Spain’s transition to democracy in the mid 70s put the country’s Civil War (1936-39) in the limelight. The debate permeated both public and private spheres. This was because the Franco dictatorship had imposed its own version of events and forced the vanquished to remain silent.

AfterFranco’sdeaththerewasagreatdealofpublicinterestindiscoveringwhathadreallyhappened—athirstforknowledgethatwentbeyondpurelypoliticalandideologicalreasons.Manypoliticallycommittedstudentsatthetime—ofwhomIwasone—chosehistoryforitsroleinestablishingthetruthofevents.OnecansaythatHistorywasperceivedasthehandmaidenofdemocracy.Indeed,somesawthedisciplineasapoliticalweapon.Theeagernessto“restorecollectivememory”wentbeyondacademiccircles.Clio,themuseofhistory,hadneverhadsomanyardentadmirersnorhadhistoriansenjoyedsuchsocialstatus.Indeed,thescholarsseemedlikelatter-dayheroesastheywrestedcontrolofarchivesfromtheregime’scroniesinordertogivethevanquishedanewvisionoftherecentpast.AwholehostofcapstoneprojectsandtheseswerebeguninthoseyearsonthehistoryoftheRepublicandtheSpanishCivilWar.JosepM.SoléSabatéandJoanVillarroyapioneeredresearchintoFascistrepression.

In1976,twopublishinghouses,La Gaia Ciencia and Edicions 62,publishedanambitiousprojectdirectedbyAnnaSallésandalsoanimatedbyRosaRegàs.TheprojectwastitledRecuperem la nostra història[RecoveringOurHistory]andconsistedofalargeformat

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workintwelveissuesthatcoveredtheperiodfromtheproclamationoftheRepublic,inspiredbythepresidentoftheGeneralitatinexileJosepTarradellas,uptothemilitaryoccupation.Thisone,writtenbyJosepBenet,aleadingfigureinthestruggleagainsttheFrancodictatorship.Thesponsorsclearlystatedthepurposeofthecollectioninthefollowingterms:“Itisnotnostalgiathatdrivesustorecoverourhistorybutratherthefirmconvictionthatitisnecessaryifwearetounderstandthepresent.Recoveringourhistoryisawayofshapingthepresentandthusourfuture[...]Itinvolvesrecoveringpeople’smemoryandgoingbacktothesources.AsRaimonsays:He who forgets his origins loses his identity”.

ThefinalquotationwasfromasongbyRaimon,whoseiconiclyrics—Jo vinc d’un silenci[TheSilenceFromWhenceICome]—aretakenfromapoembySalvadorEspriu.ThesamequotationwasusedbythemagazineJovent,themouthpieceofJoventut Comunista de Catalunya,theyouthwingofthePSUC[Partit Socialista Unificat de Catalunya-UnifiedSocialistPartyofCatalonia]inanissuepublishedin1977thatrantosome10,000copies.Thepublicationhelpedfillaglaringgapinthecountry’shistory.LongbeforeBenitoBermejoinhisbook,andLlorençSolerinadocumentaryputFrancescBoixinthespotlight,EmiliPeydró(firstDirectorofJuliol,ayouthmagazinepublishedbytheJSUCmovementin1936)toldreadersofJovent justwhotheCatalanphotographeraccusingtheNazisattheNurembergTrialwas.

Arreu magazinecameoutinOctober1976undertheaegisofthePSUC,apartythatwasstillillegalatthetime.ThemagazinehadaregularsectiontitledMemòria Popular [ThePeople’sMemory].JesúsMariaRodés,whowasinchargeofthesection,adoptedthenametostressthatitservedthepeople’sinterestsanddefendedCatalanandworking-classidentity.Thefirstissueconsistedof80,000freecopies.Init,JosepBenetwrotealongarticleonthearrest,trial,andexecutionofPresidentLluísCompanys,asubjectonwhichBenetisnowanauthority.

