Resource Guide ART FROM THE ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN AND EUROPE BEFORE 1850: GALLERY 15 COMPILED BY KRISTINA BUSH, MLS ‘19

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Contents How to Use this Guide ........................................................................................................ 2

Background Information: Countries ...................................................................................... 2

ENGLAND ...................................................................................................................... 2

FRANCE ........................................................................................................................ 2

GERMANY...................................................................................................................... 2

ITALY ............................................................................................................................ 2

LOW COUNTRIES ........................................................................................................... 3

SPAIN ........................................................................................................................... 3

Background Information: Historical Context .......................................................................... 3

AGE OF EMPIRES ........................................................................................................... 3

REFORMATION .............................................................................................................. 3

COUNTER-REFORMATION .............................................................................................. 4

Art Movements ................................................................................................................... 5

BAROQUE ART ............................................................................................................... 5

ROCOCO ........................................................................................................................ 6

NEOCLASSICISM............................................................................................................ 6

17th Century: Dutch Golden Age ........................................................................................... 7

THE ART MARKET .......................................................................................................... 7

PAINTING ...................................................................................................................... 8

REALISM ....................................................................................................................... 8

Painting Genres ................................................................................................................. 9

EMERGENCE OF GENRES ............................................................................................... 9

HISTORY ....................................................................................................................... 9

PORTRAITURE ............................................................................................................. 10

GENRE ........................................................................................................................ 11

LANDSCAPE ................................................................................................................ 11

STILL LIFE................................................................................................................... 13

Techniques ...................................................................................................................... 13

OIL PAINTING .............................................................................................................. 13

PASTELS ..................................................................................................................... 14

SCULPTURE ................................................................................................................ 15

TREATISES .................................................................................................................. 16

Artists ............................................................................................................................. 16

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17TH CENTURY ............................................................................................................. 16

18TH CENTURY ............................................................................................................. 16

How to Use this Guide This resource guide provides Ackland visitors with suggested resources for background information about objects on display at the museum. This particular guide relates to Art from the Ancient Mediterranean and Europe before 1850 in Gallery 15. Links without descriptions correspond to books in the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill’s library. Click on images to see the record database information for the object in the Ackland Collection Database.

Background Information: Countries ENGLAND Great Britain and Ireland, 1600-1800 – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/09/euwb.html

Timeline of the British Empire in the 17th and 18th centuries. Resource includes timelines, maps, key events, and thematic essays.

FRANCE France, 1600-1800 – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/09/euwf.html

Resource provides historical information about France in the 17th and 18th centuries, with chronologies of key events in art and politics, and thematic essays.

Paris – Oxford Art Online http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000065354?mediaType=Article

Thorough article with information about Paris throughout history. Sections on Art Life and Organization for 18th-century dates are especially useful for understanding the role of the Academy and art in French society at the time.

Seventeenth-Century French Painting – National Gallery of Art https://www.nga.gov/features/slideshows/seventeenth-century-french-painting.html

Slideshow of paintings in the NGA’s collection with accompanying information about the Grand Tour, painting genres, and the French Academy.

The Academy and the limits of painting in seventeenth-century France by Paul Duro. GERMANY What is Happening in Germany in 1648 CE – TimeMaps https://www.timemaps.com/history/germany-1648ad/

Map and chronology of important events in Germany in the 17th century. One can navigate forward to the 18th century to see how the country changes over time.

ITALY Rome and Southern Italy, 1600-1800 – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

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https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/09/eusts.html Information about Southern Italy during the 17th and 18th centuries, including information about art movements, important works of art, and thematic essays.

Venice and Northern Italy, 1600-1800 – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/09/eustn.html

Venice and Northern Italy were especially important in 17th-century art history because many famous Northern European painters, like Peter Paul Rubens studied in this region. Resource provides information about art and historical events in this time period.

Italian Masterpieces – National Gallery of Victoria https://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/italianmasterpieces/about/themes.html

Resource provides information about major themes in Italian artwork from the 16th to the 18th century. Themes include major movements, such as Renaissance and Baroque art, and also information about Caravaggio and the Caravaggisti.

