Research Article Real Costs Assessment of Solar-Hydrogen and...

Research ArticleReal Costs Assessment of Solar-Hydrogen and SomeFossil Fuels by means of a Combustion Analysis

Giovanni Nicoletti Roberto Bruno Natale Arcuri and Gerardo Nicoletti

Mechanical Energetic and Management Engineering Department University of Calabria V P Bucci 46C Arcavacata87036 Rende Italy

Correspondence should be addressed to Giovanni Nicoletti giovanninicolettiunicalit

Received 6 October 2015 Revised 10 January 2016 Accepted 12 January 2016

Academic Editor Kazunori Kuwana

Copyright copy 2016 Giovanni Nicoletti et al This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properlycited

In order to compare solar-hydrogen and the most used fossil fuels the evaluation of the ldquoexternalrdquo costs related to their use isrequired These costs involve the environmental damage produced by the combustion reactions the health problems caused by airpollution the damage to land from fuel mining and the environmental degradation linked to the global warming the acid rainsand the water pollution For each fuel the global cost is determined as sum of the market price and of the correspondent externalcosts In order to obtain a quantitative comparison the quality of the different combustion reactions and the efficiency of thetechnologies employed in the specific application sector have to be considered adequately At this purpose an entropic index thatconsiders the degree of irreversibility produced during the combustion process and the degradation of surroundings is introducedAdditionally an environmental index that measures the pollutants released during the combustions is proposed The combinationof these indexes and the efficiency of the several technologies employed in four energy sectors have allowed the evaluation of thetotal costs highlighting an economic scenario fromwhich the real advantages concerning the exploitation of different energy carrierare determined

1 Introduction

Nowadays energy saving applications and environmentalprotection could be achieved by the diffusion of newer andcleaner energy resources [1 2] The gradual and continuousdecrement of the reserves of fossil fuels and the problemsof environmental pollution concerning their use determinesan unpostponable transition to renewable energy [3] Thereplacement of traditional fossil fuels is not difficult to assessalso in the field of energy carriers where hydrogen couldrepresent a satisfactory solution in every sector of societyMoreover it can be considered completely renewable ifproduced by electrolysis process of the water supplied byphotovoltaic technologies [4ndash6]

The exploitation of the electrolytic hydrogen certainlywilllead to significant reductions of the major air pollutants inparticular CO

2 SO119909 and particulate dusts by improving the

city livability and the environmental quality [7ndash9] Addition-ally solar-hydrogen diffusion could lead to the improvementof the photovoltaic and fuel cells technologies [10]

The diffusion of electrolytic hydrogen is currentlyimpeded by technical and economic difficulties some prob-lems concerning storage and transportation have to be solved[11ndash14] besides the current market price of solar-hydrogenthat makes it strongly unattractive [15]

In this paper an economic comparison to compare solar-hydrogen and some fossil fuels was carried out by meansof the real economy approach The competitiveness amongthe considered fuels is carried out by considering the totalcosts supported in a specific application sector The totalcost includes not only the market price of the fuel but alsothe ldquoexternal costsrdquo related to the fuel exploitation Theseexternal costs consider the environmental damage producedby the combustion reactions the health problems caused byair pollution the damage to land from fuel mining and the

Hindawi Publishing CorporationJournal of CombustionVolume 2016 Article ID 6527510 10 pageshttpdxdoiorg10115520166527510

2 Journal of Combustion

environmental degradation linked to the global warmingthe acid rains and the water pollution Usually in energysectors supplied by fossil fuels the external costs are notconsidered making the comparison with solar-hydrogenwith no meaning [16]

The latter in fact reduces the harmful effects linked tothe energy production with fossil fuels allows the control ofair pollution and reduces some problems linked to water andsoil utilization [1]

Several authors have investigated the hydrogen costs indifferent energy fields Weinert et al determined the costsrequired for the refueling of cars equipped with fuel cellstechnologies in Shangai [17] Melaina instead investigatedthe costs concerning the hydrogen stations in US to evaluatethe potential of hydrogen diffusion in the transportationsector [18] Prince-Richard et al have carried out a technoe-conomic analysis in order to evaluate the costs concerningthe hydrogen produced by electrolysis and destined to fuelcell vehicles [19] Finally Veziroglu and Barbir proposed aparticular approach to evaluate the real costs of different fuelsbut by now these costsrsquo result is outdated [20]

Unlike the latter document in this paper a differentapproach to determine the total costs of solar-hydrogenand of traditional fossil fuels based on thermodynamicevaluations is introduced These evaluations are requiredto consider the different effects linked to the combustionreactions in function of the fuel exploitation differentquantity of released heat emitted pollutants and diverseeffects on the external environment are produced In orderto take into account the mentioned aspects in the eco-nomic analysis an appropriate weight factor that modifiesthe external costs and takes into account the aforemen-tioned aspects is necessary This weight factor is definedas product between two quality indexes the first is anldquoentropicrdquo index to measure the irreversibility degree of thecombustion reaction and the quality of the same reactionand the second is an ldquoenvironmentalrdquo index to determine thequantity of pollutants emitted in atmosphere Additionallysince the quantity of fuel required in specific applicationsectors depends on the involved technology the total cost isadjusted in function of the thermodynamic efficiency of theemployed device Thus also considering different fuels withdissimilar thermodynamic and environmental propertiesthe employment of such parameters is normalized allowingthe obtainment of homogenous results The comparison iscarried out between solar-hydrogen and the currently diffusefossil fuels in industrialized and emerging countries such asmethane coal and gasolinediesel

The entropic impact index was investigated in thermody-namic open systems whose state is defined by the values ofenthalpy Gibbs free energy and chemical work [21 22] Infunction of the fuel properties it measures the combustionquality and the environmental damage since during the com-bustion process the lower the entropy production the lowerthe impact on surroundings [23] The environmental impactindex indeed has been determined by considering thequantity of pollutants emitted and normalized in function ofthe thermal energy released during the combustion reactionFinally the product of the proposed indexes determines the

global weight factor ldquo119901rdquo required for the total cost evaluationIn order to assess the economic advantages concerning theexploitation of a specific fuel in opposition to another onea reference fuel has to be recognized For instance if thebenefits consequent to the solar-hydrogen exploitation haveto beweighted against themethane the latter will be classifiedas reference fuel Therefore the total costs of the investigatedfuels can be evaluated by the relation [24]

119878 = 119862 + 119864 sdot (119901119900

119901) sdot (

120578119900

120578) (1)

where 119878 is the total (or real) cost per unit of producedenergy (eurokWh)119862 is the fuel price market per unit of energydelivered to the customer including taxes (eurokWh) 119864 is theexternal cost consequent to the fuel use per unit of energyexpressed in current money (eurokWh) 120578 is the efficiency ofthe device supplied by a specific fuel in a specific applicationsector 120578

