Green Architecture and Sustainable Design in the Deteriorating World

A Term Paper Requirement

For

English X-WFX2

By

Sheena Crisostomo Tuazon

Professor Carmencita Abayan

5 December 2014

Abstract

2

Architects are both the shapers of the built environment and the molders of the natural

environment. That is why they have the most tangible impact on the latter. Evidence proves that

buildings bear negative effects on nature, possibly more than we humans have initially thought.

In the rise of the global concept of sustainability, building professionals came up with a solution

called Green Building or Sustainable Architecture, a building approach that minimizes the

pollution caused and energy needed, therefore mitigating the impacts and bringing various

benefits to the end users. How does architecture leave a mark on nature? How can architects solve

environmental problems? What does ‘sustainability’ mean? How are sustainable buildings

‘sustainable’? What could mankind do in order to continue development while keeping the future

generations in mind? This paper explores the consequences the construction industry bring to the

planet, the definitions of the controversial terms ‘sustainability’ and ‘green’ in the context of

architecture as a discipline, and the actions mankind should take according to the opinions of

professionals.

3

Green Architecture and Sustainable Design in the Deteriorating World

Maintenance culture in this world is a nothing but a disaster (Salami & Olaniyan, 2010).

Murcutt (2000) said it concisely when he portrayed sustainable design:

Follow the sun.Observe the wind.Watch the flow of water. Use simple materials.Touch the earth lightly.

Smith (2001) argued that architecture is a vital element in the battle to avoid the worst

excesses of climate change.

Climate change, according to Drexler (2012), provided architecture with new challenges.

Architects are perhaps the professionals having the most potential to leave a tangible

mark in the natural world. Architecture is both a boon and a bane to the environment. Buildings

aim to enrich the world but at the same time impart unwanted consequences.

Building design professionals such as architects are responsible. They care for the natural

environment since their work is within the interconnected realm of an eco-system. Understanding

a site and what a building does to it has been a primary concern of architects, engineers,

landscape architects, and contractors, as well as many other professionals, for decades

(Greensource, 2008).

Architects, being three dimensional problem solvers, have the ability to lead the change

toward sustainability. Other professions do not work three dimensionally and most people do not

4

think spatially, that’s why architects are central to the resolution of nonlinear, spatial problems

(Williams, 2007).

Architects can make a real difference because buildings and the influences that indirectly

radiate from them have such a vast impact on our future (Greensource, 2008).

Decisions about buildings, towns and their spatial distribution are the key to creating a future built upon the concept of ‘sustainable development’. Decisions made by architects are crucial to the achievement of a sustainable future (Edwards B. , 1996).

Mazria (2007) insisted on the value of the building sector and the architecture sector on

the topic of climate change. He said every time we [architects] design a building, we set up its

energy consumption pattern and its greenhouse gas emissions pattern for the next 50-100 years.

Professionals in the building and engineering industry need to cooperate with the

authorities to comprehend and fulfill the local needs and limitations of environment,

incorporating passive solar heating, water tanks and composting toilets into designs; decreasing

or eradicating external water or energy requirements; using local and recycled materials wherever

safe and possible, and minimizing the use of materials, using those with low energy or impact on

the surroundings (Boyle, 2005).

Most sustainability-aware architects try to design buildings that make more efficient use

of energy and resources. This is why the world is baffled: “Is being less bad the same thing as

being good? Does mere efficiency meet our need to connect with the natural world or does it just

slow down ecological destruction? And if sustainable architecture falls short of fulfilling our

needs, what would a sustaining architecture look like (Gissen, 2003)?”

Kim & Rigdon (1998) expounded that professionals in the architectural industry have to

accept the fact that as a society’s economy improves, its demand for architectural resources such

5

as land, buildings, building products, energy will increase. This in turn results to the combined

impact of architecture on the global ecosystem made up of both organic and inorganic elements,

including living organisms and humans.

Evidence says architecture has a negative impact to the environment.

“Architects have a larger share of responsibility for the world’s consumption of fossil

fuel and global warming gas production than any other professional group… Both global

warming and ozone depletion are directly the result of decisions made by architects (Edwards B. ,

1996)”.

