Research-methodology Adhy 2
Transcript of Research-methodology Adhy 2
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Research Methodologyand
Project Proposal Preparation
Adhy Kurniawan
Faculty of Engineering
Gadjah Mada University
Master of System Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Gadjah Mada University
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Adhy Kurniawan
1987-1990 SMA 3 Semarang1990-1991 Fac. Of Economy, Diponegoro
University, Semarang
S1(1991-1996) Civil Engineering Dept.Gadjah Mada Univ.
S3(1998-2003) Swiss Federal Institute ofTechnology Lausanne (EPFL), Swiss
Post Doct (nov.2005-sept.2006) KyotoUniversity, Japan
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My Goals for Course
That each of you develop an
intuition for the fundamental
principles of research methodology
That we have an enjoyable
semester learning together
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Lecture and Homework
Homework
Your chance to practice using the
concepts presented in class
Teamwork vs. Individual work?
Lecture Presentation and discussion
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References
All of literature concerning: Res Met
Marczyk, DeMatteo, Festinger. 2005,
Essentials of Research Design and
Methodology, John Wiley and Sons.Day and Gastel, 2006, How to write and
Publish a Scientific Report, Greenwood
Press
Metodologi Riset, Etc.
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List of students
Alif Ardy Saputra, Geodesi UGM Anik FR, TL, ITB
Ashri Uswatun, TFisika,UGM
Ayi Fajarwati, TL, ITB
Corry Agustina, Perenc Wil, TA, UGM
Dwi Astuti, TKimia, UGM
Elva Nur , TF, UGM Erika Kezia, TL, ITB
Fitri Wijayanti, Fisika, UNS
I Nyoman Kusuma, TF, UGM
Ihsan Hasan, T Industri, UII,
Ihwan Ghazali, T Industri, UAD
Iin Lestari, TL, ITB
M Sony Abertiawan, TL, ITB Maria Auliana, T Sipil, UGM
Norma Pradipta, TArsitektur, UGM
Satrya Alrizki, TGeofisik, ITB
Tatag Lindu Bhakti, TFisika, UGM
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Contents
The aims of research,the research topic,
title and research problem,
literature review,
research design: population and sampling types, typesof quantitative research designs, validity ofconclusions, data-collecting methods andmeasuring instruments in quantitative research,qualitative research designs,
data analysis and interpretation of results,
report writing and the research proposal,ethical consideration on research.
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OVERVIEW OF SCIENCE ANDTHE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
sciencecan be defined as a methodological andsystematic approach to the acquisition of newknowledge.
This definition of science highlights some of thekey differences between how scientists andnonscientists go about acquiring newknowledge.
Specifically, rather than relying on mere casualobservations and an informal approach to learn
about the world, scientists attempt to gain newknowledge by making careful observations andusing systematic, controlled, andmethodical approaches (Shaughnessy &Zechmeister, 1997).
Shaughnessy, J. J., & Zechmeister, E. B. (1997). Research methods in
psychology(4th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.
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In addition, scientific knowledge is notbased on the opinions, feelings, orintuition of the scientist.
Instead, scientific knowledge is based onobjective data that were reliably obtainedin the context of a carefully designedresearch study.
In short, scientific knowledge is basedon the accumulation of empiricalevidence (Kazdin, 2003a)
Kazdin, A. E. (2003a). Methodology: What it is and why it is so important. In A.
E. Kazdin ( Ed.), Methodological issues and strategies in clinical research(3rd
ed., pp. 522). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
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The defining characteristic of scientificresearch is the scientific method.
First described by the Englishphilosopher and scientist Roger Bacon in
the 13th century, it is still generallyagreed that the scientific method isthe basis for all scientificinvestigation.
The scientific methodis best thought ofas an approach to the acquisition of newknowledge, and this approach effectivelydistinguishes science from nonscience.
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The Scientific Method
The development of the scientific method is
usually credited to Roger Bacon, a philosopher
and scientist from 13th-century England,
although some argue that the Italian scientist
Galileo Galilei played an important role informulating the scientific method.
Later contributions to the scientific method were
made by the philosophers Francis Bacon and
Ren Descartes.
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Although some disagreement existsregarding the exact characteristics of thescientific method, most agree that it ischaracterized by the following elements:
Empirical approach Observations Questions Hypotheses Experiments Analyses Conclusions Replication
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Empirical Approach
The scientific method is firmly based on the empiricalapproach. The empirical approachis an evidence-basedapproach that relies on direct observation andexperimentation in the acquisition of new knowledge (seeKazdin, 2003a).