119900is the efficiency of the technology supplied by the

reference fuel in the same application sector 119901119900is the weight

factor determined for the reference fuelEquation (1) allows the evaluation of the so-called ldquoreal

costsrdquo by moving the focus of the investigation to the endof the process of energy production and by extending theevaluation of the real costs by including the effects producedfrom the final use of the same fuels The economic analyseshave been carried out by considering the residential theindustrial the power generation and the transportationsectors as application areas

2 The Exploitation of Solar-Hydrogen asEnergy Carrier

A promising solution in the field of the clean fuels isrepresented by solar-hydrogen [1] A hypothetical scheme ofthe complete cycle of energy production involving hydrogenas energy carrier starts from photovoltaic fields and thepossible exploitation in different energy sectors is shown inFigure 1 Every involved application provides liquid waterwhich could be reused to supply newly the hydrogen cyclemaking the process more sustainable

The technical difficulties to the exploitation of solar-hydrogen concern the hydrogen storage systems and thestructure of the hydrogen transportation but the recentresearch campaign in these fields seems to show promisingresults [12ndash14 25]

A large emitter of macropollutants (CO2 NO119909 CO

SO119909 and particulate) is represented by the sector of electric

power generation that could be adequately supplied byhydrogen pipeline and can evolve towards the innovative useof new technologies as the fuel cells realizing the tasks ofhigh efficiency and contemporaneous production of thermalenergy [26] Alternatively solar-hydrogen could be used alsoin appropriate burners by using pure oxygen or air as oxidantsubstances to produce water and a significant amount ofthermal energy The same fuel cells could be employed inthe residential sector for cogenerative applications Finallysolar-hydrogen could be used as new energy carrier in thetransportation sector to supply the existing vehicles equipped

Journal of Combustion 3

Solarradiation PV

field

Electricity

Electrolysisof water

Oxygenstorage

Hydrogenstorage

Water reservoir

Transportation storagedistribution

Plant burners

Gas turbines

Thermoelectric plants

Fuel cells

Internal combustion engines

Thermal

Electric

Transport

Wat

er

Figure 1 Possible scheme of exploitation of hydrogen produced by solar radiation

with electric enginesThe electrolysis process beyond hydro-gen allows the production of oxygen therefore a furtheradvantage is linked to the absence of nitrogen oxides in thecombustion products

In the scheme of Figure 1 hydrogen primarily assumesthe tasks of storing and conveying the solar radiation towardsthe final use Consequently it is appropriate to consider thehydrogen as an energy carrier as well as the electricity InFigure 2 a more detailed scheme of solar-hydrogen exploita-tion is reported together with the correspondent energyfluxes and the efficiencies of the involved processes Possibleways to exploit solar hydrogen at different temperature levelsare reported Low enthalpy heat could be employed in heatpumps for heating application in buildings

3 The Entropic and Environmental Indexes inCombustion Processes

The evaluation of the total cost by (1) requires the analyticaldetermination of the weight factor ldquo119901rdquo defined in this paperas product between entropic and environmental indexesThefirstmeasures the quality of the chemical reaction the secondquantifies the emitted pollutant substances and both arenormalized in function of the amount of heat released duringthe combustion

The combustion reactions represent an open thermody-namic system in which the entropy variation is sum of twoterms the first intrinsic due to irreversibility (always positive)and the second extrinsic (positive or negative) linked to theheat exchange through the border of the thermodynamicsystem [27] During a combustion reaction the produced

chemical work plays a determining role in order to evaluatethe entropy change the enthalpy of formation and the Gibbspotential [28]

The latter considers the energy contained in the initialcomponents in a rate of available energy Δℎ and in anotherrate of constrained (not available) energy that can be writtenas

Δ (119879 + 120583) equiv Δ (119879lowast) (2)

In (2) the term lowast indicates a fictitious parameter that

considers both the total entropy per unit of molar mass ()and the intrinsic work of the reaction (120583)

By considering conservatively the gasolinediesel fuel asC8H18

(isooctane) which represents the newest and cleanermember of the hydrocarbons family and the coal as purecarbon the combustion reactions of the considered fuels intheir stoichiometric form can be written as

(i) hydrogen

H2O 999447999472 H

2+1

2O2

(3)

(ii) coal (gaseous form)

CO2999447999472 C +O

2 (4)

(iii) natural gas (methane)

CO2+ 2H2O 999447999472 CH

4+ 2O2 (5)

(iv) gasoline

8CO2+ 9H2O 999447999472 C

8H18+ 125O

2 (6)


Electricity from solar primary sources

10 (losses)

87

Transportationstoragedistribution

3 (losses)

Centralized heating plants

9 (losses)

Gas turbine(035)

Inrush electric

Burners

22 (losses)Heating power

plants

22 (losses)

Catalytic burners

Fuel cells

4

22(39)

Heat pumps33(58)

Electric energyThermal energy (high temperature)Thermal energy (medium temperature)

Heating energy hot water

Thermal energy for heating applications

Energy losses heat from outdoor

9 (losses)

4

O2

O2 O2

O2

H2O2-steam prod095

(1)095

(1)075

(1)

090(1) (045)

090(1) (025) 075

(1) (025)

COP = 25

83

39 39 22 56

111136 98

55 (97)

22 43

83 30 57 65

Hydrogen90

100

Advanced electrolysis090

(1)

Figure 2 Hypothetic energy flux for the complete solar-hydrogen exploitation

For each of these reactions the values per mole unit of ΔℎΔlowast and Δ can be found in [29ndash31] at reference values of

pressure and temperature equal respectively to 1 atm 298Kand by fixing the reference entropy to the value calculated at apressure of 1 atmThe values are listed in Table 1 together with

the molar specific heat at constant pressure and a referenceabsolute temperature ⟨119879⟩ defined as the mean value betweenthe ambient temperature (298K) and the combustion tem-peratureThe specific heat at constant pressure is reported permole unit for dimensional homogeneity


Table 1 Some thermodynamic parameters of hydrogen methanecoal and gasolinediesel evaluated during stoichiometric combus-tion

Fuels Δℎ Δlowast

Δ 119901

⟨119879⟩

(Jmole) (JmolesdotK) (Jmole) (JmolesdotK) (K)H2

minus251 100 566 minus039 14304 1451C minus394 500 574 minus053 15576 1285CH4

minus870 500 909 minus105 35840 1155C8H18

minus5 486 500 16445 minus1169 254790 2035

Table 2 Entropic impact indexes evaluated for hydrogen methanecoal and gasolinediesel supposing stoichiometric reaction combus-tions

Fuels 119894119895119904

H2

0672C 0813CH4

0879C8H18

0390

For each fuel the entropic degradation during the com-bustions reaction is calculated by the proposed dimensionlessindex