ItisworthmentioningsomearticlesfromtheFrancoera.ThehistoriansEnricUcelayDaCalandBorjadeRiquerreferredtotheCatalansthathelpedFranco;LeandreColomertothetrialofJoanComorera;andFèlixFanéstothe1951tramstrike.Otherthemeswere:themassround-upofPSUCmembersin1946,whichendedintheexecutionbyfiringsquadoffour“ringleaders”in1949;theFreeUniversityAssemblyof1957;thesit-inattheCapuchinFriaryinBarcelonain1966;theexecutionofSalvadorPuigAntich.TheCatalanlanguagearmofRTVE[SpanishStateBroadcastingCorporation]alsobroadcastaprogrammetitledMemòria Popular,presentedbySalvadorAsliusandwiththehistorianJoanB.Cullaactinginanadvisorycapacity.

Prof.SantosJuliáremindedusthatthesewerethegoldenyearsofhistorymagazineswithnewpublicationsspringinguplikemushrooms(Historia 16, Tiempo de Historia),andwiththousandsofcopiessold.L’AvençwasfoundedinCatalonia—theflagshipofwhatsomehavetermed“popularfronthistory”.Labelsaside,L’Avençmetsocialdemandwithaproductthatwaswrittenwithintellectualrigourbutthatadoptedajournalisticstyle.Amongthefirstissuesofthemagazine,directedbyFerranMascarellamongothers,thereisanarticlebyJosepM.SoléSabatéontherepressionofthemaquis.

Otherpublishers—botholdandnew—helpedslakethepublic’sthirstforinformationonthecountry’srecenthistory.JaumeSobrequés(holderoftheChairofCatalanHistory,

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erstwhilesenatoroftheEntesa dels Catalanscoalition,andDirectoroftheCatalanHistoryMuseum)setuptheUndàriuspublishinghouse.Thefirstbook,L’Onze de Setembre a Catalunya[11thSeptemberinCatalonia1]coincidedwiththemassivedemonstrationinSantBoíon11thSeptember1976.Thebooksoldarecord20,000copiesinthefirstfewweeks.ThebookEls catalans als camps nazis [CatalansinTheNaziConcentrationCamps]waspublishedonSaintGeorge’sDay19772.WrittenbythejournalistMontserratRoig,itspokefranklyoflifeanddeathintheThirdReich’sconcentrationcamps.JosepBenetwasinstrumentalinthebook’spublication.TheworkwasinspiredbyJoaquimAmat-Piniella’snovelK. L. Reich3 (1963),whichspokeoftheCatalans,SpanishRepublicansandothergroupswhosharedthefateofJewsinNaziGermany’sconcentrationcamps.

MonsterratRoig’sbookwasabest-sellerandhadanenormoussocialimpact.Thepresentationofthebookwasoftenprecededbydocumentariesontheconcentrationcamps,narratedbyJoanPagèsandothersurvivorsofMauthausen.Republicancombatantsandfreedomfightersbegantospeakoutinthevariouspoliticalassociationsthatsprangupatthetime.Suddenly,tradeunionsandothergroupswerefilledwiththeelderlywhonowhadtheopportunitytorelatetheirpoliticalactivitiesinthe1930safterdecadesofsilence.The4thPSUCCongress,heldinOctober1977,agreedtosetupaHistoricalArchivecoveringallkindsofdocumentsrelatingtothepartyanditssocialmovements.ThePSUCalsopaidhomagetoitsmemberswholosttheirlivesinthefightforfreedom.TheeventwasheldinBarcelona’sCongressHallon24thMay1980.TheconferencespeecheswerelaterpublishedasthebookU no és ningú [YouAreNobody],withapoembyJoanBrossaandacoverillustrationbyAntoniTàpies.ThePSUC(andnowICV)gatheredeachyeartolaywreathsattheFossar de la Pedrera—thequarrywherethelastPSUCmemberswereshotbytheregimeinFebruary1949.

