yasuma and J-I Hayano ldquoRespiratory Sinus Arrhythmiawhy does the heartbeat synchronize with respiration rhythmrdquoChest vol 125 no 2 pp 683ndash690 2004

[51] P G Katona and F Jih ldquoRespiratory sinus arrhythmia nonin-vasive measure of parasympathetic cardiac controlrdquo Journal ofApplied Physiology vol 39 no 5 pp 801ndash805 1975

[52] F L Gobel L A Norstrom R R Nelson C R Jorgensen andY Wang ldquoThe rate-pressure product as an index of myocardialoxygen consumption during exercise in patients with anginapectorisrdquo Circulation vol 57 no 3 pp 549ndash556 1978

[53] H M Martini and E F Bartholomew Essentials of Anatomyand Physiology Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ USA 2ndedition 2001

[54] J A Gutrecht ldquoSympathetic skin responserdquo Journal of ClinicalNeurophysiology vol 11 no 5 pp 519ndash524 1994

[55] J Nedergaard T Bengtsson and B Cannon ldquoUnexpectedevidence for active brown adipose tissue in adult humansrdquoThe American Journal of PhysiologymdashEndocrinology andMetabolism vol 293 no 2 pp E444ndashE452 2007

[56] S F Morrison and W W Blessing ldquoCentral nervous systemregulation of body temperaturerdquo in Central Regulation of Auto-nomic Functions I J Llewellyn-Smith and A J M VerberneEds pp 1ndash34 Oxford Scholarship Online 2011

[57] L R Derogatis and N Melisaratos ldquoThe brief symptom inven-tory an introductory reportrdquo PsychologicalMedicine vol 13 no3 pp 595ndash605 1983

[58] M Horowitz N Adler and S Kegeles ldquoA scale for measuringthe occurrence of positive states of mind a preliminary reportrdquoPsychosomatic Medicine vol 50 no 5 pp 477ndash483 1988

[59] T W Robbins ldquoArousal systems and attentional processesrdquoBiological Psychology vol 45 no 1ndash3 pp 57ndash71 1997

[60] T W Robbins ldquoChemistry of the mind neurochemical mod-ulation of prefrontal cortical functionrdquo Journal of ComparativeNeurology vol 493 no 1 pp 140ndash146 2005

[61] R P Hasegawa A M Blitz N L Geller and M E GoldbergldquoNeurons inmonkey prefrontal cortex that track past or predictfuture performancerdquo Science vol 290 no 5497 pp 1786ndash17892000

[62] M I Posner ldquoMeasuring alertnessrdquo Annals of the New YorkAcademy of Sciences vol 1129 pp 193ndash199 2008

[63] W Sturm and K Willmes ldquoOn the functional neuroanatomyof intrinsic and phasic alertnessrdquo NeuroImage vol 14 no 1 ppS76ndashS84 2001

[64] S Sadaghiani R Scheeringa K Lehongre B Morillon A LGiraud and A Kleinschmidt ldquoIntrinsic connectivity networksalpha oscillations and tonic alertness a simultaneous elec-troencephalographyfunctional magnetic resonance imagingstudyrdquo The Journal of Neuroscience vol 30 no 30 pp 10243ndash10250 2010

[65] B Buddhaghosa Visuddhimagga The Path of Purificationtranslated byBNanamoli Buddhist Publication Society KandySri Lanka 4th edition 2010

[66] AWallaceTheAttention Revolution Unlocking the Power of theFocused Mind Wisdom Publications Somerville Mass USA2006

[67] B Bhikkhu The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha A Trans-lation of the Anguttara Nikaya Wisdom Publications BostonMass USA 2012

[68] S ZhiyiThe Essentials of Buddhist Meditation B Dharmamiratranslation Kalavinka Press Seattle Wash USA 2009

12 BioMed Research International

[69] G SamuelTheOrigins of Yoga and Tantra Indic Religions to theThirteenth Century vol 2013 Cambridge University Press NewDelhi India 2008

[70] K A Harper and R L Brown Eds The Roots of Tantra StateUniversity of New York Press New York NY USA 2002

[71] N Panchen and P W Gyalpo Perfect Conduct Ascertaining theThree Vows Wisdom Boston Mass USA 1999

[72] S RinpocheDzogchen and Padmasambhava Rigpa FellowshipSan Diego Calif USA 2nd edition 1990

[73] T Wangyal Wonders of the Natural Mind The Essence ofDzogchen in the Native Bon Tradition Snow Lion Ithaca NYUSA 1993

[74] D Goleman The Meditative Mind The Varieties of MeditativeExperience GP Putnamrsquos Sons New York NY USA 1996

[75] Tsong-Kha-Pa and G C MullinThe Six Yogas of Naropa SnowLion Publications Boston Mass USA 2005

[76] WY Evans-WentzTibetanYoga and Secret Doctorines PilgrimsPublishing Varanisa India 2002

[77] G H Mullin Readings on Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1997

[78] G H Mullin Tsongkhaparsquos Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1996

[79] I K TaimniThe Science of Yoga The Theosophical PublishingHouse Wheaton Ill USA 1961

[80] S Kripalvanand The Science of Meditation Sri DahyabhaiHirabhai Patel Bombay India 1977

[81] G FeuersteinThePhilosophy of Classical Yoga InnerTraditionsRochester NY USA 1996

[82] J D Nash and A Newberg ldquoToward a unifying taxonomy anddefinition for meditationrdquo Frontiers in Psychology vol 4 article806 2013

[83] M WalsheThe Long Discourses of the Buddha A Translation ofthe Digha Nikaya (Teachings of the Buddha) Wisdom Publica-tions Boston Mass USA 1995

[84] T U Rinpoche As It Is vol 2 Ranjung Yeshe PublicationsHong Kong 1999

[85] H Benson The Relaxation Response HyperCollins New YorkNY USA 1975

[86] S D Wu and P C Lo ldquoInward-attention meditation increasesparasympathetic activity a study based onheart rate variabilityrdquoBiomedical Research vol 29 no 5 pp 245ndash250 2008

[87] T Takahashi T Murata T Hamada et al ldquoChanges in EEGand autonomic nervous activity during meditation and theirassociation with personality traitsrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 55 no 2 pp 199ndash207 2005

[88] J Kabat-Zinn ldquoAn outpatient program in behavioral medicinefor chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulnessmeditation theoretical considerations and preliminary resultsrdquoGeneral Hospital Psychiatry vol 4 no 1 pp 33ndash47 1982

[89] B Nanamoli and B Bhikkhu ldquoSekha-patipada Sutta (thepractice for one in training)rdquo in The Middle Length Discoursesof the Buddha A New Translation of the Majjhima WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1995

[90] T Gyatso Stages of Meditation Snow Lion Publication IthacaNY USA 2001

[91] J A Brefczynski-Lewis A Lutz H S Schaefer D B Levinsonand R J Davidson ldquoNeural correlates of attentional expertise inlong-termmeditation practitionersrdquo Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences of the United States of America vol 104 no27 pp 11483ndash11488 2007

[92] Y-Y Tang Y Ma Y Fan et al ldquoCentral and autonomicnervous system interaction is altered by short-termmeditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 106 no 22 pp 8865ndash8870 2009

[93] B Ditto M Eclache and N Goldman ldquoShort-term autonomicand cardiovascular effects of mindfulness body scan medita-tionrdquo Annals of Behavioral Medicine vol 32 no 3 pp 227ndash2342006

[94] J R Krygier J A J Heathers S Shahrestani M Abbott J JGross and A H Kemp ldquoMindfulness meditation well-beingand heart rate variability a preliminary investigation into theimpact of intensive vipassanameditationrdquo International Journalof Psychophysiology vol 89 no 3 pp 305ndash313 2013

[95] J D Agee S Danoff-Burg and C A Grant ldquoComparingbrief stress management courses in a community samplemindfulness skills and progressive muscle relaxationrdquo Explorevol 5 no 2 pp 104ndash109 2009

[96] S Jain S L Shapiro S Swanick et al ldquoA randomized controlledtrial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation trainingeffects on distress positive states of mind rumination anddistractionrdquoAnnals of Behavioral Medicine vol 33 no 1 pp 11ndash21 2007

[97] C S Mackenzie P A Poulin and R Seidman-Carlson ldquoA briefmindfulness-based stress reduction intervention for nurses andnurse aidesrdquoAppliedNursing Research vol 19 no 2 pp 105ndash1092006

[98] O Singleton B K Holzel M Vangel N Brach J Carmody andS W Lazar ldquoChange in brainstem gray matter concentrationfollowing a mindfulness-based intervention is correlated withimprovement in psychological well-beingrdquo Frontiers in HumanNeuroscience vol 8 article 33 2014

[99] P Ekman R J Davidson M Ricard and B A WallaceldquoBuddhist and psychological perspectives on emotions andwell-beingrdquo Current Directions in Psychological Science vol 14no 2 pp 59ndash63 2005

[100] P Ekman and R J Davidson The Nature of Emotion Funda-mental Questions Series in Affective Science OxfordUniversityPress New York NY USA 1994

[101] R A Baer ldquoMindfulness training as a clinical intervention aconceptual and empirical reviewrdquo Clinical Psychology Scienceand Practice vol 10 no 2 pp 125ndash143 2003

[102] C C Streeter P L Gerbarg R B Saper D A Ciraulo and RP Brown ldquoEffects of yoga on the autonomic nervous systemgamma-aminobutyric-acid and allostasis in epilepsy depres-sion and post-traumatic stress disorderrdquo Medical Hypothesesvol 78 no 5 pp 571ndash579 2012

[103] M Balasubramaniam S Telles and P M Doraiswamy ldquoYogaon our minds a systematic review of yoga for neuropsychiatricdisordersrdquo Frontiers in Psychiatry vol 3 article 117 2013

[104] S Telles and N Singh ldquoScience of the mind ancient yoga textsand modern studiesrdquo Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol36 no 1 pp 93ndash108 2013

[105] A Manna A Raffone M G Perrucci et al ldquoNeural correlatesof focused attention and cognitive monitoring in meditationrdquoBrain Research Bulletin vol 82 no 1-2 pp 46ndash56 2010

[106] M Allen M Dietz K S Blair et al ldquoCognitive-affectiveneural plasticity following active-controlled mindfulness inter-ventionrdquoThe Journal of Neuroscience vol 32 no 44 pp 15601ndash15610 2012

[107] T Gard B K Holzel A T Sack et al ldquoPain attenuation throughmindfulness is associated with decreased cognitive control and

BioMed Research International 13

increased sensory processing in the brainrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol22 no 11 pp 2692ndash2702 2012

[108] B K Holzel U Ott T Gard et al ldquoInvestigation of mindful-ness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometryrdquoSocial Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 3 no 1 pp 55ndash61 2008

[109] N A S Farb A K Anderson HMayberg J Bean DMcKeonand Z V Segal ldquoMinding onersquos emotions mindfulness trainingalters the neural expression of sadnessrdquo Emotion vol 10 no 1pp 25ndash33 2010

[110] G Pagnoni and M Cekic ldquoAge effects on gray matter volumeand attentional performance in Zen meditationrdquo Neurobiologyof Aging vol 28 no 10 pp 1623ndash1627 2007

[111] X Yu M Fumoto Y Nakatani et al ldquoActivation of theanterior prefrontal cortex and serotonergic system is associatedwith improvements in mood and EEG changes induced byZen meditation practice in novicesrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 80 no 2 pp 103ndash111 2011

[112] N A S Farb Z V Segal H Mayberg et al ldquoAttending to thepresent mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modesof self-referencerdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neurosciencevol 2 no 4 pp 313ndash322 2007

[113] A Berkovich-Ohana J Glicksohn and A GoldsteinldquoMindfulness-induced changes in gamma band activitymdashimplications for the default mode network self-reference andattentionrdquo Clinical Neurophysiology vol 123 no 4 pp 700ndash7102012

[114] J A Brewer P D Worhunsky J R Gray Y-Y Tang JWeber andH Kober ldquoMeditation experience is associated withdifferences in default mode network activity and connectivityrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 108 no 50 pp 20254ndash20259 2011

[115] D A Gusnard and M E Raichle ldquoSearching for a baselinefunctional imaging and the resting human brainrdquo NatureReviews Neuroscience vol 2 no 10 pp 685ndash694 2001

[116] M E Raichle A M MacLeod A Z Snyder W J Powers D AGusnard andG L Shulman ldquoAdefaultmode of brain functionrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 98 no 2 pp 676ndash682 2001

[117] M E Raichle and A Z Snyder ldquoA default mode of brainfunction a brief history of an evolving ideardquo NeuroImage vol37 no 4 pp 1083ndash1090 2007

[118] R L Buckner J R Andrews-Hanna and D L Schacter ldquoThebrainrsquos default network anatomy function and relevance todiseaserdquo Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences vol 1124pp 1ndash38 2008

[119] A P Jha J Krompinger and M J Baime ldquoMindfulnesstraining modifies subsystems of attentionrdquo Cognitive Affectiveand Behavioral Neuroscience vol 7 no 2 pp 109ndash119 2007

[120] K A MacLean E Ferrer S R Aichele et al ldquoIntensivemeditation training improves perceptual discrimination andsustained attentionrdquo Psychological Science vol 21 no 6 pp829ndash839 2010

[121] J C Corby W T Roth V P Zarcone Jr and B S KopellldquoPsychophysiological correlates of the practice of Tantric Yogameditationrdquo Archives of General Psychiatry vol 35 no 5 pp571ndash577 1978

[122] S Telles and T Desiraju ldquoAutonomic changes in Brahmaku-maris Raja yoga meditationrdquo International Journal of Psy-chophysiology vol 15 no 2 pp 147ndash152 1993

[123] L MMVirtual Design Imagery Testing Battery [Computer Soft-ware] Newark NJ USA 2004

[124] H Benson M S Malhotra R F Goldman G D Jacobsand P J Hopkins ldquoThree case reports of the metabolic andelectroencephalographic changes during advanced buddhistmeditation techniquesrdquo Behavioral Medicine vol 16 no 2 pp90ndash95 1990

[125] H Benson J W Lehmann M S Malhotra R F Goldman JHopkins andMD Epstein ldquoBody temperature changes duringthe practice of g Tum-mo yogardquo Nature vol 295 no 5846 pp234ndash236 1982

[126] Y-Y Tang Q Lu M Fan Y Yang and M I PosnerldquoMechanisms of white matter changes induced by meditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 109 no 26 pp 10570ndash10574 2012

[127] P Raghuraj and S Telles ldquoImmediate effect of specific nostrilmanipulating yoga breathing practices on autonomic and respi-ratory variablesrdquo Applied Psychophysiology Biofeedback vol 33no 2 pp 65ndash75 2008

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Anatomy Research International

PeptidesInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Molecular Biology International

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioinformaticsAdvances in

Marine BiologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Signal TransductionJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Biochemistry Research International

ArchaeaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Genetics Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Advances in

Virolog y

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Nucleic AcidsJournal of

Volume 2014

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Enzyme Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Page 7: Review Article The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2015/731579.pdf · 2019-07-31 · Review Article The Influence of Buddhist

BioMed Research International 7

alertnessThe authors interpreted their results to indicate thatmeditation training can ldquodecrease resource demands and thusimprove vigilance (tonic alertness)rdquo [120]

Hence the findings of studies that investigated tonicalertness through behavioural measures complement neu-roimaging studies and together they demonstrate that certainTheravada and Mahayana types of meditation can increasethe activity in neural areas related to tonic alertness whichin turn leads to improvements on tasks that require tonicalertness The recent findings of tonic alertness during Ther-avada and Mahayana meditation are important because theycomplement the picture portrayed by Buddhist scriptureswhich describe meditation as a practice that generates botha relaxed and an alert state of mind [23 26] Moreoverour review is consistent with previous findings and reviewsthat consistently demonstrated a relaxation response duringTheravada and Mahayana types of meditation [10ndash13]

5 Arousal and Phasic Alertness inVajrayana Practices

As opposed to Theravada meditative practices Vajrayanapractice does not cultivate relaxation but an arousal responseVajrayana Buddhist scriptures emphasize the realization ofldquoself-existing wakefulnessrdquo or ldquoan awake qualityrdquo of the mindand warn against excessive tranquility [84] in contrast toTheravada scriptures that emphasize quiescence and tran-quility [67 pages 1287-1288 (IV410)] as well as Mahayanameditation instructions that also emphasize calmness (eg[26] page 57) Furthermore empirical evidence also suggeststhat arousal is generated during specific meditative practicesFor instance the generation of arousal during meditation hasbeen observed in Hindu Tantric practices (eg [121 122]) aswell as in several Vajrayana practices (eg [27 28]) althoughoverall there have been far fewer studies on Vajrayana andHindu Tantric practices than onTheravada and Mahayana

Based on Theravada Buddhist scriptures that empha-size calmness and relaxation and Vajrayana scripturesthat emphasize ldquowakefulnessrdquo Amihai and Kozhevnikov[27] hypothesized that Deity and Rig-pa practices of theVajrayana tradition would generate cognitive and physiologi-cal responses of arousal while Vipassana and Shamatha prac-tices of the Theravada tradition would generate a relaxationresponse In order to investigate the autonomic activationthat is generated during these types of practices Amihai andKozhevnikov [27] compared the EKG activity of experiencedTheravada and Vajrayana meditators (with 8 and 74 years ofmeditation experience resp) as they practiced meditationThe Theravada types of meditation that were investigatedwere Vipassana meditation and Kasina meditation which isa visualization type of Shamatha meditation in which themeditator focuses his or her attention on ldquoKasina objectsrdquothat are described in the Pali Tipitaka and are typicallycolored disks The Vajrayana practices studied were Deityand Rig-pa practices In this study the participants per-formed a 10-minute rest condition that was followed byShamatha and Vipassana meditation (15 minutes each) forthe Theravada meditators and Deity and Rig-pa meditation(15 minutes each) for the Vajrayana meditators Moreover

the participantsrsquo EKG activity was monitored throughout theexperiment Amihai andKozhevnikov [27] showed thatTher-avada types of meditation elicited increased HF (Vipassana)and decreased LFHF (both Vipassana and Kasina) relativeto the rest control condition which is consistent with arelaxation response On the other hand Vajrayana practicesproduced increased arousal as indexed by decreased HF(both Deity and Rig-pa) during the meditation relative tothe control condition Moreover Kozhevnikov et al [29]and Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] presented experiencedTheravada (an average of 8ndash123 years of experience) andVajrayana meditators (an average of 74ndash13 years of experi-ence) with 2 visual tests (the Mental Rotation Test (MRT)and Visual Memory Test (VMT [123]) see [29] for details)which were performed before and immediately following a20-minute session of Theravada meditation (Vipassana andKasina Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27]) or Vajrayana prac-tices (Deity Kozhevnikov et al [29] and Rig-pa Amihai andKozhevnikov [27]) As mentioned the dramatic improve-ments on visual tasks immediately following a stimulus oractivity are indicative of enhanced phasic alertness Hencethe authors hypothesized that improved performance onthe visual tests immediately after the meditation practicewould indicate that phasic alertness occurred during themeditation and that such an improvement would be observedfollowingVajrayana practices In linewith this hypothesis theexperimental results showed that onlyVajrayana practices ledto a large and immediate increase in performance on thesetasks while Theravada meditators did not demonstrate anyimprovement in their performance following the practiceHence these studies demonstrate that Vajrayana practicesand not Theravada types of meditation lead to an arousalresponse and phasic alertness

Additional studies that demonstrated that Vajrayanapractices can increase the activity of the sympathetic sys-tem and generate an arousal response were conducted onpractitioners of g-Tummo meditation which as mentionedis associated with intense sensations of bodily heat in thespine Interestingly Benson himself reported a phenomenonthat was unclear to him at the time that two of the three g-Tummo practitioners that participated in his study exhibitedan activation of the sympathetic system as evidenced byincreased metabolism and oxygen consumption [124] whichis consistent with arousal and not a relaxation responseMoreover in Kozhevnikov et al [28] it was demonstratedexperimentally that g-Tummo meditation can indeed raisethe temperature of the body which indicates a sympa-thetic response Nonshivering generation of body heatmdashthermogenesismdashis mediated by the sympathetic nervoussystem [55 56] In humans thermogenesis is caused mainlyby brown adipose tissue which shunts the energy obtainedfrom the oxidation of free fatty acids into heat whichis then distributed throughout the body via the adiposetissue vasculature [56] Importantly brown adipose tissueactivity in humans is stimulated by the sympathetic ner-vous system [55] Specifically an increased discharge fromsupraspinal sympathetic premotor pathways results in thesympathetic activation of brown adipose tissue which leadsto thermogenesis [56] By attaching a small thermometer in

8 BioMed Research International

the armpit of highly experienced g-Tummo meditators (6ndash32 years of experience) Kozhevnikov et al [28] were able todemonstrate for the first time that g-Tummo meditators canincrease not only their peripheral but more importantly corebody temperature during the meditation demonstrating thatthe activity of the sympathetic nervous system significantlyincreases as a consequence of this practice Notably the ther-mogenesis induced during g-Tummo was so substantial thatit raised the body temperature of the meditators above thenormal body temperature range and into the range of slightor moderate fever (up to 383∘C) reflecting an enhancedarousal response due to sympathetic activation It shouldbe noted that increases in the peripheral body (meditatorsrsquofingers and toes) temperature during g-Tummo were alsofound in Benson et al [125] however the authors did notattribute such changes to increased sympathetic activationIn contrast Benson et al [125] speculated that increasedsympathetic activation during meditation is ldquounlikelyrdquo as itwould be inconsistent with the parasympathetic activationthat they observed inTheravada and TM types of meditation

In addition to Vajrayana practices several studies con-ducted on Hindu Tantric meditators demonstrated increasedarousal In an early but influential and often cited studyCorby et al [121] recorded the GSR and heart rate duringa Dharana type of meditation called Ananda Marga whichincorporates a focus on breathing while repeating a two-syllable word and ignoring external stimuli They recruited30 experienced Ananda Marga meditators (an average of 21years and 31 hours of practice a day) as well as 10 subjectswithout meditation experience that served as controls TheGSR and heart rates were recorded during 3 experimentalconditions (1) a relaxation control (2) an Ananda Margameditation preparation condition which involves payingattention to the breath while ignoring external stimuli (3)Ananda Marga meditation where the subjects were toldto ignore external stimuli pay attention to their breathingand silently repeat a two-syllable word in phase with theirbreathing In the control group the participants chose theirown word while meditators used a personal mantra thatthey received from their meditation instructor The resultsof Corby et al [121] demonstrated that a state of arousaloccurred during AnandaMarga meditation (1) skin conduc-tance (GSR) increased from the relaxation baseline to themeditation condition but only for themeditators group (2) asmall heart rate increase was observed during the meditationcondition relative to the baseline for the meditators groupBoth of these measures indicated that sympathetic activationoccurred during the meditation demonstrating an arousalresponse

