PART LIST

RESISTORS:

R1, 15K=1

R2, 2M2=3

R3, 270K=1

R4, 3K3=1

R5; R10, 27K=2

R6; R8, 10K=2

R7; R11, 1K5=2

R9, 2K2=1

CAPACITORS:

C1, 1OKpf=1

C2; C5, 0.04MFD=2

C4, 1000MFd=1

DIODES:

D1, IN4007=1

D2; D3; D4; D5, 1N4148=4

TRANSISTORS:

BC148=4

OTHERS:

12V RELAY=1

TRANSFORMER

MICROPHONE

MAINS LEAD

PCB

BULB

COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION

RESISTORS:

A resistor is a component of a circuit that resists the flow of electrical

current. It has two terminals across which electricity must pass, and it is

designed to drop the voltage of the current as it flows from one terminal

to the other. Resistors are primarily used to create and maintain known

safe currents within electrical components.

Resistance is measured in ohms, after Ohm's law. This law states that

electrical resistance is equal to the drop in voltage across the terminals

of the resistor divided by the current being applied. A high ohm rating

indicates a high resistance to current. This rating can be written in a

number of different ways — for example, 81R represents 81 ohms,

while 81K represents 81,000 ohms.

The amount of resistance offered by a resistor is determined by its

physical construction. A carbon composition resistor has resistive carbon

packed into a ceramic cylinder, while a carbon film resistor consists of a

similar ceramic tube, but has conductive carbon film wrapped around the

outside. Metal film or metal oxide resistors are made much the same

way, but with metal instead of carbon. A wire wound resistor, made with

metal wire wrapped around clay, plastic, or fiberglass tubing, offers

resistance at higher power levels. Those used for applications that must

withstand high temperatures are typically made of materials such as

cermet, a ceramic-metal composite, or tantalum, a rare metal, so that

they can endure the heat.

Resistors are coated with paint or enamel, or covered in molded plastic

to protect them. Because they are often too small to be written on, a

standardized color-coding system is used to identify them. The first three

colors represent ohm value, and a fourth indicates the tolerance, or how

close by percentage the resistor is to its ohm value. This is important for

two reasons: the nature of its construction is imprecise, and if used

above its maximum current, the value can change or the unit itself can

burn up.

Every resistor falls into one of two categories: fixed or variable. A fixed

resistor has a predetermined amount of resistance to current, while a

variable one can be adjusted to give different levels of resistance.

Variable resistors are also called potentiometers and are commonly used

as volume controls on audio devices. A rheostat is a variable resistor

made specifically for use with high currents. There are also metal-oxide

varistors, which change their resistance in response to a rise in voltage;

thermostats, which either raise or lower resistance when temperature

rises or drops; and light-sensitive resistors.

Resistor types

Variable

resistor

Variable resistor has an adjustable resistance (2

terminals)

Potentiomete Potentiometer has an adjustable resistance (3

r terminals)

Photo-resistor Reduces resistance when exposed to light

Power resistorPower resistor is used for high power circuits and has

large dimensions.

Surface

mount

(SMT/SMD)

resistor

SMT/SMD resistors have small dimensions. The

resistors are surface mounted on the printed circuit

board (PCB), this method is fast and requires small

board area.

Resistor

network

Resistor network is a chip that contains several

resistors with similar or different values.

Carbon

resistor

Chip resistor

Metal-oxide

resistor

Ceramic

resistor

 

Pull-up resistor

In digital circuits, pull-up resistor is a regular resistor that is connected

to the high voltage supply (e.g +5V or +12V) and sets the input or

output level of a device to '1'.

The pull-up resistor set the level to '1' when the input / output is

disconnected. When the input / output is connected, the level is

determined by the device and overrides the pull-up resistor.

Pull-down resistor

In digital circuits, pull-down resistor is a regular resistor that is

connected to the ground (0V) and sets the input or output level of a

device to ' 0 '.

The pull-down resistor set the level to ' 0 ' when the input / output is

disconnected. When the input / output is connected, the level is

determined by the device and overrides the pull-down resistor.

CAPACITOR

Capacitors are useful in guitar wiring because they can be used to route

high frequencies away from the guitars output jack and away from the

signal that goes into the amp. The effect of this is a softer, warmer, more

mellow tone which is controllable depending on the value of the

capacitor used.