AMNESTY DOES NOT MEAN AMNESIA

Theendofhostilitiesin1939markedthebeginningofalongperiodofbrutalrepressionwhichonlydeepenedthedivisionbetweenthevictorsandthevanquished.ThissplitlastedrightthewaythroughthedictatorshipandwasafundamentaltraitoftheFrancoregime.Thequestforamnestythusbecameakeydemandinanti-Francoistpoliticalculture,spurringsolidarityandsocialmobilisation.Hencetheimportanceofthemanifestodrawnupin1956,whichwasembracedbytheoffspringofthoseonbothsidesintheSpanishCivilWar.ThepolicyofNationalReconciliationwasadoptedbytheSpanishCommunistParty.AsGregorioLópezRaimundostatedinhishomagetofallenPSUCmembers:“ThepolicyofNationalReconciliationwasadoptedin1956,whentheCatholicChurchwasstillsittingonthefence.ThepolicywasdecisiveinopeningupnewavenuesinthestruggleagainsttheregimeandreorganisingtheParty[...]Here,Iwouldliketoemphasisethatthispolicymeansthatourhomagetocomradesfalleninthe

■ 1Translator’snote:11thSeptembercommemoratesthefallofBarcelonain1714duringtheWarofSpanishSuccession.TheeventmarkedtheendofCatalonia’sindependence.

2Translator’snote:SaintGeorgeisthePatronSaint

ofCatalonia.Thedayiscelebratedbythegivingofbooksandroses.

3Translator’snote:ThetitlederivesfromthelabellingofobjectsinNaziconcentrationcamps.“K.L.”standsforKonzentrationslager.

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fightagainstthedictatorshipshouldinnowaybeconstruedasblood-lustoradesiretowreakvengeance”.

TheAmnestyActpassedbytheSpanishCongresson14thOctober1977wasawatershed.Itgaveimmunitytothosewhohadcommittedhumanrightsviolationsduringalmostfourdecadesofdictatorship.Itwasinterpretedasexplicitconsenttosweepthepastunderthecarpet.However,theamnestywastheproductoftheresultsoftheelectionsof15thJune1977—thefirstfollowingFranco’sdeath—andwasproposedbydemocratsandtheleft.The1939AmnestyDecreesolelybenefitedtheregime’ssupportersandcoveredpardons,rehabilitation,andothermeasures.Fromthelegalpointofview,the1977AmnestyActcoverspeoplewhetherornottheyhadbeenaccused,convicted,orpunished.Moreover—andthisisimportant—itconsideredthatthedeedscommittedwerenotpunishable.Putanotherway,therewasnopardonbecausenocrimehadbeencommitted.Thus,beneficiariesoftheamnestycoulddemandrehabilitationandevendamages.Thisallowedmanyteacherstoberehabilitatedand,insomecases,readmittedtotheprofession.

However,theAmnestyActhadtwoglaringexceptions:militarypersonnelwhoweremembersoftheDemocraticMilitaryUnionandthoseaccusedofassistinginanabortion.In1977,boththeArmyandtheChurchwerepowerstobereckonedwithandwereabletoimposetheirownviewsontherestofsociety.

Theamnestyendedthe40-yeardivisionbetweenvictorsandvanquished.Unlikeothercountriesthatwageddirtywarsondissenters,inSpaintherepressionwascarriedoutinaccordancewiththeLaw.WhileinArgentinaitwastheregime’sdeathsquadswhogaveawaythechildrenofthosetheyhadslain,inSpaintheprocessof“adoption”andideologicalindoctrinationofinfantswasregulatedbylegislation.The1977amnestywasfundamentallydemocraticinnature,providingaframeworkforsocialharmony.Bycontrast,the1939legislationbenefitedonesegmentofsociety.

Today,therearethosewhocriticisethe1977AmnestyActandwhoargueSpainneedsakindofNurembergTrialtosetthingstorights.However,itisalltooeasytonoticethetimidityofthede-nazificationprogrammethatfollowedthetrial.Forexample,inItalytheverysamejudgewhoimplementedtheraciallawsin1938hadreachedthesummitoftheItalianjudicatureintheearly1950s.Onecanthereforeaskwhatarealisticalternativetothe1977legislationwouldhavebeen.Inanycase,nopoliticalpartyatthetimeconsidereddrawinguplegislationtobringhumanrightsabuserstojusticeor,forthatmatter,drawingupaGeneralIndictmentwithretroactiveeffectto1936.Indeed,fewpartymanifestosin1977evenmadereferencetotheneedtopurgethepoliceandarmedforcesofFascists.

