Sources of Knowledge

ByImran Niazi

M.Phil EducationGCET Mianwali

Introduction Doubtless to say that the secret of our

cultural development has been research. Pushing back the areas of ignorance by discovering new truth, which in turn, lead to better ways of doing things and better products.

There is no alternative to truth and therefore ,to research.

To research is to get nearer to truth

Introduction Human knowledge works at two levels. At the primary level, it functions as the basis

of useful human activities, as when a teacher solves the mathematical problems for the students or as when a doctor uses his knowledge to cure diseases.

At secondary level, knowledge is employed to obtain increments in the existing knowledge.

The activity that produce this knowledge is known as Research.

Brain storming

How do you try to understand , discuss , explain and control the things and events around you?

Sources of knowledge•Common sense: Every one knows that it is so•Intuition: I just know it•Beliefs: it is based on personal conviction•Tenacity: verification over the years•Tradition: practice through generations•Personal Experience: personal testing and experience •Authority: the word of experts•Divine and supernatural powers: the revelations of God and of other powers•Reason and logic: the intellect can capture truth and knowledge directly•Scientific methods: knowledge is derived through empirical procedures

Sources of knowledge The quest for knowledge stems from human

desire to settle the irritation of doubt by moving into a state of belief.

There are different sources of knowledge. Some of them are mentioned here Sense perception/Personal experience Tradition & custom Experts and authorities Logic

(i) Inductive (ii) Deductive The scientific method Obj.

1.2

Sense Perception/Personal Experiences

The earliest understanding of the environment probably came through sense.

The sense perception may be defined as a connected series of concepts that help people to make sense about environment to function more effectively in it.

Limitations How one is affected by an event depends

on who one is. One frequently needs to know something

that cannot by learned through experience.

Custom & Tradition Doing things as they have always been done The dependence on tradition or custom is also

necessary. We often refer to custom and tradition in the event of solving a problem.

It largely determines our mode of facing the situation and mode of making adjustments. Generally we obey them and avoid violating them.

Limitations Traditions are often based on an idealized past Traditions can be distant from current realities and

the complexities associated with them

Obj. 1.2

Expert and Authority Relying on the expertise or authority of others

because of their intellect, training, expertness, experience or aptitude.

They are better informed than other people. So contact and discussion with experts are also helpful to get knowledge.

The participation in conferences, seminars and workshops and listening to learned experts are helpful in getting knowledge.

Limitations Experts can disagree among themselves Experts can be wrong

Flies have five legs…… Some of the problems associated with

experience and authority are illustrated by a story told about Aristotle.

According to story, one day Aristotle caught a fly and carefully counted and recounted the legs. He then announced that flies have five legs. No one questioned the word of Aristotle. For years his finding was uncritically accepted. Of course, that Aristotle caught fly just happened to be missed a leg!

Rationality Rationalism is a system by which knowledge

is gained by reason and not by experiencing the world. It is also called metaphysics.

it deals with the causes and principles of existing things, not with experience.

Rationalism regards human reason as the only reliable guide to knowledge. They don't believe that it is necessary to verify knowledge either by faith or experience.

There are two types of reasoning i.e. Deductive reasoning and Inductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning The first systematic approach to reasoning ,

attributed to Aristotle, was the deductive reasoning.

Reasoning from the general to the specific.

This method moved from general assumption to the specific application. This approach made an important contribution to the development of modern problem solving methods.

Deductive Reasoning A type of logic in which one goes from a

general statement to a specific instance.

The classic example isAll men are mortal. (major premise)Socrates is a man. (minor premise)Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)

The above is an example of a syllogism.

Deductive Reasoning Deductive reasoning involves

essentially process, arriving at specific conclusion based on generalizations.

Example: All research textbook contain a chapter on sampling.(General)

This book is a research textbook. Therefore, this book contain a

chapter on sampling.(Specific)

Limitation of Deductive Method

It was not fruitful in arriving at new truth

You must begin with true premises in order to arrive at true conclusions

Deductive reasoning only organizes what is already known

Inductive Reasoning Centuries later, Francis Bacon advocated

direct observation of phenomena, arriving at conclusions or generalization through the evidence of many individual observations. This was called inductive reasoning

Reasoning from the specific to the general

Obj. 1.2

Inductive Reasoning It involves going from a series of

specific cases to a general statement.