The range of frequency that is sent to ground is determined by the value

of the capacitor. Generally, Capacitors in the range of .001 mfd (micro

farad) to .1 mfd take out highs in the frequency of the guitar signal that

often sound pleasant. The .1mfd capacitor will sound very muffled

because much more of the high and mid frequencies have a path to

ground. The .001mfd capacitor will be hard to even notice because only

the harder-to-hear high frequencies will be effected. The most common

values found in guitars are .022 mfd and .047 mfd capacitors. Quite

often .022 mfd capacitors are paired with humbuckers and .047 mfd caps

are paired with single coil pickups.

How Different Capacitors Sound

Both the video and the audio clip below are comparisons of the guitar

signal when having different value capacitors in use. In both examples

the tone control is fully engaged so you hear the full effect of the

capacitor. Keep in mind it is not normal to use the guitar capacitor fully

engaged but for the sake of comparing the sound of different values I

thought it more appropriate to do it this way.

In the audio example I am playing through a Stratocasters neck pickup.

In the video example I am playing through the same Stratocaster but

with the neck and middle pickup wired in series so they behave more

like a humbucker. The capacitors used in both examples are Sprague

"black beauty" capacitors.

Types Of Capacitors

Suitable for Guitar

Ceramic - These are the cheapest capacitors on the market and are often

found in cheaper guitars. There is a lot of debate as to whether or not

these capacitors sound worse than the other types. In my opinion it is not

a noticeable difference. I believe the only difference in tone is a result of

their varying tolerances which are not as precise as other time of

capacitors. That can even be a benefit. Get a handful of the same value

and you might find one stand out as better to your ears than the rest! It

will still be a lot cheaper than one oil/paper cap. Ceramic capacitors

almost always have a 3-digit code printed onto their body to identify

their capacitance value. Just fill in the three digit code to find the value

of your capacitor:

Capacitor Code C in uF C in nF C in pF

 

240 0 0

Film - Film caps are made out of polyester (Mylar), polystyrene,

polypropylene, polycarbonate, teflon and metallized paper. Famous

capacitors for guitar wiring like the Sprague "Orange Drop" and "Black

Beauty" caps are film-type capacitors and are considered quality. The

capacitor in the picture to the left is a Sprague Orange Drop which is

quite a high quality capacitor. It is used in many higher model guitars

these days and I would recommend it. Compared to vintage capacitors

like the Black Beauties, they are far more reliable and cheaper. Although

I have used Black Beauties in a few projects on this site I would

recommend saving your money. I have not noticed any audible

difference between them and any other capacitor. The vintage capacitor

market right now is really quite absurd. A .05 cent metalized film cap

will sound the same as a 10 dollar vintage capacitor. Even in their time,

Black Beauty capacitors were not even considered high quality.

Oil/Paper - Oil/Paper capacitors are made out of, you guessed it, oil and

paper. These are considered the best capacitors that money can buy

although I do not hear much of a difference between these and other

capacitors at all. I believe these were never actually used in vintage

guitars but I might be wrong. Personally I think you are better off saving

your money. A cheap cap will sound just the same and you can spend

the money on trying different values of cheaper caps to find your own

tone.

Electrolytic - Electrolytic capacitors are polarized (although there are

special ones which are not) and are mostly used to filter direct current in

active circuits. These are used in active guitars as a way of keeping the

direct current from the battery out of the way of the a.c. audio signal as

well as smoothing ripple in the application of regulating voltages in

power supplies. Unless you want to build the Tillman Preamp you will

not need to use these in any projects on this site.

TRANSISTORS:

Originally released in the mid 1070s bt Philips Semiconductor for Audio

applications. Its parameters are as follows: Vcbmax= 50V, Vcemax =

45V, Vedmax=6V, Icmax=200 mA, Tjmax= 125C, Ptot= 250 mWf

Ftmin=150M HFE= 110mn HFE bias= 2mA. Other variations of the

BC-147 are BC-147A, BC-147B, BC-148, BC-148A, BC-148B, BC-

148C, BC-149, BC-149B and BC-149C with slight variations mostly in

the HFE (gain) parameter. The group was referred to as the BC-

147family. All members were NPN. None of the transistors of the BC-

147 are manufactured anymore. However there are many other.

Notes.

Use 12V DC for powering the wate equivalents available. Data

sheets for the BC-147 family are level controller circuit.

The relay I used was a 5V/220 ohm relay and that’s why the

current limits resistor R12 was added in the circuit. If you use a

12V relay then the R12 can be shorted.

Do not use a relay that consumes 500mA. Maximum collector

current PN2222 can handle is 600mA.

Use insulated single strand aluminum wires for probe and they can

be arranged in the tank as per the probe arrangement diagram.

The circuit can be assembled on a Preferred board.

K1 must be a double pole relay.

The load current, voltage ratings of the relay must be selected

according to the ratings of the pump motor.