Anotherinterpretationofthetransitionisthatthepoliticiansatthetimehadnoideaofwhattheywerevotingfororwereunawareoftheconsequencesoflettingtheregime’storturersoffthehook.Putbaldly,thisreadingconsidersthepoliticiansasnotmerelynaivebutasstupidtoboot.TheCommunistCongressman,JosepSoléBarberà,whohaddefendedpeopledetainedundertheregime’sPublicOrderAct,notedthatheoftenhadtomakelawyersandpoliticalprisonersseetheneedforanAmnestyAct(inthesamelineexpressedbyGregorioLópezRaimundo).SenatorJosepBenet,spokesmanforEntesa dels Catalans,defendedtheAmnestyBillbyarguingthatthosewhohadsufferedwould

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pardonthosewhohadwrongedthemandwoulddesireanewsocietycapableofembracingeveryone.Thiswasnotamoralissuebutratherabasicpoliticalone.OvercomingthedeepdivideinSpanishsocietywastheonlywayofburyingGeneralFranco’slegacy.

JosepBenet,inaspeechgivenon30thMay1978intheSpanishSenate,arguedtheneedtosetupasingleAssociationfortheWarWounded:“Therewillbenodemocracyinthiscountryuntilthereistruereconciliation,whichmustbebasedonasinceredesiretoliveinpeacewiththoseweoncefought.”Soon,thosewhohadformedpartoftheunder-agelevies4 ontheRepublicansidethrewopentheirassociationtotheiroppositenumberswhohadfoughtfortheFascistcause.

MORAL REPARATIONS TO vICTIMS

TheproblemdoesnotlieintheAmnestyAct,inwhatmightbetermedcollectiveamnesia,butinthefailuretomakemoralreparationstothevictims.Theissuegoesbeyondthejudicialsphereandconcernstheattitudetakenbythepowersthatbe.Neitherthe CIU or PSOE governments(from1980and1982,respectively)didanythingtorecogniseandmakereparationstotheRepublicanvictimsoftheSpanishCivilWarandthesubsequentrepression.Thegeneralattitudetakenbypoliticiansatthetimewasto“letsleepingdogslie”.Politicians’intentionmayhavebeengoodonesbutthefesteringwoundsofthedictatorshiponlykindledresentmentandadesireforrevenge.ThegovernmentsofJordiPujolandFelipeGonzáleztooktheeasyway

Axum (Ethiopia), Toni Catany (2007)

■ 4Translator’snote:Theselevieswerecalledtothecoloursin1938,eventhoughtheywerenotdueforcall-upuntil1940or’41whentherecruitswouldhavebeen21yearsofage.ThemeasurewasadesperateoneandtakentohalttherapiddeteriorationintheRepublic’smilitaryposition.

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out,repeatingthesamediscourseusedbytheFrancoregime,namely,thattheCivilWarhadbeenanationaltragedyinwhicheveryonehadbeenequallytoblame.Hencethestrategyofconsigningthecountry’srecenthistorytooblivionandpositivelyencouragingcollectiveamnesia.ThisiswhatthejournalistGregorioMoráncalledmanyyearsago“thepriceofthetransition”.Ithasprovedahighprice,underminingSpain’sfledglingdemocracy.

Thepresentationofmyfirstbook—thefruitofmycapstoneproject—coincidedwiththe50thanniversaryoftheoutbreakoftheSpanishCivilWar.Itwas1986andthebook

wastitled La Conca de Barberà 1890-1939: de la crisi agrària a la guerra civil [LaConcadeBarberà1890-1939:FromAgriculturalSlumptotheSpanishCivilWar].TheConcadeBarberàInstituteofStudies,whichpublishedthebook,usedthepresentationoftheworktopayhomagetothecounty’sRepublicansoldiers.TheeventincludedtheawardofcertificatestoformersoldiersaccreditingtheirserviceinthePeople’sArmy.