119894119895119904= (1 minus

10038161003816100381610038161003816100381610038161003816

Δlowastsdot ⟨119879⟩

Δℎ

10038161003816100381610038161003816100381610038161003816) (119895 = a 997888rarr d) (7)

where 119895 indicates the considered fuel (a = solar-hydrogenb = coal c = methane d = gasolinediesel) Δlowast is thespecificmolar entropic generation of the combustion processΔℎ is the specific molar enthalpy of the chemical reactionassuming a similar meaning to the lower heating power ofthe 119895th fuel

The dimensionless entropic index 119894119895119904

varies from themaximum value of 1 for the ideal combustion where Δlowast =0 to the minimum value of 0 for the extreme case oftotal energy degradation In the latter case the incrementof the temperature Δ119879 due to combustion involves a totaltransformation of the thermal energy in technical workrequired to eject the mass of the combustion products withno advantage in terms of heat released from the combustionreaction By using the values reported in Table 1 the valueconcerning the entropic index obtained for each fuel is listedin Table 2

Considering exclusively the combustion quality methaneand coal assume a better score than hydrogen and gaso-linediesel therefore the degradation of the external envi-ronment is smaller than the latter fuels The hydrogen scoreis greater only than gasolinediesel but at this step theenvironmental properties are not considered yet In order toquantify the effects linked to the pollutants emitted duringthe combustion reactions another index which considersexclusively the environmental properties of each fuel isrequired The latter is evaluated by (8) in function of thethermophysical properties of the 119895th fuel and of the 119896thpollutant content produced during standard combustion

119894119895119864

= prod119894119895119896 (8)

Hydrogen Coal Methane Gasolinediesel

06729 0650507374

02563

p(mdash

)

000010020030040050060070080090100

Figure 3 Weight factor for the evaluation of the external cost of theconsidered fuels

The term 119894119895119896that compares in (8) is determined by means of

the following equation [32]

119894119895119896= (1 minus

119898119895119896

10038161003816100381610038161003816Δℎ

10038161003816100381610038161003816 (119901sdot ⟨119879⟩)

)

119896=1rarr4

(9)

where 119898119895119896

indicates the quantity of pollutant (kg) releasedper kg of burned fuel these parameters are grouped in Table 3considering as main emitted substances CO

2 SO2 NO119909 and

particulate dusts Actually the emission factors depend notonly on the fuel thermodynamic characteristics but also onthe involved technology in the specific application sector Insimplified way the values listed in Table 3 represent averageemission coefficients indicated in [33] related to the Europeansituation For the gasoline the emission factors have beenmodified taking into account also the pollutants producedby diesel combustion The results obtained applying (9) arelisted in Table 4 where the last column lists the environ-mental indexes determined by (8) The solar-hydrogen scorebecomes unitary because its exploitation with pure oxygenin fuel cells was supposed Moreover the water vapor wasnot considered as pollutant substance because the hypothesisof its complete recovery was adopted Water vapor providedby fuel cells in urban areas in fact could be considered as agreenhouse gas

In Figure 3 the weight factor ldquo119901rdquo to apply in (1) forthe economic analysis evaluated by means of the proposedindexes is shown

Despite the worse emission factors with respect tosolar-hydrogen the better combustion characteristics of themethane allow the obtainment of the best score Converselythe better environmental characteristics of solar-hydrogencompensate the gap with coal in terms of combustion qualityAmong the investigated fuels the gasolinediesel presents theworst score for effect of the more penalized values obtainedfor the entropic and the environmental indexes

4 Evaluation of the Total Costs of the Fuels inDifferent Application Sectors

The evaluation of global cost of the investigated fuels requiresthe knowledge of the correspondent market prices and the


Table 3 Emission factor for the standard combustion per kg of burned fuel

Fuels 1 2 3 4CO2[kgkg] SO

2[kgkg] NO

119909[kgkg] Particulate [kgkg]

a H2

0 0 0 0b C 3196 00156 00469 00046c CH

42745 00205 21 sdot 10

minus51 sdot 10minus6

d C8H18

3197 00012 63 sdot 10minus5

24 sdot 10minus4

Table 4 Specific and global environmental indexes obtained for theinvestigated fuels

Fuels 1198941198951

1198941198952

1198941198953

1198941198954

119894119895119864

a H2

10000 10000 10000 10000 1b C 08034 09990 09971 09997 08001c CH

408386 09999 09998 10000 08385

d C8H18

06573 09998 09999 09999 06572

external costs The market price of fossil fuels in functionof the application sector can be found in different sources[34 35] The cost of the hydrogen produced by photovoltaictechnologies by excluding other methods of solar energyexploitation is subjected to numerous investigations [6] Itis mainly formed by the cost of the electricity providedby the photovoltaic field (119862PV) and by the cost due to theelectrolysis process (119862El) [36] In the last few years the cost ofthe photovoltaic electricity was strongly reduced in relationto the recent incentive campaign adopted from differentcountries [37] The cost of the electrolysis process is largelydependent on the cost of electricity on the efficiencies andon the capital costs of the systems Because the systemefficiency can be limitedly increased (current value is 78)the cost of the electrolysis process cannot be reduced by anefficiency increment as much as a significant reduction ofthe electricity price For instance by benefiting for forecourtsystems of the same electricity prices for industries thereduction of the cost of electrolysis process could be of31 [38] Moreover if the hydrogen economy grows andthe electrolyzer systems are mass produced a substantialreduction in capital cost could be also achieved Lastly thecost related to the electrolysis process can be calculated insimplified way using the following relationship [36]

119862El =1198680(119860 +119872)

120578 sdot 119864el=

Yearly global specific costYearly specific energy produced

(10)

where 1198680is the investment cost sustained to acquire the

electrolyzer including installation cost (euro) 119860 is the actual-ization factor usually set equal to the amortized cost and byproviding a useful life of the plant equal to 20 years119872 is thepercentage factor concerning the annual cost of maintenanceand management of the system including the staff cost setto 5 120578 is the electrolyzer efficiency in order to transformelectric energy in chemical energy stored as hydrogen (119864H