The type number of the transistors used here are not very critical

and you can do suitable replacements if any type number is not

available.

Most of the components required for this project can be found

inside your scrap box.

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch

electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor

material with at least three terminals for connection to an external

circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's

terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because

the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input)

power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are

packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated

circuits.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic

devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its

development in 1947 by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William

Shockley, the transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved

the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers,

among other things. The transistor is on the list of IEEE milestones in

electronics, and the inventors were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize

in Physics for their achievement.

DIODE:

There is a lot of confusion in text books and on the web about CURRENT FLOW.

WHICH WAY DOES CURRENT FLOW?

Current is a flow of electrons. These electrons are negatively charged particles and

they are attracted to the POSITIVE of the supply. This means they flow from

NEGATIVE to POSITIVE.

The first inventors and discoverers of electricity did not know this.

They thought electricity flowed from POSITIVE to NEGATIVE. So, they made a

CONVENTION (statement) that electricity (CURRENT) flows from POSITIVE to

NEGATIVE.

They were wrong. But hundreds of text books had already been written, so we

have TWO situations.

The answer is simple.

When we discuss electrical and electronic circuits, we use the old

convention, called CONVENTIONAL CU When discussing ELECTRON-

FLOW we use NEGATIVE to POSITIVE.

We keep ELECTRON FLOW arrows within the component we are talking about

(such as a radio-valve or transistor-model) and do not put electron-flow arrows on

the rest of the circuit.

We have to do this to prevent CONFUSION.

Here is the answer:

Don't use any text-books that say current flow is electron-flow as they are omitting

CONVENTIONAL CURRENT FLOW and this will confuse you.

We are discussing this point because a diode is an ELECTRONIC device. In other

words it involves the flow of electrons because CURRENT will only flow in one

direction through a diode.

In all of our discussions we have used CONVENTIONAL CURRENT FLOW as

we are talking to beginners in electronics and not PHYSICS students.

A diode is a very simple device and it has a lot of applications. We will cover some

of its uses and explain exactly how it works in very simple terms.  

A diode is a device that passes current in only one direction.  It is a bit like a water-

valve that prevents water back-flowing into the mains from your property. Or a

valve in a pump that prevents the water flowing back down a well.

There are many types of diodes to handle small currents, large currents, high

frequencies and high voltages. And there are diodes made from different materials,

but they can all be described in a simple way. And that's what we will do.

A diode has two leads. These are called ANODE and CATHODE.

The cathode end is identified in a circuit diagram and on the body of the device.

It may be identified with a line, chamfer or dimple or a symbol. There must be

something on the diode that identifies this lead and you have to look for it.

A diode does NOT have a positive or negative end. You see this mistake in so

many discussions. A diode will have a positive voltage on the anode and a slightly

lower (positive) voltage on the cathode. It will not have a positive on the anode and

negative on the cathode.

Incorrect marking with "+" and "-"

In the following diagram only the CATHODE is identified with the letter k (for

kathode). The other lead is the ANODE.

Correct marking with "k"

The most common type of diode is made from SILICON. It can also be made from

GERMANIUM. You need to look in the datasheet to find the composition of the

diode you are using.

A diode does not "turn on" or "conduct" until a small voltage is present on its

ANODE END.  

As mentioned above, a diode does not start to TURN ON until a small voltage is

present on its ANODE lead.

For a Germanium diode, this voltage is approx 0.3v.

For a Schottkey diode, this voltage is 0.3v

For a Silicon diode, this voltage is 0.7v.

RELAY:

We know that most of the high end industrial application devices have relays for their effective working. Relays are simple switches which are operated both electrically and mechanically. Relays consist of a n electromagnet and also a set of contacts.

The switching mechanism is carried out with the help of the electromagnet. There

are also other operating principles for its working. But they differ according to

their applications. Most of the devices have the application of relays.

Why is a relay used?

The main operation of a relay comes in places where only a low-power signal can

be used to control a circuit.

It is also used in places where only one signal can be used to control a lot of

circuits. The application of relays started during the invention of telephones. They

played an

Important role in switching calls in telephone exchanges. They were also used in

long distance telegraphy. They were used to switch the signal coming from one

source to another destination.

After the invention of computers they were also used to perform Boolean and

other logical operations. The high end applications of relays require high power to

be driven by electric motors and so on. Such relays are called contactors.

Mains lead:

Mains Power Lead - commonly called a "kettle lead". terminating in a three

pin UK mains plug. 220/240 Volt with a Moulded plug with 3 amp fuse

fitted. Uses include: - Most LCD TV, televisions, to UK wall mains socket

Most all PC Personal computers and many Laptops to their mains adapters.