HundredsofpeoplepackedtheMontblanctheatre,whichwasdeckedoutfortheoccasionwithRepublicanflags.Manypeople,withtearsintheireyes,askedforacertificateforamissingfamilymember.Thewholetowntookonafestiveair.TheCIUparty5 governedmostofthecouncilsinthecountyandheldthelargestnumberofseatsbyalongchalk.Evenso,theCIUinitiallyrefusedtotakepartinthehomageonthegroundsthatthewoundsoftheCivilWarwerestilltoofresh(remember,thiswas50yearsaftertheevent!).Inanycase,theceremonydidnotpayhomagetothevictimsorjustifypoliticalviolence:itmerelyprovidedthefirstformalrecognitionofthosewhohadservedintheRepublicanArmy,whetherasvolunteersorasunwillingconscripts.Toputthisinabroadercontext,nooneintheUnitedStatesbridlesatthedisplayofConfederateflagsinshopsorevenonarmybases.The CIU finallydon’ttookpartinaneventthatshowedhowmanypeoplefeltaboutthepast.

AnothervaluablelessoncanbelearntfromSolivella—anothermunicipalityinthesamecounty.SolivellahasthedubiousdistinctionofbeingtheCatalanmunicipalitywiththehighestpercentageofpoliticalkillingsbybothsidesintheCivilWar.Duringthetransition,memoryoftheCivilWarwasarunningsore.Astheyearswentby,theCouncilthoughtitwouldbeagoodideatoreplacethestandardFascistinscriptiononthewarmemorial(“FallenforGodandSpain”)foramoreinclusiveone(“Toallthosewhofellbetween1936and1939”).Itwaswellmeantbutthevanquishedbridledattheinscriptionsincemanyoftheirnumberhadactuallybeenshotaftertheendofhostilities.

Thefirsttaskthatneedstobeperformedisthereforetoidentitythevictims.On17thSeptember2005,theRosesTownCouncilerectedamemorialtothevictimsofFranco’s

II Restoring collective memory Andreu Mayayo

The Truth Commissions established in various countries have helped grapple with the traumatic legacy left by dictatorships and the systematic violation of human rights

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repression.Thesameday,JosepM.Fraderawroteanarticlein El Punt newspaper.Init,hecomplainedthatthosewhowerekilledinthewakeofthefailedcoupd’etathadbeenforgotten.Thirtyyearsafterthedictator’sdeathandalmostseventyyearsafterthebeginningoftheCivilWar,itisnowthe“Franco”side’sturntocomplainaboutbeingleftoffamunicipalmemorial.FraderaarguedthattheRosesCouncilhadmissedtheopportunityofreconcilingthevictimsofbothFascistandRepublicanterror.Personalreasonsaside(themurderofagreatgrandfather,andgrandfatherinthesummerof1936),thehistorian’sproposalsaresimilartothoseputforwardbyPasqualMaragall,PresidentofCatalonia6.MaragallarguedthatthemassgraveintheMontjuïcquarryshouldbemadeintoamemorialtothedeadonbothsides.

WecanagreewithFraderaandMaragallthatthevictimsofpoliticalterrorintheRepublicanzoneshouldnotbeforgotten.Thus,allvictimsoftheviolenceshouldberespectedandsympathyshownfortheirfamiliesandfriends.However,notallvictimsoftheCivilWarhavebeentreatedthesameordiedforthesamecause.Fraderaadmitsthedictatorshipwentoutofitswaytoglorify“itsown”deadandburythestoryofthosewhodiedontheotherside.HethereforenaivelyarguesthatweshouldnotfallintothetrapofmakingthesamemistakefromaRepublicanstandpoint.