LOW COUNTRIES Low Countries, 1600-1800 – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/09/euwl.html

The Low Countries (present day Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) were responsible for many of the most famous works of art in the 17th and 18th centuries. This time period is also known as the Dutch Golden Age for the advances made in painting during this time.

SPAIN Iberian Peninsula, 1600-1800 – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/08/eusi.html

Resource provides information about Spain and Portugal during the 17th and 18th centuries including timelines, maps, and thematic essays.

Background Information: Historical Context AGE OF EMPIRES European World Empires – TimeMaps https://www.timemaps.com/civilizations/european-world-empires/

Resource provides historical information about Europe during the Age of Discovery and the rise of colonial empires. Interaction between Europeans and the people of Asia and South America led to themes of the exotic and exoticism in art.

European Exploration of the Pacific – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/expa/hd_expa.htm

Article about the Age of Exploration in Europe and the influences of Asian colonies on European art and culture.

REFORMATION The Protestant Reformation began with Martin Luther’s 95 Theses criticizing the opulence of the Catholic Church. Because the Church had been a major patron of artists, the art world changed drastically as a result of the adoption of Protestant beliefs in Northern Europe.

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The Protestant Reformation – SmartHistory https://smarthistory.org/the-protestant-reformation/

Introduction to the Protestant Reformation with background information about Martin Luther, the indulgences, and the Counter-Reformation. Videos are included that describe the Reformation’s influence on art.

An Overview of the Reformation – BBC http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/reformation_overview_01.shtml

Resource provides information about the Reformation in the British Isles. The Reformation – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/refo/hd_refo.htm

Essay about the rise of Protestantism in Northern Europe. Reformation beliefs of simplicity and austerity in the Church were a driving force in art and led to themes of daily life rather than religious images in art.

COUNTER-REFORMATION The Counter-Reformation was the Church’s reaction to the criticisms of Martin Luther. Counter-Reformation art is characterized by a stricter adherence to Christian themes with an emphasis on the Virgin Mary and Saints. Counter-Reformation art was meant to revitalize the Catholic Church. The Counter-Reformation – SmartHistory https://smarthistory.org/protestant-reformation-part-4-of-4/ Resource describes Counter-Reformation art.

Vincente Carducho, Italian, active in Spain, c.1576-1638: The Stigmatization of St. Francis, c. 1610-30; oil on canvas. 64 1/4 x 47 in. Ackland Art Museum, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, The William A. Whitaker Foundation Art Fund, 95.3.

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The Sensuous in the Counter-Reformation Church by Marcia B. Hall and Tracy E. Cooper

Art Movements BAROQUE ART Baroque Art furthered the goals of the Counter-Reformation by combining Classical styles of emotive art with religious subject matter. This style was popular in the 17th century. Baroque Rome – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/baro/hd_baro.htm

In Italy, Baroque art and architecture inspired and instructed churchgoers with its emotive qualities. Rome was the heart of Baroque style because of the city’s ties to the Catholic Church.

A Beginners Guide to Baroque Art – SmartHistory https://smarthistory.org/a-beginners-guide-to-baroque-art/ https://smarthistory.org/how-to-recognize-baroque-art/ - Video: How to Recognize Baroque Art

Resource describes how Baroque art took shape in both Catholic and Protestant countries.

Style Guide: Baroque – Victoria & Albert Museum http://www.vam.ac.uk/page/b/baroque/ Brief introduction to Baroque Art and its characteristics. 18th and Early 19th-Century Art in Europe and North America – Art History Teaching Resources http://arthistoryteachingresources.org/lessons/eighteenth-and-early-nineteenth-century-art-in-europe-and-north-america/

Resource includes glossary section that defines important terms and movements for the study of art of this period, including Rococo, the Enlightenment, and Romanticism.

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ROCOCO Rococo art can be considered a reaction against the elaborate Baroque styles. Starting in France in the 18th century, the Rococo decorative style, characterized by lightness, gold, and the use of natural forms, spread throughout Europe. Rococo painting often contains themes of playfulness and romance and has a sense of movement. Beginner’s Guide to Rococo Art – SmartHistory https://smarthistory.org/a-beginners-guide-to-rococo-art/

Brief description of the beginnings of Rococo style and the characteristics of Rococo painting. Includes images and analysis of major Rococo works.