Fully Pat tested, working perfectly. New and un-used, part of a bulk

purchase so no wrapping.

This universal lead is suitable for use on a wide variety of different types of

test equipment, as long as that tester has a IEC female connector jack.

The lead is used for connecting devices up to mains power, and features a

13A fused plug on the other end. 

BULBS:

An incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is an

electric light which produces light with a filament wire heated to a high

temperature by an electric current passing through it, until it glows .The hot

filament is protected from oxidation with a glass or quartz bulb that is filled with

inert gas or evacuated. In a halogen lamp, filament evaporation is prevented by a

chemical process that redeposit’s metal vapor onto the filament, extending its life.

The light bulb is supplied with electrical current by feed-through terminals or wires

embedded in the glass. Most bulbs are used in a socket which provides mechanical

support and electrical connections.

Incandescent bulbs are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, light output, and

voltage ratings, from 1.5 volts to about 300 volts. They require no external

regulating equipment, have low manufacturing costs, and work equally well on

either alternating current or direct current. As a result, the incandescent lamp is

widely used in household and commercial lighting, for portable lighting such as

table lamps, car headlamps, and flashlights, and for decorative and advertising

lighting.

Incandescent bulbs are much less efficient than most other types of lighting; most

incandescent bulbs convert less than 5% of the energy they use into visible light

(with the remaining energy being converted into heat). The luminous efficacy of a

typical incandescent bulb is 16 lumens per watt, compared to the 60 lm/W of a

compact fluorescent bulb. Some applications of the incandescent bulb deliberately

use the heat generated by the filament. Such applications include incubators,

brooding boxes for poultry, heat lights for reptile tanks, infrared heating for

industrial heating and drying processes, lava lamps, and the Easy-Bake Oven toy.

Incandescent bulbs also have short lifetimes compared with other types of lighting;

around 1000 hours for home light bulbs versus up to 10,000 hours for compact

fluorescents and up to 100,000 hours for LED lamps.

Because of their inefficiency, incandescent light bulbs are gradually being replaced

in many applications by other types of electric lights, such as fluorescent lamps,

compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFL), high-

intensity discharge lamps, and light-emitting diode lamps (LED). Some

jurisdictions, such as the European Union, are in the process of phasing out the use

of incandescent light bulbs.

CONDENSER MICROPHONE

An electrets microphone is a type of capacitor microphone invented by

Gerhard Sessler and Jim West at Bell laboratories in 1962.The externally

applied charge described above under condenser microphones is

replaced by a permanent charge in an electret material. An electret is a

ferroelectric material that has been permanently electrically charged or

polarized. The name comes from electrostatic and magnet; a static

charge is embedded in an electret by alignment of the static charges in

the material, much the way a magnet is made by aligning the magnetic

domains in a piece of iron.

Due to their good performance and ease of manufacture, hence low cost,

the vast majority of microphones made today are electret microphones; a

semiconductor manufacturer estimates annual production at over one

billion units. Nearly all cell-phone, computer, PDA and headset

microphones are electret types. They are used in many applications,

from high-quality recording and lavalier use to built-in microphones in

small sound recording devices and telephones. Though electret

microphones were once considered low quality, the best ones can now

rival traditional condenser microphones in every respect and can even

offer the long-term stability and ultra-flat response needed for a

measurement microphone. Unlike other capacitor microphones, they

require no polarizing voltage, but often contain an integrated

preamplifier that does require power (often incorrectly called polarizing

power or bias). This preamplifier is frequently phantom powered in

sound reinforcement and studio applications. Monophonic microphones

designed for personal computer (PC) use, sometimes called multimedia

microphones, use a 3.5 mm plug as usually used, without power, for

stereo; the ring, instead of carrying the signal for a second channel,

carries power via a resistor from (normally) a 5 V supply in the

computer. Stereophonic microphones use the same connector; there is no

obvious way to determine which standard is used by equipment and

microphones.

Only the best electret microphones rival good DC-polarized units in

terms of noise level and quality; electret microphones lend themselves to

inexpensive mass-production, while inherently expensive non-electret

condenser microphones are made to higher quality.

9-0-9 TRANSFORMER

AC-240V-TO-AC-9V

RM0513 is a general purpose chassis mounting mains transformer.

Transformer has 240 V primary windings and centre tapped secondary

winding. The transformer has flying colored insulated connecting leads

(Approx 100 mm long). The Transformer act as step down transformer

reducing AC-240-TO-AC-9V.