Whilemorallyirreproachable,theproposalisunacceptable.Thegriefofallthosebereavedshouldbepubliclyrespected.However,ademocracyrequiresthatthereasonsbehindeachvictim’sdeathorsufferingbeamatterofpublicrecord.Inthisrespect,onecannotaccordthesamestatustokillingscommittedbylawlessbandsandtosystematickillingandrepressionbytheorgansofState.Thegravesofthedeadmaylaysidebysidebutthatisnoreasontoerectacommonmonumenttothevictims.IdonotbelievethatFraderawouldarguethatthe ValledelosCaídos7 shouldbeconvertedintoamemorialtoalltheCivilWardead.Thiskindoftokenismwouldbenothingnew—thelateFrancoregimeitselfpracticeditwhenitopenedacemeteryforthelosingsideatthemonument.ThecorpseshadbeendiscreetlydugupandtransferredfromthemassgravesinwhichtheFascistshadthrowntheirvictimsaftershootingthemoutofhand.WithregardtoValledelosCaídos,therearetwooptions.ThefirstistobulldozethemonumentandthesecondistouseifforeducationalendsinmuchthesamewayasAuschwitzandotherconcentrationcampsareusedtoexplainthehorrorsoftheholocaust.Itisthereforeabadideatomixvictimsatsuchsites,fromwhateverperiodtheycome.Forexample,attheFossardelesMoreres8:notalloftheCatalanswhodiedintheSiegeofBarcelonaareburiedthere.

IfweweretoacceptFradera’sargument,whatshouldwemakeoftheChurch’sbeatificationofpriestsandnunskilledduringtheCivilWar?9 ShouldwetaketheChurch’sobsessionwithmartyrdomasabarriertonationalreconciliation?AsIseeit,theCatholicChurchhasasmuchrightassayBarcelonaFCtocommemorateitsmemberswhodiedintheCivilWaranddiscovertheidentityandthemotivesofthosewhokilledthem.

■ 5Translator’snote:Convergència i Unio [ConvergenceandUnion,thepartypresidedbyJordiPujol].

6Translator’snote:nowformerpresident. 7AnenormousmonumentalcomplexbuiltbytheFascists

totheirwardeadandthesiteofFranco’smausoleum.

8Thesitewheremanyofthosefallenintheheroicdefen-ceofBarcelonawereburiedduringthesiegeof1714.

9Translator’snote:TheCatholicChurcheagerlyembracedFranco’s“crusade”andwasthusatargetofRepublicanire.

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Theimpunityenjoyedbythekillersisanaffronttothevictimsandtotheprinciplesthatshouldgovernsociety.TheTruthCommissionsestablishedinvariouscountrieshavehelpedgrapplewiththetraumaticlegacyleftbydictatorshipsandthesystematicviolationofhumanrights.Theaimofthesecommissionsistohelppeoplepardonthekillers,notbysweepingthecrimesunderthecarpetbutbygettingthoseresponsibletorecogniseandrepentfortheirsins.Manykillersandthosewhoactivelycollaboratedwiththedictatorshipstillliveamongusandhavenothadthedecencytoasktheirvictimstopardonthem.

THE vICTORS’ IMPIETY

IshareLluísQuintana’sviewthatforgettingthevictimsofhumanrightsabusesisabiggerproblemthantheimpunityofthosewhocommittedthem.QuintanausesHomer’sIlliad todemandcompassionforthevanquished.Inthiscontext,oneofthethingsthathasspurreddemandsforsettingthehistoricalrecordstraighthasbeentheopeningofmassgraves.Anykindofreconciliationmustbebasedonallowingthevanquishedtoburytheirdead.InthelastbookoftheThe Illiad, theTrojansdespairnotbecauseofHector’sdeathbutbecausehiscorpsecannotberecoveredandgiventheproperfuneralrites.ZeustakespityonPriam,KingofTroyandHector’sfather.ThroughIris,amessengeroftheGods,ZeussuggeststhatPriamgoalonetoAchilles’camptodemandthecorpseofhisson.QuintananotesthatIristellstheTrojanKingthatAchilleswillshowcompassion10andallowPriamtotakeHector’scorpse.