Style Guide: Rococo – Victoria & Albert Museum http://www.vam.ac.uk/page/r/rococo/

Resource provides definitions of the characteristics of Rococo art and also biographies of artists involved with the movement.

American Rococo – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/roco/hd_roco.htm Essay about the Rococo in America and the interaction between France and the United States. NEOCLASSICISM In the late 18th century, the art world saw a push back toward Classical ideals of proportion and simplicity. This return to ancient art and architecture was inspired by Enlightenment philosophy and the invention of archaeology. Artists traveled across Italy and Greece, copying Classical sculptures and imagining landscapes of the past.

Jacopo Amigoni, Italian, 1682/85-1752: Venus Disarming Cupid, 1730s or 1740s; oil on canvas. 29 15/16 x 25 1/16 in. Ackland Art Museum, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Ackland Fund, 86.47.

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Neoclassicism, an Introduction – SmartHistory https://smarthistory.org/neoclassicism-an-introduction/ Short overview of the origins of neoclassical style. Style Guide: Neoclassicism – Victoria & Albert Museum http://www.vam.ac.uk/page/n/neo-classicism/ Guide to the characteristics, people, and architectural features that exemplify Neoclassicism. Neoclassicism – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/neoc_1/hd_neoc_1.htm

Essay describes the importance of archaeology and the Grand Tour to the development of neoclassical aesthetics.

Neoclassicism and the French Revolution – Oxford Art Online http://www.oxfordartonline.com/page/neo-classicism-and-the-french-revolution/neoclassicism-and-the-french-revolution

Resource provides information on Enlightenment thought as a political and artistic motivator in France.

The Grand Tour – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/grtr/hd_grtr.htm

The Grand Tour was the route across Europe that visitors would take to visit classical sites and great works of art. Artists would create copies of classical works and become inspired by the beautiful landscape of Italy. These trips promoted the neoclassical style.

17th Century: Dutch Golden Age THE ART MARKET After the end of the 30 Years War and resulting independence of the Dutch Republic, The Netherlands became a major colonial power in the 17th century. Joint Stock companies, like the Dutch East India Company, traded with Asian countries, and brought prosperity to the Republic. This allowed for the development of a class of wealthy merchants and the birth of the art market. People collected works of art for their homes, including devotional works for worshipping at home in the Protestant tradition. The Dutch Art Market in the Seventeenth Century – Hunterian Art Gallery https://dutch.arts.gla.ac.uk/markets.htm

Resource provides information about the art market, patrons, and the nature of patronage in the Dutch Golden Age.

Leiden Fijnschilders and the Local Art Market in the Golden Age https://www.theleidencollection.com/essays/updated-leiden-fijnschilders-and-the-local-art-market-in-the-golden-age/

Scholarly essay about the art market in Leiden – a Dutch city that prospered in the 17th century and was the home to numerous prominent artists.

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PAINTING The Dutch Golden Age was truly a golden age of oil painting. The Dutch pioneered new genres of art, which continue to awe and inspire viewers to this day. Journal of Historians of Netherlandish Art https://jhna.org/ Use this resource to find articles on specific pieces, techniques, or genres of Netherlandish art. Going Dutch, Part 1: Exploring Paintings in the Netherlands – National Gallery of Art https://soundcloud.com/nationalgalleryofart/going-dutch-part-1-exploring Going Dutch Part 2: Exploring Paintings in the Netherlands https://soundcloud.com/nationalgalleryofart/going-dutch-part-2-exploring

Podcast by NGA curators about Dutch Golden Age art and why it continues to resonate with viewers.

Painting in the Dutch Golden Age – National Gallery of Art https://www.nga.gov/content/dam/ngaweb/Education/learning-resources/teaching-packets/pdfs/dutch_painting.pdf

Resource designed for teachers, including educational information about historical context, Dutch life and culture, and the genres of painting.

