Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be ... · Kristen Armandt, Ravi Dixit, Michael...
47
,DOCUMENT RESUME ED 445 155 UD 033 753 AUTHOR Murray, Nancy; Armandt, Kristen; Dixit, Ravi; Fitzpatrick, Michael; Garrido, Marco; Leslie, Eric; Marcelino, Sandra; McQueen, Cyrus Malik, III; Prince, Marisa; Rego, Luis; White-Hammond, Mariama; Wong, Helen TITLE Highways into the Past: History, Organizing & Power. A Project HIP-HOP Resource for High School Students. INSTITUTION American Civil Liberties Union of Massachsetts, Boston. PUB DATE 1997-00-00 NOTE 89p. PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Learner (051) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Black History; Blacks; *Civil Rights; Curriculum; Democracy; High Schools; *Justice; *Racial Discrimination; *United States History ABSTRACT This curriculum, developed by a project titled "Highways into the Past, History, Organizing, and Power" (HIP-HOP), discusses the meaning of "race" in the United States and outlines the history of the civil rights movement. This resource begins with a unit that traces the concept of race as a social invention that reflects a social reality. The second and third units describe what life was like for African Americans after the period of Reconstruction and why a movement for civil and human rights was necessary. The fourth unit concentrates on the often-unnamed youth heroes who organized to resist injustice and inequality through their civil rights work. The fifth unit focuses on the way the civil rights movement has broadened into a fight for economic justice. This unit conveys a sense of what remains to be done in the fight for equality. (Contains 27 references.) (SLD) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document.
Transcript of Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be ... · Kristen Armandt, Ravi Dixit, Michael...
,DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 445 155 UD 033 753
AUTHOR Murray, Nancy; Armandt, Kristen; Dixit, Ravi; Fitzpatrick,Michael; Garrido, Marco; Leslie, Eric; Marcelino, Sandra;McQueen, Cyrus Malik, III; Prince, Marisa; Rego, Luis;White-Hammond, Mariama; Wong, Helen
TITLE Highways into the Past: History, Organizing & Power. AProject HIP-HOP Resource for High School Students.
INSTITUTION American Civil Liberties Union of Massachsetts, Boston.PUB DATE 1997-00-00NOTE 89p.
PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Learner (051)EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Black History; Blacks; *Civil Rights; Curriculum;
Democracy; High Schools; *Justice; *Racial Discrimination;*United States History
ABSTRACTThis curriculum, developed by a project titled "Highways
into the Past, History, Organizing, and Power" (HIP-HOP), discusses themeaning of "race" in the United States and outlines the history of the civilrights movement. This resource begins with a unit that traces the concept ofrace as a social invention that reflects a social reality. The second andthird units describe what life was like for African Americans after theperiod of Reconstruction and why a movement for civil and human rights wasnecessary. The fourth unit concentrates on the often-unnamed youth heroes whoorganized to resist injustice and inequality through their civil rights work.The fifth unit focuses on the way the civil rights movement has broadenedinto a fight for economic justice. This unit conveys a sense of what remainsto be done in the fight for equality. (Contains 27 references.) (SLD)
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.
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Hig
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to th
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His
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, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
A P
roje
ct H
IP-H
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Res
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e fo
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igh
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ight
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ndra
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ik M
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en I
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aris
a Pr
ince
, Lui
s R
ego,
Mar
iam
a W
hite
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mon
d, H
elen
Won
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Prod
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by
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Bill
of
Rig
hts
Edu
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Hig
hway
s in
to th
e Pa
st:
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
A P
roje
ct H
IP-H
OP
Res
ourc
efo
r H
igh
Scho
ol S
tude
nts
Con
tent
s
UN
IT O
NE
:W
hat i
s "R
ace"
?pa
ge 2
UN
IT T
WO
:A
fter
Rec
onst
ruct
ion
page
8
UN
IT T
HR
EE
:B
uild
ing
Mom
entu
m f
or C
hang
epa
ge 1
3
UN
IT F
OU
R:
The
Mov
emen
t for
Civ
il R
ight
spa
ge 1
7
UN
IT F
IVE
:B
eyon
d th
e C
ivil
Rig
hts
Phas
eof
the
Mov
emen
tpa
ge 2
6
Uni
t SIX
:T
he M
ovem
ent's
Unf
inis
hed
Bus
ines
spa
ge 3
1
Sele
ct B
ibili
ogra
phy
page
41
The
Bill
of
Rig
hts
Edu
catio
n Pr
ojec
tan
d Pr
ojec
t HIP
-HO
Ppa
ge 4
2
Intr
oduc
tion
We,
the
mem
bers
of
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
(Hig
hway
s In
to th
ePa
st, H
isto
ry, O
rgan
izin
g, a
nd P
ower
), h
ave
jour
neye
d So
uth
to d
isco
ver
a hi
stor
y of
str
uggl
e ag
ains
t opp
ress
ion.