Additionally Telles and Desiraju [122] measured heartrate and GSR during a different type of meditation whichrequires concentration on a light source while contemplatinga universal force They recruited 18 experienced meditators(with an average of 101 years of experience) and compared thephysiological measures obtained during meditation to thoseobtained by the same subjects during a control conditionwhich was similar to the meditation condition but whererandom thinking was allowed and effortful concentrationwas not required The findings of Telles and Desiraju [122]

demonstrated that although therewere no significant changesin GSR an increase in heart rate occurred during the medita-tion condition but not during the nonmeditation conditionrelative to the baseline heart rate obtained prior to eachcondition Hence the findings of this study are indicativeof increased sympathetic activation and an arousal responseduring this type of meditation

To conclude this section as opposed to Theravada andMahayana types of meditation that demonstrate enhancedrelaxation investigations of Vajrayana and certain HinduTantric practices demonstrated increased arousal This onceagain emphasizes the importance of philosophical and cul-tural influences on meditation and demonstrates that theterm ldquomeditationrdquo is in many ways too general when used asa unified descriptor of all Buddhist and Hindu contemplativepractices These findings show that the supposition that ldquotounderstand the psychophysiological influences ofmeditationit should first be conceptually denuded of its cultural andreligious biases [9 page 2]rdquo is highly misleading The dia-metrically opposed findings of relaxation in Theravada andMahayana practices and arousal in Vajrayana and HinduTantric practices point to the opposite conclusion Namelyin order to understand the psychophysiological aspects ofmeditation one needs to carefully examine its cultural andreligious sources

6 Conclusions and Future Directions

The aim of this review was to examine the scientific studiesof meditation while focusing on the unique influences thatdifferent types of meditative traditions have on the activa-tion of the autonomic system and attentional mechanismsWe have presented evidence summarized in Table 1 whichshows that Theravada and Mahayana types of meditationlead to increased parasympathetic activation that underliesa relaxation response while Vajrayana and certain HinduTantric practices elicit enhanced sympathetic activation thatunderlies a robust arousal response In addition we out-lined the cultural and philosophical motivations that haveinfluenced these meditative practices While Theravada andMahayana scriptures emphasize that the purpose of medi-tation is to cultivate tranquility along with mental stabilityVajrayana scriptures describe practices whose purpose is toelicit states of enhanced arousal

It is important to stress that the influences of Vajrayanaand Hindu Tantric practices on physiology and behaviorare only beginning to receive their due attention from thescientific community and the long-term impact of Tantricpractices is still not well understood Hence while it has beendemonstrated that Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric practicescan lead to immediate physiological changes that are coupledwith improved cognitive performance future studies shouldinvestigate the long-term cognitive and physiological changesthat occur as a consequence of such practices As previouslymentioned in contrast to Vajrayana and Hindu Tantricpractices many scientific studies have been conducted onTheravada or Mahayana types of meditation and there isevidence that they can lead to long-term improvements onattentional tasks (eg [25 120 126]) It is thus prudent that

BioMed Research International 9

Table 1 Summary of meditation studies of autonomic activation and alerting attention

Study Meditation type Findings

Tang et al [92] Mindfulness (IBMT) Increased HF anddecreased GSR

Ditto et al [93] Mindfulness Increased RSA

Jain et al [96] Mindfulness Increased perceived positive emotions and decreasedperceived distress

Mackenzie et al [97] Mindfulness Increased perceived well-being life satisfaction andrelaxation

Wu and Lo [86] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHFTakahashi et al [87] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Manna et al [105] ShamathaIncreased fMRI BOLD signal in the dorsal anteriorcingulate cortex (dACC) dorsolateral prefrontal cortex(DLPFC) and anterior insula in meditation experts

Manna et al [105] Vipassana Increased dACC activation in meditation novicesAllen et al [106] Mindfulness Increased DLPFC and dACC activationJha et al [119] Shamatha Increased alerting network efficiencyMacLean et al [120] Shamatha Improvement in a sustained attention taskAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Shamatha (Kasina visualization) Decreased LFHFAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Vipassana Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Rig-pa (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HF and increased performance in mentalrotation (MRT) and visual memory (VMT)

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HFKozhevnikov et al [29] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased MRT and VMT performanceKozhevnikov et al [28] g-Tummo (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased thermogenesisCorby et al [121] Ananda Marga (Dharana) Increased GSR and heart rateTelles and Desiraju [122] Hindu Tantric meditation Increased heart rate

similar long-term studies would be conducted on Tantricpractices

Related to the above another important research direc-tion that has yet to be explored is the long-term influenceof Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric meditation on stress andwell-being As mentioned the finding that Theravada typesof meditation produce relaxation has resulted in their incor-poration into clinical practices as stress reduction techniques(eg [10 21 95 96]) Conversely the finding that Vajrayanaand Hindu Tantric types of meditation produce arousalsuggests that they could be more problematic for people whoare under a high level of stress However it is also likely thatas they gain additional meditation experience Vajrayana andHindu Tantric meditators develop unique strategies to helpthem cope with stressful situations that could arise duringtheir meditation practice for instance by transforming theirnegative emotions into the positive emotional states of thevisualized Deity Such possibilities should be examined infuture studies

In addition future studies should investigate the specificmechanisms that underlie ANS changes during meditationin order to understand the precise factors that mediate thearousal and relaxation responses One possible mediatingfactor could be respiration changes In this context previousstudies on Hindu breathing exercises called Pranayamawhich often serve as preparatory exercises for meditation

[79 page 310] showed that specific breathing techniques canbe used to activate the sympathetic or the parasympatheticnervous systems (eg [127]) A second factor that shouldbe considered is the specific visualization or other contentthat is used for meditation For instance it is plausible thata visualized Tibetan Deity would lead to a high degree ofarousal due to the emotional content that it holds in theeyes of a Tibetan meditator while the inward and outwardflow of the breath that is being attended to during Shamathameditation would not evoke intense emotional reactions

In conclusion although the scientific examination ofthe nature of meditative practices is not new it is onlyin recent years that cognitive scientists and neuroscientistshave begun to investigate the influences of the specificcultural and philosophical contexts out of which meditationpractices developed on the psychophysiological outcomes ofthe practices Such investigations have led to experimentalbreakthroughs that corroborate ideas laid down in Buddhistscriptures about the purpose and effects of meditationSpecifically the scriptural descriptions of heightened arousalduring Vajrayana practices and a relaxed and alert state ofmind during Theravada and Mahayana types of meditationreceived empirical support as research from the past severalyears demonstrated that Vajrayana as well as certain HinduTantric practices lead to heightened arousal and phasicalertness whileTheravada andMahayana types ofmeditation

10 BioMed Research International

elicit a relaxation response coupled with enhanced tonicalertness

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

References

[1] B Bodhi ldquoWhat does mindfulness really mean A canonicalperspectiverdquo Contemporary Buddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 19ndash392011

[2] R Gethin ldquoOn some definitions ofmindfulnessrdquoContemporaryBuddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 263ndash279 2011

[3] P Grossman and N T Van Dam ldquoMindfulness by any othername trials and tribulations of sati in western psychologyand sciencerdquo Contemporary Buddhism An InterdisciplinaryJournal vol 12 no 1 pp 219ndash239 2011

[4] Z Josipovic ldquoDuality and nonduality in meditation researchrdquoConsciousness and Cognition vol 19 no 4 pp 1119ndash1121 2010

[5] H Benson and W Proctor Relaxation Revolution The Scienceand Genetics of Mind Body Healing Scribner New York NYUSA 2011

[6] H Benson B A Rosner B R Marzetta and H P KlemchukldquoDecreased blood pressure in borderline hypertensive subjectswho practiced meditationrdquo Journal of Chronic Diseases vol 27no 3 pp 163ndash169 1974

[7] R K Wallace and H Benson ldquoThe physiology of meditationrdquoScientific American vol 226 no 2 pp 84ndash90 1972

[8] I Kutz J Leserman C Dorrington C H Morrison J ZBorysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation as an adjunct topsychotherapy An outcome studyrdquo Psychotherapy and Psycho-somatics vol 43 no 4 pp 209ndash218 1985

[9] I Kutz J Z Borysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation andpsychotherapy a rationale for the integration of dynamicpsychotherapy the relaxation response and mindfulness med-itationrdquo The American Journal of Psychiatry vol 142 no 1 pp1ndash8 1985

[10] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoMindfulness-based stress reduc-tion for stress management in healthy people a review andmeta-analysisrdquo The Journal of Alternative and ComplementaryMedicine vol 15 no 5 pp 593ndash600 2009

[11] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoA systematic review of neuro-biological and clinical features of mindfulness meditationsrdquoPsychological Medicine vol 40 no 8 pp 1239ndash1252 2010

[12] F Zeidan K T Martucci R Kraft J G McHaffie and R CCoghill ldquo Neural correlates of mindfulness meditation-relatedanxiety reliefrdquo Scandinavica vol 9 pp 751ndash759 2014

[13] B Ivanovski and G S Malhi ldquoThe psychological and neuro-physiological concomitants of mindfulness forms of medita-tionrdquo Acta Neuropsychiatrica vol 19 no 2 pp 76ndash91 2007

[14] J D-E Young and E Taylor ldquoMeditation as a voluntaryhypometabolic state of biological estivationrdquoNews in Physiolog-ical Sciences vol 13 no 3 pp 149ndash153 1998

[15] R Jevning R K Wallace and M Beidebach ldquoThe physiologyof meditation a review A wakeful hypometabolic integratedresponserdquo Neuroscience amp Biobehavioral Reviews vol 16 no 3pp 415ndash424 1992

[16] S E Petersen and M I Posner ldquoThe attention system of thehumanbrain 20 years afterrdquoAnnual Review ofNeuroscience vol35 pp 73ndash89 2012

[17] L K McCorry ldquoPhysiology of the autonomic nervous systemrdquoAmerican Journal of Pharmaceutical Education vol 71 no 4article 78 2007

[18] D R Morse J S Martin M L Furst and L L Dubin ldquoAphysiological and subjective evaluation ofmeditation hypnosisand relaxationrdquo Psychosomatic Medicine vol 39 no 5 pp 304ndash324 1977

[19] A Lutz ldquoMeditation and the neuroscience of consciousness anintroductionrdquo inThe Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness PD Zelazo M Moscovitch and EThompson Eds pp 499ndash551Cambridge University Press New York NY USA 2007

[20] Tipitaka The Pali Canon Legacy Edition 2005 httpwwwaccesstoinsightorgtipitaka

[21] P Grossman L Niemann S Schmidt and H Walach ldquoMind-fulness-based stress reduction and health benefits a meta-analysisrdquo Journal of Psychosomatic Research vol 57 no 1 pp35ndash43 2004

[22] R Gilpin ldquoThe use of Theravada Buddhist practices andperspectives in mindfulness-based cognitive therapyrdquo Contem-porary Buddhism vol 9 no 2 pp 227ndash251 2008

[23] B H GunaratanaMindfulness in Plain English Wisdom Publi-cations Somerville Mass USA 2002

[24] B R Cahn and J Polich ldquoMeditation states and traits EEG ERPand neuroimaging studiesrdquoPsychological Bulletin vol 132 no 2pp 180ndash211 2006

[25] W B Britton J R Lindahl B R Cahn J H Davis and R EGoldman ldquoAwakening is not ametaphor the effects of Buddhistmeditation practices on basic wakefulnessrdquo Annals of the NewYork Academy of Sciences vol 1307 no 1 pp 64ndash81 2014

[26] J D Buksbazen Zen Meditation in Plain English WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1st edition 2002

[27] I Amihai and M Kozhevnikov ldquoArousal vs relaxation acomparison of the neurophysiological and cognitive correlatesof Vajrayana and Theravada meditative practicesrdquo PLoS ONEvol 9 no 7 Article ID e102990 2014

[28] M Kozhevnikov J Elliott J Shephard and K Gramann ldquoNeu-rocognitive and somatic components of temperature increasesduring g-Tummo meditation legend and realityrdquo PLoS ONEvol 8 no 3 Article ID e58244 2013

[29] M Kozhevnikov O Louchakova Z Josipovic and M AMotes ldquoThe enhancement of visuospatial processing efficiencythrough buddhist deity meditationrdquo Psychological Science vol20 no 5 pp 645ndash653 2009

[30] A J CammMMalik J T Bigger G Breithardt S Cerutti andR J Cohen ldquoHeart rate variabilitymdashstandards of measurementphysiological interpretation and clinical userdquo Circulation vol93 no 5 pp 1043ndash1065 1996

[31] G F Chess R M K Tam and F R Calaresu ldquoInfluence ofcardiac neural inputs on rhythmic variations of heart period inthe catrdquoAmerican Journal of Physiology vol 228 no 3 pp 775ndash780 1975

[32] M N Levy ldquoSympathetic-parasympathetic interactions in theheartrdquo Circulation Research vol 29 no 5 pp 437ndash445 1971

[33] N Weinbach and A Henik ldquoPhasic alertness can modulateexecutive control by enhancing global processing of visualstimulirdquo Cognition vol 121 no 3 pp 454ndash458 2011

BioMed Research International 11

[34] W Sturm A de Simone B J Krause et al ldquoFunctional anatomyof intrinsic alertness evidence for a fronto-parietal-thalamic-brainstem network in the right hemisphererdquo Neuropsychologiavol 37 no 7 pp 797ndash805 1999

[35] P Low ldquoAutonomic nervous systemrdquo in The Merck ManualR S Porter and J L Kaplan Eds Merck Sharp amp DohmeWhitehouse Station NJ USA 2013

[36] G E Billman ldquoThe LFHF ratio does not accurately measurecardiac sympatho-vagal balancerdquo Frontiers in Physiology vol 4article 26 2013

[37] G G Berntson J T Bigger Jr D L Eckberg et al ldquoHeartrate variability origins methods and interpretive caveatsrdquoPsychophysiology vol 34 no 6 pp 623ndash648 1997

[38] K Molgaard K Hermansen and P Bjerregaard ldquoSpectralcomponents of short-term RR interval variability in healthysubjects and effects of risk factorsrdquo European Heart Journal vol15 no 9 pp 1174ndash1183 1994

[39] J T Bigger Jr J L Fleiss L M Rolnitzky and R C SteinmanldquoStability over time of heart period variability in patients withprevious myocardial infarction and ventricular arrhythmiasrdquoAmerican Journal of Cardiology vol 69 no 8 pp 718ndash723 1992

[40] K M Stein J S Borer C Hochreiter et al ldquoPrognostic valueand physiological correlates of heart rate variability in chronicsevere mitral regurgitationrdquo Circulation vol 88 no 1 pp 127ndash135 1993

[41] A Malliani M Pagani F Lombardi and S Cerutti ldquoCardio-vascular neural regulation explored in the frequency domainrdquoCirculation vol 84 no 2 pp 482ndash492 1991

[42] M V Kamath and E L Fallen ldquoPower spectral analysis of heartrate variability a noninvasive signature of cardiac autonomicfunctionrdquoCritical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering vol 21 no3 pp 245ndash311 1993

[43] O Rimoldi S Pierini A Ferrari S Cerutti M Pagani andA Malliani ldquoAnalysis of short-term oscillations of R-R andarterial pressure in conscious dogsrdquo The American Journal ofPhysiologymdashHeart and Circulatory Physiology vol 258 no 4pp H967ndashH976 1990

[44] N Montano T G Ruscone A Porta F Lombardi M Paganiand A Malliani ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart rate vari-ability to assess the changes in sympathovagal balance duringgraded orthostatic tiltrdquoCirculation vol 90 no 4 pp 1826ndash18311994

[45] S Akselrod D Gordon F A Ubel D C Shannon A CBerger and R J Cohen ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart ratefluctuation a quantitative probe of beat-to-beat cardiovascularcontrolrdquo Science vol 213 no 4504 pp 220ndash222 1981

[46] M L Appel R D Berger J P Saul J M Smith and R J CohenldquoBeat to beat variability in cardiovascular variables noise ormusicrdquo Journal of the American College of Cardiology vol 14no 5 pp 1139ndash1148 1989

[47] B Pomeranz R J Macaulay M A Caudill et al ldquoAssessment ofautonomic function in humans by heart rate spectral analysisrdquoThe American Journal of Physiology vol 248 no 1 pp H151ndashH153 1985

[48] F Morady W H Kou S D Nelson et al ldquoAccentuated antago-nism between beta-adrenergic and vagal effects on ventricularrefractoriness in humansrdquo Circulation vol 77 no 2 pp 289ndash297 1988

[49] D L Eckberg S KMohanty andM Raczkowska ldquoTrigeminal-baroreceptor reflex interactions modulate human cardiac vagalefferent activityrdquo Journal of Physiology vol 347 pp 75ndash83 1984

[50] F Yasuma and J-I Hayano ldquoRespiratory Sinus Arrhythmiawhy does the heartbeat synchronize with respiration rhythmrdquoChest vol 125 no 2 pp 683ndash690 2004

[51] P G Katona and F Jih ldquoRespiratory sinus arrhythmia nonin-vasive measure of parasympathetic cardiac controlrdquo Journal ofApplied Physiology vol 39 no 5 pp 801ndash805 1975

[52] F L Gobel L A Norstrom R R Nelson C R Jorgensen andY Wang ldquoThe rate-pressure product as an index of myocardialoxygen consumption during exercise in patients with anginapectorisrdquo Circulation vol 57 no 3 pp 549ndash556 1978

[53] H M Martini and E F Bartholomew Essentials of Anatomyand Physiology Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ USA 2ndedition 2001

[54] J A Gutrecht ldquoSympathetic skin responserdquo Journal of ClinicalNeurophysiology vol 11 no 5 pp 519ndash524 1994

[55] J Nedergaard T Bengtsson and B Cannon ldquoUnexpectedevidence for active brown adipose tissue in adult humansrdquoThe American Journal of PhysiologymdashEndocrinology andMetabolism vol 293 no 2 pp E444ndashE452 2007

[56] S F Morrison and W W Blessing ldquoCentral nervous systemregulation of body temperaturerdquo in Central Regulation of Auto-nomic Functions I J Llewellyn-Smith and A J M VerberneEds pp 1ndash34 Oxford Scholarship Online 2011

[57] L R Derogatis and N Melisaratos ldquoThe brief symptom inven-tory an introductory reportrdquo PsychologicalMedicine vol 13 no3 pp 595ndash605 1983

[58] M Horowitz N Adler and S Kegeles ldquoA scale for measuringthe occurrence of positive states of mind a preliminary reportrdquoPsychosomatic Medicine vol 50 no 5 pp 477ndash483 1988

[59] T W Robbins ldquoArousal systems and attentional processesrdquoBiological Psychology vol 45 no 1ndash3 pp 57ndash71 1997

[60] T W Robbins ldquoChemistry of the mind neurochemical mod-ulation of prefrontal cortical functionrdquo Journal of ComparativeNeurology vol 493 no 1 pp 140ndash146 2005

[61] R P Hasegawa A M Blitz N L Geller and M E GoldbergldquoNeurons inmonkey prefrontal cortex that track past or predictfuture performancerdquo Science vol 290 no 5497 pp 1786ndash17892000

[62] M I Posner ldquoMeasuring alertnessrdquo Annals of the New YorkAcademy of Sciences vol 1129 pp 193ndash199 2008

[63] W Sturm and K Willmes ldquoOn the functional neuroanatomyof intrinsic and phasic alertnessrdquo NeuroImage vol 14 no 1 ppS76ndashS84 2001

[64] S Sadaghiani R Scheeringa K Lehongre B Morillon A LGiraud and A Kleinschmidt ldquoIntrinsic connectivity networksalpha oscillations and tonic alertness a simultaneous elec-troencephalographyfunctional magnetic resonance imagingstudyrdquo The Journal of Neuroscience vol 30 no 30 pp 10243ndash10250 2010

[65] B Buddhaghosa Visuddhimagga The Path of Purificationtranslated byBNanamoli Buddhist Publication Society KandySri Lanka 4th edition 2010

[66] AWallaceTheAttention Revolution Unlocking the Power of theFocused Mind Wisdom Publications Somerville Mass USA2006

[67] B Bhikkhu The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha A Trans-lation of the Anguttara Nikaya Wisdom Publications BostonMass USA 2012

[68] S ZhiyiThe Essentials of Buddhist Meditation B Dharmamiratranslation Kalavinka Press Seattle Wash USA 2009

12 BioMed Research International

[69] G SamuelTheOrigins of Yoga and Tantra Indic Religions to theThirteenth Century vol 2013 Cambridge University Press NewDelhi India 2008

[70] K A Harper and R L Brown Eds The Roots of Tantra StateUniversity of New York Press New York NY USA 2002

[71] N Panchen and P W Gyalpo Perfect Conduct Ascertaining theThree Vows Wisdom Boston Mass USA 1999

[72] S RinpocheDzogchen and Padmasambhava Rigpa FellowshipSan Diego Calif USA 2nd edition 1990

[73] T Wangyal Wonders of the Natural Mind The Essence ofDzogchen in the Native Bon Tradition Snow Lion Ithaca NYUSA 1993

[74] D Goleman The Meditative Mind The Varieties of MeditativeExperience GP Putnamrsquos Sons New York NY USA 1996

[75] Tsong-Kha-Pa and G C MullinThe Six Yogas of Naropa SnowLion Publications Boston Mass USA 2005

[76] WY Evans-WentzTibetanYoga and Secret Doctorines PilgrimsPublishing Varanisa India 2002

[77] G H Mullin Readings on Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1997

[78] G H Mullin Tsongkhaparsquos Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1996

[79] I K TaimniThe Science of Yoga The Theosophical PublishingHouse Wheaton Ill USA 1961