2

)By supposing large-scale production a global cost of

about 667 eurokg for solar-hydrogen has been determined

exploiting the technology of plane PV [39]The lower heatingvalue for hydrogen is equal to 3486 kWhkg thereforea correspondent specific energy cost of 0191 eurokWh hasbeen determined In [40] with reference to the Europeanpower generation sector in 2013 an average levelised cost ofelectricity ranging from 0059 eurokWh (coal) to 0086 eurokWh(combined power plant fired by methane) is reported Con-sequently without considering the additional costs relatedto the retransformation of hydrogen into electrical energythe obtained value is itself more 2ndash4 times higher thanthe cost obtained through exploitation of conventional fos-sil fuels The economic competitiveness of solar-hydrogencould increase with a consistent reduction of the investmentcosts both for the part concerning the photovoltaic systemby adopting more efficient technologies and for the partconcerning the electrolysis process Regarding the reductionof the costs related to the PV technology a considerableimprovement of the scenario has been investigated in [41]where a specific energy cost to 009 eurokWh has been quanti-fied by using concentrator PV fields characterized by highersolar conversion efficiencies (37) In this way this specificcost becomes close to other hydrogen production methodssuch as gas reformation wind and nuclear electrolysis Thedetermined gap cost with traditional fossil fuels becomes lesssevere if the social and environmental costs associated withtheir use are considered [42] The ldquohiddenrdquo costs of fossilfuels can be quantified by the parameter 119864 that compares in(1) These values for each considered fossil fuel have beenobtained from [43] where a suitable analytical tool makes theexternal cost for different energy carrier available This toolwas developed starting from the data carried out for six bigcities of emerging countries The comparison between solar-hydrogen and the considered fossil fuels in different fields ofuse (residential industrial electrical and transportation) isshown in the following figures by separating the normalizedfuel price (119862sdot120578

0120578) from the normalized external cost (119864 sdot119901

0sdot

1205780119901 sdot 120578) The obtained values have been determined hypoth-

esizing fuel cells technologies for the hydrogen exploitationwith the following values of the efficiency 120578 in function of theapplication sector

(i) 08 for the residential and industrial sectors bysupposing to use fuel cells in cogenerative operationto produce heat and electricity at the same time

(ii) 045 for the power generation and the transportationsectors by supposing the employment of electricengines in the cars


000

010

020

030

040

050

060

Methane Hydrogen Gasolinediesel

0056 00920215

01210031

03780241

Estimated cost of environmental damageFuel cost

Residential

Coallowast

lowastUnder the form of lignite

(Ck

Wh)

(a)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060

Methane Coal Hydrogen Gasolinediesel0042 0016

017900780048 0093

0175


Industrial

(Ck

Wh)

(b)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060

Methane Coal Hydrogen

0060 00700191

01100080

03820432


Electric

(Ck

Wh)

Gasolinediesellowast

lowastIn gasolinediesel generators

(c)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


01680282

0085

04370048

0162

0162


Transport

(Ck

Wh)

Coallowast

lowastHypothesizing its transformation in CTL (coal to liquid)with no tax charges

(d)

Figure 4 (a) Fuel prices and external costs in the residential sector (b) Fuel prices and external costs in the industrial sector (c) Fuel pricesand external costs in the power generation sector (d) Fuel prices and external costs in the transport sector

Regarding the efficiency 120578 of traditional technologies sup-plied by fossil fuels the adopted value is

(i) 09 for residential sector hypothesizing hybrid boilersfor the production of heat and electricity (equippedeg with Stirling engines [44])

(ii) 075 for industrial sector in cogenerative operations(iii) 045 for the power generation sector resulting as

average value between the efficiency of combinedcycles and conventional Rankine cycles

(iv) 020 for the transportation sector

The analytical results of the economic analysis are plotted inFigures 4(a)ndash4(d) in function of the application sector andfor the considered fuels

Currently the real cost of solar-hydrogen becomesalready profitable for the transportation sector taking advan-tage from the better efficiency of the electric traction More-over the absence of taxation costs makes the market priceof solar-hydrogen lower than those of the fossil fuels Forthe industrial sector solar-hydrogen in fuel cells becomes

profitable only if compared to technologies supplied by gaso-linediesel because the lower market prices of methane andcoal still compensate the external costs A better situation hasbeen detected for the power generation sector where solar-hydrogen is more attractive than coal and gasoline while themethane technologies are still profitable Despite the lowermarket prices the position of coal and gasolinediesel inthe ranking is strongly penalized from the elevated externalcosts Finally in residential sector fuel cells supplied bysolar-hydrogen present a better position compared to coaland gasolinediesel technologies but methane remains stillprofitable in relation to the improvement of the boilertechnologies that limit the external costs

5 Conclusions

The real costs of energy system supplied by solar-hydrogenand some fossil fuels have been determined The real costincludes the ldquoexternalrdquo costs related to the final use of thefuels considering air pollution and environmental damage


The investigated fuels present different thermodynamic char-acteristics and usually are employed in different devicescharacterized by dissimilar values of thermodynamic effi-ciency In this paper to obtain homogenized results thatconsider the mentioned aspects a weight factor has beendetermined in order to assess an economic analysis basedon the ldquoreal economyrdquo approach The weight factor wasevaluated by means of a thermodynamic approach employedto quantify two quality indexes an entropic index concerningthe quality of the combustion reaction and an environmentalindex to quantify the main emitted pollutant substancesMoreover the proposed indexes have been normalized infunction of the heat released during the combustion pro-cess The thermodynamic approach described in this paperhas allowed a direct comparison among four fuels usuallyemployed as energy carriers solar-hydrogen methane coaland gasolinediesel Regarding the proposed weight factorthe results show a position of hydrogen secondary only tomethane which presents the better combination betweencombustion characteristics and emitted pollutants From aneconomic point of view considering four energy applicationsectors (residential industrial power generation and trans-port) the real costs have highlighted that solar-hydrogenbecomes already more attractive in the transportation sectorpresenting the lowest value In the industrial sector the lowermarket prices of methane and coal make these fuels moreattractive since they compensate widely the external costsTherefore the position of solar-hydrogen will improve onlywith a large augment of the market price of fossil fuel inthe next future for effect of their inevitable depletion Thesame evaluations can be done for the energy sector wheresolar-hydrogen is already competitive than coal in relationto the large external costs of the latter Nowadays in theresidential sector solar-hydrogen is a good alternative for thereplacement of old boilers supplied by gasolinediesel or coalThe position of solar-hydrogen is still worse than methanesince the improvement and the diffusion of condensationboilers equipped with burner at low combustion tempera-tures have produced limited external costs In reality theevaluated real costs for solar-hydrogen become optimisticsince its market price is not suffered by tax charges In thefuture the replacement of the traditional fuels will cause aninevitable taxation also on the new energy carriers includingsolar-hydrogen to guarantee the financial revenue derivedfrom fuel commerceTherefore the economic scenario aboveintroduced will be surely different However the determinedreal cost gaps among the investigated fuels will become usefulto evaluate an adequate taxation level for solar-hydrogenOn the other hand the mass production of electrolyzertechnologies the reduction of the PV electricity costs orthe improvement of the PV technologies will determine areduction of the solar-hydrogen cost that could compensatethe tax charges

In a short-term scenario in absence of tax charge of solar-hydrogen its diffusion becomes already profitable than gaso-linediesel technologies in every application sectorThereforethe obtained results show that an economical persuasionto exploit solar-hydrogen as new energy carrier in differentapplication sectors could already exist