Thr
ough
our
pres
enta
tions
in s
choo
ls a
nd th
is c
urri
culu
m, w
e ho
pe to
spar
k in
toda
y's
yout
h a
com
mitm
ent t
o so
cial
act
ion
and
dete
rmin
atio
n to
rec
laim
our
pow
er.
The
pro
blem
s of
rac
ism
, sex
ism
, and
all
form
s of
op-
pres
sion
hav
e no
t lef
t us.
Man
y yo
ung
peop
le to
day
are
face
d w
ith th
e co
ntin
uing
pro
blem
s of
de
fact
o se
greg
atio
n,th
e in
flux
of
drug
s, e
ver-
wid
enin
g ga
ps in
inco
me,
ineq
uity
in h
ousi
ng, e
duca
tion,
em
ploy
men
t opp
ortu
nitie
s, r
acis
tpo
licin
g an
d a
stea
dily
gro
win
g pr
ison
sys
tem
.H
ow c
anth
ey u
nder
stan
d th
e w
orld
aro
und
them
? H
ow c
an th
ey b
ein
spir
ed to
wor
k to
cha
nge
it?W
e be
lieve
that
stu
dent
s ne
ed to
fin
d a
conn
ectio
n to
the
hist
ory
of a
tim
e w
hen
youn
g pe
ople
all
over
our
cou
ntry
stoo
d up
for
thei
r ri
ghts
and
to c
reat
e a
bette
r so
ciet
y fo
r al
l.W
e, a
s yo
uth
who
par
ticip
ated
in th
e tr
ip to
the
Sout
h, w
ere
insp
ired
by
this
his
tory
of
stru
ggle
. We
had
not r
ealiz
ed th
ele
vel o
f yo
uth
invo
lvem
ent i
n th
e M
ovem
ent.
We
had
not
real
ized
the
exte
nt o
f re
sist
ance
to a
n un
just
sys
tem
, res
ista
nce
whi
ch p
re-d
ated
and
cont
inue
d af
ter
the
peri
od o
f 19
5519
65 th
at is
usu
ally
kno
wn
as th
e "c
ivil
righ
ts m
ovem
ent."
In th
is R
esou
rce,
we
use
the
wor
d "M
ovem
ent"
to in
di-
cate
that
the
stru
ggle
last
ed lo
nger
than
a d
ecad
e, a
nd th
at it
was
abo
ut m
ore
than
civ
il ri
ghts
as
they
are
nar
row
ly u
n-de
rsto
odth
e ri
ght t
o vo
te, t
o be
trea
ted
equa
lly b
efor
e th
ela
w, a
nd s
oon.
In
the
larg
er s
ense
, the
Mov
emen
t was
abo
uthu
man
rig
hts,
equ
ality
and
soc
ial j
ustic
e.T
he P
roje
ct H
IP-H
OP
Res
ourc
e be
gins
with
a u
nit o
n"r
ace,
" si
nce
we
thin
k it
is im
port
ant t
o un
ders
tand
that
rac
eis
not
a b
iolo
gica
l rea
lity,
but
inst
ead
a so
cial
inve
ntio
nw
hich
des
crib
es a
soc
ial r
ealit
y. T
he s
econ
d an
d th
ird
units
desc
ribe
wha
t lif
e w
as li
ke f
or A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s af
ter
the
rollb
ack
of R
econ
stru
ctio
n, a
nd w
hy a
Mov
emen
t for
civ
ilan
d hu
man
rig
hts
was
nec
essa
ry.