[80] S Kripalvanand The Science of Meditation Sri DahyabhaiHirabhai Patel Bombay India 1977

[81] G FeuersteinThePhilosophy of Classical Yoga InnerTraditionsRochester NY USA 1996

[82] J D Nash and A Newberg ldquoToward a unifying taxonomy anddefinition for meditationrdquo Frontiers in Psychology vol 4 article806 2013

[83] M WalsheThe Long Discourses of the Buddha A Translation ofthe Digha Nikaya (Teachings of the Buddha) Wisdom Publica-tions Boston Mass USA 1995

[84] T U Rinpoche As It Is vol 2 Ranjung Yeshe PublicationsHong Kong 1999

[85] H Benson The Relaxation Response HyperCollins New YorkNY USA 1975

[86] S D Wu and P C Lo ldquoInward-attention meditation increasesparasympathetic activity a study based onheart rate variabilityrdquoBiomedical Research vol 29 no 5 pp 245ndash250 2008

[87] T Takahashi T Murata T Hamada et al ldquoChanges in EEGand autonomic nervous activity during meditation and theirassociation with personality traitsrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 55 no 2 pp 199ndash207 2005

[88] J Kabat-Zinn ldquoAn outpatient program in behavioral medicinefor chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulnessmeditation theoretical considerations and preliminary resultsrdquoGeneral Hospital Psychiatry vol 4 no 1 pp 33ndash47 1982

[89] B Nanamoli and B Bhikkhu ldquoSekha-patipada Sutta (thepractice for one in training)rdquo in The Middle Length Discoursesof the Buddha A New Translation of the Majjhima WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1995

[90] T Gyatso Stages of Meditation Snow Lion Publication IthacaNY USA 2001

[91] J A Brefczynski-Lewis A Lutz H S Schaefer D B Levinsonand R J Davidson ldquoNeural correlates of attentional expertise inlong-termmeditation practitionersrdquo Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences of the United States of America vol 104 no27 pp 11483ndash11488 2007

[92] Y-Y Tang Y Ma Y Fan et al ldquoCentral and autonomicnervous system interaction is altered by short-termmeditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 106 no 22 pp 8865ndash8870 2009

[93] B Ditto M Eclache and N Goldman ldquoShort-term autonomicand cardiovascular effects of mindfulness body scan medita-tionrdquo Annals of Behavioral Medicine vol 32 no 3 pp 227ndash2342006

[94] J R Krygier J A J Heathers S Shahrestani M Abbott J JGross and A H Kemp ldquoMindfulness meditation well-beingand heart rate variability a preliminary investigation into theimpact of intensive vipassanameditationrdquo International Journalof Psychophysiology vol 89 no 3 pp 305ndash313 2013

[95] J D Agee S Danoff-Burg and C A Grant ldquoComparingbrief stress management courses in a community samplemindfulness skills and progressive muscle relaxationrdquo Explorevol 5 no 2 pp 104ndash109 2009

[96] S Jain S L Shapiro S Swanick et al ldquoA randomized controlledtrial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation trainingeffects on distress positive states of mind rumination anddistractionrdquoAnnals of Behavioral Medicine vol 33 no 1 pp 11ndash21 2007

[97] C S Mackenzie P A Poulin and R Seidman-Carlson ldquoA briefmindfulness-based stress reduction intervention for nurses andnurse aidesrdquoAppliedNursing Research vol 19 no 2 pp 105ndash1092006

[98] O Singleton B K Holzel M Vangel N Brach J Carmody andS W Lazar ldquoChange in brainstem gray matter concentrationfollowing a mindfulness-based intervention is correlated withimprovement in psychological well-beingrdquo Frontiers in HumanNeuroscience vol 8 article 33 2014

[99] P Ekman R J Davidson M Ricard and B A WallaceldquoBuddhist and psychological perspectives on emotions andwell-beingrdquo Current Directions in Psychological Science vol 14no 2 pp 59ndash63 2005

[100] P Ekman and R J Davidson The Nature of Emotion Funda-mental Questions Series in Affective Science OxfordUniversityPress New York NY USA 1994

[101] R A Baer ldquoMindfulness training as a clinical intervention aconceptual and empirical reviewrdquo Clinical Psychology Scienceand Practice vol 10 no 2 pp 125ndash143 2003

[102] C C Streeter P L Gerbarg R B Saper D A Ciraulo and RP Brown ldquoEffects of yoga on the autonomic nervous systemgamma-aminobutyric-acid and allostasis in epilepsy depres-sion and post-traumatic stress disorderrdquo Medical Hypothesesvol 78 no 5 pp 571ndash579 2012

[103] M Balasubramaniam S Telles and P M Doraiswamy ldquoYogaon our minds a systematic review of yoga for neuropsychiatricdisordersrdquo Frontiers in Psychiatry vol 3 article 117 2013

[104] S Telles and N Singh ldquoScience of the mind ancient yoga textsand modern studiesrdquo Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol36 no 1 pp 93ndash108 2013

[105] A Manna A Raffone M G Perrucci et al ldquoNeural correlatesof focused attention and cognitive monitoring in meditationrdquoBrain Research Bulletin vol 82 no 1-2 pp 46ndash56 2010

[106] M Allen M Dietz K S Blair et al ldquoCognitive-affectiveneural plasticity following active-controlled mindfulness inter-ventionrdquoThe Journal of Neuroscience vol 32 no 44 pp 15601ndash15610 2012

[107] T Gard B K Holzel A T Sack et al ldquoPain attenuation throughmindfulness is associated with decreased cognitive control and

BioMed Research International 13

increased sensory processing in the brainrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol22 no 11 pp 2692ndash2702 2012

[108] B K Holzel U Ott T Gard et al ldquoInvestigation of mindful-ness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometryrdquoSocial Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 3 no 1 pp 55ndash61 2008

[109] N A S Farb A K Anderson HMayberg J Bean DMcKeonand Z V Segal ldquoMinding onersquos emotions mindfulness trainingalters the neural expression of sadnessrdquo Emotion vol 10 no 1pp 25ndash33 2010

[110] G Pagnoni and M Cekic ldquoAge effects on gray matter volumeand attentional performance in Zen meditationrdquo Neurobiologyof Aging vol 28 no 10 pp 1623ndash1627 2007

[111] X Yu M Fumoto Y Nakatani et al ldquoActivation of theanterior prefrontal cortex and serotonergic system is associatedwith improvements in mood and EEG changes induced byZen meditation practice in novicesrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 80 no 2 pp 103ndash111 2011

[112] N A S Farb Z V Segal H Mayberg et al ldquoAttending to thepresent mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modesof self-referencerdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neurosciencevol 2 no 4 pp 313ndash322 2007

[113] A Berkovich-Ohana J Glicksohn and A GoldsteinldquoMindfulness-induced changes in gamma band activitymdashimplications for the default mode network self-reference andattentionrdquo Clinical Neurophysiology vol 123 no 4 pp 700ndash7102012

[114] J A Brewer P D Worhunsky J R Gray Y-Y Tang JWeber andH Kober ldquoMeditation experience is associated withdifferences in default mode network activity and connectivityrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 108 no 50 pp 20254ndash20259 2011

[115] D A Gusnard and M E Raichle ldquoSearching for a baselinefunctional imaging and the resting human brainrdquo NatureReviews Neuroscience vol 2 no 10 pp 685ndash694 2001

[116] M E Raichle A M MacLeod A Z Snyder W J Powers D AGusnard andG L Shulman ldquoAdefaultmode of brain functionrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 98 no 2 pp 676ndash682 2001

[117] M E Raichle and A Z Snyder ldquoA default mode of brainfunction a brief history of an evolving ideardquo NeuroImage vol37 no 4 pp 1083ndash1090 2007

[118] R L Buckner J R Andrews-Hanna and D L Schacter ldquoThebrainrsquos default network anatomy function and relevance todiseaserdquo Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences vol 1124pp 1ndash38 2008

[119] A P Jha J Krompinger and M J Baime ldquoMindfulnesstraining modifies subsystems of attentionrdquo Cognitive Affectiveand Behavioral Neuroscience vol 7 no 2 pp 109ndash119 2007

[120] K A MacLean E Ferrer S R Aichele et al ldquoIntensivemeditation training improves perceptual discrimination andsustained attentionrdquo Psychological Science vol 21 no 6 pp829ndash839 2010

[121] J C Corby W T Roth V P Zarcone Jr and B S KopellldquoPsychophysiological correlates of the practice of Tantric Yogameditationrdquo Archives of General Psychiatry vol 35 no 5 pp571ndash577 1978

[122] S Telles and T Desiraju ldquoAutonomic changes in Brahmaku-maris Raja yoga meditationrdquo International Journal of Psy-chophysiology vol 15 no 2 pp 147ndash152 1993

[123] L MMVirtual Design Imagery Testing Battery [Computer Soft-ware] Newark NJ USA 2004

[124] H Benson M S Malhotra R F Goldman G D Jacobsand P J Hopkins ldquoThree case reports of the metabolic andelectroencephalographic changes during advanced buddhistmeditation techniquesrdquo Behavioral Medicine vol 16 no 2 pp90ndash95 1990

[125] H Benson J W Lehmann M S Malhotra R F Goldman JHopkins andMD Epstein ldquoBody temperature changes duringthe practice of g Tum-mo yogardquo Nature vol 295 no 5846 pp234ndash236 1982

[126] Y-Y Tang Q Lu M Fan Y Yang and M I PosnerldquoMechanisms of white matter changes induced by meditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 109 no 26 pp 10570ndash10574 2012

[127] P Raghuraj and S Telles ldquoImmediate effect of specific nostrilmanipulating yoga breathing practices on autonomic and respi-ratory variablesrdquo Applied Psychophysiology Biofeedback vol 33no 2 pp 65ndash75 2008

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Anatomy Research International

PeptidesInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Molecular Biology International

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioinformaticsAdvances in

Marine BiologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Signal TransductionJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Biochemistry Research International

ArchaeaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Genetics Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Advances in

Virolog y

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Nucleic AcidsJournal of

Volume 2014

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Enzyme Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Page 8: Review Article The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2015/731579.pdf · 2019-07-31 · Review Article The Influence of Buddhist

8 BioMed Research International

the armpit of highly experienced g-Tummo meditators (6ndash32 years of experience) Kozhevnikov et al [28] were able todemonstrate for the first time that g-Tummo meditators canincrease not only their peripheral but more importantly corebody temperature during the meditation demonstrating thatthe activity of the sympathetic nervous system significantlyincreases as a consequence of this practice Notably the ther-mogenesis induced during g-Tummo was so substantial thatit raised the body temperature of the meditators above thenormal body temperature range and into the range of slightor moderate fever (up to 383∘C) reflecting an enhancedarousal response due to sympathetic activation It shouldbe noted that increases in the peripheral body (meditatorsrsquofingers and toes) temperature during g-Tummo were alsofound in Benson et al [125] however the authors did notattribute such changes to increased sympathetic activationIn contrast Benson et al [125] speculated that increasedsympathetic activation during meditation is ldquounlikelyrdquo as itwould be inconsistent with the parasympathetic activationthat they observed inTheravada and TM types of meditation

In addition to Vajrayana practices several studies con-ducted on Hindu Tantric meditators demonstrated increasedarousal In an early but influential and often cited studyCorby et al [121] recorded the GSR and heart rate duringa Dharana type of meditation called Ananda Marga whichincorporates a focus on breathing while repeating a two-syllable word and ignoring external stimuli They recruited30 experienced Ananda Marga meditators (an average of 21years and 31 hours of practice a day) as well as 10 subjectswithout meditation experience that served as controls TheGSR and heart rates were recorded during 3 experimentalconditions (1) a relaxation control (2) an Ananda Margameditation preparation condition which involves payingattention to the breath while ignoring external stimuli (3)Ananda Marga meditation where the subjects were toldto ignore external stimuli pay attention to their breathingand silently repeat a two-syllable word in phase with theirbreathing In the control group the participants chose theirown word while meditators used a personal mantra thatthey received from their meditation instructor The resultsof Corby et al [121] demonstrated that a state of arousaloccurred during AnandaMarga meditation (1) skin conduc-tance (GSR) increased from the relaxation baseline to themeditation condition but only for themeditators group (2) asmall heart rate increase was observed during the meditationcondition relative to the baseline for the meditators groupBoth of these measures indicated that sympathetic activationoccurred during the meditation demonstrating an arousalresponse

Additionally Telles and Desiraju [122] measured heartrate and GSR during a different type of meditation whichrequires concentration on a light source while contemplatinga universal force They recruited 18 experienced meditators(with an average of 101 years of experience) and compared thephysiological measures obtained during meditation to thoseobtained by the same subjects during a control conditionwhich was similar to the meditation condition but whererandom thinking was allowed and effortful concentrationwas not required The findings of Telles and Desiraju [122]

demonstrated that although therewere no significant changesin GSR an increase in heart rate occurred during the medita-tion condition but not during the nonmeditation conditionrelative to the baseline heart rate obtained prior to eachcondition Hence the findings of this study are indicativeof increased sympathetic activation and an arousal responseduring this type of meditation

To conclude this section as opposed to Theravada andMahayana types of meditation that demonstrate enhancedrelaxation investigations of Vajrayana and certain HinduTantric practices demonstrated increased arousal This onceagain emphasizes the importance of philosophical and cul-tural influences on meditation and demonstrates that theterm ldquomeditationrdquo is in many ways too general when used asa unified descriptor of all Buddhist and Hindu contemplativepractices These findings show that the supposition that ldquotounderstand the psychophysiological influences ofmeditationit should first be conceptually denuded of its cultural andreligious biases [9 page 2]rdquo is highly misleading The dia-metrically opposed findings of relaxation in Theravada andMahayana practices and arousal in Vajrayana and HinduTantric practices point to the opposite conclusion Namelyin order to understand the psychophysiological aspects ofmeditation one needs to carefully examine its cultural andreligious sources

6 Conclusions and Future Directions

The aim of this review was to examine the scientific studiesof meditation while focusing on the unique influences thatdifferent types of meditative traditions have on the activa-tion of the autonomic system and attentional mechanismsWe have presented evidence summarized in Table 1 whichshows that Theravada and Mahayana types of meditationlead to increased parasympathetic activation that underliesa relaxation response while Vajrayana and certain HinduTantric practices elicit enhanced sympathetic activation thatunderlies a robust arousal response In addition we out-lined the cultural and philosophical motivations that haveinfluenced these meditative practices While Theravada andMahayana scriptures emphasize that the purpose of medi-tation is to cultivate tranquility along with mental stabilityVajrayana scriptures describe practices whose purpose is toelicit states of enhanced arousal

It is important to stress that the influences of Vajrayanaand Hindu Tantric practices on physiology and behaviorare only beginning to receive their due attention from thescientific community and the long-term impact of Tantricpractices is still not well understood Hence while it has beendemonstrated that Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric practicescan lead to immediate physiological changes that are coupledwith improved cognitive performance future studies shouldinvestigate the long-term cognitive and physiological changesthat occur as a consequence of such practices As previouslymentioned in contrast to Vajrayana and Hindu Tantricpractices many scientific studies have been conducted onTheravada or Mahayana types of meditation and there isevidence that they can lead to long-term improvements onattentional tasks (eg [25 120 126]) It is thus prudent that

BioMed Research International 9

Table 1 Summary of meditation studies of autonomic activation and alerting attention

Study Meditation type Findings

Tang et al [92] Mindfulness (IBMT) Increased HF anddecreased GSR

Ditto et al [93] Mindfulness Increased RSA

Jain et al [96] Mindfulness Increased perceived positive emotions and decreasedperceived distress

Mackenzie et al [97] Mindfulness Increased perceived well-being life satisfaction andrelaxation

Wu and Lo [86] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHFTakahashi et al [87] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Manna et al [105] ShamathaIncreased fMRI BOLD signal in the dorsal anteriorcingulate cortex (dACC) dorsolateral prefrontal cortex(DLPFC) and anterior insula in meditation experts

Manna et al [105] Vipassana Increased dACC activation in meditation novicesAllen et al [106] Mindfulness Increased DLPFC and dACC activationJha et al [119] Shamatha Increased alerting network efficiencyMacLean et al [120] Shamatha Improvement in a sustained attention taskAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Shamatha (Kasina visualization) Decreased LFHFAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Vipassana Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Rig-pa (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HF and increased performance in mentalrotation (MRT) and visual memory (VMT)

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HFKozhevnikov et al [29] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased MRT and VMT performanceKozhevnikov et al [28] g-Tummo (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased thermogenesisCorby et al [121] Ananda Marga (Dharana) Increased GSR and heart rateTelles and Desiraju [122] Hindu Tantric meditation Increased heart rate

similar long-term studies would be conducted on Tantricpractices

Related to the above another important research direc-tion that has yet to be explored is the long-term influenceof Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric meditation on stress andwell-being As mentioned the finding that Theravada typesof meditation produce relaxation has resulted in their incor-poration into clinical practices as stress reduction techniques(eg [10 21 95 96]) Conversely the finding that Vajrayanaand Hindu Tantric types of meditation produce arousalsuggests that they could be more problematic for people whoare under a high level of stress However it is also likely thatas they gain additional meditation experience Vajrayana andHindu Tantric meditators develop unique strategies to helpthem cope with stressful situations that could arise duringtheir meditation practice for instance by transforming theirnegative emotions into the positive emotional states of thevisualized Deity Such possibilities should be examined infuture studies

In addition future studies should investigate the specificmechanisms that underlie ANS changes during meditationin order to understand the precise factors that mediate thearousal and relaxation responses One possible mediatingfactor could be respiration changes In this context previousstudies on Hindu breathing exercises called Pranayamawhich often serve as preparatory exercises for meditation

[79 page 310] showed that specific breathing techniques canbe used to activate the sympathetic or the parasympatheticnervous systems (eg [127]) A second factor that shouldbe considered is the specific visualization or other contentthat is used for meditation For instance it is plausible thata visualized Tibetan Deity would lead to a high degree ofarousal due to the emotional content that it holds in theeyes of a Tibetan meditator while the inward and outwardflow of the breath that is being attended to during Shamathameditation would not evoke intense emotional reactions

In conclusion although the scientific examination ofthe nature of meditative practices is not new it is onlyin recent years that cognitive scientists and neuroscientistshave begun to investigate the influences of the specificcultural and philosophical contexts out of which meditationpractices developed on the psychophysiological outcomes ofthe practices Such investigations have led to experimentalbreakthroughs that corroborate ideas laid down in Buddhistscriptures about the purpose and effects of meditationSpecifically the scriptural descriptions of heightened arousalduring Vajrayana practices and a relaxed and alert state ofmind during Theravada and Mahayana types of meditationreceived empirical support as research from the past severalyears demonstrated that Vajrayana as well as certain HinduTantric practices lead to heightened arousal and phasicalertness whileTheravada andMahayana types ofmeditation

10 BioMed Research International

elicit a relaxation response coupled with enhanced tonicalertness

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

References

[1] B Bodhi ldquoWhat does mindfulness really mean A canonicalperspectiverdquo Contemporary Buddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 19ndash392011

[2] R Gethin ldquoOn some definitions ofmindfulnessrdquoContemporaryBuddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 263ndash279 2011

[3] P Grossman and N T Van Dam ldquoMindfulness by any othername trials and tribulations of sati in western psychologyand sciencerdquo Contemporary Buddhism An InterdisciplinaryJournal vol 12 no 1 pp 219ndash239 2011

[4] Z Josipovic ldquoDuality and nonduality in meditation researchrdquoConsciousness and Cognition vol 19 no 4 pp 1119ndash1121 2010

[5] H Benson and W Proctor Relaxation Revolution The Scienceand Genetics of Mind Body Healing Scribner New York NYUSA 2011

[6] H Benson B A Rosner B R Marzetta and H P KlemchukldquoDecreased blood pressure in borderline hypertensive subjectswho practiced meditationrdquo Journal of Chronic Diseases vol 27no 3 pp 163ndash169 1974

[7] R K Wallace and H Benson ldquoThe physiology of meditationrdquoScientific American vol 226 no 2 pp 84ndash90 1972

[8] I Kutz J Leserman C Dorrington C H Morrison J ZBorysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation as an adjunct topsychotherapy An outcome studyrdquo Psychotherapy and Psycho-somatics vol 43 no 4 pp 209ndash218 1985

[9] I Kutz J Z Borysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation andpsychotherapy a rationale for the integration of dynamicpsychotherapy the relaxation response and mindfulness med-itationrdquo The American Journal of Psychiatry vol 142 no 1 pp1ndash8 1985

[10] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoMindfulness-based stress reduc-tion for stress management in healthy people a review andmeta-analysisrdquo The Journal of Alternative and ComplementaryMedicine vol 15 no 5 pp 593ndash600 2009

[11] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoA systematic review of neuro-biological and clinical features of mindfulness meditationsrdquoPsychological Medicine vol 40 no 8 pp 1239ndash1252 2010

[12] F Zeidan K T Martucci R Kraft J G McHaffie and R CCoghill ldquo Neural correlates of mindfulness meditation-relatedanxiety reliefrdquo Scandinavica vol 9 pp 751ndash759 2014

[13] B Ivanovski and G S Malhi ldquoThe psychological and neuro-physiological concomitants of mindfulness forms of medita-tionrdquo Acta Neuropsychiatrica vol 19 no 2 pp 76ndash91 2007

[14] J D-E Young and E Taylor ldquoMeditation as a voluntaryhypometabolic state of biological estivationrdquoNews in Physiolog-ical Sciences vol 13 no 3 pp 149ndash153 1998

[15] R Jevning R K Wallace and M Beidebach ldquoThe physiologyof meditation a review A wakeful hypometabolic integratedresponserdquo Neuroscience amp Biobehavioral Reviews vol 16 no 3pp 415ndash424 1992

[16] S E Petersen and M I Posner ldquoThe attention system of thehumanbrain 20 years afterrdquoAnnual Review ofNeuroscience vol35 pp 73ndash89 2012

[17] L K McCorry ldquoPhysiology of the autonomic nervous systemrdquoAmerican Journal of Pharmaceutical Education vol 71 no 4article 78 2007

[18] D R Morse J S Martin M L Furst and L L Dubin ldquoAphysiological and subjective evaluation ofmeditation hypnosisand relaxationrdquo Psychosomatic Medicine vol 39 no 5 pp 304ndash324 1977