The conclusion in an inductive argument is never guaranteed.

Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning involves formulation

of generalizations based on observation of a limited number of specific events.

Example: Every research textbook examined contain a chapter on sampling.(Specific)

Therefore, all research textbook contain a chapter on sampling (General)

Limitations of Inductive method

In order to be certain of a conclusion one must observe all examples

All examples can be observed only in very limited situations where there are few members of the group

Inductive & deductive reasoning

Inductive Reasoning A sample of fifty

motorists revealed that one in four drivers were either uninsured, drunk, or both.

Thus, if you get involved in an accident on the freeway there is a 25% chance the other motorist will be drunk or uninsured or both.

Deductive Reasoning The Law of the Sea

treaty states that any ship beyond a 12 mile limit is in international waters. So, it cannot be legally stopped or boarded. Therefore, when the U.S. Coast Guard intercepts boats coming from Cuba or Haiti more than 12 miles from the U.S. coast, it is violating the Law of the Sea.

The Scientific Method The major premise of the older

Deductive was gradually replaced by an assumption, or hypothesis,

that was subsequently tested by the collection and logical analysis of data.

This deductive-inductive method is now recognized as an example of a scientific approach.

The Scientific Method The goal of the scientific method is to

explain, predict, and/or control phenomena

This involves the acquisition of knowledge and the development and testing of theory

The use of the scientific method is more efficient and reliable than any other source of knowledge

The Scientific Method John Dewey(1938) suggested a pattern that is

helpful in identifying the elements of a deductive-inductive process

1. Identification and definition of the problem2. Formulation of hypothesis- an intelligent guess3. Collection, organization and analysis of data4. Formulation of conclusions5. Verification, rejection, or modification of the

hypothesis

© Jeff Offutt, 2007 24

Scientific MethodIdentify a ProblemIdentify a Problem

Form HypothesisForm Hypothesis

Design ExperimentDesign Experiment

Conduct ExperimentConduct Experiment

Hypothesis TestingHypothesis Testing

Disseminate ResultsDisseminate Results

Reject Reject HypothesisHypothesis

Accept Accept HypothesisHypothesis

The mostcreative

part

The Scientific Method Limitations of the scientific method

Inability to answer value-based questions involving “should”

Inability to capture the full richness and complexities of the participants

Limitations of our measurement instruments

Ethical and legal responsibilities

Known is a drop, Unknown is an ocean

Research its purpose & Characteristics

ByImran Niazi

M.Phil EducationGCET Mianwali

Research According to J.W. Best (1992) “ Research is an intellectual activity

which brings to light new knowledge or correct previous error and misconceptions and add in an orderly way to the existing corpus of knowledge”

Concept of Research The term research and scientific method

are often used synonymously and research is considered to be more formal systematic intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis.

Moreover, research is a point of view, an attitude of inquiry or a frame of mind . It asks questions which have not been asked , it seeks to answer them by following a fairly definite procedure.

ResearchAccording to L. R. Gay“ Research is the formal, systematic

application of the scientific method to the study of problem;

Educational research is the formal, systematic application of the scientific method to the study of educational problem

MOVIE Research may also be explained with the

five characterizations spelling out of word MOVIE:

M…. Mathematical precision and accuracy O…. Objectivity V…. Verification I…. Impartiality E…. Expertness

Propose of Research is to… Review or synthesize existing knowledge Investigate existing situations or problems Provide solutions to problems Explore and analyze more general issues Construct or create new procedures or systems Explain new phenomenon Generate new knowledge …or a combination of any of the above! (Collis & Hussey, 2003)

Characteristic of Research The characteristics of research are described as

under:1) Research directs toward the solution of a problem.2) Research emphasizes the development of

generalization, principles or theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.

3) Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.

4) Research demands accurate observation and description.

Characteristic of Research5) Research involve gathering new data from

primary or first _hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose.

6) Research involves data analysis.7) Research require expertise.8) Research involves the quest for answers to

unsolved problems.9) Research is patient and unhurried activity. 10) Research is objective and logical & carefully

recorded and reported.