In th
e fo
urth
uni
t we
depa
rt f
rom
the
usua
l sto
ry o
f th
e ci
vil r
ight
s ph
ase
of th
eM
ovem
ent,
whi
ch c
once
ntra
tes
on a
few
hig
hly
visi
ble
lead
-er
s lik
e D
r. M
artin
Lut
her
Kin
g, J
r. W
e ho
pe to
dra
wat
tent
ion
to th
e th
ousa
nds
of o
ften
unn
amed
you
th h
eroe
sw
ho m
arch
ed, p
artic
ipat
ed in
sit-
ins,
rod
e fr
eedo
m b
uses
,w
ent t
o ja
il, a
nd e
ven
died
. The
y sa
w in
just
ice
and
ineq
ualit
yal
l aro
und
them
, and
org
aniz
ed to
res
ist i
t non
viol
ently
.In
the
fift
h un
it w
e fo
cus
on th
e w
ay th
e M
ovem
ent
broa
dene
d in
to a
fig
ht f
or e
cono
mic
just
ice,
and
how
the
auth
oriti
es m
oved
aga
inst
it.
The
fin
al u
nit,
on th
eM
ovem
ent's
"un
fini
shed
bus
ines
s,"
brin
gs th
is h
isto
ry u
p to
date
, and
con
veys
a s
ense
of
wha
t we
belie
ve n
eeds
to b
eac
com
plis
hed
in th
e ne
xt p
hase
of
the
Mov
emen
t.T
hrou
ghou
t thi
s R
esou
rce,
we
use
our
pers
onal
exp
eri-
ence
, fir
st-h
and
inte
rvie
ws,
gro
up d
iscu
ssio
n, a
nd c
ritic
alre
flec
tion
to tr
y to
eng
age
yout
h in
this
his
tory
. We
who
mad
e th
e jo
urne
y So
uth
retu
rned
insp
ired
, inf
orm
ed a
ndco
nnec
ted
to h
isto
ry -
- an
d w
e ho
pe s
ome
of th
e in
spir
atio
nw
e ha
ve r
ecei
ved
gets
tran
smitt
ed in
this
mat
eria
l.Fi
nally
, thi
s cu
rric
ulum
is a
way
of
keep
ing
the
faith
with
the
cour
ageo
us a
ctiv
ists
we
have
met
on
our
jour
neys
Sou
th,
who
sha
red
thei
r w
isdo
m w
ith u
s an
d ur
ged
us "
to f
ind
our
own
path
for
war
d."
Man
y of
thes
e pe
ople
had
pai
d a
heav
ypr
ice
for
thei
r ef
fort
s to
cha
nge
an u
njus
t sys
tem
. One
of
them
was
Edd
ie C
arth
an, t
he f
orm
er m
ayor
of
Tch
ula
in th
eM
issi
ssip
pi D
elta
, who
se s
tory
app
ears
in u
nit f
ive.
"You
th m
ust p
ick
up th
e ba
ton,
" he
told
us.
"T
he w
ayth
ings
are
goi
ng, y
ou h
ave
to b
e pr
epar
ed. I
t mea
ns a
gre
atde
al to
peo
ple
to s
ee y
outh
who
car
e ab
out i
ssue
s. W
e m
ust
chal
leng
e ra
cism
whe
reve
r w
e se
e it.
Or
we
can
very
eas
ilysl
ip b
ack
and
lose
the
gain
s th
at h
ave
been
mad
e."
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP,
Aug
ust 1
997
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
67
1
UN
IT O
NE
: Wha
t is
"Rac
e"?
We
thin
k w
e kn
ow w
hat "
race
" is
. We
use
the
wor
d al
l the
ime.