[19] A Lutz ldquoMeditation and the neuroscience of consciousness anintroductionrdquo inThe Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness PD Zelazo M Moscovitch and EThompson Eds pp 499ndash551Cambridge University Press New York NY USA 2007

[20] Tipitaka The Pali Canon Legacy Edition 2005 httpwwwaccesstoinsightorgtipitaka

[21] P Grossman L Niemann S Schmidt and H Walach ldquoMind-fulness-based stress reduction and health benefits a meta-analysisrdquo Journal of Psychosomatic Research vol 57 no 1 pp35ndash43 2004

[22] R Gilpin ldquoThe use of Theravada Buddhist practices andperspectives in mindfulness-based cognitive therapyrdquo Contem-porary Buddhism vol 9 no 2 pp 227ndash251 2008

[23] B H GunaratanaMindfulness in Plain English Wisdom Publi-cations Somerville Mass USA 2002

[24] B R Cahn and J Polich ldquoMeditation states and traits EEG ERPand neuroimaging studiesrdquoPsychological Bulletin vol 132 no 2pp 180ndash211 2006

[25] W B Britton J R Lindahl B R Cahn J H Davis and R EGoldman ldquoAwakening is not ametaphor the effects of Buddhistmeditation practices on basic wakefulnessrdquo Annals of the NewYork Academy of Sciences vol 1307 no 1 pp 64ndash81 2014

[26] J D Buksbazen Zen Meditation in Plain English WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1st edition 2002

[27] I Amihai and M Kozhevnikov ldquoArousal vs relaxation acomparison of the neurophysiological and cognitive correlatesof Vajrayana and Theravada meditative practicesrdquo PLoS ONEvol 9 no 7 Article ID e102990 2014

[28] M Kozhevnikov J Elliott J Shephard and K Gramann ldquoNeu-rocognitive and somatic components of temperature increasesduring g-Tummo meditation legend and realityrdquo PLoS ONEvol 8 no 3 Article ID e58244 2013

[29] M Kozhevnikov O Louchakova Z Josipovic and M AMotes ldquoThe enhancement of visuospatial processing efficiencythrough buddhist deity meditationrdquo Psychological Science vol20 no 5 pp 645ndash653 2009

[30] A J CammMMalik J T Bigger G Breithardt S Cerutti andR J Cohen ldquoHeart rate variabilitymdashstandards of measurementphysiological interpretation and clinical userdquo Circulation vol93 no 5 pp 1043ndash1065 1996

[31] G F Chess R M K Tam and F R Calaresu ldquoInfluence ofcardiac neural inputs on rhythmic variations of heart period inthe catrdquoAmerican Journal of Physiology vol 228 no 3 pp 775ndash780 1975

[32] M N Levy ldquoSympathetic-parasympathetic interactions in theheartrdquo Circulation Research vol 29 no 5 pp 437ndash445 1971

[33] N Weinbach and A Henik ldquoPhasic alertness can modulateexecutive control by enhancing global processing of visualstimulirdquo Cognition vol 121 no 3 pp 454ndash458 2011

BioMed Research International 11

[34] W Sturm A de Simone B J Krause et al ldquoFunctional anatomyof intrinsic alertness evidence for a fronto-parietal-thalamic-brainstem network in the right hemisphererdquo Neuropsychologiavol 37 no 7 pp 797ndash805 1999

[35] P Low ldquoAutonomic nervous systemrdquo in The Merck ManualR S Porter and J L Kaplan Eds Merck Sharp amp DohmeWhitehouse Station NJ USA 2013

[36] G E Billman ldquoThe LFHF ratio does not accurately measurecardiac sympatho-vagal balancerdquo Frontiers in Physiology vol 4article 26 2013

[37] G G Berntson J T Bigger Jr D L Eckberg et al ldquoHeartrate variability origins methods and interpretive caveatsrdquoPsychophysiology vol 34 no 6 pp 623ndash648 1997

[38] K Molgaard K Hermansen and P Bjerregaard ldquoSpectralcomponents of short-term RR interval variability in healthysubjects and effects of risk factorsrdquo European Heart Journal vol15 no 9 pp 1174ndash1183 1994

[39] J T Bigger Jr J L Fleiss L M Rolnitzky and R C SteinmanldquoStability over time of heart period variability in patients withprevious myocardial infarction and ventricular arrhythmiasrdquoAmerican Journal of Cardiology vol 69 no 8 pp 718ndash723 1992

[40] K M Stein J S Borer C Hochreiter et al ldquoPrognostic valueand physiological correlates of heart rate variability in chronicsevere mitral regurgitationrdquo Circulation vol 88 no 1 pp 127ndash135 1993

[41] A Malliani M Pagani F Lombardi and S Cerutti ldquoCardio-vascular neural regulation explored in the frequency domainrdquoCirculation vol 84 no 2 pp 482ndash492 1991

[42] M V Kamath and E L Fallen ldquoPower spectral analysis of heartrate variability a noninvasive signature of cardiac autonomicfunctionrdquoCritical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering vol 21 no3 pp 245ndash311 1993

[43] O Rimoldi S Pierini A Ferrari S Cerutti M Pagani andA Malliani ldquoAnalysis of short-term oscillations of R-R andarterial pressure in conscious dogsrdquo The American Journal ofPhysiologymdashHeart and Circulatory Physiology vol 258 no 4pp H967ndashH976 1990

[44] N Montano T G Ruscone A Porta F Lombardi M Paganiand A Malliani ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart rate vari-ability to assess the changes in sympathovagal balance duringgraded orthostatic tiltrdquoCirculation vol 90 no 4 pp 1826ndash18311994

[45] S Akselrod D Gordon F A Ubel D C Shannon A CBerger and R J Cohen ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart ratefluctuation a quantitative probe of beat-to-beat cardiovascularcontrolrdquo Science vol 213 no 4504 pp 220ndash222 1981

[46] M L Appel R D Berger J P Saul J M Smith and R J CohenldquoBeat to beat variability in cardiovascular variables noise ormusicrdquo Journal of the American College of Cardiology vol 14no 5 pp 1139ndash1148 1989

[47] B Pomeranz R J Macaulay M A Caudill et al ldquoAssessment ofautonomic function in humans by heart rate spectral analysisrdquoThe American Journal of Physiology vol 248 no 1 pp H151ndashH153 1985

[48] F Morady W H Kou S D Nelson et al ldquoAccentuated antago-nism between beta-adrenergic and vagal effects on ventricularrefractoriness in humansrdquo Circulation vol 77 no 2 pp 289ndash297 1988

[49] D L Eckberg S KMohanty andM Raczkowska ldquoTrigeminal-baroreceptor reflex interactions modulate human cardiac vagalefferent activityrdquo Journal of Physiology vol 347 pp 75ndash83 1984

[50] F Yasuma and J-I Hayano ldquoRespiratory Sinus Arrhythmiawhy does the heartbeat synchronize with respiration rhythmrdquoChest vol 125 no 2 pp 683ndash690 2004

[51] P G Katona and F Jih ldquoRespiratory sinus arrhythmia nonin-vasive measure of parasympathetic cardiac controlrdquo Journal ofApplied Physiology vol 39 no 5 pp 801ndash805 1975

[52] F L Gobel L A Norstrom R R Nelson C R Jorgensen andY Wang ldquoThe rate-pressure product as an index of myocardialoxygen consumption during exercise in patients with anginapectorisrdquo Circulation vol 57 no 3 pp 549ndash556 1978

[53] H M Martini and E F Bartholomew Essentials of Anatomyand Physiology Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ USA 2ndedition 2001

[54] J A Gutrecht ldquoSympathetic skin responserdquo Journal of ClinicalNeurophysiology vol 11 no 5 pp 519ndash524 1994

[55] J Nedergaard T Bengtsson and B Cannon ldquoUnexpectedevidence for active brown adipose tissue in adult humansrdquoThe American Journal of PhysiologymdashEndocrinology andMetabolism vol 293 no 2 pp E444ndashE452 2007

[56] S F Morrison and W W Blessing ldquoCentral nervous systemregulation of body temperaturerdquo in Central Regulation of Auto-nomic Functions I J Llewellyn-Smith and A J M VerberneEds pp 1ndash34 Oxford Scholarship Online 2011

[57] L R Derogatis and N Melisaratos ldquoThe brief symptom inven-tory an introductory reportrdquo PsychologicalMedicine vol 13 no3 pp 595ndash605 1983

[58] M Horowitz N Adler and S Kegeles ldquoA scale for measuringthe occurrence of positive states of mind a preliminary reportrdquoPsychosomatic Medicine vol 50 no 5 pp 477ndash483 1988

[59] T W Robbins ldquoArousal systems and attentional processesrdquoBiological Psychology vol 45 no 1ndash3 pp 57ndash71 1997

[60] T W Robbins ldquoChemistry of the mind neurochemical mod-ulation of prefrontal cortical functionrdquo Journal of ComparativeNeurology vol 493 no 1 pp 140ndash146 2005

[61] R P Hasegawa A M Blitz N L Geller and M E GoldbergldquoNeurons inmonkey prefrontal cortex that track past or predictfuture performancerdquo Science vol 290 no 5497 pp 1786ndash17892000

[62] M I Posner ldquoMeasuring alertnessrdquo Annals of the New YorkAcademy of Sciences vol 1129 pp 193ndash199 2008

[63] W Sturm and K Willmes ldquoOn the functional neuroanatomyof intrinsic and phasic alertnessrdquo NeuroImage vol 14 no 1 ppS76ndashS84 2001

[64] S Sadaghiani R Scheeringa K Lehongre B Morillon A LGiraud and A Kleinschmidt ldquoIntrinsic connectivity networksalpha oscillations and tonic alertness a simultaneous elec-troencephalographyfunctional magnetic resonance imagingstudyrdquo The Journal of Neuroscience vol 30 no 30 pp 10243ndash10250 2010

[65] B Buddhaghosa Visuddhimagga The Path of Purificationtranslated byBNanamoli Buddhist Publication Society KandySri Lanka 4th edition 2010

[66] AWallaceTheAttention Revolution Unlocking the Power of theFocused Mind Wisdom Publications Somerville Mass USA2006

[67] B Bhikkhu The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha A Trans-lation of the Anguttara Nikaya Wisdom Publications BostonMass USA 2012

[68] S ZhiyiThe Essentials of Buddhist Meditation B Dharmamiratranslation Kalavinka Press Seattle Wash USA 2009

12 BioMed Research International

[69] G SamuelTheOrigins of Yoga and Tantra Indic Religions to theThirteenth Century vol 2013 Cambridge University Press NewDelhi India 2008

[70] K A Harper and R L Brown Eds The Roots of Tantra StateUniversity of New York Press New York NY USA 2002

[71] N Panchen and P W Gyalpo Perfect Conduct Ascertaining theThree Vows Wisdom Boston Mass USA 1999

[72] S RinpocheDzogchen and Padmasambhava Rigpa FellowshipSan Diego Calif USA 2nd edition 1990

[73] T Wangyal Wonders of the Natural Mind The Essence ofDzogchen in the Native Bon Tradition Snow Lion Ithaca NYUSA 1993

[74] D Goleman The Meditative Mind The Varieties of MeditativeExperience GP Putnamrsquos Sons New York NY USA 1996

[75] Tsong-Kha-Pa and G C MullinThe Six Yogas of Naropa SnowLion Publications Boston Mass USA 2005

[76] WY Evans-WentzTibetanYoga and Secret Doctorines PilgrimsPublishing Varanisa India 2002

[77] G H Mullin Readings on Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1997

[78] G H Mullin Tsongkhaparsquos Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1996

[79] I K TaimniThe Science of Yoga The Theosophical PublishingHouse Wheaton Ill USA 1961

[80] S Kripalvanand The Science of Meditation Sri DahyabhaiHirabhai Patel Bombay India 1977

[81] G FeuersteinThePhilosophy of Classical Yoga InnerTraditionsRochester NY USA 1996

[82] J D Nash and A Newberg ldquoToward a unifying taxonomy anddefinition for meditationrdquo Frontiers in Psychology vol 4 article806 2013

[83] M WalsheThe Long Discourses of the Buddha A Translation ofthe Digha Nikaya (Teachings of the Buddha) Wisdom Publica-tions Boston Mass USA 1995

[84] T U Rinpoche As It Is vol 2 Ranjung Yeshe PublicationsHong Kong 1999

[85] H Benson The Relaxation Response HyperCollins New YorkNY USA 1975

[86] S D Wu and P C Lo ldquoInward-attention meditation increasesparasympathetic activity a study based onheart rate variabilityrdquoBiomedical Research vol 29 no 5 pp 245ndash250 2008

[87] T Takahashi T Murata T Hamada et al ldquoChanges in EEGand autonomic nervous activity during meditation and theirassociation with personality traitsrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 55 no 2 pp 199ndash207 2005

[88] J Kabat-Zinn ldquoAn outpatient program in behavioral medicinefor chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulnessmeditation theoretical considerations and preliminary resultsrdquoGeneral Hospital Psychiatry vol 4 no 1 pp 33ndash47 1982

[89] B Nanamoli and B Bhikkhu ldquoSekha-patipada Sutta (thepractice for one in training)rdquo in The Middle Length Discoursesof the Buddha A New Translation of the Majjhima WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1995

[90] T Gyatso Stages of Meditation Snow Lion Publication IthacaNY USA 2001

[91] J A Brefczynski-Lewis A Lutz H S Schaefer D B Levinsonand R J Davidson ldquoNeural correlates of attentional expertise inlong-termmeditation practitionersrdquo Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences of the United States of America vol 104 no27 pp 11483ndash11488 2007

[92] Y-Y Tang Y Ma Y Fan et al ldquoCentral and autonomicnervous system interaction is altered by short-termmeditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 106 no 22 pp 8865ndash8870 2009

[93] B Ditto M Eclache and N Goldman ldquoShort-term autonomicand cardiovascular effects of mindfulness body scan medita-tionrdquo Annals of Behavioral Medicine vol 32 no 3 pp 227ndash2342006

[94] J R Krygier J A J Heathers S Shahrestani M Abbott J JGross and A H Kemp ldquoMindfulness meditation well-beingand heart rate variability a preliminary investigation into theimpact of intensive vipassanameditationrdquo International Journalof Psychophysiology vol 89 no 3 pp 305ndash313 2013

[95] J D Agee S Danoff-Burg and C A Grant ldquoComparingbrief stress management courses in a community samplemindfulness skills and progressive muscle relaxationrdquo Explorevol 5 no 2 pp 104ndash109 2009

[96] S Jain S L Shapiro S Swanick et al ldquoA randomized controlledtrial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation trainingeffects on distress positive states of mind rumination anddistractionrdquoAnnals of Behavioral Medicine vol 33 no 1 pp 11ndash21 2007

[97] C S Mackenzie P A Poulin and R Seidman-Carlson ldquoA briefmindfulness-based stress reduction intervention for nurses andnurse aidesrdquoAppliedNursing Research vol 19 no 2 pp 105ndash1092006

[98] O Singleton B K Holzel M Vangel N Brach J Carmody andS W Lazar ldquoChange in brainstem gray matter concentrationfollowing a mindfulness-based intervention is correlated withimprovement in psychological well-beingrdquo Frontiers in HumanNeuroscience vol 8 article 33 2014

[99] P Ekman R J Davidson M Ricard and B A WallaceldquoBuddhist and psychological perspectives on emotions andwell-beingrdquo Current Directions in Psychological Science vol 14no 2 pp 59ndash63 2005

[100] P Ekman and R J Davidson The Nature of Emotion Funda-mental Questions Series in Affective Science OxfordUniversityPress New York NY USA 1994

[101] R A Baer ldquoMindfulness training as a clinical intervention aconceptual and empirical reviewrdquo Clinical Psychology Scienceand Practice vol 10 no 2 pp 125ndash143 2003

[102] C C Streeter P L Gerbarg R B Saper D A Ciraulo and RP Brown ldquoEffects of yoga on the autonomic nervous systemgamma-aminobutyric-acid and allostasis in epilepsy depres-sion and post-traumatic stress disorderrdquo Medical Hypothesesvol 78 no 5 pp 571ndash579 2012

[103] M Balasubramaniam S Telles and P M Doraiswamy ldquoYogaon our minds a systematic review of yoga for neuropsychiatricdisordersrdquo Frontiers in Psychiatry vol 3 article 117 2013

[104] S Telles and N Singh ldquoScience of the mind ancient yoga textsand modern studiesrdquo Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol36 no 1 pp 93ndash108 2013

[105] A Manna A Raffone M G Perrucci et al ldquoNeural correlatesof focused attention and cognitive monitoring in meditationrdquoBrain Research Bulletin vol 82 no 1-2 pp 46ndash56 2010

[106] M Allen M Dietz K S Blair et al ldquoCognitive-affectiveneural plasticity following active-controlled mindfulness inter-ventionrdquoThe Journal of Neuroscience vol 32 no 44 pp 15601ndash15610 2012

[107] T Gard B K Holzel A T Sack et al ldquoPain attenuation throughmindfulness is associated with decreased cognitive control and

BioMed Research International 13

increased sensory processing in the brainrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol22 no 11 pp 2692ndash2702 2012

[108] B K Holzel U Ott T Gard et al ldquoInvestigation of mindful-ness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometryrdquoSocial Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 3 no 1 pp 55ndash61 2008

[109] N A S Farb A K Anderson HMayberg J Bean DMcKeonand Z V Segal ldquoMinding onersquos emotions mindfulness trainingalters the neural expression of sadnessrdquo Emotion vol 10 no 1pp 25ndash33 2010

[110] G Pagnoni and M Cekic ldquoAge effects on gray matter volumeand attentional performance in Zen meditationrdquo Neurobiologyof Aging vol 28 no 10 pp 1623ndash1627 2007

[111] X Yu M Fumoto Y Nakatani et al ldquoActivation of theanterior prefrontal cortex and serotonergic system is associatedwith improvements in mood and EEG changes induced byZen meditation practice in novicesrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 80 no 2 pp 103ndash111 2011

[112] N A S Farb Z V Segal H Mayberg et al ldquoAttending to thepresent mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modesof self-referencerdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neurosciencevol 2 no 4 pp 313ndash322 2007

[113] A Berkovich-Ohana J Glicksohn and A GoldsteinldquoMindfulness-induced changes in gamma band activitymdashimplications for the default mode network self-reference andattentionrdquo Clinical Neurophysiology vol 123 no 4 pp 700ndash7102012

[114] J A Brewer P D Worhunsky J R Gray Y-Y Tang JWeber andH Kober ldquoMeditation experience is associated withdifferences in default mode network activity and connectivityrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 108 no 50 pp 20254ndash20259 2011

[115] D A Gusnard and M E Raichle ldquoSearching for a baselinefunctional imaging and the resting human brainrdquo NatureReviews Neuroscience vol 2 no 10 pp 685ndash694 2001

[116] M E Raichle A M MacLeod A Z Snyder W J Powers D AGusnard andG L Shulman ldquoAdefaultmode of brain functionrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 98 no 2 pp 676ndash682 2001

[117] M E Raichle and A Z Snyder ldquoA default mode of brainfunction a brief history of an evolving ideardquo NeuroImage vol37 no 4 pp 1083ndash1090 2007

[118] R L Buckner J R Andrews-Hanna and D L Schacter ldquoThebrainrsquos default network anatomy function and relevance todiseaserdquo Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences vol 1124pp 1ndash38 2008

[119] A P Jha J Krompinger and M J Baime ldquoMindfulnesstraining modifies subsystems of attentionrdquo Cognitive Affectiveand Behavioral Neuroscience vol 7 no 2 pp 109ndash119 2007

[120] K A MacLean E Ferrer S R Aichele et al ldquoIntensivemeditation training improves perceptual discrimination andsustained attentionrdquo Psychological Science vol 21 no 6 pp829ndash839 2010

[121] J C Corby W T Roth V P Zarcone Jr and B S KopellldquoPsychophysiological correlates of the practice of Tantric Yogameditationrdquo Archives of General Psychiatry vol 35 no 5 pp571ndash577 1978

[122] S Telles and T Desiraju ldquoAutonomic changes in Brahmaku-maris Raja yoga meditationrdquo International Journal of Psy-chophysiology vol 15 no 2 pp 147ndash152 1993

[123] L MMVirtual Design Imagery Testing Battery [Computer Soft-ware] Newark NJ USA 2004

[124] H Benson M S Malhotra R F Goldman G D Jacobsand P J Hopkins ldquoThree case reports of the metabolic andelectroencephalographic changes during advanced buddhistmeditation techniquesrdquo Behavioral Medicine vol 16 no 2 pp90ndash95 1990

[125] H Benson J W Lehmann M S Malhotra R F Goldman JHopkins andMD Epstein ldquoBody temperature changes duringthe practice of g Tum-mo yogardquo Nature vol 295 no 5846 pp234ndash236 1982

[126] Y-Y Tang Q Lu M Fan Y Yang and M I PosnerldquoMechanisms of white matter changes induced by meditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 109 no 26 pp 10570ndash10574 2012

[127] P Raghuraj and S Telles ldquoImmediate effect of specific nostrilmanipulating yoga breathing practices on autonomic and respi-ratory variablesrdquo Applied Psychophysiology Biofeedback vol 33no 2 pp 65ndash75 2008

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Anatomy Research International

PeptidesInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Molecular Biology International

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioinformaticsAdvances in

Marine BiologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Signal TransductionJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Biochemistry Research International

ArchaeaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Genetics Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Advances in

Virolog y

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Nucleic AcidsJournal of

Volume 2014

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Enzyme Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Page 9: Review Article The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2015/731579.pdf · 2019-07-31 · Review Article The Influence of Buddhist

BioMed Research International 9

Table 1 Summary of meditation studies of autonomic activation and alerting attention

Study Meditation type Findings

Tang et al [92] Mindfulness (IBMT) Increased HF anddecreased GSR

Ditto et al [93] Mindfulness Increased RSA

Jain et al [96] Mindfulness Increased perceived positive emotions and decreasedperceived distress

Mackenzie et al [97] Mindfulness Increased perceived well-being life satisfaction andrelaxation