In the empirical approach, scientific decisions are made basedon the data derived from direct observation andexperimentation.
Contrast this approach to decision making with the way thatmost nonscientific decisions are made in our daily lives.
For example, we have all made decisions based on feelings,
hunches, or gut instinct. Additionally, we may often reachconclusions or make decisions that are not necessarily basedon data, but rather on opinions, speculation, and a hope forthe best.
The empirical approach, with its emphasis on direct,systematic, and careful observation, is best thought of as theguiding principle behind all research conducted in accordancewith the scientific method.
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Observations
An important component in any scientific investigation isobservation. In this sense, observationrefers to twodistinct conceptsbeing aware of the worldaround us and making careful measurements.
Observations of the world around us often give rise to the
questions that are addressed through scientific research. For example, the Newtonian observation that apples fallfrom trees stimulated much research into the effects ofgravity. Therefore, a keen eye to yoursurroundings can often provide you with manyideas for research studies.
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Questions
After getting a research idea, perhaps from makingobservations of the world around us, the next step in theresearch process involves translating that research ideainto an answerable question.
The term answerable is particularly important in thisrespect, and it should not be overlooked.
It would obviously be a frustrating and ultimatelyunrewarding endeavor to attempt to answer anunanswerable research question through scientificinvestigation.
It is therefore important to formulate a researchquestion that can be answered through availablescientific methods and procedures.
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Hypotheses
The next step in the scientific method is coming up with ahypothesis, which is simply an educatedandtestableguess about the answer to your researchquestion.
A hypothesis is often described as an attempt by theresearcher to explain the phenomenon of interest.
Hypotheses can take various forms, depending on thequestion being asked and the type of study beingconducted.
A key feature of all hypotheses is that each must make aprediction.
Remember that hypotheses are the researchers attempt
to explain the phenomenon being studied, and thatexplanation should involve a prediction about thevariables being studied.
These predictions are then tested by gathering andanalyzing data, and the hypotheses can either besupported or refuted on the basis of the data.
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Two types of hypotheses with which you should befamiliar are
the null hypothesis and the alternate (or experimental) hypothesis.
The null hypothesisalways predicts that there will be nodifferences between the groups being studied.
By contrast, the alternate hypothesispredicts that therewill be a difference between the groups. For example,
the null hypothesis would predict that theexercise group and the no-exercise group will not
differ significantly on levels of cholesterol. The alternate hypothesis would predict that
the two groups will differ significantly oncholesterol levels.
Homework: Individual Please try to find one example. About the null
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Experiments
After articulating the hypothesis, the next step involvesactually conducting the experiment (or researchstudy).
For example, if the study involves investigating theeffects of exercise on levels of cholesterol, the researcherwould design and conduct a study that would attempt to
address that question.As previously mentioned, a key aspect of conducting a
research study is measuring the phenomenon of interestin an accurateand reliablemanner.
In this example, the researcher would collect data on thecholesterol levels of the study participants by using an
accurate and reliable measurement device. Then, the researcher would compare the cholesterol
levels of the two groups to see ifexercise had anyeffects.
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Accuracy vs. Reliability
When talking about measurement in the context of research,
there is an important distinction between being accurate and beingreliable.
Accuracyrefers to whether the measurement is correct, whereasreliabilityrefers to whether the measurement is consistent.
An example may help to clarify the distinction.
When throwing darts at a dart board, accuracy refers to
whether the darts are hitting the bulls eye (an accuratedartthrower will throw darts that hit the bulls eye).
Reliability, on the other hand, refers to whether the dartsare hitting the same spot (a reliabledart thrower will throwdarts that hit the same spot).
Therefore, an accurate and reliable dart thrower will
consistently throw the darts in the bulls eye. As may beevident, however, it is possible for the dart thrower to bereliable, but not accurate.
For example, the dart thrower may throw all of the darts inthe same spot (which demonstrates high reliability), but thatspot may not be the bulls eye (which demonstrates low
accuracy).
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Analyses
After conducting the study and gathering thedata, the next step involves analyzing the data,which generally calls for the use ofstatisticaltechniques.
The type of statistical techniques used by aresearcher depends on the design of the study,the type of data being gathered, and thequestions being asked.
It is important to be aware of the role ofstatistics in conducting a research study.