Global environmental crises have already killed a lot of people and reduced millions

more to misery as refugees from human-provoked ‘natural’ disasters. Global warming is

redistributing climatic systems and so annihilating ecosystems and their life forms, as well as

bringing violent storms and summer brush fires, desertification, famine and the spread of killer

tropical diseases, along with rising sea levels and the eventual inundation of many of the most

densely populated parts of the globe and its greatest cities. Planet-wide pollution and

contamination are exterminating species and damaging immune systems leading to disease in

both humans and other living creatures. Ozone layer holes cause cataracts and skin cancer and

threaten to blind insects responsible for pollination process on which all food cycles depend

(Buchanan, 2006).

Undoubtedly, environmental degradation is the most overwhelmingly and tangibly urgent

crisis the mankind is facing in this age. “Virtually all other serious problems such as

overpopulation, hunger, social breakdown and inequality, the rise of diseases such as cancer and

the spread of others, increasingly frequent and devastating ‘natural’ disasters such as storms and

flooding) are part of this larger crisis, or closely related and subordinate to it (Buchanan, 2006).”

6

The manufacturing and transport of building materials entail the burning of fossil fuels.

Buildings are implicated in the process of human activity in releasing carbon dioxide into the

atmosphere that ultimately cause climate change, accounting for about 47 percent of the carbon

dioxide emissions across the 25 nations of the European Union (Smith P. F., 2001). They account

for nearly half the energy consumption of developed countries, and therefore are the major cause

of global warming (Buchanan, 2006).

During the course of the life cycle of a building (from raw material extraction,

processing, construction, building operation to demolition), pollutants, energy consumption,

water consumption, land degradation and/or consumption, resource consumption, waste

production, and loss of biodiversity are incurred (Boyle, 2005).

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) account for about a half of the damage in the ozone layer.

They are used in connection with air-conditioned, high-energy buildings (Edwards & Naboni,

2013).

According to researches, buildings consume enormous quantities of energy, release great

amounts of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide, exploit the most wasteful construction procedures,

and have poor air quality that can cause various numerous diseases (Gissen, 2003).

Using the available information in Spain from the Parameters of Sustainability by Albert

Chuchi et. al., Reyes, Pohl, and Pirillo attempted to quantify the environmental impact of the

construction of housing through the measure of the flows of energy, water, materials and waste

(Reyes & Ethel Baraona Pohl, 2007).

To build a square meter of standard construction, the manufacturing of materials suppose

an equivalence in energy of 5.754 mega joules, roughly equal to about 150 liters of gasoline.

Under usual conditions, in the period of a year the use of the same building can reach an amount

7

of energy represented by 12 liters of gasoline. With a 50 year-long lifespan, the building uses up a

total value of 29.429 mega joules per square meter. Simply put, the energy consumption of a

building can roughly be represented by almost 5 barrels of crude oil for each square meter.

Of all the energy consumed by our society, houses represent up to 15%. They consume

about 18,000 kW/h per year. This is just like having 22 bulbs of 100 W always turned on.

In a conventional house, an average volume of 140 liters of drinking water is consumed

by each person daily. Around 90% is consumed only to transport waste far from the house and

only 10% is used to drink or cook, although later it is transformed to gray water (wasted water

that is not suitable for any other use). Simply put, every day, each person consumes around twice

their own weight in water.

Of all the water we use, houses represent up to 16%. The amount is about 50,000 liters

per year per person. This is just like the volume of a pool measuring 8 meters by 4 meters with a

depth of 1.5m.

Of all the total mineral extractions of the planet, houses and buildings spend up to 25%.

The extraction of aggregates, clay, chalk and limestone all alter the face of the land

creating gravel pits and quarries that can either be left as wildlife areas or used for landfill sides –

either way, valuable land is lost and the percentage of degraded landscapes in earth increase

(Edwards & Naboni, 2013).

Avoiding needless consumption, using thermal inertia and apt windows and framework,

improving the performance of mechanical air conditioning devices and appliances, taking

advantage of the conditions of the natural climate by means of natural ventilation and collection

of solar energy, choosing clean energy, and making rehabilitating buildings energy-wise, it is

possible to save up to 40-60% of the energy houses consume.

8

With efficient irrigation and low consumption sanitary devices, using fixtures with flow

reduction discharges, utilizing rainwater, recycling wastewater, and using natural treatment, it is

possible to save up to 70% of the water houses consume.