But
not
hing
abo
ut "
race
" ca
n be
take
n fo
r gr
ante
d.In
deed
, we
are
not r
eally
sur
e if
dif
fere
nt b
iolo
gica
l rac
es o
fau
man
s ev
en e
xist
.Sc
ient
ists
who
are
stu
dyin
g hu
man
gen
esth
e ba
sic
build
ing
bloc
ks o
f hu
man
life
repo
rt th
at "
race
acc
ount
sFo
r on
ly a
min
iscu
le .0
12 p
erce
nt d
iffe
renc
e in
our
gen
etic
mat
eria
l." I
n ot
her
wor
ds, u
nder
the
wor
ld's
mos
t pow
erfu
lm
icro
scop
es, "
race
" is
alm
ost i
nvis
ible
. The
gen
etic
dif
fer-
ence
s be
twee
n in
divi
dual
s of
the
sam
e ra
ce a
refa
r gr
eate
rth
an th
e di
ffer
ence
s be
twee
n ra
ces
assu
min
g w
e ev
enag
ree
on w
hat t
hese
rac
es a
re. D
iffe
renc
es th
at th
e ey
e se
esas
"ra
ce"
are
skin
-dee
p ad
apta
tions
to c
limat
e,w
hich
evol
ved
as h
uman
s m
oved
out
fro
m w
hat t
he f
ossi
l rec
ord
show
s to
be th
e an
cest
ral h
ome
of u
s al
l, th
e co
ntin
ent o
f A
fric
a.
The
Phi
pps
case
If y
ou w
ere
aske
d to
nam
e th
e pr
inci
pal r
acia
l gro
ups,
wha
t wou
ld y
ou s
ay?
It is
like
ly th
at y
ou w
ill n
ame
whi
te (
or"C
auca
sian
"), A
sian
(or
"M
ongo
loid
"), a
nd b
lack
("N
e-gr
oid"
). B
ut w
hat m
akes
one
per
son
"whi
te"
and
anot
her
"bla
ck"?
Are
rac
ial d
istin
ctio
ns v
isib
le to
the
eye
in th
e co
lor
of s
kin,
type
of
hair
, and
fea
ture
s?If
so,
try
to m
ake
sens
e of
this
cas
e be
fore
Lou
isia
naco
urts
in 1
982-
3on
ly a
bout
15
year
s ag
o. S
usie
Gui
llory
Phip
ps lo
oked
"w
hite
" an
d liv
ed a
s a
whi
te w
oman
in a
fam
ily w
ith s
ever
al b
lond
, blu
e-ey
ed m
embe
rs. S
he w
as,
how
ever
, den
ied
a pa
sspo
rt b
ecau
se s
he h
ad c
heck
ed "
whi
te"
on h
er p
assp
ort a
pplic
atio
n.H
er p
robl
em w
as th
at h
er b
irth
cer
tific
ate
gave
her
rac
eas
"co
lore
d."
The
mid
wif
e at
her
bir
th h
ad w
ritte
n in
colo
red
base
d on
info
rmat
ion
that
the
fam
ily h
ad "
colo
red"
blo
od. I
ttu
rned
out
that
she
was
the
grea
t-gr
eat-
grea
t-gr
eat g
rand
-da
ught
er o
f a
Fren
ch p
lant
er a
nd a
wom
an o
f A
fric
an d
e-
scen
t he
mad
e hi
s m
istr
ess
in 1
770,
bef
ore
the
Am
eric
anR
evol
utio
n. T
wo
hund
red
year
s la
ter,
in 1
970,
the
Lou
sian
ale
gisl
atur
e pa
ssed
a la
w (
stat
ute
42:2
67)
that
say
s a
pers
on is
"bla
ck"
or "
colo
red"
if h
is o
r he
r an
cest
ry is
mor
e th
an o
neth
irty
-sec
ond
blac
k.A
ppea
ranc
e ha
s no
thin
g to
do
with
it.