In short, statistics help researchers minimizethe likelihood of reaching an erroneousconclusion about the relationship between thevariables being studied.
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Conclusions
After analyzing the data and determiningwhether to reject the null hypothesis, the
researcher is now in a position to draw someconclusions about the results of the study.
For example, if the researcher rejected the nullhypothesis, the researcher can conclude thatthe phenomenon being studied had an effect
a statistically significanteffect, to be moreprecise. If the researcher rejects the null hypothesis in
our exercise-cholesterol example, the researcheris concluding that exercise had an effect on levelsof cholesterol.
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It is important that researchers
make only those conclusions that
can be supported by the data
analyses.Going beyond the data is a cardinal
sinthat researchers must be careful
to avoid.
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Replication
One of the most important elements ofthe scientific method is replication.
Replicationessentially meansconducting the same research study asecond time with another group ofparticipants to see whether the sameresults are obtained.
The same researcher may attempt toreplicate previously obtained results, orperhaps other researchers mayundertake that task.
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Replication illustrates an important point aboutscientific researchnamely, that researchersshould avoid drawing broad conclusions basedon the results of a single research studybecause it is always possible that the results of
that particular study were an aberration. In other words, it is possible that the results of
the research study were obtained by chance orerror and, therefore, that the results may notaccurately represent the actual state of things.
However, if the results of a research study areobtained a second time (i.e., replicated), thelikelihood that the original studys findings wereobtained by chance or error is greatly reduced.
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What are the three generalgoals of scientific research?
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Answer:
description,
prediction,
and understanding/explaining
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What Exactly is Research?
we will focus on two of the most
common types of research
correlationalresearch
and experimentalresearch
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Correlational research:
In correlational research, the goal is to determine whethertwo or more variables are related. (By the way, variablesis a term with which you should be familiar.
A variableis anything that can take on different values,such as weight, time, and height.)
For example, a researcher may be interested in
determining whether age is related to weight. In thisexample, a researcher may discover that age is indeedrelated to weight because as age increases, weight alsoincreases. If a correlation between two variables is strongenough, knowing about one variable allows a researcherto make a prediction about the other variable.
It is important to point out, however, that a correlation
or relationshipbetween two things does not necessarilymean that one thing caused the other.To draw a cause-and-effect conclusion,
researchers must use experimental research.
.
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Experimental research:
In its simplest form, experimental researchinvolvescomparing two groups on one outcome measure to testsome hypothesis regarding causation.
For example, if a researcher is interested in the effects ofa new medication on headaches, the researcher wouldrandomly divide a group of people with headaches into
two groups. One of the groups, the experimental group, would receive
the new medication being tested.
The other group, the control group, would receive aplacebo medication (i.e., a medication containing aharmless substance, such as sugar, that has no
physiological effects).
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Experimental research:
Besides receiving the different medications, the groupswould be treated exactly the same so that the researchcould isolate the effects of the medications. Afterreceiving the medications, both groups would becompared to see whether people in the experimental
group had fewer headaches than people in the controlgroup.
Assuming this study was properly designed (and properlydesigned studies will be discussed in detail in laterchapters), if people in the experimental group had fewerheadaches than people in the control group, the
researcher could conclude that the new medicationreduces headaches.
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Task
Compose your own brief research
proposal.
Try to determine your research
topic for MST final project
Format:
1. In MS Word
2. In Power point
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Task/assignment next week
Review 1 International Publication
(Journal, Conference paper,etc)
related to Renewable energy
Compose the summarize of yourreview
Format:
1. In MS Word 2. In Power point
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Purpose of the research proposal
1. To informthe reader of nature of yourproposed research. What is the problem? What is its extent?
2. To convincethe reader, especiallysupervisors and reviewers, of the valueof your proposed research. Is this project worth the time
and money? Will it make a difference to theworld?
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Purpose of the research proposal
3. To demonstrateyour expertise andcompetency in a particular area of study.
Do you have the qualifications to conductthis research?
Have you informed yourself of theexisting theory and data relevant to yourtopic?
Do you have the
necessary skills to
conduct the research?
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Purpose of the research proposal
4. To planthe research project and provide astep-by-step guide to the tasks necessaryfor its completion.
What are the key stages of the work?
What are the priorities? How do the various components fit together?
5. To requestsupport from individuals andagencies who provide supervision,
oversight or funding for the research project.