Wu and Lo [86] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHFTakahashi et al [87] Zen concentrative meditation Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Manna et al [105] ShamathaIncreased fMRI BOLD signal in the dorsal anteriorcingulate cortex (dACC) dorsolateral prefrontal cortex(DLPFC) and anterior insula in meditation experts

Manna et al [105] Vipassana Increased dACC activation in meditation novicesAllen et al [106] Mindfulness Increased DLPFC and dACC activationJha et al [119] Shamatha Increased alerting network efficiencyMacLean et al [120] Shamatha Improvement in a sustained attention taskAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Shamatha (Kasina visualization) Decreased LFHFAmihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Vipassana Increased HF and decreased LFHF

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Rig-pa (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HF and increased performance in mentalrotation (MRT) and visual memory (VMT)

Amihai and Kozhevnikov [27] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Decreased HFKozhevnikov et al [29] Deity (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased MRT and VMT performanceKozhevnikov et al [28] g-Tummo (Vajrayana Tantric) Increased thermogenesisCorby et al [121] Ananda Marga (Dharana) Increased GSR and heart rateTelles and Desiraju [122] Hindu Tantric meditation Increased heart rate

similar long-term studies would be conducted on Tantricpractices

Related to the above another important research direc-tion that has yet to be explored is the long-term influenceof Vajrayana and Hindu Tantric meditation on stress andwell-being As mentioned the finding that Theravada typesof meditation produce relaxation has resulted in their incor-poration into clinical practices as stress reduction techniques(eg [10 21 95 96]) Conversely the finding that Vajrayanaand Hindu Tantric types of meditation produce arousalsuggests that they could be more problematic for people whoare under a high level of stress However it is also likely thatas they gain additional meditation experience Vajrayana andHindu Tantric meditators develop unique strategies to helpthem cope with stressful situations that could arise duringtheir meditation practice for instance by transforming theirnegative emotions into the positive emotional states of thevisualized Deity Such possibilities should be examined infuture studies

In addition future studies should investigate the specificmechanisms that underlie ANS changes during meditationin order to understand the precise factors that mediate thearousal and relaxation responses One possible mediatingfactor could be respiration changes In this context previousstudies on Hindu breathing exercises called Pranayamawhich often serve as preparatory exercises for meditation

[79 page 310] showed that specific breathing techniques canbe used to activate the sympathetic or the parasympatheticnervous systems (eg [127]) A second factor that shouldbe considered is the specific visualization or other contentthat is used for meditation For instance it is plausible thata visualized Tibetan Deity would lead to a high degree ofarousal due to the emotional content that it holds in theeyes of a Tibetan meditator while the inward and outwardflow of the breath that is being attended to during Shamathameditation would not evoke intense emotional reactions

In conclusion although the scientific examination ofthe nature of meditative practices is not new it is onlyin recent years that cognitive scientists and neuroscientistshave begun to investigate the influences of the specificcultural and philosophical contexts out of which meditationpractices developed on the psychophysiological outcomes ofthe practices Such investigations have led to experimentalbreakthroughs that corroborate ideas laid down in Buddhistscriptures about the purpose and effects of meditationSpecifically the scriptural descriptions of heightened arousalduring Vajrayana practices and a relaxed and alert state ofmind during Theravada and Mahayana types of meditationreceived empirical support as research from the past severalyears demonstrated that Vajrayana as well as certain HinduTantric practices lead to heightened arousal and phasicalertness whileTheravada andMahayana types ofmeditation

10 BioMed Research International

elicit a relaxation response coupled with enhanced tonicalertness

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

References

[1] B Bodhi ldquoWhat does mindfulness really mean A canonicalperspectiverdquo Contemporary Buddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 19ndash392011

[2] R Gethin ldquoOn some definitions ofmindfulnessrdquoContemporaryBuddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 263ndash279 2011

[3] P Grossman and N T Van Dam ldquoMindfulness by any othername trials and tribulations of sati in western psychologyand sciencerdquo Contemporary Buddhism An InterdisciplinaryJournal vol 12 no 1 pp 219ndash239 2011

[4] Z Josipovic ldquoDuality and nonduality in meditation researchrdquoConsciousness and Cognition vol 19 no 4 pp 1119ndash1121 2010

[5] H Benson and W Proctor Relaxation Revolution The Scienceand Genetics of Mind Body Healing Scribner New York NYUSA 2011

[6] H Benson B A Rosner B R Marzetta and H P KlemchukldquoDecreased blood pressure in borderline hypertensive subjectswho practiced meditationrdquo Journal of Chronic Diseases vol 27no 3 pp 163ndash169 1974

[7] R K Wallace and H Benson ldquoThe physiology of meditationrdquoScientific American vol 226 no 2 pp 84ndash90 1972

[8] I Kutz J Leserman C Dorrington C H Morrison J ZBorysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation as an adjunct topsychotherapy An outcome studyrdquo Psychotherapy and Psycho-somatics vol 43 no 4 pp 209ndash218 1985

[9] I Kutz J Z Borysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation andpsychotherapy a rationale for the integration of dynamicpsychotherapy the relaxation response and mindfulness med-itationrdquo The American Journal of Psychiatry vol 142 no 1 pp1ndash8 1985

[10] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoMindfulness-based stress reduc-tion for stress management in healthy people a review andmeta-analysisrdquo The Journal of Alternative and ComplementaryMedicine vol 15 no 5 pp 593ndash600 2009

[11] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoA systematic review of neuro-biological and clinical features of mindfulness meditationsrdquoPsychological Medicine vol 40 no 8 pp 1239ndash1252 2010

[12] F Zeidan K T Martucci R Kraft J G McHaffie and R CCoghill ldquo Neural correlates of mindfulness meditation-relatedanxiety reliefrdquo Scandinavica vol 9 pp 751ndash759 2014

[13] B Ivanovski and G S Malhi ldquoThe psychological and neuro-physiological concomitants of mindfulness forms of medita-tionrdquo Acta Neuropsychiatrica vol 19 no 2 pp 76ndash91 2007

[14] J D-E Young and E Taylor ldquoMeditation as a voluntaryhypometabolic state of biological estivationrdquoNews in Physiolog-ical Sciences vol 13 no 3 pp 149ndash153 1998

[15] R Jevning R K Wallace and M Beidebach ldquoThe physiologyof meditation a review A wakeful hypometabolic integratedresponserdquo Neuroscience amp Biobehavioral Reviews vol 16 no 3pp 415ndash424 1992

[16] S E Petersen and M I Posner ldquoThe attention system of thehumanbrain 20 years afterrdquoAnnual Review ofNeuroscience vol35 pp 73ndash89 2012

[17] L K McCorry ldquoPhysiology of the autonomic nervous systemrdquoAmerican Journal of Pharmaceutical Education vol 71 no 4article 78 2007

[18] D R Morse J S Martin M L Furst and L L Dubin ldquoAphysiological and subjective evaluation ofmeditation hypnosisand relaxationrdquo Psychosomatic Medicine vol 39 no 5 pp 304ndash324 1977

[19] A Lutz ldquoMeditation and the neuroscience of consciousness anintroductionrdquo inThe Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness PD Zelazo M Moscovitch and EThompson Eds pp 499ndash551Cambridge University Press New York NY USA 2007

[20] Tipitaka The Pali Canon Legacy Edition 2005 httpwwwaccesstoinsightorgtipitaka

[21] P Grossman L Niemann S Schmidt and H Walach ldquoMind-fulness-based stress reduction and health benefits a meta-analysisrdquo Journal of Psychosomatic Research vol 57 no 1 pp35ndash43 2004

[22] R Gilpin ldquoThe use of Theravada Buddhist practices andperspectives in mindfulness-based cognitive therapyrdquo Contem-porary Buddhism vol 9 no 2 pp 227ndash251 2008

[23] B H GunaratanaMindfulness in Plain English Wisdom Publi-cations Somerville Mass USA 2002

[24] B R Cahn and J Polich ldquoMeditation states and traits EEG ERPand neuroimaging studiesrdquoPsychological Bulletin vol 132 no 2pp 180ndash211 2006

[25] W B Britton J R Lindahl B R Cahn J H Davis and R EGoldman ldquoAwakening is not ametaphor the effects of Buddhistmeditation practices on basic wakefulnessrdquo Annals of the NewYork Academy of Sciences vol 1307 no 1 pp 64ndash81 2014

[26] J D Buksbazen Zen Meditation in Plain English WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1st edition 2002

[27] I Amihai and M Kozhevnikov ldquoArousal vs relaxation acomparison of the neurophysiological and cognitive correlatesof Vajrayana and Theravada meditative practicesrdquo PLoS ONEvol 9 no 7 Article ID e102990 2014

[28] M Kozhevnikov J Elliott J Shephard and K Gramann ldquoNeu-rocognitive and somatic components of temperature increasesduring g-Tummo meditation legend and realityrdquo PLoS ONEvol 8 no 3 Article ID e58244 2013

[29] M Kozhevnikov O Louchakova Z Josipovic and M AMotes ldquoThe enhancement of visuospatial processing efficiencythrough buddhist deity meditationrdquo Psychological Science vol20 no 5 pp 645ndash653 2009

[30] A J CammMMalik J T Bigger G Breithardt S Cerutti andR J Cohen ldquoHeart rate variabilitymdashstandards of measurementphysiological interpretation and clinical userdquo Circulation vol93 no 5 pp 1043ndash1065 1996

[31] G F Chess R M K Tam and F R Calaresu ldquoInfluence ofcardiac neural inputs on rhythmic variations of heart period inthe catrdquoAmerican Journal of Physiology vol 228 no 3 pp 775ndash780 1975

[32] M N Levy ldquoSympathetic-parasympathetic interactions in theheartrdquo Circulation Research vol 29 no 5 pp 437ndash445 1971

[33] N Weinbach and A Henik ldquoPhasic alertness can modulateexecutive control by enhancing global processing of visualstimulirdquo Cognition vol 121 no 3 pp 454ndash458 2011

BioMed Research International 11

[34] W Sturm A de Simone B J Krause et al ldquoFunctional anatomyof intrinsic alertness evidence for a fronto-parietal-thalamic-brainstem network in the right hemisphererdquo Neuropsychologiavol 37 no 7 pp 797ndash805 1999

[35] P Low ldquoAutonomic nervous systemrdquo in The Merck ManualR S Porter and J L Kaplan Eds Merck Sharp amp DohmeWhitehouse Station NJ USA 2013

[36] G E Billman ldquoThe LFHF ratio does not accurately measurecardiac sympatho-vagal balancerdquo Frontiers in Physiology vol 4article 26 2013

[37] G G Berntson J T Bigger Jr D L Eckberg et al ldquoHeartrate variability origins methods and interpretive caveatsrdquoPsychophysiology vol 34 no 6 pp 623ndash648 1997

[38] K Molgaard K Hermansen and P Bjerregaard ldquoSpectralcomponents of short-term RR interval variability in healthysubjects and effects of risk factorsrdquo European Heart Journal vol15 no 9 pp 1174ndash1183 1994

[39] J T Bigger Jr J L Fleiss L M Rolnitzky and R C SteinmanldquoStability over time of heart period variability in patients withprevious myocardial infarction and ventricular arrhythmiasrdquoAmerican Journal of Cardiology vol 69 no 8 pp 718ndash723 1992

[40] K M Stein J S Borer C Hochreiter et al ldquoPrognostic valueand physiological correlates of heart rate variability in chronicsevere mitral regurgitationrdquo Circulation vol 88 no 1 pp 127ndash135 1993

[41] A Malliani M Pagani F Lombardi and S Cerutti ldquoCardio-vascular neural regulation explored in the frequency domainrdquoCirculation vol 84 no 2 pp 482ndash492 1991

[42] M V Kamath and E L Fallen ldquoPower spectral analysis of heartrate variability a noninvasive signature of cardiac autonomicfunctionrdquoCritical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering vol 21 no3 pp 245ndash311 1993

[43] O Rimoldi S Pierini A Ferrari S Cerutti M Pagani andA Malliani ldquoAnalysis of short-term oscillations of R-R andarterial pressure in conscious dogsrdquo The American Journal ofPhysiologymdashHeart and Circulatory Physiology vol 258 no 4pp H967ndashH976 1990

[44] N Montano T G Ruscone A Porta F Lombardi M Paganiand A Malliani ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart rate vari-ability to assess the changes in sympathovagal balance duringgraded orthostatic tiltrdquoCirculation vol 90 no 4 pp 1826ndash18311994

[45] S Akselrod D Gordon F A Ubel D C Shannon A CBerger and R J Cohen ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart ratefluctuation a quantitative probe of beat-to-beat cardiovascularcontrolrdquo Science vol 213 no 4504 pp 220ndash222 1981

[46] M L Appel R D Berger J P Saul J M Smith and R J CohenldquoBeat to beat variability in cardiovascular variables noise ormusicrdquo Journal of the American College of Cardiology vol 14no 5 pp 1139ndash1148 1989

[47] B Pomeranz R J Macaulay M A Caudill et al ldquoAssessment ofautonomic function in humans by heart rate spectral analysisrdquoThe American Journal of Physiology vol 248 no 1 pp H151ndashH153 1985

[48] F Morady W H Kou S D Nelson et al ldquoAccentuated antago-nism between beta-adrenergic and vagal effects on ventricularrefractoriness in humansrdquo Circulation vol 77 no 2 pp 289ndash297 1988

[49] D L Eckberg S KMohanty andM Raczkowska ldquoTrigeminal-baroreceptor reflex interactions modulate human cardiac vagalefferent activityrdquo Journal of Physiology vol 347 pp 75ndash83 1984

[50] F Yasuma and J-I Hayano ldquoRespiratory Sinus Arrhythmiawhy does the heartbeat synchronize with respiration rhythmrdquoChest vol 125 no 2 pp 683ndash690 2004

[51] P G Katona and F Jih ldquoRespiratory sinus arrhythmia nonin-vasive measure of parasympathetic cardiac controlrdquo Journal ofApplied Physiology vol 39 no 5 pp 801ndash805 1975

[52] F L Gobel L A Norstrom R R Nelson C R Jorgensen andY Wang ldquoThe rate-pressure product as an index of myocardialoxygen consumption during exercise in patients with anginapectorisrdquo Circulation vol 57 no 3 pp 549ndash556 1978

[53] H M Martini and E F Bartholomew Essentials of Anatomyand Physiology Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ USA 2ndedition 2001

[54] J A Gutrecht ldquoSympathetic skin responserdquo Journal of ClinicalNeurophysiology vol 11 no 5 pp 519ndash524 1994

[55] J Nedergaard T Bengtsson and B Cannon ldquoUnexpectedevidence for active brown adipose tissue in adult humansrdquoThe American Journal of PhysiologymdashEndocrinology andMetabolism vol 293 no 2 pp E444ndashE452 2007

[56] S F Morrison and W W Blessing ldquoCentral nervous systemregulation of body temperaturerdquo in Central Regulation of Auto-nomic Functions I J Llewellyn-Smith and A J M VerberneEds pp 1ndash34 Oxford Scholarship Online 2011

[57] L R Derogatis and N Melisaratos ldquoThe brief symptom inven-tory an introductory reportrdquo PsychologicalMedicine vol 13 no3 pp 595ndash605 1983

[58] M Horowitz N Adler and S Kegeles ldquoA scale for measuringthe occurrence of positive states of mind a preliminary reportrdquoPsychosomatic Medicine vol 50 no 5 pp 477ndash483 1988

[59] T W Robbins ldquoArousal systems and attentional processesrdquoBiological Psychology vol 45 no 1ndash3 pp 57ndash71 1997

[60] T W Robbins ldquoChemistry of the mind neurochemical mod-ulation of prefrontal cortical functionrdquo Journal of ComparativeNeurology vol 493 no 1 pp 140ndash146 2005

[61] R P Hasegawa A M Blitz N L Geller and M E GoldbergldquoNeurons inmonkey prefrontal cortex that track past or predictfuture performancerdquo Science vol 290 no 5497 pp 1786ndash17892000

[62] M I Posner ldquoMeasuring alertnessrdquo Annals of the New YorkAcademy of Sciences vol 1129 pp 193ndash199 2008

[63] W Sturm and K Willmes ldquoOn the functional neuroanatomyof intrinsic and phasic alertnessrdquo NeuroImage vol 14 no 1 ppS76ndashS84 2001

[64] S Sadaghiani R Scheeringa K Lehongre B Morillon A LGiraud and A Kleinschmidt ldquoIntrinsic connectivity networksalpha oscillations and tonic alertness a simultaneous elec-troencephalographyfunctional magnetic resonance imagingstudyrdquo The Journal of Neuroscience vol 30 no 30 pp 10243ndash10250 2010

[65] B Buddhaghosa Visuddhimagga The Path of Purificationtranslated byBNanamoli Buddhist Publication Society KandySri Lanka 4th edition 2010

[66] AWallaceTheAttention Revolution Unlocking the Power of theFocused Mind Wisdom Publications Somerville Mass USA2006

[67] B Bhikkhu The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha A Trans-lation of the Anguttara Nikaya Wisdom Publications BostonMass USA 2012

[68] S ZhiyiThe Essentials of Buddhist Meditation B Dharmamiratranslation Kalavinka Press Seattle Wash USA 2009

12 BioMed Research International

[69] G SamuelTheOrigins of Yoga and Tantra Indic Religions to theThirteenth Century vol 2013 Cambridge University Press NewDelhi India 2008

[70] K A Harper and R L Brown Eds The Roots of Tantra StateUniversity of New York Press New York NY USA 2002

[71] N Panchen and P W Gyalpo Perfect Conduct Ascertaining theThree Vows Wisdom Boston Mass USA 1999

[72] S RinpocheDzogchen and Padmasambhava Rigpa FellowshipSan Diego Calif USA 2nd edition 1990

[73] T Wangyal Wonders of the Natural Mind The Essence ofDzogchen in the Native Bon Tradition Snow Lion Ithaca NYUSA 1993

[74] D Goleman The Meditative Mind The Varieties of MeditativeExperience GP Putnamrsquos Sons New York NY USA 1996

[75] Tsong-Kha-Pa and G C MullinThe Six Yogas of Naropa SnowLion Publications Boston Mass USA 2005

[76] WY Evans-WentzTibetanYoga and Secret Doctorines PilgrimsPublishing Varanisa India 2002

[77] G H Mullin Readings on Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1997

[78] G H Mullin Tsongkhaparsquos Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1996

[79] I K TaimniThe Science of Yoga The Theosophical PublishingHouse Wheaton Ill USA 1961

[80] S Kripalvanand The Science of Meditation Sri DahyabhaiHirabhai Patel Bombay India 1977

[81] G FeuersteinThePhilosophy of Classical Yoga InnerTraditionsRochester NY USA 1996

[82] J D Nash and A Newberg ldquoToward a unifying taxonomy anddefinition for meditationrdquo Frontiers in Psychology vol 4 article806 2013

[83] M WalsheThe Long Discourses of the Buddha A Translation ofthe Digha Nikaya (Teachings of the Buddha) Wisdom Publica-tions Boston Mass USA 1995

[84] T U Rinpoche As It Is vol 2 Ranjung Yeshe PublicationsHong Kong 1999

[85] H Benson The Relaxation Response HyperCollins New YorkNY USA 1975

[86] S D Wu and P C Lo ldquoInward-attention meditation increasesparasympathetic activity a study based onheart rate variabilityrdquoBiomedical Research vol 29 no 5 pp 245ndash250 2008

[87] T Takahashi T Murata T Hamada et al ldquoChanges in EEGand autonomic nervous activity during meditation and theirassociation with personality traitsrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 55 no 2 pp 199ndash207 2005

[88] J Kabat-Zinn ldquoAn outpatient program in behavioral medicinefor chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulnessmeditation theoretical considerations and preliminary resultsrdquoGeneral Hospital Psychiatry vol 4 no 1 pp 33ndash47 1982

[89] B Nanamoli and B Bhikkhu ldquoSekha-patipada Sutta (thepractice for one in training)rdquo in The Middle Length Discoursesof the Buddha A New Translation of the Majjhima WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1995

[90] T Gyatso Stages of Meditation Snow Lion Publication IthacaNY USA 2001

[91] J A Brefczynski-Lewis A Lutz H S Schaefer D B Levinsonand R J Davidson ldquoNeural correlates of attentional expertise inlong-termmeditation practitionersrdquo Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences of the United States of America vol 104 no27 pp 11483ndash11488 2007

[92] Y-Y Tang Y Ma Y Fan et al ldquoCentral and autonomicnervous system interaction is altered by short-termmeditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 106 no 22 pp 8865ndash8870 2009

[93] B Ditto M Eclache and N Goldman ldquoShort-term autonomicand cardiovascular effects of mindfulness body scan medita-tionrdquo Annals of Behavioral Medicine vol 32 no 3 pp 227ndash2342006

[94] J R Krygier J A J Heathers S Shahrestani M Abbott J JGross and A H Kemp ldquoMindfulness meditation well-beingand heart rate variability a preliminary investigation into theimpact of intensive vipassanameditationrdquo International Journalof Psychophysiology vol 89 no 3 pp 305ndash313 2013

[95] J D Agee S Danoff-Burg and C A Grant ldquoComparingbrief stress management courses in a community samplemindfulness skills and progressive muscle relaxationrdquo Explorevol 5 no 2 pp 104ndash109 2009

[96] S Jain S L Shapiro S Swanick et al ldquoA randomized controlledtrial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation trainingeffects on distress positive states of mind rumination anddistractionrdquoAnnals of Behavioral Medicine vol 33 no 1 pp 11ndash21 2007

[97] C S Mackenzie P A Poulin and R Seidman-Carlson ldquoA briefmindfulness-based stress reduction intervention for nurses andnurse aidesrdquoAppliedNursing Research vol 19 no 2 pp 105ndash1092006

[98] O Singleton B K Holzel M Vangel N Brach J Carmody andS W Lazar ldquoChange in brainstem gray matter concentrationfollowing a mindfulness-based intervention is correlated withimprovement in psychological well-beingrdquo Frontiers in HumanNeuroscience vol 8 article 33 2014

[99] P Ekman R J Davidson M Ricard and B A WallaceldquoBuddhist and psychological perspectives on emotions andwell-beingrdquo Current Directions in Psychological Science vol 14no 2 pp 59ndash63 2005

[100] P Ekman and R J Davidson The Nature of Emotion Funda-mental Questions Series in Affective Science OxfordUniversityPress New York NY USA 1994