Nomenclature

119860 Actualization factor [mdash] Molar specific heat [JmolesdotK]119862 Fuel market cost [euro]119864 External cost [euro] Molar Gibbs energy [Jmole]ℎ Molar enthalpy [Jmole]119868 Investment [euro]119894 Impact index [mdash]119898 Pollutant emission factor [gkg]119872 Management and maintenance rate [mdash]119901 Weight factor [mdash]119875 Pressure [Pa] Molar entropy [JmolesdotK]119878 Real cost [euro]119879 Temperature [K]

Greek Symbols

120578 Efficiency [mdash]120583 Apparent work [Jmole]V Molar volume [m3mole]

Subscripts and Superscripts

0 At the year 0el Electricity119864 EnvironmentalEl ElectrolyzerH2 Hydrogen

119895 Fuel type119896 Pollutant type119901 Constant pressurePV Photovoltaic119900 Reference119878 Combustion

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

References

[1] I Dincer and C Acar ldquoA review on clean energy solutions forbetter sustainabilityrdquo International Journal of Energy Researchvol 39 no 5 pp 585ndash606 2015

[2] P D Lund ldquoClean energy systems as mainstream energyoptionsrdquo International Journal of Energy Research vol 40 no1 pp 4ndash12 2016

[3] N Armaroli and V Balzani Energy for a Sustainable WorldFrom the Oil Age to a Sun-Powered Future John Wiley amp SonsHoboken NJ USA 2010

[4] G Nicoletti ldquoHydrogen as solar energy storagemdashtechnical andeconomical aspectsrdquo inProceedings of the International CongressHypothesis Cassino Italy June 1995

[5] J RWhite ldquoComparing solar energy alternativesrdquo InternationalJournal of Energy Research vol 8 no 1 pp 39ndash52 1984


[6] J Turner G Sverdrup M K Mann et al ldquoRenewable hydrogenproductionrdquo International Journal of Energy Research vol 32no 5 pp 379ndash407 2008

[7] J Andrews and B Shabani ldquoRe-envisioning the role of hydro-gen in a sustainable energy economyrdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 37 no 2 pp 1184ndash1203 2012

[8] Gi Nicoletti and Ge Nicoletti ldquoLrsquoidrogeno come opzione ener-getica sostenibilerdquo in Proceedings of the 8th Italian ConferenceCIRIAF Perugia Italy April 2010

[9] J M Ogden Alternative Fuels and ProsectsmdashOverview JohnWiley amp Sons Hoboken NJ USA 2010

[10] P Kumar K Dutta S Das and P P Kundu ldquoAn overview ofunsolved deficiencies of direct methanol fuel cell technologyfactors and parameters affecting its widespread userdquo Interna-tional Journal of Energy Research vol 38 no 11 pp 1367ndash13902014

[11] J-Y Hwang S Shi X Sun Z Zhang and C Wen ldquoElectriccharge and hydrogen storagerdquo International Journal of EnergyResearch vol 37 no 7 pp 741ndash745 2013

[12] K Kendall ldquoHydrogen and fuel cells in city transportrdquo Interna-tional Journal of Energy Research vol 40 no 1 pp 30ndash35 2016

[13] A Zuttel ldquoHydrogen storage methodsrdquo Naturwissenschaftenvol 91 no 4 pp 157ndash172 2004

[14] I A Gondal andM H Sahir ldquoProspects of natural gas pipelineinfrastructure in hydrogen transportationrdquo International Jour-nal of Energy Research vol 36 no 15 pp 1338ndash1345 2012

[15] S Blanchette Jr ldquoA hydrogen economy and its impact on theworld as we know itrdquo Energy Policy vol 36 no 2 pp 522ndash5302008

[16] L I Gonzalez-Monroy and A Cordoba ldquoFinancial costs andenvironmental impact optimization of the energy supply sys-temsrdquo International Journal of Energy Research vol 26 no 1pp 27ndash44 2002

[17] J X Weinert L Shaojun J M Ogden and M Jianxin ldquoHydro-gen refueling station costs in Shanghairdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 32 no 16 pp 4089ndash4100 2007

[18] M W Melaina ldquoInitiating hydrogen infrastructures prelimi-nary analysis of a sufficient number of initial hydrogen stationsin the USrdquo International Journal of Hydrogen Energy vol 28 no7 pp 743ndash755 2003

[19] S Prince-Richard M Whale and N Djilali ldquoA techno-economic analysis of decentralized electrolytic hydrogen pro-duction for fuel cell vehiclesrdquo International Journal of HydrogenEnergy vol 30 no 11 pp 1159ndash1179 2005

[20] T N Veziroglu and F Barbir ldquoEconomic comparison of hydro-gen and fossil fuel systemsrdquo in Clean Utilization of Coal CoalStructure and Reactivity Cleaning and Environmental Aspects YYurum Ed vol 370 of NATO ASI Series pp 295ndash313 SpringerDordrecht The Netherlands 1992

[21] G Nicoletti and R Arienti ldquoAspetti Entropici dellrsquoImpattoAmbientale da combustionerdquo in Proceedings of the 4th ItalianConference ldquoAnalisi Ambientale in Italiardquo Milan Italy 1992

[22] I Dincer andM A Rosen ldquoThermodynamic aspects of renew-ables and sustainable developmentrdquo Renewable and SustainableEnergy Reviews vol 9 no 2 pp 169ndash189 2005

[23] N Kousuke T Toshimi and K Shinichi ldquoAnalysis of entropygeneration and exergy loss during combustionrdquo Proceedings ofthe Combustion Institute vol 29 no 1 pp 869ndash874 2002

[24] T N Veziroglu ldquoEconomic comparison of solar hydrogenenergy system with fossil fuel systemrdquo in Solar-Wasserstoff-Versorgung Internationales Symposium Zurich SwitzerlandNovember 1989

[25] A Fonseca V Sa H Bento M L C Tavares G Pinto and LA C N Gomes ldquoHydrogen distribution network optimizationa refinery case studyrdquo Journal of Cleaner Production vol 16 no16 pp 1755ndash1763 2008

[26] I Dincer and M A Rosen ldquoSustainability aspects of hydrogenand fuel cell systemsrdquo Energy for Sustainable Development vol15 no 2 pp 137ndash146 2011

[27] E A Guggenheim Thermodynamics North Holland Amster-dam The Netherlands 5th edition 1977

[28] Hutte Theoretische Grundlagen W Ernst amp Sohn BerlinGermany 28th edition 1985

[29] L Bornstein Chemische Handbuch vol II4 Auer 6th edition1959

[30] P ChiltonChemical EngineeringHandbook McGraw-Hill NewYork NY USA 1973

[31] R C Weast Handbook of Chemistry and Physics CRC PressNew York NY USA 1977

[32] G Nicoletti N Arcuri G Nicoletti and R Bruno ldquoA technicaland environmental comparison between hydrogen and somefossil fuelsrdquo Energy Conversion and Management vol 89 pp205ndash213 2015