Including only real necessary building elements, designing constructive solutions that

minimize the quantity of materials to be used, using natural materials and of local origin1,

recycling construction and demolition waste, and buying materials that neutralize waste, it is

possible to save significantly on the materials consumed and their environmental impacts.

Integrating natural ventilation in the design of the building avoids ozone damage

(Edwards & Naboni, 2013).

There has been the meeting of 163 nations at the Climate Conference in Kyoto Japan

trying to hammer out a global strategy to manage climate change and reduce carbon emissions. A

reduction of emissions, as proposed at Kyoto, to about 5% universally below 1990 levels and 8%

below in the case of the US by 2010 or shortly after will be difficult to achieve. For such progress

to be made, major reductions in energy consumption and dependence on fossil fuels will need to

take place. Architecturally, the necessity and opportunity for design and technological innovation

has rarely been greater (Scott, 1998).

These problems aren’t insurmountable, but they are substantial. They require a change in

the way those in the building-industry professions do their business (Greensource, 2008).

The creation of a sustainable culture cannot be accomplished by architecture alone.

Architecture can, however, make a major contribution to the pressing quest to devise ways of life

that are less taxing on the earth's resources and capacities for regeneration (Buchanan, 2006).

(See page 1 of my sample essay)

1 Using materials of local origin will drastically minimize the waste incurred from transportation

9

Gerardo Wadel, an architect specialized in sustainability, told how the world opened its

eyes on the issue of sustainability.

For the first time, the environmental problem caused by industrialism reached the world

and stirred up the public in the 60’s, when protests on the massive use of nuclear energy were

done. Because of the petroleum crisis and fossil fuel shortage in the 70’s, the whole world was

alerted, what if energy ceased to be available? Many people started to take the consequences on

the natural resources into account whilst thinking about economic development because of Club

of Rome’s The Limits of Growth in 1972.

Our Common Future, a United Nations report, gave birth to the first world agreement on

the contemporary conception of the environmental problem, incorporating the concepts of

sustainability and sustainable development through many fields including Architecture. Both

1992’s The Earth Summit of Rio de Janeiro and Johannesburg 2002 spread sustainability globally

(Wadel, 2007).

Basically, as Gissen (2003) put it, “green” or environmentally responsible architecture

burst onto the international scene in the 1970s as a response to the perceptible evidence of

environmental damage and rising fuel prices. Single-family homes were the first green buildings,

although there were office buildings too. In the later years, environmentally aware architects

directed their efforts at large-scale buildings such as skyscrapers, apartment buildings, convention

centers, shopping complexes, and other commercial buildings.

Gissen, as cited, revealed the concept of sustainability is traced back to United States

President Theodore Roosevelt (1910) “I recognize the right and duty of this generation to develop

and use the natural resources of our land, but I do not recognize the right to waste them, or to rob,

by wasteful use, the generations that come after us.”

10

United Nations defined sustainability as the “development that meets the needs of the

present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” (United

Nations World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987)

Renowned Professor Emeritus in Architecture Ching (2014) attributed sustainability with

the “promises of things that will last—buildings with long and useful lives, forms of energy that

are renewable, communities that endure.”

The mankind’s development by the consumption and the contamination caused by the

combustion of petroleum based fuels is not sustainable. Exhausting a natural resource and

contaminating the environment “severely determine the possibilities of future generations, whom

we force to face the consequences of our behavior” (Wadel, 2007).

Come 1990s, environmentally sensitive architects from the Europe and America

supported a theoretical concept they called “sustainable development” or, more commonly,

“sustainability”. Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) and Building Research

Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) rate buildings according to their

environmental impact and address the issues that first catalyzed the environmental movement in

the 1970s. (Gissen, 2003)

Despite differences in definitions, perspectives and priorities, sustainability remains a

critical challenge for everyone. (Scott, 1998)

What being “sustainable” actually becomes is not just an environmental strategy but a means of making buildings that are more user responsive, more humane places to inhabit, more intelligent in the way they balance their energy flows, more respectful of nature and the resources it offers, and more understanding of buildings having a life span during which they undergo substantial change and adaptation. Put together, it simply equates to better designed places in tune with the environment. (Scott, 1998)

11

The global concept of sustainability gave birth to the green building movement in the

discipline of Architecture.

The green building movement is one born of passion-of the desire to make a radical

change in the way we think about and design buildings.