Vermeer and the Masters of Genre Painting: Inspiration and Rivalry – National Gallery of Art https://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/2017/vermeer-and-the-masters-of-genre-painting.html

Exhibition website with useful video links on the right side to lectures about art of the Dutch Golden Age.

The Ashgate research companion to Dutch art of the seventeenth century by Wayne Franits REALISM 17th-century Dutch art is admired for its realistic depiction of the subject, be it nature, inanimate objects, textiles, or a person. Realism – Hunterian Art Gallery https://dutch.arts.gla.ac.uk/realism.htm Summary of various scholarly opinions on realism in Dutch art of the period and its meaning. Boredom’s Threshold: Dutch Realism https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1467-8365.2012.00934.x

Scholarly article about the idea that Dutch Golden Age art is boring and how the trend toward realism of the period informs this belief.

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Looking at seventeenth-century Dutch art: realism reconsidered by Wayne Franits

Painting Genres EMERGENCE OF GENRES As religious subjects fell out of favor, new subjects of art emerged for the first time since antiquity. These new subjects included scenes of daily life, still lives, and landscapes. The French Academy ranked these genres from most skilled to least: History Painting, Portraiture, Genre, Landscape, and finally, Still Life. Genres – Tate https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/g/genres Brief overview of the genres of painting as developed in the 17th century. The Emergence of New Genres – National Gallery of Art https://www.nga.gov/features/slideshows/the-emergence-of-new-genres.html Resource tells the history of genres of painting through works in the NGA collection. Academy - Tate https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/a/academy Definition of the Academy in the context of art. HISTORY History paintings include scenes from classical history, mythology, or the Bible. These were considered the highest level of painting because they required knowledge of both the texts from which the scene was drawn and also knowledge of anatomy. History Painting – Tate http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/h/history-painting

Emanuel de Witte, Dutch, c. 1617-1692: The Interior of the Oude Kerk, Amsterdam, c. 1660; oil on canvas. 32 5/16 x 41 1/4 in. Ackland Art Museum, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Ackland Fund, 73.31.1.

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Definition of history painting. Resource includes some information about the role of empire in history painting.

Stories in Gilded Frames: Dutch seventeenth-century paintings with biblical and mythological subjects by Lyckle de Vries

PORTRAITURE Portraiture had existed for a long time before the 17th century, but during this era, new conventions of portraiture were introduced. Furthermore, there was a renewed emphasis on capturing the personality of the subject of the work. Portraiture – Hunterian Art Gallery https://dutch.arts.gla.ac.uk/portraiture.htm

Resource describes the newfound popularity of portraiture in the Dutch Republic due to the new patronage of middle class merchants who wanted portraits made to hang in their homes. Article defines different types of portraiture, i.e. group portraiture.

Portraiture in Renaissance and Baroque Europe – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/port/hd_port.htm Essay about the developing conventions of portraiture in the 16th and 17th centuries. Portrait Painting in England, 1600-1800 – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bpor/hd_bpor.htm

Focused on England, resource provides information about portraiture the Tudor, Stuart, and Georgian eras.

Joseph-Siffred Duplessis, French, 1725-1802: Portrait of an Artist, 1787; oil on canvas. 29 3/16 x 23 1/4 in. Ackland Art Museum, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Ackland Fund, 60.25.1.

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GENRE Genre painting was a new genre of painting that developed in the Low Countries in the 17th century as a result of the Reformation. Genre paintings depict scenes of everyday life. Although these images are not religious in nature, they can have didactic or moralizing themes. Genre Painting – Encyclopaedia Britannica

https://www.britannica.com/art/genre-painting Brief definition of genre painting. Genre – Hunterian Art Gallery https://dutch.arts.gla.ac.uk/genre.htm Resource provides information about genre painting in the Dutch Republic Genre Painting in Northern Europe – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gnrn/hd_gnrn.htm

Article describes the characteristics of Dutch genre painting and it’s persistence into the 18th century.