[33] EEA ldquoEMEPEEA air pollutant emission inventory guidebook2013 technical guidance to prepare national emission inven-toriesrdquo European Environmental Agency Technical Report122013 European Environment Agency Copenhagen Den-mark 2013

[34] httpwwwfuel-prices-europeinfo[35] VVAA DECC Fossil Fuel Price ProjectionsmdashGovuk Depart-

ment of Energy and Climate Change of UK 2014[36] D Coiante ldquoLa produzione fotovoltaica dellrsquoidrogenordquo

Notiziario ENEA ldquoEnergia ed Innovazionerdquo no 11-12 pp 24ndash411990

[37] VVAA ldquoGlobal Market Outlook for Photovoltaics 2014ndash2018rdquoEPIAmdashEuropean Photovoltaic Industry Association httpwwwcleanenergybusinesscouncilcomsiteresourcesfilesreportsEPIA Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics 2014-2018 -Medium Respdf

[38] VVAA Technology Brief Analysis of Current-Day Commer-cial Electrolyzers NRELmdashNational Renewable Energy Labo-ratorymdashDepartment of Energy Washington DC USA 2004

[39] P E Dodds and W McDowall ldquoA review of hydrogen pro-duction technologies for energy system modelsrdquo UKSHECWorking Paper 6 UCL Energy Institute University CollegeLondon London UK 2012

[40] C Kost J N Mayer J Thomsen et al ldquoLevelized cost ofelectricity renewable energy technologiesrdquo Report FraunhoferInstitute for Solar Energy Systems ISE Freiburg Germany 2013httpwwwisefraunhoferdeenpublicationsveroeffentlichun-gen-pdf-dateien-enstudien-und-konzeptpapierestudy-level-ized-cost-of-electricity-renewable-energiespdf

[41] J R Thomson R D McConnell and M Mosleh ldquoCostanalysis of a concentrator photovoltaic hydrogen productionsystemrdquo in Proceedings of the International Conference on SolarConcentrators for the Generation of Electricity or HydrogenScottsdale Ariz USA May 2005


[42] National Research Council Hidden Costs of Energy UnpricedConsequences of Energy Production and Use The NationalAcademies Press Washington DC USA 2010

[43] K Lvovsky G Hughes D Maddison B Ostro and D PearceldquoEnvironmental costs of fossil fuels a rapid assessment methodwith application to six citiesrdquo Environment Department PaperReport for the World Bank 2010

[44] M De Paepe P DrsquoHerdt and DMertens ldquoMicro-CHP systemsfor residential applicationsrdquo Energy Conversion and Manage-ment vol 47 no 18-19 pp 3435ndash3446 2006

International Journal of

AerospaceEngineeringHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

RoboticsJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014


Active and Passive Electronic Components

Control Scienceand Engineering

Journal of



RotatingMachinery


Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

Journal ofEngineeringVolume 2014

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration


Civil EngineeringAdvances in

Acoustics and VibrationAdvances in



Electrical and Computer Engineering

Journal of

Advances inOptoElectronics


Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

SensorsJournal of


Modelling amp Simulation in EngineeringHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014


Chemical EngineeringInternational Journal of Antennas and

Propagation




Navigation and Observation



DistributedSensor Networks



environmental degradation linked to the global warmingthe acid rains and the water pollution Usually in energysectors supplied by fossil fuels the external costs are notconsidered making the comparison with solar-hydrogenwith no meaning [16]

The latter in fact reduces the harmful effects linked tothe energy production with fossil fuels allows the control ofair pollution and reduces some problems linked to water andsoil utilization [1]

Several authors have investigated the hydrogen costs indifferent energy fields Weinert et al determined the costsrequired for the refueling of cars equipped with fuel cellstechnologies in Shangai [17] Melaina instead investigatedthe costs concerning the hydrogen stations in US to evaluatethe potential of hydrogen diffusion in the transportationsector [18] Prince-Richard et al have carried out a technoe-conomic analysis in order to evaluate the costs concerningthe hydrogen produced by electrolysis and destined to fuelcell vehicles [19] Finally Veziroglu and Barbir proposed aparticular approach to evaluate the real costs of different fuelsbut by now these costsrsquo result is outdated [20]

Unlike the latter document in this paper a differentapproach to determine the total costs of solar-hydrogenand of traditional fossil fuels based on thermodynamicevaluations is introduced These evaluations are requiredto consider the different effects linked to the combustionreactions in function of the fuel exploitation differentquantity of released heat emitted pollutants and diverseeffects on the external environment are produced In orderto take into account the mentioned aspects in the eco-nomic analysis an appropriate weight factor that modifiesthe external costs and takes into account the aforemen-tioned aspects is necessary This weight factor is definedas product between two quality indexes the first is anldquoentropicrdquo index to measure the irreversibility degree of thecombustion reaction and the quality of the same reactionand the second is an ldquoenvironmentalrdquo index to determine thequantity of pollutants emitted in atmosphere Additionallysince the quantity of fuel required in specific applicationsectors depends on the involved technology the total cost isadjusted in function of the thermodynamic efficiency of theemployed device Thus also considering different fuels withdissimilar thermodynamic and environmental propertiesthe employment of such parameters is normalized allowingthe obtainment of homogenous results The comparison iscarried out between solar-hydrogen and the currently diffusefossil fuels in industrialized and emerging countries such asmethane coal and gasolinediesel

The entropic impact index was investigated in thermody-namic open systems whose state is defined by the values ofenthalpy Gibbs free energy and chemical work [21 22] Infunction of the fuel properties it measures the combustionquality and the environmental damage since during the com-bustion process the lower the entropy production the lowerthe impact on surroundings [23] The environmental impactindex indeed has been determined by considering thequantity of pollutants emitted and normalized in function ofthe thermal energy released during the combustion reactionFinally the product of the proposed indexes determines the

global weight factor ldquo119901rdquo required for the total cost evaluationIn order to assess the economic advantages concerning theexploitation of a specific fuel in opposition to another onea reference fuel has to be recognized For instance if thebenefits consequent to the solar-hydrogen exploitation haveto beweighted against themethane the latter will be classifiedas reference fuel Therefore the total costs of the investigatedfuels can be evaluated by the relation [24]

119878 = 119862 + 119864 sdot (119901119900

119901) sdot (

120578119900

120578) (1)

where 119878 is the total (or real) cost per unit of producedenergy (eurokWh)119862 is the fuel price market per unit of energydelivered to the customer including taxes (eurokWh) 119864 is theexternal cost consequent to the fuel use per unit of energyexpressed in current money (eurokWh) 120578 is the efficiency ofthe device supplied by a specific fuel in a specific applicationsector 120578