Educational Research The application of the scientific

method to study educational problems

The goal is to explain, predict, and/or control educational phenomena

Educational Research Steps for conducting educational research

Selection of a problem Use of specific research procedures to design

and collect data Analysis of data Statement of conclusions based on the results

of the data analyses Parallels the steps in the scientific method

Obj. 1.7

Educational Research Difficulties conducting educational

research Involves human beings and the complexities

associated with them Difficulties generalizing from specific studies Problems when imposing sufficient controls to

conduct research in educational settings Complications when observing in educational

settings Indirect measurement of the variables being

studiedObj. 1.8

Classifying Research Two helpful ways to view research

Purpose The degree of direct applicability of

research to educational practices and settings

Method The overall strategies followed to collect

and analyze data

Obj. 3.1, 3.2 & 3.5

The Purposes of Research Five categories

Basic Applied Evaluation Research and development (R & D) Action

Obj. 3.3

The Purposes of Research Basic research

Collection and analysis of data to develop or enhance theory

Examples related to learning theory Piaget Constructivism Mastery learning Gardner’s multiple intelligences

Obj. 3.4

The Purposes of Research Applied research

Collection and analysis of data to examine the usefulness of theory in solving practical educational problems

Examples Developing a seventh grade social studies

curriculum around a problem-solving approach to learning

Examining the effectiveness of a computer-based algebra program developed around a mastery learning approach

Accommodating varied learning styles when teaching lessons in modern literature

Obj. 3.4

The Purposes of Research The interaction of basic and

applied research Basic research provides the theory

that produces the concepts for solving educational problems

Applied research provides the data to help support, guide, and revise the development theory

Obj. 3.4

The Purposes of Research Evaluation research

The collection and analysis of data to make decisions related to the merit or worth of a specific program

Merit relates to a program accomplishing what it was supposed to accomplish

Worth relates to the value attached to a program by those using it

Obj. 3.4

The Purposes of Research Evaluation research

Types of evaluation Formative evaluation is designed to

inform and improve a program while it is being developed or implemented

Summative evaluation is designed to make decisions regarding the overall quality of the program being evaluated

Obj. 3.4

The Purposes of Research Evaluation research

Examples The computerized algebra program being

used in Williams Middle School has been installed properly, is being used properly, and student achievement is increasing as a result of its use

The computerized algebra program being used in Williams Middle School is perceived to be an efficient and effective expenditure of district funds

Obj. 3.4

The Purposes of Research Research and development

The development of effective products for use in schools

Examples The development of the software to create a

computerized algebra program that incorporates an individualized mastery learning approach to teaching basic algebraic concepts

The development of a Smart Board to enhance a teacher’s use of technology in the classroom

Obj. 3.4

The Purposes of Research Action research

The collection and analysis of data to provide a solution to the practical, valued problems of educators within their own school or organization

Examples How can our college move to a performance based

model for undergraduate teacher preparation programs?

How can disciplinary policies be enforced consistently in our school?

Obj. 3.4

Research Methods Two general categories of methods

currently being used in educational research Quantitative Qualitative

Obj. 3.5

Quantitative Methods General purpose

Collect and analyze data to explain, predict, or control phenomena of interest

Describe current conditions Investigate relationships Study causes and effects

Assumptions of the researcher We live in a stable, uniform, and coherent world We can measure, understand, and generalize

about our world Generally regarded as a positivistic perspective

Obj. 3.6 & 5.1

Quantitative Methods Characteristics

Numerical data Use of formally stated hypotheses and

procedures Use of controls to minimize the effects of factors

that could interfere with the outcome of the research

Large numbers of participating subjects An objective, detached researcher Use of pencil and paper tests, questionnaires, etc.

Obj. 3.6 & 5.1

Quantitative Methods Five basic designs

Descriptive Correlational Causal-comparative Experimental Single subject

Obj. 3.7

Quantitative Designs Descriptive

Purpose – to describe the current status of a variable of interest to the researcher

Examples How many students drop out of school in Louisiana? What are the attitudes of parents, students, and

teachers concerning an extended school year? What kinds of activities typically occur in sixth-

grade art classes, and how frequently does each occur?

To what extent are elementary teachers using math manipulatives?

Obj. 3.7 & 4.1

Quantitative Designs Correlational

Purpose – to ascertain the extent to which two or more variables are statistically related

Examples What is the relationship between ACT scores and freshman

grades? Is a teacher’s sense of efficacy related to his/her

effectiveness? Do significant relationships exist between the types of

activities used in math classrooms and student achievement?