[101] R A Baer ldquoMindfulness training as a clinical intervention aconceptual and empirical reviewrdquo Clinical Psychology Scienceand Practice vol 10 no 2 pp 125ndash143 2003

[102] C C Streeter P L Gerbarg R B Saper D A Ciraulo and RP Brown ldquoEffects of yoga on the autonomic nervous systemgamma-aminobutyric-acid and allostasis in epilepsy depres-sion and post-traumatic stress disorderrdquo Medical Hypothesesvol 78 no 5 pp 571ndash579 2012

[103] M Balasubramaniam S Telles and P M Doraiswamy ldquoYogaon our minds a systematic review of yoga for neuropsychiatricdisordersrdquo Frontiers in Psychiatry vol 3 article 117 2013

[104] S Telles and N Singh ldquoScience of the mind ancient yoga textsand modern studiesrdquo Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol36 no 1 pp 93ndash108 2013

[105] A Manna A Raffone M G Perrucci et al ldquoNeural correlatesof focused attention and cognitive monitoring in meditationrdquoBrain Research Bulletin vol 82 no 1-2 pp 46ndash56 2010

[106] M Allen M Dietz K S Blair et al ldquoCognitive-affectiveneural plasticity following active-controlled mindfulness inter-ventionrdquoThe Journal of Neuroscience vol 32 no 44 pp 15601ndash15610 2012

[107] T Gard B K Holzel A T Sack et al ldquoPain attenuation throughmindfulness is associated with decreased cognitive control and

BioMed Research International 13

increased sensory processing in the brainrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol22 no 11 pp 2692ndash2702 2012

[108] B K Holzel U Ott T Gard et al ldquoInvestigation of mindful-ness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometryrdquoSocial Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 3 no 1 pp 55ndash61 2008

[109] N A S Farb A K Anderson HMayberg J Bean DMcKeonand Z V Segal ldquoMinding onersquos emotions mindfulness trainingalters the neural expression of sadnessrdquo Emotion vol 10 no 1pp 25ndash33 2010

[110] G Pagnoni and M Cekic ldquoAge effects on gray matter volumeand attentional performance in Zen meditationrdquo Neurobiologyof Aging vol 28 no 10 pp 1623ndash1627 2007

[111] X Yu M Fumoto Y Nakatani et al ldquoActivation of theanterior prefrontal cortex and serotonergic system is associatedwith improvements in mood and EEG changes induced byZen meditation practice in novicesrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 80 no 2 pp 103ndash111 2011

[112] N A S Farb Z V Segal H Mayberg et al ldquoAttending to thepresent mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modesof self-referencerdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neurosciencevol 2 no 4 pp 313ndash322 2007

[113] A Berkovich-Ohana J Glicksohn and A GoldsteinldquoMindfulness-induced changes in gamma band activitymdashimplications for the default mode network self-reference andattentionrdquo Clinical Neurophysiology vol 123 no 4 pp 700ndash7102012

[114] J A Brewer P D Worhunsky J R Gray Y-Y Tang JWeber andH Kober ldquoMeditation experience is associated withdifferences in default mode network activity and connectivityrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 108 no 50 pp 20254ndash20259 2011

[115] D A Gusnard and M E Raichle ldquoSearching for a baselinefunctional imaging and the resting human brainrdquo NatureReviews Neuroscience vol 2 no 10 pp 685ndash694 2001

[116] M E Raichle A M MacLeod A Z Snyder W J Powers D AGusnard andG L Shulman ldquoAdefaultmode of brain functionrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 98 no 2 pp 676ndash682 2001

[117] M E Raichle and A Z Snyder ldquoA default mode of brainfunction a brief history of an evolving ideardquo NeuroImage vol37 no 4 pp 1083ndash1090 2007

[118] R L Buckner J R Andrews-Hanna and D L Schacter ldquoThebrainrsquos default network anatomy function and relevance todiseaserdquo Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences vol 1124pp 1ndash38 2008

[119] A P Jha J Krompinger and M J Baime ldquoMindfulnesstraining modifies subsystems of attentionrdquo Cognitive Affectiveand Behavioral Neuroscience vol 7 no 2 pp 109ndash119 2007

[120] K A MacLean E Ferrer S R Aichele et al ldquoIntensivemeditation training improves perceptual discrimination andsustained attentionrdquo Psychological Science vol 21 no 6 pp829ndash839 2010

[121] J C Corby W T Roth V P Zarcone Jr and B S KopellldquoPsychophysiological correlates of the practice of Tantric Yogameditationrdquo Archives of General Psychiatry vol 35 no 5 pp571ndash577 1978

[122] S Telles and T Desiraju ldquoAutonomic changes in Brahmaku-maris Raja yoga meditationrdquo International Journal of Psy-chophysiology vol 15 no 2 pp 147ndash152 1993

[123] L MMVirtual Design Imagery Testing Battery [Computer Soft-ware] Newark NJ USA 2004

[124] H Benson M S Malhotra R F Goldman G D Jacobsand P J Hopkins ldquoThree case reports of the metabolic andelectroencephalographic changes during advanced buddhistmeditation techniquesrdquo Behavioral Medicine vol 16 no 2 pp90ndash95 1990

[125] H Benson J W Lehmann M S Malhotra R F Goldman JHopkins andMD Epstein ldquoBody temperature changes duringthe practice of g Tum-mo yogardquo Nature vol 295 no 5846 pp234ndash236 1982

[126] Y-Y Tang Q Lu M Fan Y Yang and M I PosnerldquoMechanisms of white matter changes induced by meditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 109 no 26 pp 10570ndash10574 2012

[127] P Raghuraj and S Telles ldquoImmediate effect of specific nostrilmanipulating yoga breathing practices on autonomic and respi-ratory variablesrdquo Applied Psychophysiology Biofeedback vol 33no 2 pp 65ndash75 2008

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Anatomy Research International

PeptidesInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Molecular Biology International

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioinformaticsAdvances in

Marine BiologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Signal TransductionJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Biochemistry Research International

ArchaeaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Genetics Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Advances in

Virolog y

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Nucleic AcidsJournal of

Volume 2014

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Enzyme Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Page 10: Review Article The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2015/731579.pdf · 2019-07-31 · Review Article The Influence of Buddhist

10 BioMed Research International

elicit a relaxation response coupled with enhanced tonicalertness

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

References

[1] B Bodhi ldquoWhat does mindfulness really mean A canonicalperspectiverdquo Contemporary Buddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 19ndash392011

[2] R Gethin ldquoOn some definitions ofmindfulnessrdquoContemporaryBuddhism vol 12 no 1 pp 263ndash279 2011

[3] P Grossman and N T Van Dam ldquoMindfulness by any othername trials and tribulations of sati in western psychologyand sciencerdquo Contemporary Buddhism An InterdisciplinaryJournal vol 12 no 1 pp 219ndash239 2011

[4] Z Josipovic ldquoDuality and nonduality in meditation researchrdquoConsciousness and Cognition vol 19 no 4 pp 1119ndash1121 2010

[5] H Benson and W Proctor Relaxation Revolution The Scienceand Genetics of Mind Body Healing Scribner New York NYUSA 2011

[6] H Benson B A Rosner B R Marzetta and H P KlemchukldquoDecreased blood pressure in borderline hypertensive subjectswho practiced meditationrdquo Journal of Chronic Diseases vol 27no 3 pp 163ndash169 1974

[7] R K Wallace and H Benson ldquoThe physiology of meditationrdquoScientific American vol 226 no 2 pp 84ndash90 1972

[8] I Kutz J Leserman C Dorrington C H Morrison J ZBorysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation as an adjunct topsychotherapy An outcome studyrdquo Psychotherapy and Psycho-somatics vol 43 no 4 pp 209ndash218 1985

[9] I Kutz J Z Borysenko and H Benson ldquoMeditation andpsychotherapy a rationale for the integration of dynamicpsychotherapy the relaxation response and mindfulness med-itationrdquo The American Journal of Psychiatry vol 142 no 1 pp1ndash8 1985

[10] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoMindfulness-based stress reduc-tion for stress management in healthy people a review andmeta-analysisrdquo The Journal of Alternative and ComplementaryMedicine vol 15 no 5 pp 593ndash600 2009

[11] A Chiesa and A Serretti ldquoA systematic review of neuro-biological and clinical features of mindfulness meditationsrdquoPsychological Medicine vol 40 no 8 pp 1239ndash1252 2010

[12] F Zeidan K T Martucci R Kraft J G McHaffie and R CCoghill ldquo Neural correlates of mindfulness meditation-relatedanxiety reliefrdquo Scandinavica vol 9 pp 751ndash759 2014

[13] B Ivanovski and G S Malhi ldquoThe psychological and neuro-physiological concomitants of mindfulness forms of medita-tionrdquo Acta Neuropsychiatrica vol 19 no 2 pp 76ndash91 2007

[14] J D-E Young and E Taylor ldquoMeditation as a voluntaryhypometabolic state of biological estivationrdquoNews in Physiolog-ical Sciences vol 13 no 3 pp 149ndash153 1998

[15] R Jevning R K Wallace and M Beidebach ldquoThe physiologyof meditation a review A wakeful hypometabolic integratedresponserdquo Neuroscience amp Biobehavioral Reviews vol 16 no 3pp 415ndash424 1992

[16] S E Petersen and M I Posner ldquoThe attention system of thehumanbrain 20 years afterrdquoAnnual Review ofNeuroscience vol35 pp 73ndash89 2012

[17] L K McCorry ldquoPhysiology of the autonomic nervous systemrdquoAmerican Journal of Pharmaceutical Education vol 71 no 4article 78 2007

[18] D R Morse J S Martin M L Furst and L L Dubin ldquoAphysiological and subjective evaluation ofmeditation hypnosisand relaxationrdquo Psychosomatic Medicine vol 39 no 5 pp 304ndash324 1977

[19] A Lutz ldquoMeditation and the neuroscience of consciousness anintroductionrdquo inThe Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness PD Zelazo M Moscovitch and EThompson Eds pp 499ndash551Cambridge University Press New York NY USA 2007

[20] Tipitaka The Pali Canon Legacy Edition 2005 httpwwwaccesstoinsightorgtipitaka

[21] P Grossman L Niemann S Schmidt and H Walach ldquoMind-fulness-based stress reduction and health benefits a meta-analysisrdquo Journal of Psychosomatic Research vol 57 no 1 pp35ndash43 2004

[22] R Gilpin ldquoThe use of Theravada Buddhist practices andperspectives in mindfulness-based cognitive therapyrdquo Contem-porary Buddhism vol 9 no 2 pp 227ndash251 2008

[23] B H GunaratanaMindfulness in Plain English Wisdom Publi-cations Somerville Mass USA 2002

[24] B R Cahn and J Polich ldquoMeditation states and traits EEG ERPand neuroimaging studiesrdquoPsychological Bulletin vol 132 no 2pp 180ndash211 2006

[25] W B Britton J R Lindahl B R Cahn J H Davis and R EGoldman ldquoAwakening is not ametaphor the effects of Buddhistmeditation practices on basic wakefulnessrdquo Annals of the NewYork Academy of Sciences vol 1307 no 1 pp 64ndash81 2014

[26] J D Buksbazen Zen Meditation in Plain English WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1st edition 2002

[27] I Amihai and M Kozhevnikov ldquoArousal vs relaxation acomparison of the neurophysiological and cognitive correlatesof Vajrayana and Theravada meditative practicesrdquo PLoS ONEvol 9 no 7 Article ID e102990 2014

[28] M Kozhevnikov J Elliott J Shephard and K Gramann ldquoNeu-rocognitive and somatic components of temperature increasesduring g-Tummo meditation legend and realityrdquo PLoS ONEvol 8 no 3 Article ID e58244 2013

[29] M Kozhevnikov O Louchakova Z Josipovic and M AMotes ldquoThe enhancement of visuospatial processing efficiencythrough buddhist deity meditationrdquo Psychological Science vol20 no 5 pp 645ndash653 2009

[30] A J CammMMalik J T Bigger G Breithardt S Cerutti andR J Cohen ldquoHeart rate variabilitymdashstandards of measurementphysiological interpretation and clinical userdquo Circulation vol93 no 5 pp 1043ndash1065 1996

[31] G F Chess R M K Tam and F R Calaresu ldquoInfluence ofcardiac neural inputs on rhythmic variations of heart period inthe catrdquoAmerican Journal of Physiology vol 228 no 3 pp 775ndash780 1975

[32] M N Levy ldquoSympathetic-parasympathetic interactions in theheartrdquo Circulation Research vol 29 no 5 pp 437ndash445 1971

[33] N Weinbach and A Henik ldquoPhasic alertness can modulateexecutive control by enhancing global processing of visualstimulirdquo Cognition vol 121 no 3 pp 454ndash458 2011

BioMed Research International 11

[34] W Sturm A de Simone B J Krause et al ldquoFunctional anatomyof intrinsic alertness evidence for a fronto-parietal-thalamic-brainstem network in the right hemisphererdquo Neuropsychologiavol 37 no 7 pp 797ndash805 1999

[35] P Low ldquoAutonomic nervous systemrdquo in The Merck ManualR S Porter and J L Kaplan Eds Merck Sharp amp DohmeWhitehouse Station NJ USA 2013

[36] G E Billman ldquoThe LFHF ratio does not accurately measurecardiac sympatho-vagal balancerdquo Frontiers in Physiology vol 4article 26 2013

[37] G G Berntson J T Bigger Jr D L Eckberg et al ldquoHeartrate variability origins methods and interpretive caveatsrdquoPsychophysiology vol 34 no 6 pp 623ndash648 1997

[38] K Molgaard K Hermansen and P Bjerregaard ldquoSpectralcomponents of short-term RR interval variability in healthysubjects and effects of risk factorsrdquo European Heart Journal vol15 no 9 pp 1174ndash1183 1994

[39] J T Bigger Jr J L Fleiss L M Rolnitzky and R C SteinmanldquoStability over time of heart period variability in patients withprevious myocardial infarction and ventricular arrhythmiasrdquoAmerican Journal of Cardiology vol 69 no 8 pp 718ndash723 1992

[40] K M Stein J S Borer C Hochreiter et al ldquoPrognostic valueand physiological correlates of heart rate variability in chronicsevere mitral regurgitationrdquo Circulation vol 88 no 1 pp 127ndash135 1993

[41] A Malliani M Pagani F Lombardi and S Cerutti ldquoCardio-vascular neural regulation explored in the frequency domainrdquoCirculation vol 84 no 2 pp 482ndash492 1991

[42] M V Kamath and E L Fallen ldquoPower spectral analysis of heartrate variability a noninvasive signature of cardiac autonomicfunctionrdquoCritical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering vol 21 no3 pp 245ndash311 1993

[43] O Rimoldi S Pierini A Ferrari S Cerutti M Pagani andA Malliani ldquoAnalysis of short-term oscillations of R-R andarterial pressure in conscious dogsrdquo The American Journal ofPhysiologymdashHeart and Circulatory Physiology vol 258 no 4pp H967ndashH976 1990

[44] N Montano T G Ruscone A Porta F Lombardi M Paganiand A Malliani ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart rate vari-ability to assess the changes in sympathovagal balance duringgraded orthostatic tiltrdquoCirculation vol 90 no 4 pp 1826ndash18311994

[45] S Akselrod D Gordon F A Ubel D C Shannon A CBerger and R J Cohen ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart ratefluctuation a quantitative probe of beat-to-beat cardiovascularcontrolrdquo Science vol 213 no 4504 pp 220ndash222 1981

[46] M L Appel R D Berger J P Saul J M Smith and R J CohenldquoBeat to beat variability in cardiovascular variables noise ormusicrdquo Journal of the American College of Cardiology vol 14no 5 pp 1139ndash1148 1989

[47] B Pomeranz R J Macaulay M A Caudill et al ldquoAssessment ofautonomic function in humans by heart rate spectral analysisrdquoThe American Journal of Physiology vol 248 no 1 pp H151ndashH153 1985

[48] F Morady W H Kou S D Nelson et al ldquoAccentuated antago-nism between beta-adrenergic and vagal effects on ventricularrefractoriness in humansrdquo Circulation vol 77 no 2 pp 289ndash297 1988

[49] D L Eckberg S KMohanty andM Raczkowska ldquoTrigeminal-baroreceptor reflex interactions modulate human cardiac vagalefferent activityrdquo Journal of Physiology vol 347 pp 75ndash83 1984

[50] F Yasuma and J-I Hayano ldquoRespiratory Sinus Arrhythmiawhy does the heartbeat synchronize with respiration rhythmrdquoChest vol 125 no 2 pp 683ndash690 2004

[51] P G Katona and F Jih ldquoRespiratory sinus arrhythmia nonin-vasive measure of parasympathetic cardiac controlrdquo Journal ofApplied Physiology vol 39 no 5 pp 801ndash805 1975

[52] F L Gobel L A Norstrom R R Nelson C R Jorgensen andY Wang ldquoThe rate-pressure product as an index of myocardialoxygen consumption during exercise in patients with anginapectorisrdquo Circulation vol 57 no 3 pp 549ndash556 1978

[53] H M Martini and E F Bartholomew Essentials of Anatomyand Physiology Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ USA 2ndedition 2001

[54] J A Gutrecht ldquoSympathetic skin responserdquo Journal of ClinicalNeurophysiology vol 11 no 5 pp 519ndash524 1994

[55] J Nedergaard T Bengtsson and B Cannon ldquoUnexpectedevidence for active brown adipose tissue in adult humansrdquoThe American Journal of PhysiologymdashEndocrinology andMetabolism vol 293 no 2 pp E444ndashE452 2007

[56] S F Morrison and W W Blessing ldquoCentral nervous systemregulation of body temperaturerdquo in Central Regulation of Auto-nomic Functions I J Llewellyn-Smith and A J M VerberneEds pp 1ndash34 Oxford Scholarship Online 2011

[57] L R Derogatis and N Melisaratos ldquoThe brief symptom inven-tory an introductory reportrdquo PsychologicalMedicine vol 13 no3 pp 595ndash605 1983

[58] M Horowitz N Adler and S Kegeles ldquoA scale for measuringthe occurrence of positive states of mind a preliminary reportrdquoPsychosomatic Medicine vol 50 no 5 pp 477ndash483 1988

[59] T W Robbins ldquoArousal systems and attentional processesrdquoBiological Psychology vol 45 no 1ndash3 pp 57ndash71 1997

[60] T W Robbins ldquoChemistry of the mind neurochemical mod-ulation of prefrontal cortical functionrdquo Journal of ComparativeNeurology vol 493 no 1 pp 140ndash146 2005

[61] R P Hasegawa A M Blitz N L Geller and M E GoldbergldquoNeurons inmonkey prefrontal cortex that track past or predictfuture performancerdquo Science vol 290 no 5497 pp 1786ndash17892000

[62] M I Posner ldquoMeasuring alertnessrdquo Annals of the New YorkAcademy of Sciences vol 1129 pp 193ndash199 2008

[63] W Sturm and K Willmes ldquoOn the functional neuroanatomyof intrinsic and phasic alertnessrdquo NeuroImage vol 14 no 1 ppS76ndashS84 2001

[64] S Sadaghiani R Scheeringa K Lehongre B Morillon A LGiraud and A Kleinschmidt ldquoIntrinsic connectivity networksalpha oscillations and tonic alertness a simultaneous elec-troencephalographyfunctional magnetic resonance imagingstudyrdquo The Journal of Neuroscience vol 30 no 30 pp 10243ndash10250 2010

[65] B Buddhaghosa Visuddhimagga The Path of Purificationtranslated byBNanamoli Buddhist Publication Society KandySri Lanka 4th edition 2010

[66] AWallaceTheAttention Revolution Unlocking the Power of theFocused Mind Wisdom Publications Somerville Mass USA2006

[67] B Bhikkhu The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha A Trans-lation of the Anguttara Nikaya Wisdom Publications BostonMass USA 2012

[68] S ZhiyiThe Essentials of Buddhist Meditation B Dharmamiratranslation Kalavinka Press Seattle Wash USA 2009

12 BioMed Research International

[69] G SamuelTheOrigins of Yoga and Tantra Indic Religions to theThirteenth Century vol 2013 Cambridge University Press NewDelhi India 2008

[70] K A Harper and R L Brown Eds The Roots of Tantra StateUniversity of New York Press New York NY USA 2002

[71] N Panchen and P W Gyalpo Perfect Conduct Ascertaining theThree Vows Wisdom Boston Mass USA 1999

[72] S RinpocheDzogchen and Padmasambhava Rigpa FellowshipSan Diego Calif USA 2nd edition 1990

[73] T Wangyal Wonders of the Natural Mind The Essence ofDzogchen in the Native Bon Tradition Snow Lion Ithaca NYUSA 1993

[74] D Goleman The Meditative Mind The Varieties of MeditativeExperience GP Putnamrsquos Sons New York NY USA 1996

[75] Tsong-Kha-Pa and G C MullinThe Six Yogas of Naropa SnowLion Publications Boston Mass USA 2005

[76] WY Evans-WentzTibetanYoga and Secret Doctorines PilgrimsPublishing Varanisa India 2002

[77] G H Mullin Readings on Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1997

[78] G H Mullin Tsongkhaparsquos Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1996

[79] I K TaimniThe Science of Yoga The Theosophical PublishingHouse Wheaton Ill USA 1961

[80] S Kripalvanand The Science of Meditation Sri DahyabhaiHirabhai Patel Bombay India 1977

[81] G FeuersteinThePhilosophy of Classical Yoga InnerTraditionsRochester NY USA 1996

[82] J D Nash and A Newberg ldquoToward a unifying taxonomy anddefinition for meditationrdquo Frontiers in Psychology vol 4 article806 2013

[83] M WalsheThe Long Discourses of the Buddha A Translation ofthe Digha Nikaya (Teachings of the Buddha) Wisdom Publica-tions Boston Mass USA 1995

[84] T U Rinpoche As It Is vol 2 Ranjung Yeshe PublicationsHong Kong 1999

[85] H Benson The Relaxation Response HyperCollins New YorkNY USA 1975

[86] S D Wu and P C Lo ldquoInward-attention meditation increasesparasympathetic activity a study based onheart rate variabilityrdquoBiomedical Research vol 29 no 5 pp 245ndash250 2008