ReturningtoThe Illiad, QuintananotesthedilemmafacingAchillesandhowheshouldtreatPriam’sentreaty.TheKingoftheArcheansisfuriousatthedeathofhisfriend,Patroclus,atHector’shands.AchillessworetokillHector,desecratehisbody,anddenyhimadecentfuneral.PriamabaseshimselfbeforeAchilles,kissingtheArcheansovereign’shands.Achilles,seeingthatPriam’sgriefisasgreatashisown,agreestotheTrojanking’srequest.Quintanaseesthisepisodenotasdecryingwarandviolencebutratherasacriticismofthevictors’harshnesstowardsthevanquished:“compassionandhumilityshouldalwaysguidethedealingsofmen”.

OnecannotsaywhetherManuelAzañamadethesamereadingofthisbookinThe Illiad buthecertainlytookasimilarlineinhisfamousspeechatBarcelonaCouncil.HisaddressmarkedthesecondyearoftheCivilWarandwastitled:“Peace,CompassionandPardon”.ThePresidentoftheSpanishRepublicabasedhimselfbutFrancodidnotrespondinkind.Foralltheiroutwardshowofreligiousfervour,Franco’sarmy,therebelauthoritiesandtheChurchallshowedachillinglackofcompassionfortheirvictims.

AftertheimpactoftheNazideathcampsandArgentineatrocitiesoninternationalpublicopinion,whatpossibleexcuseisthereforthehurdlestoexhumingCivilWarvictimsfromSpain’smassgraves?Surely,identifyingthecorpsesandlettingtheirfamiliesgivethemadecentburialistheveryleastonecanexpect.Whilemanyofthesurvivorshavelong

■ 10Translator’snote:theauthornotesQuintana’suseofpietós (originally“pious”,andinitsmoremodernsense,“compassionate”)andgoesontocontrastthemoralofHomer’sepicwiththeregime’sunholylackofcompassiontowardsthevanquished.

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Aguilar, Paloma,Memoria y olvido de la Guerra Civil [MemoryandOblivionoftheCivilWar],Madrid:Alianza,1996

Barahona de Brito,AlexandraandAguilar,Paloma(eds.),Las politicas hacia el pasado: juicios, depuraciones, perdón y olvido en las nuevas democracias[PoliciesTowardsThePast:Trials,Pardon

andOblivionintheNewDemocracies], Madrid:Istmo,2002.

Morán,Gregorio,El precio de la Transición [ThePriceofSpain’sTransitiontoDemocracy],Barcelona:Planeta,1991.

Mudrovcic,MaríaInés,Historia, narración y memoria. Los debates actuales en

filosofia de la historia [History,NarrationandMemory.CurrentDebatesinthePhilosophyofHistory],Madrid:Akal,2005.

Quintana,Lluis,Més enllà de tot càstig[BeyondPunishment], Barcelona:Icària,2004.

■More reading

sincegivenuptheirlovedonesfordead,doubtsandquestionshavehauntedthemfordecades.Resolvingthismatterisnotonlyanissueofcommondecencyandjustice,itisalsoaMatterofStateifSpainistohealthewoundsoftheCivilWar.

Thatiswhyweshouldhearkentothevictims,helpthemformpartofthecommonweal,andensuretheirgrieffindspublicexpression.OnlythuscantheindividualandcollectivetraumabeovercomeandaboostbegiventoSpain’sfeebledemocracy.Sadly,thetimehaspassedforaTruthCommissiongiventhatmanyofthevictimsofthewaranditsaftermatharenolongerwithusorhavelostfaculties.History,however,candomuchtogivemanyvictimsavoiceagain.Insteadofwastingtimereviewingthesentenceshandeddownbycourtsmartialoropeningupmassgravesalloverthecountry,weneedtodiscovermoreaboutourpastsothattheghostoftheCivilWarcanfinallybeexorcised.Finally,weshouldheedJosepBenet’sproposaltoestablishaninternationaltribunalofhistorianstodocumentthemassmurdercommittedbytheFrancodictatorshipII

Andreu Mayayo is Professor of Contemporary History at the University of Barcelona.