What kinds of support does the project need? Are all participants properly protected?
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Purpose of the research proposal
6. To contractwith the agenciesand individuals involved, including
supervisors, foundations and
participants in the research team.How will tasks be assigned and
resources expended?
What does each contributeto the collective endeavor?
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First things first
1. Basics
2. Topic ideas
3. Typical methodologies
4. Common pitfalls
5. Getting started and putting it all
together
6. Questions/discussion
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Basic steps of a researchproject
Find a topicWhat, When
Formulate questionsWhat, Why
Define populationWho, When
Select design & measurementHow
Gather evidenceHow
Interpret evidenceWhy
Tell about what you did and found out
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Selecting a Research Topic
What are some considerationswhen selecting a research topic?
Considerations in Selecting
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Considerations in Selectinga Topic
Personal interest / Passion
Importance / Contribution to the field
Newness / Relevance Feasibility
Tradeoff between rigor and practicality
Time constraints
Ethical constraints Organizational support
Economic factors
Availability of Subjects
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Sources of Research Topics
Peer-reviewed journals in your field
Personal experiences
Work setting experiences Existing literature
Recommendations for future research
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Refining Your Topic
Refinement needed for effective and
efficient research
Narrow your topicIdentify a theoretical framework
Specifically and unambiguously define
termsState research questions and
hypotheses
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Refining Your Topic (cont d)
A literature review will help you
See if your idea has been tried
Include all relevant constructsSelect instruments
Anticipate common problems
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Components of a ConceptPaper
Title page Introduction
Nature of the Problem
Background and Significance of theProblem
Preliminary Literature Review
Initial Research Question orQuestions
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Components of a ConceptPaper (cont d)
Brief Description of Methodologyand Research Design
Anticipated Outcomes
Timeline References
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The Literature Review
What is a Literature
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What is a LiteratureReview?
According to Creswell (2005), areview of the literature is a written
summary of journal articles, books
and other documents that describesthe past and current state of
information, organizes the literature
into topics and documents a needfor a proposed study. (pp. 79)
Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating
Quantitative and Qualitative Research
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Focusing on Empirical Research
What does Empirical Mean?
Primary Sources Original Research Article
Secondary Sources Newspapers Book chapters
Television/Radio Magazines Wikepedia
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Empirical Research
All empirical research is inherentlyflawed Limitations
1. Sampling Generalizability Representative
2. Measurement Measurement Error Social Desirability
3. Problem Identification Grasping the Whole Problem
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Literature Reviews
Well-written analytical narrative that
brings a readerup-to-dateon whatis known on a given topic, but also
provide fresh insights that advanceknowledge
Resolve conflicts between studies
Identify new ways to interpretresearch results
Creating a path for future research
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Anecdotal Reports
A description of an event orexperience that happened to be
noticed
No controlNo comparison
Review of Key Elements of
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Review of Key Elements ofPrevious Definition
The LR is a summary of research:
It is not a list of found research
but a coherent and articulateaccount of past and currentresearch findings
Suggestion: read 2 or 3 LRs in orderto become familiar with summarystyles
Review of Key Elements of
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Review of Key Elements ofPrevious Definition (contd)
The sources typically are journal articles, books
and other documents that describe past and
present status of research in a given field:
The LR should be exhaustive and ascurrent as possible.
How many articles?
There is no set number. As long as the searchis exhaustive and focused on the researchtopic, the review will be acceptable.
Review of Key Elements of
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Review of Key Elements ofPrevious Definition (contd)
How far back should one search?
A reasonable and widely acceptedtimeframe includes research conducted
during the past 10 years. Importantstudies (i.e., studies that had asignificant impact on the field of study)should also be mentioned even if thesego beyond the mentioned timeframe.
Review of Key Elements of
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Review of Key Elements ofPrevious Definition (contd)
The LR should be organized: The review should not only be coherent, but
should organize the studies reviewed under
themes or topics. The reviewer is a guide and should be able
to provide readers with an in-depth andcurrent status of research in a given area.
This aspect is essential for readers tounderstand what the reviewer found duringthe search.
Review of Key Elements of
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Review of Key Elements ofPrevious Definition (contd)
The LR should document the need for aproposed study: Studies should not duplicate research that
has been already done. Even in cases when research is duplicated
(replicated is the appropriate term), one isresponsible for documenting the need forreplication, e.g., need to explore the samemethodology with a different group orpopulation, or need to change methodologywith the same group.