[87] T Takahashi T Murata T Hamada et al ldquoChanges in EEGand autonomic nervous activity during meditation and theirassociation with personality traitsrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 55 no 2 pp 199ndash207 2005

[88] J Kabat-Zinn ldquoAn outpatient program in behavioral medicinefor chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulnessmeditation theoretical considerations and preliminary resultsrdquoGeneral Hospital Psychiatry vol 4 no 1 pp 33ndash47 1982

[89] B Nanamoli and B Bhikkhu ldquoSekha-patipada Sutta (thepractice for one in training)rdquo in The Middle Length Discoursesof the Buddha A New Translation of the Majjhima WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1995

[90] T Gyatso Stages of Meditation Snow Lion Publication IthacaNY USA 2001

[91] J A Brefczynski-Lewis A Lutz H S Schaefer D B Levinsonand R J Davidson ldquoNeural correlates of attentional expertise inlong-termmeditation practitionersrdquo Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences of the United States of America vol 104 no27 pp 11483ndash11488 2007

[92] Y-Y Tang Y Ma Y Fan et al ldquoCentral and autonomicnervous system interaction is altered by short-termmeditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 106 no 22 pp 8865ndash8870 2009

[93] B Ditto M Eclache and N Goldman ldquoShort-term autonomicand cardiovascular effects of mindfulness body scan medita-tionrdquo Annals of Behavioral Medicine vol 32 no 3 pp 227ndash2342006

[94] J R Krygier J A J Heathers S Shahrestani M Abbott J JGross and A H Kemp ldquoMindfulness meditation well-beingand heart rate variability a preliminary investigation into theimpact of intensive vipassanameditationrdquo International Journalof Psychophysiology vol 89 no 3 pp 305ndash313 2013

[95] J D Agee S Danoff-Burg and C A Grant ldquoComparingbrief stress management courses in a community samplemindfulness skills and progressive muscle relaxationrdquo Explorevol 5 no 2 pp 104ndash109 2009

[96] S Jain S L Shapiro S Swanick et al ldquoA randomized controlledtrial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation trainingeffects on distress positive states of mind rumination anddistractionrdquoAnnals of Behavioral Medicine vol 33 no 1 pp 11ndash21 2007

[97] C S Mackenzie P A Poulin and R Seidman-Carlson ldquoA briefmindfulness-based stress reduction intervention for nurses andnurse aidesrdquoAppliedNursing Research vol 19 no 2 pp 105ndash1092006

[98] O Singleton B K Holzel M Vangel N Brach J Carmody andS W Lazar ldquoChange in brainstem gray matter concentrationfollowing a mindfulness-based intervention is correlated withimprovement in psychological well-beingrdquo Frontiers in HumanNeuroscience vol 8 article 33 2014

[99] P Ekman R J Davidson M Ricard and B A WallaceldquoBuddhist and psychological perspectives on emotions andwell-beingrdquo Current Directions in Psychological Science vol 14no 2 pp 59ndash63 2005

[100] P Ekman and R J Davidson The Nature of Emotion Funda-mental Questions Series in Affective Science OxfordUniversityPress New York NY USA 1994

[101] R A Baer ldquoMindfulness training as a clinical intervention aconceptual and empirical reviewrdquo Clinical Psychology Scienceand Practice vol 10 no 2 pp 125ndash143 2003

[102] C C Streeter P L Gerbarg R B Saper D A Ciraulo and RP Brown ldquoEffects of yoga on the autonomic nervous systemgamma-aminobutyric-acid and allostasis in epilepsy depres-sion and post-traumatic stress disorderrdquo Medical Hypothesesvol 78 no 5 pp 571ndash579 2012

[103] M Balasubramaniam S Telles and P M Doraiswamy ldquoYogaon our minds a systematic review of yoga for neuropsychiatricdisordersrdquo Frontiers in Psychiatry vol 3 article 117 2013

[104] S Telles and N Singh ldquoScience of the mind ancient yoga textsand modern studiesrdquo Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol36 no 1 pp 93ndash108 2013

[105] A Manna A Raffone M G Perrucci et al ldquoNeural correlatesof focused attention and cognitive monitoring in meditationrdquoBrain Research Bulletin vol 82 no 1-2 pp 46ndash56 2010

[106] M Allen M Dietz K S Blair et al ldquoCognitive-affectiveneural plasticity following active-controlled mindfulness inter-ventionrdquoThe Journal of Neuroscience vol 32 no 44 pp 15601ndash15610 2012

[107] T Gard B K Holzel A T Sack et al ldquoPain attenuation throughmindfulness is associated with decreased cognitive control and

BioMed Research International 13

increased sensory processing in the brainrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol22 no 11 pp 2692ndash2702 2012

[108] B K Holzel U Ott T Gard et al ldquoInvestigation of mindful-ness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometryrdquoSocial Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 3 no 1 pp 55ndash61 2008

[109] N A S Farb A K Anderson HMayberg J Bean DMcKeonand Z V Segal ldquoMinding onersquos emotions mindfulness trainingalters the neural expression of sadnessrdquo Emotion vol 10 no 1pp 25ndash33 2010

[110] G Pagnoni and M Cekic ldquoAge effects on gray matter volumeand attentional performance in Zen meditationrdquo Neurobiologyof Aging vol 28 no 10 pp 1623ndash1627 2007

[111] X Yu M Fumoto Y Nakatani et al ldquoActivation of theanterior prefrontal cortex and serotonergic system is associatedwith improvements in mood and EEG changes induced byZen meditation practice in novicesrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 80 no 2 pp 103ndash111 2011

[112] N A S Farb Z V Segal H Mayberg et al ldquoAttending to thepresent mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modesof self-referencerdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neurosciencevol 2 no 4 pp 313ndash322 2007

[113] A Berkovich-Ohana J Glicksohn and A GoldsteinldquoMindfulness-induced changes in gamma band activitymdashimplications for the default mode network self-reference andattentionrdquo Clinical Neurophysiology vol 123 no 4 pp 700ndash7102012

[114] J A Brewer P D Worhunsky J R Gray Y-Y Tang JWeber andH Kober ldquoMeditation experience is associated withdifferences in default mode network activity and connectivityrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 108 no 50 pp 20254ndash20259 2011

[115] D A Gusnard and M E Raichle ldquoSearching for a baselinefunctional imaging and the resting human brainrdquo NatureReviews Neuroscience vol 2 no 10 pp 685ndash694 2001

[116] M E Raichle A M MacLeod A Z Snyder W J Powers D AGusnard andG L Shulman ldquoAdefaultmode of brain functionrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 98 no 2 pp 676ndash682 2001

[117] M E Raichle and A Z Snyder ldquoA default mode of brainfunction a brief history of an evolving ideardquo NeuroImage vol37 no 4 pp 1083ndash1090 2007

[118] R L Buckner J R Andrews-Hanna and D L Schacter ldquoThebrainrsquos default network anatomy function and relevance todiseaserdquo Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences vol 1124pp 1ndash38 2008

[119] A P Jha J Krompinger and M J Baime ldquoMindfulnesstraining modifies subsystems of attentionrdquo Cognitive Affectiveand Behavioral Neuroscience vol 7 no 2 pp 109ndash119 2007

[120] K A MacLean E Ferrer S R Aichele et al ldquoIntensivemeditation training improves perceptual discrimination andsustained attentionrdquo Psychological Science vol 21 no 6 pp829ndash839 2010

[121] J C Corby W T Roth V P Zarcone Jr and B S KopellldquoPsychophysiological correlates of the practice of Tantric Yogameditationrdquo Archives of General Psychiatry vol 35 no 5 pp571ndash577 1978

[122] S Telles and T Desiraju ldquoAutonomic changes in Brahmaku-maris Raja yoga meditationrdquo International Journal of Psy-chophysiology vol 15 no 2 pp 147ndash152 1993

[123] L MMVirtual Design Imagery Testing Battery [Computer Soft-ware] Newark NJ USA 2004

[124] H Benson M S Malhotra R F Goldman G D Jacobsand P J Hopkins ldquoThree case reports of the metabolic andelectroencephalographic changes during advanced buddhistmeditation techniquesrdquo Behavioral Medicine vol 16 no 2 pp90ndash95 1990

[125] H Benson J W Lehmann M S Malhotra R F Goldman JHopkins andMD Epstein ldquoBody temperature changes duringthe practice of g Tum-mo yogardquo Nature vol 295 no 5846 pp234ndash236 1982

[126] Y-Y Tang Q Lu M Fan Y Yang and M I PosnerldquoMechanisms of white matter changes induced by meditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 109 no 26 pp 10570ndash10574 2012

[127] P Raghuraj and S Telles ldquoImmediate effect of specific nostrilmanipulating yoga breathing practices on autonomic and respi-ratory variablesrdquo Applied Psychophysiology Biofeedback vol 33no 2 pp 65ndash75 2008

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Anatomy Research International

PeptidesInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Molecular Biology International

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioinformaticsAdvances in

Marine BiologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Signal TransductionJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Biochemistry Research International

ArchaeaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Genetics Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Advances in

Virolog y

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Nucleic AcidsJournal of

Volume 2014

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Enzyme Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Page 11: Review Article The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2015/731579.pdf · 2019-07-31 · Review Article The Influence of Buddhist

BioMed Research International 11

[34] W Sturm A de Simone B J Krause et al ldquoFunctional anatomyof intrinsic alertness evidence for a fronto-parietal-thalamic-brainstem network in the right hemisphererdquo Neuropsychologiavol 37 no 7 pp 797ndash805 1999

[35] P Low ldquoAutonomic nervous systemrdquo in The Merck ManualR S Porter and J L Kaplan Eds Merck Sharp amp DohmeWhitehouse Station NJ USA 2013

[36] G E Billman ldquoThe LFHF ratio does not accurately measurecardiac sympatho-vagal balancerdquo Frontiers in Physiology vol 4article 26 2013

[37] G G Berntson J T Bigger Jr D L Eckberg et al ldquoHeartrate variability origins methods and interpretive caveatsrdquoPsychophysiology vol 34 no 6 pp 623ndash648 1997

[38] K Molgaard K Hermansen and P Bjerregaard ldquoSpectralcomponents of short-term RR interval variability in healthysubjects and effects of risk factorsrdquo European Heart Journal vol15 no 9 pp 1174ndash1183 1994

[39] J T Bigger Jr J L Fleiss L M Rolnitzky and R C SteinmanldquoStability over time of heart period variability in patients withprevious myocardial infarction and ventricular arrhythmiasrdquoAmerican Journal of Cardiology vol 69 no 8 pp 718ndash723 1992

[40] K M Stein J S Borer C Hochreiter et al ldquoPrognostic valueand physiological correlates of heart rate variability in chronicsevere mitral regurgitationrdquo Circulation vol 88 no 1 pp 127ndash135 1993

[41] A Malliani M Pagani F Lombardi and S Cerutti ldquoCardio-vascular neural regulation explored in the frequency domainrdquoCirculation vol 84 no 2 pp 482ndash492 1991

[42] M V Kamath and E L Fallen ldquoPower spectral analysis of heartrate variability a noninvasive signature of cardiac autonomicfunctionrdquoCritical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering vol 21 no3 pp 245ndash311 1993

[43] O Rimoldi S Pierini A Ferrari S Cerutti M Pagani andA Malliani ldquoAnalysis of short-term oscillations of R-R andarterial pressure in conscious dogsrdquo The American Journal ofPhysiologymdashHeart and Circulatory Physiology vol 258 no 4pp H967ndashH976 1990

[44] N Montano T G Ruscone A Porta F Lombardi M Paganiand A Malliani ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart rate vari-ability to assess the changes in sympathovagal balance duringgraded orthostatic tiltrdquoCirculation vol 90 no 4 pp 1826ndash18311994

[45] S Akselrod D Gordon F A Ubel D C Shannon A CBerger and R J Cohen ldquoPower spectrum analysis of heart ratefluctuation a quantitative probe of beat-to-beat cardiovascularcontrolrdquo Science vol 213 no 4504 pp 220ndash222 1981

[46] M L Appel R D Berger J P Saul J M Smith and R J CohenldquoBeat to beat variability in cardiovascular variables noise ormusicrdquo Journal of the American College of Cardiology vol 14no 5 pp 1139ndash1148 1989

[47] B Pomeranz R J Macaulay M A Caudill et al ldquoAssessment ofautonomic function in humans by heart rate spectral analysisrdquoThe American Journal of Physiology vol 248 no 1 pp H151ndashH153 1985

[48] F Morady W H Kou S D Nelson et al ldquoAccentuated antago-nism between beta-adrenergic and vagal effects on ventricularrefractoriness in humansrdquo Circulation vol 77 no 2 pp 289ndash297 1988

[49] D L Eckberg S KMohanty andM Raczkowska ldquoTrigeminal-baroreceptor reflex interactions modulate human cardiac vagalefferent activityrdquo Journal of Physiology vol 347 pp 75ndash83 1984

[50] F Yasuma and J-I Hayano ldquoRespiratory Sinus Arrhythmiawhy does the heartbeat synchronize with respiration rhythmrdquoChest vol 125 no 2 pp 683ndash690 2004

[51] P G Katona and F Jih ldquoRespiratory sinus arrhythmia nonin-vasive measure of parasympathetic cardiac controlrdquo Journal ofApplied Physiology vol 39 no 5 pp 801ndash805 1975

[52] F L Gobel L A Norstrom R R Nelson C R Jorgensen andY Wang ldquoThe rate-pressure product as an index of myocardialoxygen consumption during exercise in patients with anginapectorisrdquo Circulation vol 57 no 3 pp 549ndash556 1978

[53] H M Martini and E F Bartholomew Essentials of Anatomyand Physiology Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs NJ USA 2ndedition 2001

[54] J A Gutrecht ldquoSympathetic skin responserdquo Journal of ClinicalNeurophysiology vol 11 no 5 pp 519ndash524 1994

[55] J Nedergaard T Bengtsson and B Cannon ldquoUnexpectedevidence for active brown adipose tissue in adult humansrdquoThe American Journal of PhysiologymdashEndocrinology andMetabolism vol 293 no 2 pp E444ndashE452 2007

[56] S F Morrison and W W Blessing ldquoCentral nervous systemregulation of body temperaturerdquo in Central Regulation of Auto-nomic Functions I J Llewellyn-Smith and A J M VerberneEds pp 1ndash34 Oxford Scholarship Online 2011

[57] L R Derogatis and N Melisaratos ldquoThe brief symptom inven-tory an introductory reportrdquo PsychologicalMedicine vol 13 no3 pp 595ndash605 1983

[58] M Horowitz N Adler and S Kegeles ldquoA scale for measuringthe occurrence of positive states of mind a preliminary reportrdquoPsychosomatic Medicine vol 50 no 5 pp 477ndash483 1988

[59] T W Robbins ldquoArousal systems and attentional processesrdquoBiological Psychology vol 45 no 1ndash3 pp 57ndash71 1997

[60] T W Robbins ldquoChemistry of the mind neurochemical mod-ulation of prefrontal cortical functionrdquo Journal of ComparativeNeurology vol 493 no 1 pp 140ndash146 2005

[61] R P Hasegawa A M Blitz N L Geller and M E GoldbergldquoNeurons inmonkey prefrontal cortex that track past or predictfuture performancerdquo Science vol 290 no 5497 pp 1786ndash17892000

[62] M I Posner ldquoMeasuring alertnessrdquo Annals of the New YorkAcademy of Sciences vol 1129 pp 193ndash199 2008

[63] W Sturm and K Willmes ldquoOn the functional neuroanatomyof intrinsic and phasic alertnessrdquo NeuroImage vol 14 no 1 ppS76ndashS84 2001

[64] S Sadaghiani R Scheeringa K Lehongre B Morillon A LGiraud and A Kleinschmidt ldquoIntrinsic connectivity networksalpha oscillations and tonic alertness a simultaneous elec-troencephalographyfunctional magnetic resonance imagingstudyrdquo The Journal of Neuroscience vol 30 no 30 pp 10243ndash10250 2010

[65] B Buddhaghosa Visuddhimagga The Path of Purificationtranslated byBNanamoli Buddhist Publication Society KandySri Lanka 4th edition 2010

[66] AWallaceTheAttention Revolution Unlocking the Power of theFocused Mind Wisdom Publications Somerville Mass USA2006

[67] B Bhikkhu The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha A Trans-lation of the Anguttara Nikaya Wisdom Publications BostonMass USA 2012

[68] S ZhiyiThe Essentials of Buddhist Meditation B Dharmamiratranslation Kalavinka Press Seattle Wash USA 2009

12 BioMed Research International

[69] G SamuelTheOrigins of Yoga and Tantra Indic Religions to theThirteenth Century vol 2013 Cambridge University Press NewDelhi India 2008

[70] K A Harper and R L Brown Eds The Roots of Tantra StateUniversity of New York Press New York NY USA 2002

[71] N Panchen and P W Gyalpo Perfect Conduct Ascertaining theThree Vows Wisdom Boston Mass USA 1999

[72] S RinpocheDzogchen and Padmasambhava Rigpa FellowshipSan Diego Calif USA 2nd edition 1990

[73] T Wangyal Wonders of the Natural Mind The Essence ofDzogchen in the Native Bon Tradition Snow Lion Ithaca NYUSA 1993

[74] D Goleman The Meditative Mind The Varieties of MeditativeExperience GP Putnamrsquos Sons New York NY USA 1996

[75] Tsong-Kha-Pa and G C MullinThe Six Yogas of Naropa SnowLion Publications Boston Mass USA 2005

[76] WY Evans-WentzTibetanYoga and Secret Doctorines PilgrimsPublishing Varanisa India 2002

[77] G H Mullin Readings on Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1997

[78] G H Mullin Tsongkhaparsquos Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1996

[79] I K TaimniThe Science of Yoga The Theosophical PublishingHouse Wheaton Ill USA 1961

[80] S Kripalvanand The Science of Meditation Sri DahyabhaiHirabhai Patel Bombay India 1977

[81] G FeuersteinThePhilosophy of Classical Yoga InnerTraditionsRochester NY USA 1996

[82] J D Nash and A Newberg ldquoToward a unifying taxonomy anddefinition for meditationrdquo Frontiers in Psychology vol 4 article806 2013

[83] M WalsheThe Long Discourses of the Buddha A Translation ofthe Digha Nikaya (Teachings of the Buddha) Wisdom Publica-tions Boston Mass USA 1995

[84] T U Rinpoche As It Is vol 2 Ranjung Yeshe PublicationsHong Kong 1999

[85] H Benson The Relaxation Response HyperCollins New YorkNY USA 1975

[86] S D Wu and P C Lo ldquoInward-attention meditation increasesparasympathetic activity a study based onheart rate variabilityrdquoBiomedical Research vol 29 no 5 pp 245ndash250 2008

[87] T Takahashi T Murata T Hamada et al ldquoChanges in EEGand autonomic nervous activity during meditation and theirassociation with personality traitsrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 55 no 2 pp 199ndash207 2005

[88] J Kabat-Zinn ldquoAn outpatient program in behavioral medicinefor chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulnessmeditation theoretical considerations and preliminary resultsrdquoGeneral Hospital Psychiatry vol 4 no 1 pp 33ndash47 1982

[89] B Nanamoli and B Bhikkhu ldquoSekha-patipada Sutta (thepractice for one in training)rdquo in The Middle Length Discoursesof the Buddha A New Translation of the Majjhima WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1995

[90] T Gyatso Stages of Meditation Snow Lion Publication IthacaNY USA 2001

[91] J A Brefczynski-Lewis A Lutz H S Schaefer D B Levinsonand R J Davidson ldquoNeural correlates of attentional expertise inlong-termmeditation practitionersrdquo Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences of the United States of America vol 104 no27 pp 11483ndash11488 2007

[92] Y-Y Tang Y Ma Y Fan et al ldquoCentral and autonomicnervous system interaction is altered by short-termmeditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 106 no 22 pp 8865ndash8870 2009

[93] B Ditto M Eclache and N Goldman ldquoShort-term autonomicand cardiovascular effects of mindfulness body scan medita-tionrdquo Annals of Behavioral Medicine vol 32 no 3 pp 227ndash2342006

[94] J R Krygier J A J Heathers S Shahrestani M Abbott J JGross and A H Kemp ldquoMindfulness meditation well-beingand heart rate variability a preliminary investigation into theimpact of intensive vipassanameditationrdquo International Journalof Psychophysiology vol 89 no 3 pp 305ndash313 2013

[95] J D Agee S Danoff-Burg and C A Grant ldquoComparingbrief stress management courses in a community samplemindfulness skills and progressive muscle relaxationrdquo Explorevol 5 no 2 pp 104ndash109 2009

[96] S Jain S L Shapiro S Swanick et al ldquoA randomized controlledtrial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation trainingeffects on distress positive states of mind rumination anddistractionrdquoAnnals of Behavioral Medicine vol 33 no 1 pp 11ndash21 2007

[97] C S Mackenzie P A Poulin and R Seidman-Carlson ldquoA briefmindfulness-based stress reduction intervention for nurses andnurse aidesrdquoAppliedNursing Research vol 19 no 2 pp 105ndash1092006

[98] O Singleton B K Holzel M Vangel N Brach J Carmody andS W Lazar ldquoChange in brainstem gray matter concentrationfollowing a mindfulness-based intervention is correlated withimprovement in psychological well-beingrdquo Frontiers in HumanNeuroscience vol 8 article 33 2014

[99] P Ekman R J Davidson M Ricard and B A WallaceldquoBuddhist and psychological perspectives on emotions andwell-beingrdquo Current Directions in Psychological Science vol 14no 2 pp 59ndash63 2005

[100] P Ekman and R J Davidson The Nature of Emotion Funda-mental Questions Series in Affective Science OxfordUniversityPress New York NY USA 1994

[101] R A Baer ldquoMindfulness training as a clinical intervention aconceptual and empirical reviewrdquo Clinical Psychology Scienceand Practice vol 10 no 2 pp 125ndash143 2003

[102] C C Streeter P L Gerbarg R B Saper D A Ciraulo and RP Brown ldquoEffects of yoga on the autonomic nervous systemgamma-aminobutyric-acid and allostasis in epilepsy depres-sion and post-traumatic stress disorderrdquo Medical Hypothesesvol 78 no 5 pp 571ndash579 2012