119900is the efficiency of the technology supplied by the

reference fuel in the same application sector 119901119900is the weight

factor determined for the reference fuelEquation (1) allows the evaluation of the so-called ldquoreal

costsrdquo by moving the focus of the investigation to the endof the process of energy production and by extending theevaluation of the real costs by including the effects producedfrom the final use of the same fuels The economic analyseshave been carried out by considering the residential theindustrial the power generation and the transportationsectors as application areas

2 The Exploitation of Solar-Hydrogen asEnergy Carrier

A promising solution in the field of the clean fuels isrepresented by solar-hydrogen [1] A hypothetical scheme ofthe complete cycle of energy production involving hydrogenas energy carrier starts from photovoltaic fields and thepossible exploitation in different energy sectors is shown inFigure 1 Every involved application provides liquid waterwhich could be reused to supply newly the hydrogen cyclemaking the process more sustainable

The technical difficulties to the exploitation of solar-hydrogen concern the hydrogen storage systems and thestructure of the hydrogen transportation but the recentresearch campaign in these fields seems to show promisingresults [12ndash14 25]

A large emitter of macropollutants (CO2 NO119909 CO

SO119909 and particulate) is represented by the sector of electric

power generation that could be adequately supplied byhydrogen pipeline and can evolve towards the innovative useof new technologies as the fuel cells realizing the tasks ofhigh efficiency and contemporaneous production of thermalenergy [26] Alternatively solar-hydrogen could be used alsoin appropriate burners by using pure oxygen or air as oxidantsubstances to produce water and a significant amount ofthermal energy The same fuel cells could be employed inthe residential sector for cogenerative applications Finallysolar-hydrogen could be used as new energy carrier in thetransportation sector to supply the existing vehicles equipped


Solarradiation PV

field

Electricity


Oxygenstorage

Hydrogenstorage

Water reservoir


Plant burners

Gas turbines


Fuel cells


Thermal

Electric

Transport

Wat

er









Δ (119879 + 120583) equiv Δ (119879lowast) (2)





(i) hydrogen

H2O 999447999472 H

2+1

2O2

(3)


CO2999447999472 C +O

2 (4)


CO2+ 2H2O 999447999472 CH

4+ 2O2 (5)

(iv) gasoline

8CO2+ 9H2O 999447999472 C

8H18+ 125O

2 (6)



10 (losses)

87


3 (losses)


9 (losses)

Gas turbine(035)

Inrush electric

Burners


plants

22 (losses)

Catalytic burners

Fuel cells

4

22(39)

Heat pumps33(58)





9 (losses)

4

O2

O2 O2

O2

H2O2-steam prod095

(1)095

(1)075

(1)

090(1) (045)

090(1) (025) 075

(1) (025)

COP = 25

83

39 39 22 56

111136 98

55 (97)

22 43

83 30 57 65

Hydrogen90

100


(1)








Δ 119901

⟨119879⟩



minus870 500 909 minus105 35840 1155C8H18

minus5 486 500 16445 minus1169 254790 2035


Fuels 119894119895119904

H2

0672C 0813CH4

0879C8H18

0390


119894119895119904= (1 minus

10038161003816100381610038161003816100381610038161003816


Δℎ

10038161003816100381610038161003816100381610038161003816) (119895 = a 997888rarr d) (7)





119894119895119864

= prod119894119895119896 (8)


06729 0650507374

02563

p(mdash

)

000010020030040050060070080090100




119894119895119896= (1 minus

119898119895119896

10038161003816100381610038161003816Δℎ

10038161003816100381610038161003816 (119901sdot ⟨119879⟩)

)

119896=1rarr4

(9)

where 119898119895119896


2 SO2 NO119909 and









2[kgkg] NO


a H2

0 0 0 0b C 3196 00156 00469 00046c CH

42745 00205 21 sdot 10


d C8H18

3197 00012 63 sdot 10minus5

24 sdot 10minus4


Fuels 1198941198951

1198941198952

1198941198953

1198941198954

119894119895119864

a H2

10000 10000 10000 10000 1b C 08034 09990 09971 09997 08001c CH

408386 09999 09998 10000 08385

d C8H18

06573 09998 09999 09999 06572


119862El =1198680(119860 +119872)

120578 sdot 119864el=


(10)



2





0sdot






000

010

020

030

040

050

060


0056 00920215

01210031

03780241


Residential

Coallowast


(Ck

Wh)

(a)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


017900780048 0093

0175


Industrial

(Ck

Wh)

(b)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


0060 00700191

01100080

03820432


Electric

(Ck

Wh)



(c)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


01680282

0085

04370048

0162

0162


Transport

(Ck

Wh)

Coallowast


(d)










5 Conclusions





Nomenclature


Greek Symbols







References

















































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation










Solarradiation PV

field

Electricity


Oxygenstorage

Hydrogenstorage

Water reservoir


Plant burners

Gas turbines


Fuel cells


Thermal

Electric

Transport

Wat

er









Δ (119879 + 120583) equiv Δ (119879lowast) (2)





(i) hydrogen

H2O 999447999472 H

2+1

2O2

(3)


CO2999447999472 C +O

2 (4)


CO2+ 2H2O 999447999472 CH

4+ 2O2 (5)

(iv) gasoline

8CO2+ 9H2O 999447999472 C

8H18+ 125O

2 (6)



10 (losses)

87


3 (losses)


9 (losses)

Gas turbine(035)

Inrush electric

Burners


plants

22 (losses)

Catalytic burners

Fuel cells

4

22(39)

Heat pumps33(58)





9 (losses)

4

O2

O2 O2

O2

H2O2-steam prod095

(1)095

(1)075

(1)

090(1) (045)

090(1) (025) 075

(1) (025)

COP = 25

83

39 39 22 56

111136 98

55 (97)

22 43

83 30 57 65

Hydrogen90

100


(1)








Δ 119901

⟨119879⟩



minus870 500 909 minus105 35840 1155C8H18

minus5 486 500 16445 minus1169 254790 2035


Fuels 119894119895119904

H2

0672C 0813CH4

0879C8H18

0390


119894119895119904= (1 minus

10038161003816100381610038161003816100381610038161003816


Δℎ

10038161003816100381610038161003816100381610038161003816) (119895 = a 997888rarr d) (7)





119894119895119864

= prod119894119895119896 (8)


06729 0650507374

02563

p(mdash

)

000010020030040050060070080090100




119894119895119896= (1 minus

119898119895119896

10038161003816100381610038161003816Δℎ

10038161003816100381610038161003816 (119901sdot ⟨119879⟩)

)

119896=1rarr4

(9)

where 119898119895119896


2 SO2 NO119909 and









2[kgkg] NO


a H2

0 0 0 0b C 3196 00156 00469 00046c CH

42745 00205 21 sdot 10


d C8H18

3197 00012 63 sdot 10minus5

24 sdot 10minus4


Fuels 1198941198951

1198941198952

1198941198953

1198941198954

119894119895119864

a H2

10000 10000 10000 10000 1b C 08034 09990 09971 09997 08001c CH

408386 09999 09998 10000 08385

d C8H18

06573 09998 09999 09999 06572


119862El =1198680(119860 +119872)