Creswells 5 steps to Conduct a
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Creswell s 5 steps to Conduct aLiterature Review
Step 1: Identify Key Terms or
Descriptors
Extract key words from your
title (remember, you may decideto change the title later)
Use some of the words other
authors reported in theliterature
Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
Step 1: Identify Key Terms or
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Step 1: Identify Key Terms orDescriptors (contd)
Use the Thesaurus of ERICDescriptors to look for termsthat match your topic: go to
www.eric.ed.gov and in Searchselect Descriptors (fromThesaurus)
Scan both electronic and
library journals from the past10 years and look for keyterms in the articles
Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
Creswells 5 steps to Conduct a
http://www.eric.ed.gov/http://www.eric.ed.gov/ -
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Creswell s 5 steps to Conduct aLiterature Review (contd)
Step 2: Locate Literature Use academic libraries, do not limit
your search to an electronic search
of articles Use primary and secondary sources.
A primary source is researchreported by the researcher thatconducted the study. A secondarysource is research that summarizesor reports findings that come fromprimary sources
Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
Step 2: Locate Literature
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Step 2: Locate Literature(contd)
It is best to report mostlyprimary sources (p. 82)
Search different types of
literature: summaries,encyclopedias, dictionaries andglossaries of terms, handbooks,statistical indexes, reviews
and syntheses, books, journals,indexed publications,electronic sources, abstractseries, and databases
Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative andQualitative Research
Creswells 5 steps to Conduct a
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Creswell s 5 steps to Conduct aLiterature Review (contd)
Step 3: Critically Evaluate andSelect Literature Rely on journal articles
published in national journals Prioritize your search: first
look for refereed journalarticles, then, non-refereedarticles, then books, thenconference papers,dissertations and theses andthen papers posted to websites
Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
Step 3: Critically Evaluate and
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Step 3: Critically Evaluate andSelect Literature (contd)
Look for research articles andavoid as much as possibleopinion pieces
Blend qualitative andquantitative research in yourreview
Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
Creswells 5 steps to Conduct a
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Creswell s 5 steps to Conduct aLiterature Review (contd)
Step 4: Organize the Literature
Create a file or abstract systemto keep track of what you read.
Each article you read should besummarized in one page containing
Title (use APA to type the title so thatyou can later copy-paste this into the
References section of your paper)Source: journal article, book, glossary,etc.
Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
Step 4: Organize the Literature
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Step 4: Organize the Literature(contd)
Research problem: one or two lines will suffice
Research Questions or Hypotheses
Data collection procedure (a description of
sample characteristics can be very handy aswell)
Results or findings of the study
Sort these abstracts into groups of relatedtopics or areas which can then become thedifferent sections of your review
Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
Creswells 5 steps to Conduct a
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Creswell s 5 steps to Conduct aLiterature Review (contd)
Step 5: Write a Literature Review
Types of Reviews:
Thematic Review: a theme is identified andstudies found under this theme are described.Major ideas and findings are reported ratherthan details.
Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
Step 5: Wr te a L teratureR i
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Review(contd)
Study-by-study Review: a detailed summary ofeach study under a broad theme is provided.Link summaries (or abstracts) using
transitional sentences. Must be organized andflow coherently under various subheadings.Avoid string quotations (i.e., lengthy chunks oftext directly quoted from a source)
Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and
Qualitative Research
Preliminary Literature
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Preliminary LiteratureReview
This succinct review of currentliterature should:
Provide further contextual
background Reveal issues related to your study
Describe similar problems in otherorganizations
Provide significance to yourapproach to the study
Guidelines on Style, Mechanics, and
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Guidelines on Style, Mechanics, andLanguage Usage
Does your draft follow the logic oridea that is presented in your intro
and title?
Avoid overusing direct quotations,especially long ones
Check style manual for correct use
of citations (Doe, 2005); Doe (2005); (Doe & Smith,
2005); Doe and Smith (2005);(Black,2005; Brown, 2006; Yellow, 2007)
Guidelines on Style, Mechanics,
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Guidelines on Style, Mechanics,and Language Usage
Avoid using synonyms for recurringwords This is not creative writing and stay
consistent with terminology
Group I, Phoenix Cohort, Experimental GroupSpell out all acronyms when first using
them Traditional - American Psychological
Association (APA) Non-traditional - Collective Efficacy (CE)
Yes - Do NOT use contractions; NoDont use contractions
Coined terms should be set off by quotes
Guidelines on Style, Mechanics,
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Guidelines on Style, Mechanics,and Language Usage
Avoid the following:Slangcool
Colloquialismsthing >> item or
feature Idiomsrise to the pinnacle >> to
become prominent
Use great care to avoid Plagiarism
What needs to be included in
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the Literature review.