The concept began with the environmental movement in the 1960s which started a ‘back

to nature’ concept in the design of houses then moved to energy-conserving office buildings in

the 1970s (Boyle, 2005).

A green building is a building that diminishes environmental impact through

conservation of resources such as energy and water and contributes to the health of its occupants.

It is characterized by comfortable and aesthetically pleasing environments. (Gissen, 2003)

“Sustainable” or “green” building can be defined as those buildings that have minimum

adverse impacts on the built and natural environment, in terms of the buildings themselves,

their immediate surroundings and the broader regional and global setting. (Salami & Olaniyan,

2010)

Sustainable architecture is a revised conceptualization of architecture in response to

a myriad of contemporary concerns about the effects of human activity (Williamson,

Radford, & Bennetts, 2003).

Idealistically, green building is about turning the promises of sustainability into reality.

(Ching & Shapiro, 2014)

Sustainable architecture is a design that uses natural building materials (not involving

pollution in its treatment) that are energy efficient and that make little or no impact on the

nature of a site and its resources (Ghani, 2012) .

12

The definition of a green building is still evolving. Some green-certified buildings have

been found to ironically use high energy or pollute in some other way. Conversely, many zero-

energy or near zero-energy buildings have been successfully designed and built but have not been

certified as green by any rating system. (Ching & Shapiro, 2014)

Today, the concept of a green building is so diverse that it is difficult to give only one

definite meaning. (Boyle, 2005)

There is no such thing as a green architecture or a green aesthetic. Instead there are countless ways design can address and synthesize green issues. Green design is not merely a matter of add-ons or product specification. It involves more than insulation, low-emissivity glass, non-polluting paints, and water-conserving toilets. Rather, it influences the form of the whole building and is one of its major generators from the first moments of the design process. (Buchanan, 2006)

Sustainable buildings not only have a less harmful effect on the environment, they can

also actually be implemented to make better architecture. (Drexler, 2012)

Sustainable designs function on sustainable resident energies. Sustainable designs last; they are flexible; they are loved and cherished; they endure; they function when they are tethered to nonrenewables and also when the nonrenewables are unavailable. They can function in a blackout or a drought or natural disaster or on a beautiful day without any input from nonrenewables. The designed connection to the place affords the ability to function without nonrenewable. Sustainable architecture and design add to quality of the environment, to clean air, to water, to renewing and protecting life—all by designing the connections to what is there. The place is better because of sustainable design. (Williams, 2007)

A typical, conventional, vernacular building that complies with the Building Codes

actually makes minimal efforts to address energy, water issues and totally ignores material waste,

resource conservation, and impacts on the construction site because these issues are not specified

in the Building Code (Salami & Olaniyan, 2010).

No simple list can cover all the requirements of sustainable buildings – especially as

scientists continue to evaluate the environmental impact of these structures but there are now a

13

number of rating systems used to evaluate sustainable architecture in general terms (Gissen,

2003).

LEED and BREEAM define environmentally progressive architecture as an architecture

that utilizes renewable sources to generate energy; that uses passive techniques for ventilation and

lighting; that integrates, sustains, and recycles greenery, water, and waste; that advances the use

of environmentally conscious construction techniques; and that promotes a livable and feasible

urbanism. (Gissen, 2003)

Unlike the ordinary building, green building puts primary importance on ecosystem

protection and resource usage efficiency (Salami & Olaniyan, 2010). A green building places a

high priority on health, environmental and resource conservation performance over its life cycle

(Ghani, 2012).

The ultimate goal and challenge of sustainable design is to find win-win solutions that provide quantitative, qualitative, physical, and psychological benefits to building users. There are many possibilities for achieving this seemingly difficult goal. The three principles of sustainable design — economy of resources, life cycle design, and humane design — provide a broad awareness of the environment issues associated with architecture. (Kim & Rigdon, 1998)

When properly designed, sustainable buildings can produce many benefits.

Green buildings offer the promise of greater protection from temperature extremes and

the other forces of nature, with less pollution, greater comfort, and a greater connection to the

beauty of nature (Ching & Shapiro, 2014).

The earth’s environment is going through alarming changes especially due to human

intervention, i.e., one of which is the rapid development being done all over the world. Green

architecture is a solution to both the need of rapid development and environmental sustainability.