Edwin Buijsen: "Behind the Scenes of Everyday Life: Dutch Genre Painting" – The Frick Collection https://www.frick.org/interact/edwin_buijsen Lecture about the moralizing aspects of Dutch genre paintings. French genre painting in the eighteenth century by Phillip Conisbee LANDSCAPE Prior to the 17th century, landscapes had been limited to the background of historical paintings or portraits. Artists in the Low Countries brought landscapes to new fame in the 17th century,

Eugène Delacroix, French, 1798-1863: Cleopatra and the Peasant, 1838; oil on canvas. 38 1/2 x 50 in. Ackland Art Museum, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Ackland Fund, 59.15.1.

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allowing them to be considered a stand-alone, although low-ranking category. In the 18th century, French artists inspired by the Grand Tour made further achievements in landscape painting. Landscape – Tate http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/l/landscape Brief definition of the term with some information about the history of landscape painting. Landscape Painting in the Netherlands – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/lpnd/hd_lpnd.htm

Dutch landscapes can be divided into two categories: realistic and fantastical. Article provides information about the Dutch tradition of landscape and the influence of Protestantism and urbanization on art.

Landscape – Hunterian Art Gallery https://dutch.arts.gla.ac.uk/landscape.htm

Resource provides extensive information about landscape art in the Netherlands. Sections include Spread of Landscape in the Dutch Republic, Progress of Landscape Painting, Hidden Meanings, and Influence of Foreign Travel.

Dutch Landscapes and Seascapes of the 1600s – National Gallery of Art https://www.nga.gov/features/slideshows/dutch-landscapes-and-seascapes-of-the-1600s.html#slide_1 Images of works in the NGA collection are supplemented by historical context. The Transformation of Landscape Painting in France – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/lafr/hd_lafr.htm

Resource provides information about French landscape painting, which became a part of the modernist tradition. Essay focuses especially the influence of the French Academy and the artist Claude Lorraine.

Inspired by Italy: Dutch landscape painting, 1600-1700 by Laurie B. Harwood

Salomon van Ruysdael, Dutch, 1602-1670: River Landscape with Fishermen, 1643; oil on panel. 41 13/16 x 29 9/16 x 2 1/2 in. Ackland Art Museum, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, The William A. Whitaker Foundation Ard Fund, 2002.15.

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Seventeenth century landscapes: Italian, French, Flemish, Dutch. Problems of authenticity in nineteenth and twentieth century art by Princeton University Art Museum STILL LIFE Exploration of foreign lands and the Scientific Revolution brought an increased focus to depicting natural things as realistically as possible. Combined with the Dutch artistic emphasis on light, perspective, and detail, still lives composed of intricate arrangements of inanimate object became increasingly popular. Still Life Painting – Encyclopaedia Brittanic https://www.britannica.com/art/still-life-painting Definition of Still Life. Resource mentions Dutch Master Jan Weenix. Still Life – Hunterian Art Gallery https://dutch.arts.gla.ac.uk/still_life.htm

Resource provides context for the popularity of still lives and describes the different types of still life paintings: flower pieces, fruit with flowers, breakfast pieces, vanitas pieces, trompe l’oeil, etc.

Dutch Still Lives and Landscapes of the 1600s – National Gallery of Art https://www.nga.gov/features/slideshows/dutch-still-lifes-and-landscapes-of-the-1600s.html

Slideshow of works in the NGA collection with accompanying information. Helpful for contextualizing visual tradition with historical information.

Still Life Painting in Northern Europe, 1600-1800 – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nstl/hd_nstl.htm

The rise of still life painting relates directly to the urbanization of the Netherlands. The different objects depicted in the painting reflected the wealth and power of the patron. The more exotic the objects, the wealthier the owner.

Techniques OIL PAINTING Oil paint consists of pigment mixed with an oil. Because the paint is slow drying, artists are able to work the paint while still wet, creating shadows that promote a sense of three-dimensionality. In the 16th century, oil painting became the primary medium across Europe because of its luminous color, and sense of depth, light, and texture that artists achieved.

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Realistic Rendering of Matter – Hunterian Art Gallery https://dutch.arts.gla.ac.uk/rendering.htm

Resource references several influential treatises on painting from the 17th century. These instructional treatises taught artists how to mix and apply oils to canvas to achieve the most realistic affect.