[103] M Balasubramaniam S Telles and P M Doraiswamy ldquoYogaon our minds a systematic review of yoga for neuropsychiatricdisordersrdquo Frontiers in Psychiatry vol 3 article 117 2013

[104] S Telles and N Singh ldquoScience of the mind ancient yoga textsand modern studiesrdquo Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol36 no 1 pp 93ndash108 2013

[105] A Manna A Raffone M G Perrucci et al ldquoNeural correlatesof focused attention and cognitive monitoring in meditationrdquoBrain Research Bulletin vol 82 no 1-2 pp 46ndash56 2010

[106] M Allen M Dietz K S Blair et al ldquoCognitive-affectiveneural plasticity following active-controlled mindfulness inter-ventionrdquoThe Journal of Neuroscience vol 32 no 44 pp 15601ndash15610 2012

[107] T Gard B K Holzel A T Sack et al ldquoPain attenuation throughmindfulness is associated with decreased cognitive control and

BioMed Research International 13

increased sensory processing in the brainrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol22 no 11 pp 2692ndash2702 2012

[108] B K Holzel U Ott T Gard et al ldquoInvestigation of mindful-ness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometryrdquoSocial Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 3 no 1 pp 55ndash61 2008

[109] N A S Farb A K Anderson HMayberg J Bean DMcKeonand Z V Segal ldquoMinding onersquos emotions mindfulness trainingalters the neural expression of sadnessrdquo Emotion vol 10 no 1pp 25ndash33 2010

[110] G Pagnoni and M Cekic ldquoAge effects on gray matter volumeand attentional performance in Zen meditationrdquo Neurobiologyof Aging vol 28 no 10 pp 1623ndash1627 2007

[111] X Yu M Fumoto Y Nakatani et al ldquoActivation of theanterior prefrontal cortex and serotonergic system is associatedwith improvements in mood and EEG changes induced byZen meditation practice in novicesrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 80 no 2 pp 103ndash111 2011

[112] N A S Farb Z V Segal H Mayberg et al ldquoAttending to thepresent mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modesof self-referencerdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neurosciencevol 2 no 4 pp 313ndash322 2007

[113] A Berkovich-Ohana J Glicksohn and A GoldsteinldquoMindfulness-induced changes in gamma band activitymdashimplications for the default mode network self-reference andattentionrdquo Clinical Neurophysiology vol 123 no 4 pp 700ndash7102012

[114] J A Brewer P D Worhunsky J R Gray Y-Y Tang JWeber andH Kober ldquoMeditation experience is associated withdifferences in default mode network activity and connectivityrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 108 no 50 pp 20254ndash20259 2011

[115] D A Gusnard and M E Raichle ldquoSearching for a baselinefunctional imaging and the resting human brainrdquo NatureReviews Neuroscience vol 2 no 10 pp 685ndash694 2001

[116] M E Raichle A M MacLeod A Z Snyder W J Powers D AGusnard andG L Shulman ldquoAdefaultmode of brain functionrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 98 no 2 pp 676ndash682 2001

[117] M E Raichle and A Z Snyder ldquoA default mode of brainfunction a brief history of an evolving ideardquo NeuroImage vol37 no 4 pp 1083ndash1090 2007

[118] R L Buckner J R Andrews-Hanna and D L Schacter ldquoThebrainrsquos default network anatomy function and relevance todiseaserdquo Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences vol 1124pp 1ndash38 2008

[119] A P Jha J Krompinger and M J Baime ldquoMindfulnesstraining modifies subsystems of attentionrdquo Cognitive Affectiveand Behavioral Neuroscience vol 7 no 2 pp 109ndash119 2007

[120] K A MacLean E Ferrer S R Aichele et al ldquoIntensivemeditation training improves perceptual discrimination andsustained attentionrdquo Psychological Science vol 21 no 6 pp829ndash839 2010

[121] J C Corby W T Roth V P Zarcone Jr and B S KopellldquoPsychophysiological correlates of the practice of Tantric Yogameditationrdquo Archives of General Psychiatry vol 35 no 5 pp571ndash577 1978

[122] S Telles and T Desiraju ldquoAutonomic changes in Brahmaku-maris Raja yoga meditationrdquo International Journal of Psy-chophysiology vol 15 no 2 pp 147ndash152 1993

[123] L MMVirtual Design Imagery Testing Battery [Computer Soft-ware] Newark NJ USA 2004

[124] H Benson M S Malhotra R F Goldman G D Jacobsand P J Hopkins ldquoThree case reports of the metabolic andelectroencephalographic changes during advanced buddhistmeditation techniquesrdquo Behavioral Medicine vol 16 no 2 pp90ndash95 1990

[125] H Benson J W Lehmann M S Malhotra R F Goldman JHopkins andMD Epstein ldquoBody temperature changes duringthe practice of g Tum-mo yogardquo Nature vol 295 no 5846 pp234ndash236 1982

[126] Y-Y Tang Q Lu M Fan Y Yang and M I PosnerldquoMechanisms of white matter changes induced by meditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 109 no 26 pp 10570ndash10574 2012

[127] P Raghuraj and S Telles ldquoImmediate effect of specific nostrilmanipulating yoga breathing practices on autonomic and respi-ratory variablesrdquo Applied Psychophysiology Biofeedback vol 33no 2 pp 65ndash75 2008

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Anatomy Research International

PeptidesInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Molecular Biology International

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioinformaticsAdvances in

Marine BiologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Signal TransductionJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Biochemistry Research International

ArchaeaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Genetics Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Advances in

Virolog y

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Nucleic AcidsJournal of

Volume 2014

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Enzyme Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Page 12: Review Article The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2015/731579.pdf · 2019-07-31 · Review Article The Influence of Buddhist

12 BioMed Research International

[69] G SamuelTheOrigins of Yoga and Tantra Indic Religions to theThirteenth Century vol 2013 Cambridge University Press NewDelhi India 2008

[70] K A Harper and R L Brown Eds The Roots of Tantra StateUniversity of New York Press New York NY USA 2002

[71] N Panchen and P W Gyalpo Perfect Conduct Ascertaining theThree Vows Wisdom Boston Mass USA 1999

[72] S RinpocheDzogchen and Padmasambhava Rigpa FellowshipSan Diego Calif USA 2nd edition 1990

[73] T Wangyal Wonders of the Natural Mind The Essence ofDzogchen in the Native Bon Tradition Snow Lion Ithaca NYUSA 1993

[74] D Goleman The Meditative Mind The Varieties of MeditativeExperience GP Putnamrsquos Sons New York NY USA 1996

[75] Tsong-Kha-Pa and G C MullinThe Six Yogas of Naropa SnowLion Publications Boston Mass USA 2005

[76] WY Evans-WentzTibetanYoga and Secret Doctorines PilgrimsPublishing Varanisa India 2002

[77] G H Mullin Readings on Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1997

[78] G H Mullin Tsongkhaparsquos Six Yogas of Naropa Snow LionPublication Ithaca NY USA 1996

[79] I K TaimniThe Science of Yoga The Theosophical PublishingHouse Wheaton Ill USA 1961

[80] S Kripalvanand The Science of Meditation Sri DahyabhaiHirabhai Patel Bombay India 1977

[81] G FeuersteinThePhilosophy of Classical Yoga InnerTraditionsRochester NY USA 1996

[82] J D Nash and A Newberg ldquoToward a unifying taxonomy anddefinition for meditationrdquo Frontiers in Psychology vol 4 article806 2013

[83] M WalsheThe Long Discourses of the Buddha A Translation ofthe Digha Nikaya (Teachings of the Buddha) Wisdom Publica-tions Boston Mass USA 1995

[84] T U Rinpoche As It Is vol 2 Ranjung Yeshe PublicationsHong Kong 1999

[85] H Benson The Relaxation Response HyperCollins New YorkNY USA 1975

[86] S D Wu and P C Lo ldquoInward-attention meditation increasesparasympathetic activity a study based onheart rate variabilityrdquoBiomedical Research vol 29 no 5 pp 245ndash250 2008

[87] T Takahashi T Murata T Hamada et al ldquoChanges in EEGand autonomic nervous activity during meditation and theirassociation with personality traitsrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 55 no 2 pp 199ndash207 2005

[88] J Kabat-Zinn ldquoAn outpatient program in behavioral medicinefor chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulnessmeditation theoretical considerations and preliminary resultsrdquoGeneral Hospital Psychiatry vol 4 no 1 pp 33ndash47 1982

[89] B Nanamoli and B Bhikkhu ldquoSekha-patipada Sutta (thepractice for one in training)rdquo in The Middle Length Discoursesof the Buddha A New Translation of the Majjhima WisdomPublications Boston Mass USA 1995

[90] T Gyatso Stages of Meditation Snow Lion Publication IthacaNY USA 2001

[91] J A Brefczynski-Lewis A Lutz H S Schaefer D B Levinsonand R J Davidson ldquoNeural correlates of attentional expertise inlong-termmeditation practitionersrdquo Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Sciences of the United States of America vol 104 no27 pp 11483ndash11488 2007

[92] Y-Y Tang Y Ma Y Fan et al ldquoCentral and autonomicnervous system interaction is altered by short-termmeditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 106 no 22 pp 8865ndash8870 2009

[93] B Ditto M Eclache and N Goldman ldquoShort-term autonomicand cardiovascular effects of mindfulness body scan medita-tionrdquo Annals of Behavioral Medicine vol 32 no 3 pp 227ndash2342006

[94] J R Krygier J A J Heathers S Shahrestani M Abbott J JGross and A H Kemp ldquoMindfulness meditation well-beingand heart rate variability a preliminary investigation into theimpact of intensive vipassanameditationrdquo International Journalof Psychophysiology vol 89 no 3 pp 305ndash313 2013

[95] J D Agee S Danoff-Burg and C A Grant ldquoComparingbrief stress management courses in a community samplemindfulness skills and progressive muscle relaxationrdquo Explorevol 5 no 2 pp 104ndash109 2009

[96] S Jain S L Shapiro S Swanick et al ldquoA randomized controlledtrial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation trainingeffects on distress positive states of mind rumination anddistractionrdquoAnnals of Behavioral Medicine vol 33 no 1 pp 11ndash21 2007

[97] C S Mackenzie P A Poulin and R Seidman-Carlson ldquoA briefmindfulness-based stress reduction intervention for nurses andnurse aidesrdquoAppliedNursing Research vol 19 no 2 pp 105ndash1092006

[98] O Singleton B K Holzel M Vangel N Brach J Carmody andS W Lazar ldquoChange in brainstem gray matter concentrationfollowing a mindfulness-based intervention is correlated withimprovement in psychological well-beingrdquo Frontiers in HumanNeuroscience vol 8 article 33 2014

[99] P Ekman R J Davidson M Ricard and B A WallaceldquoBuddhist and psychological perspectives on emotions andwell-beingrdquo Current Directions in Psychological Science vol 14no 2 pp 59ndash63 2005

[100] P Ekman and R J Davidson The Nature of Emotion Funda-mental Questions Series in Affective Science OxfordUniversityPress New York NY USA 1994

[101] R A Baer ldquoMindfulness training as a clinical intervention aconceptual and empirical reviewrdquo Clinical Psychology Scienceand Practice vol 10 no 2 pp 125ndash143 2003

[102] C C Streeter P L Gerbarg R B Saper D A Ciraulo and RP Brown ldquoEffects of yoga on the autonomic nervous systemgamma-aminobutyric-acid and allostasis in epilepsy depres-sion and post-traumatic stress disorderrdquo Medical Hypothesesvol 78 no 5 pp 571ndash579 2012

[103] M Balasubramaniam S Telles and P M Doraiswamy ldquoYogaon our minds a systematic review of yoga for neuropsychiatricdisordersrdquo Frontiers in Psychiatry vol 3 article 117 2013

[104] S Telles and N Singh ldquoScience of the mind ancient yoga textsand modern studiesrdquo Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol36 no 1 pp 93ndash108 2013

[105] A Manna A Raffone M G Perrucci et al ldquoNeural correlatesof focused attention and cognitive monitoring in meditationrdquoBrain Research Bulletin vol 82 no 1-2 pp 46ndash56 2010

[106] M Allen M Dietz K S Blair et al ldquoCognitive-affectiveneural plasticity following active-controlled mindfulness inter-ventionrdquoThe Journal of Neuroscience vol 32 no 44 pp 15601ndash15610 2012

[107] T Gard B K Holzel A T Sack et al ldquoPain attenuation throughmindfulness is associated with decreased cognitive control and

BioMed Research International 13

increased sensory processing in the brainrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol22 no 11 pp 2692ndash2702 2012

[108] B K Holzel U Ott T Gard et al ldquoInvestigation of mindful-ness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometryrdquoSocial Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 3 no 1 pp 55ndash61 2008

[109] N A S Farb A K Anderson HMayberg J Bean DMcKeonand Z V Segal ldquoMinding onersquos emotions mindfulness trainingalters the neural expression of sadnessrdquo Emotion vol 10 no 1pp 25ndash33 2010

[110] G Pagnoni and M Cekic ldquoAge effects on gray matter volumeand attentional performance in Zen meditationrdquo Neurobiologyof Aging vol 28 no 10 pp 1623ndash1627 2007

[111] X Yu M Fumoto Y Nakatani et al ldquoActivation of theanterior prefrontal cortex and serotonergic system is associatedwith improvements in mood and EEG changes induced byZen meditation practice in novicesrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 80 no 2 pp 103ndash111 2011

[112] N A S Farb Z V Segal H Mayberg et al ldquoAttending to thepresent mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modesof self-referencerdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neurosciencevol 2 no 4 pp 313ndash322 2007

[113] A Berkovich-Ohana J Glicksohn and A GoldsteinldquoMindfulness-induced changes in gamma band activitymdashimplications for the default mode network self-reference andattentionrdquo Clinical Neurophysiology vol 123 no 4 pp 700ndash7102012

[114] J A Brewer P D Worhunsky J R Gray Y-Y Tang JWeber andH Kober ldquoMeditation experience is associated withdifferences in default mode network activity and connectivityrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 108 no 50 pp 20254ndash20259 2011

[115] D A Gusnard and M E Raichle ldquoSearching for a baselinefunctional imaging and the resting human brainrdquo NatureReviews Neuroscience vol 2 no 10 pp 685ndash694 2001

[116] M E Raichle A M MacLeod A Z Snyder W J Powers D AGusnard andG L Shulman ldquoAdefaultmode of brain functionrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 98 no 2 pp 676ndash682 2001

[117] M E Raichle and A Z Snyder ldquoA default mode of brainfunction a brief history of an evolving ideardquo NeuroImage vol37 no 4 pp 1083ndash1090 2007

[118] R L Buckner J R Andrews-Hanna and D L Schacter ldquoThebrainrsquos default network anatomy function and relevance todiseaserdquo Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences vol 1124pp 1ndash38 2008

[119] A P Jha J Krompinger and M J Baime ldquoMindfulnesstraining modifies subsystems of attentionrdquo Cognitive Affectiveand Behavioral Neuroscience vol 7 no 2 pp 109ndash119 2007

[120] K A MacLean E Ferrer S R Aichele et al ldquoIntensivemeditation training improves perceptual discrimination andsustained attentionrdquo Psychological Science vol 21 no 6 pp829ndash839 2010

[121] J C Corby W T Roth V P Zarcone Jr and B S KopellldquoPsychophysiological correlates of the practice of Tantric Yogameditationrdquo Archives of General Psychiatry vol 35 no 5 pp571ndash577 1978

[122] S Telles and T Desiraju ldquoAutonomic changes in Brahmaku-maris Raja yoga meditationrdquo International Journal of Psy-chophysiology vol 15 no 2 pp 147ndash152 1993

[123] L MMVirtual Design Imagery Testing Battery [Computer Soft-ware] Newark NJ USA 2004

[124] H Benson M S Malhotra R F Goldman G D Jacobsand P J Hopkins ldquoThree case reports of the metabolic andelectroencephalographic changes during advanced buddhistmeditation techniquesrdquo Behavioral Medicine vol 16 no 2 pp90ndash95 1990

[125] H Benson J W Lehmann M S Malhotra R F Goldman JHopkins andMD Epstein ldquoBody temperature changes duringthe practice of g Tum-mo yogardquo Nature vol 295 no 5846 pp234ndash236 1982

[126] Y-Y Tang Q Lu M Fan Y Yang and M I PosnerldquoMechanisms of white matter changes induced by meditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 109 no 26 pp 10570ndash10574 2012

[127] P Raghuraj and S Telles ldquoImmediate effect of specific nostrilmanipulating yoga breathing practices on autonomic and respi-ratory variablesrdquo Applied Psychophysiology Biofeedback vol 33no 2 pp 65ndash75 2008

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Anatomy Research International

PeptidesInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Molecular Biology International

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioinformaticsAdvances in

Marine BiologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Signal TransductionJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Biochemistry Research International

ArchaeaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Genetics Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Advances in

Virolog y

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Nucleic AcidsJournal of

Volume 2014

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Enzyme Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Page 13: Review Article The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2015/731579.pdf · 2019-07-31 · Review Article The Influence of Buddhist

BioMed Research International 13

increased sensory processing in the brainrdquo Cerebral Cortex vol22 no 11 pp 2692ndash2702 2012

[108] B K Holzel U Ott T Gard et al ldquoInvestigation of mindful-ness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometryrdquoSocial Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience vol 3 no 1 pp 55ndash61 2008

[109] N A S Farb A K Anderson HMayberg J Bean DMcKeonand Z V Segal ldquoMinding onersquos emotions mindfulness trainingalters the neural expression of sadnessrdquo Emotion vol 10 no 1pp 25ndash33 2010

[110] G Pagnoni and M Cekic ldquoAge effects on gray matter volumeand attentional performance in Zen meditationrdquo Neurobiologyof Aging vol 28 no 10 pp 1623ndash1627 2007

[111] X Yu M Fumoto Y Nakatani et al ldquoActivation of theanterior prefrontal cortex and serotonergic system is associatedwith improvements in mood and EEG changes induced byZen meditation practice in novicesrdquo International Journal ofPsychophysiology vol 80 no 2 pp 103ndash111 2011

[112] N A S Farb Z V Segal H Mayberg et al ldquoAttending to thepresent mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modesof self-referencerdquo Social Cognitive and Affective Neurosciencevol 2 no 4 pp 313ndash322 2007

[113] A Berkovich-Ohana J Glicksohn and A GoldsteinldquoMindfulness-induced changes in gamma band activitymdashimplications for the default mode network self-reference andattentionrdquo Clinical Neurophysiology vol 123 no 4 pp 700ndash7102012

[114] J A Brewer P D Worhunsky J R Gray Y-Y Tang JWeber andH Kober ldquoMeditation experience is associated withdifferences in default mode network activity and connectivityrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 108 no 50 pp 20254ndash20259 2011

[115] D A Gusnard and M E Raichle ldquoSearching for a baselinefunctional imaging and the resting human brainrdquo NatureReviews Neuroscience vol 2 no 10 pp 685ndash694 2001

[116] M E Raichle A M MacLeod A Z Snyder W J Powers D AGusnard andG L Shulman ldquoAdefaultmode of brain functionrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 98 no 2 pp 676ndash682 2001

[117] M E Raichle and A Z Snyder ldquoA default mode of brainfunction a brief history of an evolving ideardquo NeuroImage vol37 no 4 pp 1083ndash1090 2007

[118] R L Buckner J R Andrews-Hanna and D L Schacter ldquoThebrainrsquos default network anatomy function and relevance todiseaserdquo Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences vol 1124pp 1ndash38 2008

[119] A P Jha J Krompinger and M J Baime ldquoMindfulnesstraining modifies subsystems of attentionrdquo Cognitive Affectiveand Behavioral Neuroscience vol 7 no 2 pp 109ndash119 2007

[120] K A MacLean E Ferrer S R Aichele et al ldquoIntensivemeditation training improves perceptual discrimination andsustained attentionrdquo Psychological Science vol 21 no 6 pp829ndash839 2010

[121] J C Corby W T Roth V P Zarcone Jr and B S KopellldquoPsychophysiological correlates of the practice of Tantric Yogameditationrdquo Archives of General Psychiatry vol 35 no 5 pp571ndash577 1978

[122] S Telles and T Desiraju ldquoAutonomic changes in Brahmaku-maris Raja yoga meditationrdquo International Journal of Psy-chophysiology vol 15 no 2 pp 147ndash152 1993

[123] L MMVirtual Design Imagery Testing Battery [Computer Soft-ware] Newark NJ USA 2004

[124] H Benson M S Malhotra R F Goldman G D Jacobsand P J Hopkins ldquoThree case reports of the metabolic andelectroencephalographic changes during advanced buddhistmeditation techniquesrdquo Behavioral Medicine vol 16 no 2 pp90ndash95 1990

[125] H Benson J W Lehmann M S Malhotra R F Goldman JHopkins andMD Epstein ldquoBody temperature changes duringthe practice of g Tum-mo yogardquo Nature vol 295 no 5846 pp234ndash236 1982

[126] Y-Y Tang Q Lu M Fan Y Yang and M I PosnerldquoMechanisms of white matter changes induced by meditationrdquoProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America vol 109 no 26 pp 10570ndash10574 2012

[127] P Raghuraj and S Telles ldquoImmediate effect of specific nostrilmanipulating yoga breathing practices on autonomic and respi-ratory variablesrdquo Applied Psychophysiology Biofeedback vol 33no 2 pp 65ndash75 2008

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Anatomy Research International

PeptidesInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Molecular Biology International

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioinformaticsAdvances in

Marine BiologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Signal TransductionJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Biochemistry Research International

ArchaeaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Genetics Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Advances in

Virolog y

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Nucleic AcidsJournal of

Volume 2014

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Enzyme Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology

Page 14: Review Article The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2015/731579.pdf · 2019-07-31 · Review Article The Influence of Buddhist

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Anatomy Research International

PeptidesInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

International Journal of

Volume 2014

Zoology

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Molecular Biology International

GenomicsInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioinformaticsAdvances in

Marine BiologyJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Signal TransductionJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

BioMed Research International

Evolutionary BiologyInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Biochemistry Research International

ArchaeaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Genetics Research International

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Advances in

Virolog y

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Nucleic AcidsJournal of

Volume 2014

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Enzyme Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Microbiology