Provides contextual backgroundReveals related issues
Reviews similar problems elsewhere
Provides significance to your approach
to the studyIncludes major/seminar research articles
pertaining to study
Written in an integrated manner
Uses peer-reviewed researchIncludes a Reference section
Writing Your Research
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gQuestion(s)
Reflect the problem that the researcher
wants to investigate
Can be formulated based on theories,
past research, previous experience, or the
practical need to make data-driven
decisions in a work environment
Writing Your Research
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gQuestion(s) (contd)
Are vitallyimportant because they, in
large part, dictate what type of statistical
analysis is needed, as well as what type of
research design may be employed
A research question should address only
1 concept
Question must be measurable
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Types of Questions Asked
Once you have identified the topic of study, youwill need to consider the type of question you
want answered and how it will be answered
Two paradigmsQuantitative Paradigm
Generally attempt to quantify variablesof interest. Questions frequentlyaddress how well or how much.
k d
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Types of Questions Asked
Qualitative Paradigm there are times when we wish to know
not how many or how well, but simply
how. (Shulman, 1988, pg. 7)
Class Exercise
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Class Exercise
Now youre ready to formulate your ownresearch question(s)
Sample questions:
Is there a relationship between
participation in an Elluminate chatsession and course grade?How do 5th grade students
experience the anticipation ofstandardized testing?
Research Questions
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Research Questions
From Topic to Research QuestionA good research topic asks a clear, concise question.Asking a research question helps you keep a tightfocus on your topic.
Tweaking Your Research QuestionA good research topic is broad enough to allow youto find plenty of material, but narrow enough to fitwithin the size and time constraints of your paper. If your topic is either too broad or too narrow, consider
adding or eliminating the following elements:
Time Period, century, decade, future, PopulationType, age, gender, nationality, species, GeographicLocation country, state, region, Point of Vieweconomic, social, cultural, biological
Assignment 2 Components
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g p(see syllabus for details)
Title Page
Nature of the Problem
Background and Significance of the
Problem
Literature Review
Research Questions
References
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Topic ideas
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Topic ideas
Online chat referenceTypes of questions
Subject? Type?
# of turnaways*Difference in discourse
In-person vs. chat
Partnership studies Similar libraries with same software
Topic Ideas
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Topic Ideas
E-book usage
Usability studies of
Online tutorial(s)
My Library portals
Analysis of library web sites or
library instruction sites or
pathfinders by best practices
Student learning outcomes in LI
programs
Types of methodologies
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Types of methodologies
QuaLitative MeasuresDescriptive
Numbers not the primary focus
Interpretive, ethnographic,naturalistic
QuaNtitative Measures
N for numbersStatistical
Quantifiable
QuaLitative measures
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QuaLitative measures
Content AnalysisAnalyzed course syllabi of
library use through discipline
and level (Rambler)Studied online tutorials,
applying best practices
recommendations (Tancheva)
QuaLitative Measures
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QuaLitative MeasuresDiscourse Analysis
Analyzed student responses in writingand discussions to a short film &compared findings to parallel studywith LIS grad Ss (Vandergrift)
Focus GroupsDiscussed how participants
experience & use the library (Von
Seggern & Young)Studied why students use the
Internet and how much time they useit (Wilson)
QuaLitative Measures
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QuaLitative Measures
Interviews Studied 25 HS students web use for
research assignments (Lorenzen) Looked at what type of information first
year students need and how they go about
acquiring it (Seamans)Observation (obtrusive)
Observed students as they conductedonline research & noted their activities
(Dunn)Observation (Unobtrusive)
Retrieval of discarded cheat sheets toanalyze academic misconduct (Pullen et. al.)