The Transformer gives two outputs of 18 V, 9 V and 0 V. The

Transformer’s construction is written below with details of Solid Core

and-winding.

The transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy

by inductive coupling between its winding circuits. A varying current in

the primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the

transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic flux through

the secondary winding. This varying magnetic flux induces a

varying electromotive force (E.M.F) or voltage in the secondary

winding. The transformer has cores made of high permeability silicon

steel. The steel has a permeability many times that of free space and the

core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and confine

the flux to a path which closely couples the windings.

The solid core uses one of the common design of laminated core is made

from interleaved stacks of E - shaped steel sheets capped with I -

shaped pieces, leading to its name of 'E - I transformer’. Such a design

tends to exhibit more losses, but is very economical to manufacture. 

Windings are arranged concentrically to minimize flux leakage.

The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical

paths that enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner

laminations reduce losses, but are more laborious and expensive to

construct. Thin laminations are generally used on high-frequency

transformers, with some of very thin steel laminations able to operate up

to 10 KHz.

PCB

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically

connects electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other

features etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive

substrate. PCB's can be single sided (one copper layer), double sided

(two copper layers) or multi-layer. Conductor on different layers are

connected with plated-through holes called vias. Advanced PCB's may

contain components - capacitors, resistors or active devices - embedded

in the substrate.

Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products.

Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction.

PCBs are more costly to design but allow automated manufacturing and

assembly. Products are then faster and cheaper to manufacture, and

potentially more reliable.

Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality

control follows standards published by the IPC organization.

When the board has only copper connections and no embedded

components it is more correctly called a printed wiring board (PWB) or

etched wiring board. Although more accurate, the term printed wiring

board has fallen into disuse. A PCB populated with electronic

components is called a printed circuit assembly (PCA), printed circuit

board assembly or PCB assembly (PCBA). The IPC preferred term for

assembled boards is circuit card assembly (CCA), for assembled

backplanes it is backplane assemblies. The term PCB is used informally

both for bare and assembled boards.

Design

A board designed in 1967; the sweeping curves in the traces are

evidence of freehand design using self-adhesive tape.

Printed circuit board artwork generation was initially a fully manual

process done on clear mylar sheets at a scale of usually 2 or 4 times the

desired size. The schematic diagram was first converted into a layout of

components pin pads, then traces were routed to provide the required

interconnections. Pre-printed non-reproducing mylar grids assisted in

layout, and rub-on dry transfers of common arrangements of circuit

elements (pads, contact fingers, integrated circuit profiles, and so on)

helped standardize the layout. Traces between devices were made with

self-adhesive tape. The finished layout "artwork" was then

photographically reproduced on the resist layers of the blank coated

copper-clad boards.

Modern practice is less labor intensive since computers can

automatically perform many of the layout steps. The general progression

for a commercial printed circuit board design would include:

1. Schematic capture through an electronic design automation tool.

2. Card dimensions and template are decided based on required

circuitry and case of the PCB. Determine the fixed components

and heat sinks if required.

3. Deciding stack layers of the PCB. 1 to 12 layers or more depending

on design complexity. Ground plane and power plane are decided.

Signal planes where signals are routed are in top layer as well as

internal layers.

4. Line impedance determination using dielectric layer thickness,

routing copper thickness and trace-width. Trace separation also

taken into account in case of differential signals. Microstrip,

stripline or dual stripline can be used to route signals.

5. Placement of the components. Thermal considerations and

geometry are taken into account. Vias and lands are marked.

6. Routing the signal traces. For optimal EMI performance high

frequency signals are routed in internal layers between power or

ground planes as power planes behave as ground for AC.

7. Gerber file generation for manufacturing.

In the design of the PCB artwork, a power plane is the counterpart to the

ground plane and behaves as an AC signal ground, while providing DC

voltage for powering circuits mounted on the PCB. In electronic design

automation (EDA) design tools, power planes (and ground planes) are

usually drawn automatically as a negative layer, with clearances or

connections to the plane created automatically.

ADVANTAGES: Energy efficient.

Low cost and reliable circuit.

Complete elimination of manpower.

High Accuracy

A PPLICATIONS:

The major advantage of a clap switch is that you can turn something (e.g. a

lamp) on and off from any location in the room (e.g. while lying in bed)

simply by clapping your hands.

The primary application involves an elderly or mobility-impaired person. A

clap switch is generally used for a light, television, radio, or similar

electronic device that the person will want to turn on/off from bed.

The major disadvantage is that it's generally cumbersome to have to clap

one's hands to turn something on or off and it's generally seen as simpler for

most use cases to use a traditional light switch.