120578 sdot 119864el=


(10)



2





0sdot






000

010

020

030

040

050

060


0056 00920215

01210031

03780241


Residential

Coallowast


(Ck

Wh)

(a)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


017900780048 0093

0175


Industrial

(Ck

Wh)

(b)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


0060 00700191

01100080

03820432


Electric

(Ck

Wh)



(c)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


01680282

0085

04370048

0162

0162


Transport

(Ck

Wh)

Coallowast


(d)










5 Conclusions





Nomenclature


Greek Symbols







References

















































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation











10 (losses)

87


3 (losses)


9 (losses)

Gas turbine(035)

Inrush electric

Burners


plants

22 (losses)

Catalytic burners

Fuel cells

4

22(39)

Heat pumps33(58)





9 (losses)

4

O2

O2 O2

O2

H2O2-steam prod095

(1)095

(1)075

(1)

090(1) (045)

090(1) (025) 075

(1) (025)

COP = 25

83

39 39 22 56

111136 98

55 (97)

22 43

83 30 57 65

Hydrogen90

100


(1)








Δ 119901

⟨119879⟩



minus870 500 909 minus105 35840 1155C8H18

minus5 486 500 16445 minus1169 254790 2035


Fuels 119894119895119904

H2

0672C 0813CH4

0879C8H18

0390


119894119895119904= (1 minus

10038161003816100381610038161003816100381610038161003816


Δℎ

10038161003816100381610038161003816100381610038161003816) (119895 = a 997888rarr d) (7)





119894119895119864

= prod119894119895119896 (8)


06729 0650507374

02563

p(mdash

)

000010020030040050060070080090100




119894119895119896= (1 minus

119898119895119896

10038161003816100381610038161003816Δℎ

10038161003816100381610038161003816 (119901sdot ⟨119879⟩)

)

119896=1rarr4

(9)

where 119898119895119896


2 SO2 NO119909 and









2[kgkg] NO


a H2

0 0 0 0b C 3196 00156 00469 00046c CH

42745 00205 21 sdot 10


d C8H18

3197 00012 63 sdot 10minus5

24 sdot 10minus4


Fuels 1198941198951

1198941198952

1198941198953

1198941198954

119894119895119864

a H2

10000 10000 10000 10000 1b C 08034 09990 09971 09997 08001c CH

408386 09999 09998 10000 08385

d C8H18

06573 09998 09999 09999 06572


119862El =1198680(119860 +119872)

120578 sdot 119864el=


(10)



2





0sdot






000

010

020

030

040

050

060


0056 00920215

01210031

03780241


Residential

Coallowast


(Ck

Wh)

(a)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


017900780048 0093

0175


Industrial

(Ck

Wh)

(b)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


0060 00700191

01100080

03820432


Electric

(Ck

Wh)



(c)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


01680282

0085

04370048

0162

0162


Transport

(Ck

Wh)

Coallowast


(d)










5 Conclusions





Nomenclature


Greek Symbols







References

















































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation












Δ 119901

⟨119879⟩



minus870 500 909 minus105 35840 1155C8H18

minus5 486 500 16445 minus1169 254790 2035


Fuels 119894119895119904

H2

0672C 0813CH4

0879C8H18

0390


119894119895119904= (1 minus

10038161003816100381610038161003816100381610038161003816


Δℎ

10038161003816100381610038161003816100381610038161003816) (119895 = a 997888rarr d) (7)





119894119895119864

= prod119894119895119896 (8)


06729 0650507374

02563

p(mdash

)

000010020030040050060070080090100




119894119895119896= (1 minus

119898119895119896

10038161003816100381610038161003816Δℎ

10038161003816100381610038161003816 (119901sdot ⟨119879⟩)

)

119896=1rarr4

(9)

where 119898119895119896


2 SO2 NO119909 and









2[kgkg] NO


a H2

0 0 0 0b C 3196 00156 00469 00046c CH

42745 00205 21 sdot 10


d C8H18

3197 00012 63 sdot 10minus5

24 sdot 10minus4


Fuels 1198941198951

1198941198952

1198941198953

1198941198954

119894119895119864

a H2

10000 10000 10000 10000 1b C 08034 09990 09971 09997 08001c CH

408386 09999 09998 10000 08385

d C8H18

06573 09998 09999 09999 06572


119862El =1198680(119860 +119872)

120578 sdot 119864el=


(10)



2





0sdot






000

010

020

030

040

050

060


0056 00920215

01210031

03780241


Residential

Coallowast


(Ck

Wh)

(a)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


017900780048 0093

0175


Industrial

(Ck

Wh)

(b)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


0060 00700191

01100080

03820432


Electric

(Ck

Wh)



(c)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


01680282

0085

04370048

0162

0162


Transport

(Ck

Wh)

Coallowast


(d)










5 Conclusions





Nomenclature


Greek Symbols







References

















































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation












2[kgkg] NO


a H2

0 0 0 0b C 3196 00156 00469 00046c CH

42745 00205 21 sdot 10


d C8H18

3197 00012 63 sdot 10minus5

24 sdot 10minus4


Fuels 1198941198951

1198941198952

1198941198953

1198941198954

119894119895119864

a H2

10000 10000 10000 10000 1b C 08034 09990 09971 09997 08001c CH

408386 09999 09998 10000 08385

d C8H18

06573 09998 09999 09999 06572


119862El =1198680(119860 +119872)

120578 sdot 119864el=


(10)



2





0sdot






000

010

020

030

040

050

060


0056 00920215

01210031

03780241


Residential

Coallowast


(Ck

Wh)

(a)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


017900780048 0093

0175


Industrial

(Ck

Wh)

(b)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


0060 00700191

01100080

03820432


Electric

(Ck

Wh)



(c)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


01680282

0085

04370048

0162

0162


Transport

(Ck

Wh)

Coallowast


(d)










5 Conclusions





Nomenclature


Greek Symbols







References

















































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation










000

010

020

030

040

050

060


0056 00920215

01210031

03780241


Residential

Coallowast


(Ck

Wh)

(a)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


017900780048 0093

0175


Industrial

(Ck

Wh)

(b)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


0060 00700191

01100080

03820432


Electric

(Ck

Wh)



(c)

000

010

020

030

040

050

060


01680282

0085

04370048

0162

0162


Transport

(Ck

Wh)

Coallowast


(d)










5 Conclusions





Nomenclature


Greek Symbols







References

















































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation












Nomenclature


Greek Symbols







References

















































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation




















































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation









Research Article Real Costs Assessment of Solar-Hydrogen and...

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Transcript of Research Article Real Costs Assessment of Solar-Hydrogen and...