QuaLitative Measures
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QuaLitative Measures
Think Aloud ProtocolsStudied how users navigate a library
web site (Cockrell & Jayne)
Usability testing Examined students mental models
of online tutorials (Veldof & Beavers)
QuaNtitative measures
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QuaNtitative measures
CompareThings
Count Things
Survey People About Things
QuaNtitative measures
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QuaNtitative measures
Comparison studies Experimental and control groups
Instructional methodologies (Colaric;Cudiner & Harmon)
Program assessment using before/afteranalysis of research papers(Emmons &Martin)
QuaNtitative measures
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QuaNtitative measures
Pre & Post Tests (Van Scoyoc)Measures & Scales
Bosticks Library Anxiety Scale (Onwuegbuzie& Jiao; Van Scoyoc)
Procrastination Assessment Scale(Onwuegbuzie & Jiao)
QuaNtitative measures
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QuaNtitative measures
Numeric Studies Citation AnalysisBibliometrics
(Dellavalle)
Webometrics (Bar-Ilian)
Ready Made Data Sets
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Ready Made Data Sets
National Survey of StudentEngagement (Whitmire)
College Student Experiences
Questionnaire (Kuh and Gonyea
)The Web Internet Archive (Ryan, Field &
Olfman) Electronic journals (Dellavalle)
Library server logs
Common Pitfalls
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Common Pitfalls
Problems with populationSampling?
Representativeness?
Self-selection?
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Research Problem #1A study assessing student learning
outcomes in 2 broad categories
(concepts, techniques) by examiningstudent research journals in 1 sectionof an elective information literacycourse in fall semester.
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Research Problem #4
A 2004 article on a library use and
services satisfaction study that used
as its measurement tool a surveygiven to every nth person enteringthe library building on 40 randomly
selected days throughout the schoolyear.
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Research Problem #5An outcomes assessment research
project of a 5 year old IL program in
which all incoming freshmen mustparticipate. Total student population on
campus is divided between 32%
freshmen to senior (or 4 year) and68% transfer students.
Common Pitfalls
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Common Pitfalls
Problems with operationalizationDefining of what is measured
Research Problem #2
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Research Problem #2
An experimental study that proposes afund allocation formula for academic
library collections based on the
following:average of overall book price + average ofoverall serial prices * degree level (10 forundergraduate to 30 for doctorate) / the number of
students enrolled in degree program as majors +
the total number of faculty in the department * three* total number of students in program.
(OAB + OAS) * D/(Sn +(Fn*3))*Sn
N.B. Not a standard formula
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Research Problem #3
A newspaper article you read just theother day stated that in a recently
published study done at a major U.S.
university, researchers found thatdomestic violenceaffects 1 in every 4women.
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Research Problem #4
A 2004 article on a library use andservices satisfactionstudy that usedas its measurement tool a survey
given to every nth person entering thelibrary building on 40 randomly
selected days throughout the school
year.
Research Problem #5
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Research Problem #5
Over a one year period, researchersstudied the occurrence ofturn-awaysin a virtual reference service and noted
that the significantly high occurrence of
turn-aways indicates increased needfor virtual reference service.
Common Pitfalls
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Common Pitfalls
Problems with generalizability False conclusions
Transformations
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Research Problem #1A study assessing student learning
outcomes in 2 broad categories
(concepts, techniques) by examiningstudent research journals in 1 sectionof an elective information literacycourse in fall semester.
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Research Problem #7
A survey of faculty found that themajority of those interviewed interacted
most with librarians at the reference
desk. The researchers concluded thatmost faculty view librarians in aservile role.
Keep In Mind That
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Keep In Mind That
No study is perfectAll data is dirty is some way or
another; research is what you do
with that dirty data (Manuel)Measurement involves making
choices
Be Critical About Numbers
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(Best 2001)
Every statistic is a way of summarizingcomplex information into relatively
simple numbers. (Best)
How did the researchers arrive at these
numbers?
Who produced the numbers and what is
their bias?
How can key terms be defined & in howmany different ways?
Be Critical About Numbers
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How was the choice for themeasurement made?
What type of sample was gathered& how does that affect result?
Is the statistical result interpretedcorrectly?
If comparisons are made, are they
appropriate?
Are there competing statistics?
Getting Started
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g
Read to learn; read to analyze
About research methodology
Studies on similar topics Interesting studies
Non-library studies
Getting Started
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g
Finding a topic neednt betraumatic
Work projects Research studies
P&T overhaul Library GO Bond Proposal Project
Library workshop trends
User repair strategies
Getting Started
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g
Data collection involves agreement& consent
Forge partnerships
At some point you will need toleave the comfort zone of reading
and literature gathering and
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Just get outand do it!
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Questions?