(Aslam, Tariq, Syed, & Ali, 2012)

14

Cooperating, rather than competing, with the planet Earth's natural processes will have a

much more gentle impact on the world. (Buchanan, 2006)

Smith P. F. (2001) urged “that the design and construction of buildings should be a prime

factor in the drive to mitigate the effects of climate change.”

A lot of architects define architecture as a solution-finder to contemporary problems.

God created a beautiful earth. Man has been charged with the stewardship of the earth.

Good architecture enhances God’s creation. (Shannon)

Great architecture finds the best solution to a design problem by using both creativity and

practicality. Part sculpture, part environmental psychology, part construction technology,

architecture is the combination of many separate forces into a harmonic whole. (Jones)

Architecture is the synthesis of art and science utilized to develop a solution to a challenge in the

built environment. (Kalin) Architecture is a method to solve issues relevant to a progressing

contemporary culture. (Zuger)

Sustainable architecture is thinking long-term. It should be the standard, the norm. It

should not be considered special but instead be the new ‘conventional’ or ‘vernacular’. All

buildings should ‘tread lightly on earth’, following Glenn Murcutt’s building philosophy, and

have small ecological footprints. They should also make a positive and appropriate contribution

to the social environment they inhabit, by addressing people’s practical needs while enhancing

their surrounding environment and their psychological and physical well-being. (Sassi, 2006)

That way, those in the building profession can mitigate the damage dealt. If we continue building

without regard to the activity’s impact to the environment, we humans will just be waiting for the

Earth to reach its limits.

Sassi (2006) furthered sustainable buildings:

15

There aren’t any practical or ethical reasons for not designing and building sustainable buildings. … it is feasible to create architecture that is socially responsible and desirable, economically viable in the long term, and that respects and protects the environment.

The environmental problems we face today are not as simple as to be solved by subtle

reminders to “turn off the lights when not used”, by pageants that “advocate” environmental

awareness, nor by lessons on elementary Science textbooks on how to save the Earth through

little ways that are most likely neglected anyway.

Edwards (2013) gave a solution to the environmental problem: “legislation, education,

and example.” The law guides the builders with fresh parameters; education establishes the

opinion of the people; and examples set precedents and bench marks.

According to American Institute of Architects, promoting sustainable design including

resource conservation will achieve a minimum 50 percent reduction from the current level of

consumption of fossil fuels used to construct and operate new and renovated buildings by the year

2010. (Mazria)

The environmental impact of architecture is not a minor problem for the whole of society,

and much less for the construction sector itself. It is an activity with great incidence on the

consumption of resources and in the generation of waste. (Reyes & Ethel Baraona Pohl, 2007)

The earth’s environment is going through alarming changes especially due to human

intervention, i.e., one of which is the rapid development being done all over the world. Green

architecture is a solution to both the need of rapid development and environmental sustainability.

(Aslam, Tariq, Syed, & Ali, 2012)

[Architectural] Students should be educated and should be encouraged to design green buildings and take tests which mark them as green building architects. A rating system should be formed which rates the energy efficiency of the buildings. Countries

16

like USA, China, UK, India, Singapore and many others have various rating systems and are encouraging people to think and build green. (Aslam, Tariq, Syed, & Ali, 2012)

We should realize that the problems associated with sustainable development are global

as a result the issues need worldwide attention. If we work together we can bring change faster

(Ghani, 2012).

A leading innovator in the field of green design, sustainability’s best known proponent,

architect of Lloyd’s of London Richard Rogers (2003) told in an interview that ecology-conscious

buildings have the potential to change modern architecture more radically and drastically than

perhaps any movement since the beginning of modernism. He claimed that we will see a

tremendous revolution in the next 20 to 25 years as gas-guzzling cars will disappear and the

streets will change. He hoped that we will recognize the need to reconsider buildings as well. He

professed that green building is not difficult. When asked “Are you still optimistic about the

environment?” he replied “as long as we recognize that there are problems that we have to get

over … and if we can fuse social concerns, technological and structural innovation, and

environmentally responsible design, I believe we can create architecture that properly reflects the

requirements of the twenty-first century” (Rogers, 2003).

The inevitable, inescapable future of architecture is green buildings (Buchanan, 2006).