This design does NOT imply causationObj. 3.7 & 4.1

Quantitative Designs Causal-comparative

Purpose – to explore relationships among variables that cannot be actively manipulated or controlled by the researcher

Examples What is the effect of part-time employment on the achievement

of high school students? What characteristics differentiate students who drop out from

those who do not? What is the effect of attending a magnet school on student

attitude? An important characteristic is that the independent

variable has already been manipulated

Obj. 3.7 & 4.1

Quantitative Designs Experimental

Purpose – to establish cause and effect relationships between variables

Examples What is the effect of teaching with (1) a co-operative

groups strategy or (2) a traditional lecture approach on students’ achievement?

What is the effect of teaching with manipulatives vs. a traditional algorithm approach on students’ test scores?

The important characteristics are that the researcher manipulates the independent variable and controls extraneous variables

Obj. 3.7 & 4.1

Quantitative Designs Single subject

Purpose – to investigate cause and effect relationships with samples of one (1)

Examples What is the effect of a behavior modification

program on John’s conduct in class? What is the effect of a behavioral training program

on Joan’s ability to complete her performance tasks? The important characteristic is the use of

specific interventions to cause behavioral changes in low incidence populations (e.g., special education)

Obj. 3.7 & 4.1

Qualitative Methods General purpose

To probe deeply into the research setting to obtain in-depth understandings about the way things are, why they are like that, and how participants perceive them

The need to create a sustained, in-depth, in context study that allows the researcher to uncover subtle, less overt personal understandings

Assumptions of the researcher All meaning is situated in a particular perspective or

context Different people and groups often have different

perspectives and contexts, so there are many different meanings in the world

Generally regarded as a post-positivistic perspective

Obj. 3.8 & 5.1

Qualitative Methods Characteristics

There are no hypotheses guiding the researcher, rather a general issue known as the foreshadowed problem suggests the general issues of concern

Problems and methods tend to evolve over the course of the study as understanding of the research context and participants deepens

Phenomena are examined as they exist in a natural context, and they are viewed from the participants’ perspectives

There are few participants involved in the study Data analysis is interpretative in nature The researcher interacts extensively with the participants

Obj. 3.8 & 5.1

Qualitative Methods

Two basic designs Narrative Ethnography

Obj. 3.9

Qualitative Designs Narrative

Purpose – focus on studying a single person and gathering data through the collection of stories that are used to construct a narrative about the individual’s experience and the meanings he/she attributes to them

Examples What are the experiences of a veteran teacher who

has been moved into an administrative position in her school?

What does “inclusion” mean to a special needs child who is placed in a regular education classroom?

Obj. 3.9 & 4.2

Qualitative Designs Ethnography

Purpose – to obtain an understanding of the shared beliefs and practices of a particular group or culture

Examples What is the nature of the problems teachers

encounter when they begin using a constructivist approach to instruction after having taught using a very traditional approach for ten years?

Why does a sense of failure permeate everything about this particular high school?

Obj. 3.9 & 4.2

Quantitative and Qualitative Methods Complementary nature of quantitative

and qualitative approaches Different purposes of research

Explanatory Exploratory

Consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches for specific purposes

Quantitative versus Qualitative Research

Obj. 3.11 & 5.1

Quantitative and Qualitative Methods The ultimate goal when choosing a

design is to produce a credible answer to the research question The research question drives the choice of a

research design The characteristics of specific designs

suggest they will produce more credible answers to specific types of research questions than other designs

Specific purposes Specific procedures and analyses for each design

Using Your Knowledge Examine the following studies and

categorize them as quantitative or qualitative

If quantitative, categorize them as descriptive, correlational, causal-comparative, experimental, or single subject

If qualitative, categorize them as narrative or ethnography

Using Your Knowledge Thinking about Brown and Walberg’s

article as well as Wolfe’s article… Why would you consider the first a

quantitative study and the second a qualitative study?

What would you suggest is the purpose of each article using the five categories described by the authors of the text?

Custom vs tradition They basically mean the same but there might

be some differences in the contexts where they are typically used."custom" is more like a habit, something you don't really think about you just do it.

"Tradition", on the other hand, is something with a deeper meaning, possibly religious, cultural or family-specific that guides the person's/groups way of behaviour or performance in certain situations.