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Research methodology
Quantitative Methods
Qualitative procedures
Quantitative Methods
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A definition
A survey or experiment thatprovides as output a quantitative ornumeric description of somefraction of the population, calledthe sample.
Components of a surveymethod
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method
The survey design
The population and
sampleThe instrumentation
Variables in the study
Data analysis
The survey design
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Purpose of the surveyThe research question
Type of survey
Cross sectional Longitudinal
Form of data collection
The population and sample
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Description of the populationSampling design
Single stage
MultistageStratified
Sample selection
The instrumentation
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The instrument (tool) Existing New
Rating scale Likert scale: Rating the Items. 1-to-5 rating scale where:
1. = strongly unfavorable to the concept
2. = somewhat unfavorable to the concept3. = undecided
4. = somewhat favorable to the concept
5. = strongly favorable to the concept
Pilot
Administration Postal survey email
Variables and analysis
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The research questionVariable in the research
E.g. Number of years of academic study
The questions in the instrument E.g. How many years of study in a
University As an undergraduate?
As a postgraduate?
Data analysis Steps Bias in the data
Non-response
Statistics e.g. mean, standard deviation etc.
Components of anexperimental method
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experimental method
Subjects
Instruments and materials
The experimental design
Subjects
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Selection Conveniently
Random (RCT)
Group assignment
Random
Matched. E.g. Ability, Age
Size
Variables Dependent
Independent
Randomized Controlled Trial(RCT)
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(RCT)
A true experiment, in which the researcherrandomly assigns some patients to at least
one maneuver (treatment) and other patients
to a placebo, or usual treatment. Key features
= the classic way to evaluate effectiveness ofdrugs (or exercise, diet, counseling). Patients
are followed over time (Prospective). If
properly done, an RCT can be used to
determine cause and effect
Instrumentation andMaterials
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Materials
DescriptionValidation
Pilot
Content validity Prediction validity
Materials
The experimental design
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Type Pre-experimental
No control group
Quasi-experimental Control group, but not randomly
assigned
Single subject design (over time)
Pure experiment Repeated measures
Change groups
Overview of Qualitative ResearchDesign
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Historical routes in anthropology Generates new understanding by naming and framing
concepts and themes
Removes bias by questioning preconceived assumptions ofthe social group under study
Promotes neutrality through adoption by the researcher of
nave stance or critical discussion, challenges pre-conceived
assumptions of both the researcher and the social group under
study
Produces new understanding about the world, changes the
way power, culture and social interaction are understood
g
Data Collection in Qualitative Research
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Observation (Videoed, non-participant, semi-
participant and participant observation, field notes)
Interviews (individual and group - known as focus
groups, tape recorded and transcribed, field notes)
Secondary data analysis (using written material
collected for purposes other than research)
Questionnaires (unstructured, postal, interviews)
A mixture of all four
Questions in Qualitative Research
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In qualitative research questions are open-ended.
Sometimes a check list or topic guide will be used
by the researcher to ensure all the relevant areas
are covered. This is known as semi-structured data
collection. It is used in all four methods of data
collection
Sometimes the only guide is the topic itself and
the researcher collects verbatim or naturally
occurring data. This is known as unstructured data
collection. It is used in all four methods of data
collection
Sampling in Qualitative Research
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The sampling method of choice is theoreticalsampling (queuing behaviour)
However, often this is not possible and people
resort to convenience sampling (students) and
snowball sampling (mental health in black and
ethnic minority communities)
Neither of the latter two methods are considered
strong but maybe all that can be achieved.Research must be viable.
Data Analysis in Qualitative Research
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Read and re-read data, become engrossed in it.
Identify themes: common, conflicting, minority
Test themes across the data set, where are they
common, under what circumstances are they found, not
found. This sets the parameters on the interpretation and
generalisation of dataGet more than one person to analyse the data
independently then together
Demonstrate trustworthiness in data analysis
Examples
Biographical continuity
Nursing routines as a method of managing a transient
workforce
Qualitative research
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Interpretative researchProcess orientated
Researcher(s) are the primary data
collection instrumentDescriptive research
Outputs are an inductive process
References
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MSc project web pageshttp://www.comp.glam.ac.uk/gis/start.asp?whatfile=gis/gis
rc/msc-proj.htm
Creswell, J. W. (1994) Researchdesign : qualitative and quantitative
approaches. - Thousand Oaks,
Calif.; London : Sage Publications,ISBN 0803952546