Painting in Oil in the Low Countries and its Spread to Southern Europe – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/optg/hd_optg.htm

Although oil painting originated in the Middle Ages, the Dutch were the first to master the medium. This resource compares oil paint with egg tempera and describes the rise of popularity of oil painting across Europe.

Vermeer and Technique – The National Gallery, London https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/research/meaning-of-making/vermeer-and-technique

Resource contains several modules describing Vermeer’s technique of oil painting, which is comparable to that used by other 17th century Dutch Masters. Important sections include Support and Ground, Binding Medium, Fading of Pigments, and Paint Defects.

https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/research/meaning-of-making/vermeer-and-technique/vermeers-palette

Vermeer and Technique also includes a module on Vermeer’s Palette, which names and defines the types of pigments used to create oil paints.

PASTELS In the 18th century, pastel portraiture was a fad. To make a pastel, an artist had to mix pigment with chalk to create a stick, or crayon. Because there was no drying time, this was a quicker medium to use than oil painting, however the creation of the crayons could be time-consuming. The Eighteenth-Century Pastel Portrait – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/papo/hd_papo.htm Essay describes the medium of pastels, and how pastels became popular in France for portraiture. The Rise of Pastel in the Eighteenth Century – Metropolitan Museum of Art https://www.metmuseum.org/blogs/now-at-the-met/features/2011/the-rise-of-pastel-in-the-eighteenth-century

Blog post about the social and economic developments that allowed for the pastel medium to become widespread. Also includes a section on the preservation of pastels.

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SCULPTURE Although sometimes overshadowed by painting, sculpture also flourished in the 17th and 18th centuries. Portrait sculptures like Voltaire were especially popular and combined the genre of portraiture with different media. Four Basic Sculpture Techniques – The J. Paul Getty Museum http://www.getty.edu/education/teachers/classroom_resources/curricula/sculpture/background2.html Quick definitions of carving, casting, modeling, and assembling. Making a Spanish Polychrome Sculpture – The J. Paul Getty Museum https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Wb-T1F033Q Video shows step-by-step how wood sculptures like the Mater Dolorosa were created. Eighteenth-Century Porcelain Sculpture – National Gallery of Victoria https://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/essay/eighteenth-century-porcelain-sculpture/

Essay about the popularity of porcelain sculpture in 18th-century Europe. Like the Apollo, from the Apollo Bath Centerpiece in the Ackland’s Collection.

Johann Joachim Kändler, German, 1706-1775: Apollo, from the “Apollo Bath” Centerpiece, c.1748; porcelain with clear glaze. 21 3/16 in. Ackland Art Museum, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Gift of the William E. Shipp Estate, by exchange, 2012.7.

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TREATISES Many artists wrote instructional texts about the mixing and application of oil paint that served as textbooks for young artists. Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo's Trattato dell'arte della pittura : color, perspective and anatomy by Barbara Tramelli Original treatises, dating from the XIIth to XVIIIth centuries on the arts of painting : in oil, miniature, mosaic, and on glass; of gilding, dyeing, and the preparation of colours and artificial gems; preceded by a general introduction; with translations, prefaces, and notes by Mrs. Merrifield On the true precepts of the art of painting by Giovanni Battista Armenini, 1533?-1609

Artists 17TH CENTURY de Boulogne, Valentin Metropolitan Museum of Art (Exhibition Catalog), National Gallery of Art Carducho, Vincente The J. Paul Getty Museum Dughet, Gaspard Encyclopaedia Britannica Guercino National Gallery of Art, The J. Paul Getty Museum van Ruysdael, Salomon National Gallery of Art Weenix, Jean Hunterian Art Gallery de Witte, Emanuel National Gallery of Art 18TH CENTURY Amigoni, Jacopo Oxford Art Online Baratta, Giovanni di Isidoro Benezit Dictionary of Artists Duplessis, Joseph-Siffred Wikipedia Giaquinto, Corrado Benezit Dictionary of Artists Houdon, Jean-Antione Metropolitan Museum of Art Kandler, Johann Joachim Encyclopaedia Britannica, J. Paul Getty Museum Restout, Jean Los Angeles County Museum of Art