17

References

Aslam, A., Tariq, S., Syed, W. A., & Ali, S. S. (2012). Green Architecture & Environmental Benefits: A Review with Reference to Energy Deficient Pakistan. Science International, 495-498.

Bauer, P. D., Mosle, P., & Schwarz, D. M. (2010). Green Building - Guidebook for Sustainable Design. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.

Boyle, C. A. (2005). Sustainable buildings. Engineering Sustainability, 41-45.

Buchanan, P. (2006). Ten Shades of Green: Architecture and the Natural World. New York: Architectural League of NY.

Ching, F. D., & Shapiro, I. M. (2014). Green Building Illustrated (1st Edition ed.). Wiley.

Drew, P. (2000). Touch This Earth Lightly: Glenn Murcutt in His Own Wors. Duffy & Snellgrove.

Drexler, H. (2012). Holistic housing : concepts, design strategies and processes. Munchen: Edition Detail.

Edwards, B. (1996). Towards sustainable architecture: European directives and building design. Oxford: Butterworth Architecture.

Edwards, B. W., & Naboni, E. (2013). Green Buildings Pay: Design, Productivity and Ecology. Routledge.

Farmer, J. (1999). Green Shift, Second Edition: Changing Attitudes in Architecture to the Natural World. Architectural Press.

Ghani, F. (2012). Issues in Sustainable Architecture and Possible Solutions. International Journal of Civil & Environmental Engineering, 21-24.

Gissen, D. (2003). Big and Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21st Century. Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press.

Greensource. (2008). Emerald architecture : case studies in green building (1st Edition ed.). New York, United States of America: McGraw-Hill Professional.

Hagan, S. (2001). Taking Shape: A New Contract Between Architecture and Nature. Architectural Press.

Heschong Mahone Group. (2003). Windows and Classrooms: A Study of Student Performance and the Indoor Environment. California Energy Commission.

Hyde, R., Watson, S., Cheshire, W., & Thomson, M. (2007). The Environmental Brief: Pathways for Green Design. Taylor & Francis.

Images Publishing Group. (2005). Mainstream Green: Sustainable Design by LPA. Victoria, Australia: Images Publishing Dist Ac.

Jones, C. G. (n.d.).

18

Kalin, E. (n.d.).

Kim, J.-J., & Rigdon, B. (1998, December). Introduction to Sustainable Design. Sustainable Architectur. Michigan: National Pollution Prevention Center for Higher Education.

Mackenzie, D. (1991). Design For The Environment . Rizzoli.

Mazria, E. (2007, January 27). Architecture and Climate Change. (G. Manaugh, Interviewer)

Mazria, E. (n.d.). Architects and Climate Change. American Institute of Architects.

Reyes, C., & Ethel Baraona Pohl, C. P. (2007). Architecture sustainable. Valencia: Editorial Pencil.

Rogers, R. (2003). On Sustainability and How It's Changing the Face of Modernism. (N. Rappaport, Interviewer)

Salami, R., & Olaniyan, M. (2010). Towards a Sustainable Built Environment: The Green Building Concept. Continental J. Sustainable Development 1, 45-50.

Sassi, P. (2006). Strategies for Sustainable Architecture. Taylor & Francis.

Scott, A. (1998). Dimensions of Sustainability. Taylor & Francis.

Shannon, E. J. (n.d.).

Smith, D. L. (2011). Environmental Issues for Architecture. Wiley.

Smith, P. F. (2001). Architecture in a Climate of Change. Oxford: Linacre House.

Stohr, K., & Sinclor, C. (2012). Design Like You Give a Damn {2}: Building Change from the Ground Up. Harry N. Abrams.

United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987). Towards Sustainable Development. Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development.

Wadel, G. (2007). Architecture Sustainable. In C. Reyes, & C. P. Ethel Baraona Pohl, Architecture Sustainable (pp. 1-5). Valencia: Editorial Pencil.

Waldrep, L. W. (2010). Becoming an Architect: A Guide to Careers in Design. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.

Williams, D. E. (2007). Sustainable Design: Ecology, Architecture, and Planning. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.

Williams, D. E. (2007). Sustainable Design: Ecology, Architecture, and Planning. Wiley.

Williamson, T., Radford, A., & Bennetts, H. (2003). Understanding Sustainable Architecture. London: Spon Press.

Wilson, E. (2003). The Future of Life. Vintage.

Zuger, B. (n.d.).