Whe
n Su
sie
Phip
ps p
etiti
oned
the
cour
t to
have
the
stat
us o
n he
r pa
rent
s' b
irth
cer
tific
ates
cha
nged
to "
whi
te"
sosh
e an
d he
r br
othe
rs a
nd s
iste
rs c
ould
cha
nge
thei
r bi
rth
cert
ific
ates
to "
whi
te"
as w
ell,
the
stat
e di
stri
ct c
ourt
and
then
the
stat
e ap
peal
s co
urt r
efus
ed. T
he ju
dges
sai
d th
at r
acia
lde
sign
atio
ns c
ould
not
be
chan
ged
and
that
"co
lore
d" w
asM
rs. P
hipp
s' c
orre
ct c
lass
ific
atio
n be
caus
e sh
e w
as 3
/32
blac
k.In
198
6, th
ree
year
s af
ter
the
Lou
isia
na la
w w
asre
peal
ed b
ecau
se o
f th
e ne
gativ
e pu
blic
ity w
hich
the
Phip
psca
se a
ttrac
ted,
bot
h th
e L
ouis
iana
Sup
rem
e C
ourt
and
the
US
Supr
eme
Cou
rt r
efus
ed to
rev
iew
or
reve
rse
this
low
er c
ourt
rulin
g. If r
ace
isn'
t som
ethi
ng y
ou s
ee w
hen
you
look
at a
per
son
like
Susi
e Ph
ipps
, and
if y
ou h
ave
trou
ble
dete
ctin
g it
unde
ra
mic
rosc
ope,
wha
t is
it?D
iffe
rent
cou
ntri
es d
isag
ree
onho
w to
def
ine
it. O
nly
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es d
efin
es a
per
son
with
a d
rop
of "
blac
k bl
ood,
" a
trac
e of
Afr
ican
anc
estr
y, a
s"B
lack
."2
No
othe
r co
untr
y us
es w
hat h
as b
een
calle
d th
e"o
ne d
rop
rule
" as
a d
efin
ing
crite
ria
of w
ho is
Bla
ck.
If S
usie
Phi
pps
had
grow
n up
in B
razi
l or
othe
r L
atin
Am
eric
an c
ount
ries
, for
inst
ance
, she
wou
ld b
e th
ough
t of
as"w
hite
." I
f sh
e ha
d gr
own
up in
apa
rthe
id S
outh
Afr
ica,
she
wou
ld n
ever
hav
e be
en p
lace
d in
the
sam
e ca
tego
ry a
sA
fric
an "
Bla
cks.
" Sh
e w
ould
eith
er h
ave
been
cla
ssif
ied
inth
e bu
ffer
gro
up b
etw
een
Bla
ck a
nd W
hite
cal
led
"Col
oure
d,"
or s
he m
ight
hav
e be
en s
ucce
ssfu
lly r
ecla
ssif
ied
inth
e pr
ivi-
lege
d ca
tego
ry o
f "W
hite
" if
she
cou
ld d
emon
stra
te th
at s
hew
as a
ccep
ted
as w
hite
by
her
peer
s an
d "b
ehav
edw
hite
."U
nder
the
apar
thei
d cl
assi
fica
tion
syst
em, "
nonw
hite
" pe
ople
coul
d be
cla
ssif
ied
as "
Bla
ck"
if a
com
b pl
aced
in th
eir
hair
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Voi
ces
The
que
stio
n w
as n
ot a
new
one
, "W
hat a
re y
ou?"
Eve
nbe
fore
I e
mig
rate
d fr
om th
e Ph
ilipp
ines
, I w
as a
sked
"w
hat"
I w
as. B
eing
ligh
t-sk
inne
d fo
r a
Filip
ino,
man
y of
my
clas
s-m
ates
mis
took
me
for
an "
Am
eric
an."
To
them
an
"Am
eri-
can"
mea
nt, o
f co
urse
, a w
hite
per
son.
Aft
er h
avin
g ar
rive
d in
the
US,
my
"Am
eric
an"
clas
s-m
ates
rev
ived
the
ques
tion,
as
I w
as n
ow to
o fo
reig
n-lo
okin
gto
be
mis
take
n fo
r "A
mer
ican
." I
was
n't w
hite
, whi
ch m
eant
that
I w
ould
sha
re in
a tr
aditi
on p
eopl
e of
col
or in
this
coun
try
daily
par
take
in, I
wou
ld h
ave
to n
egot
iate
how
my
non-
whi
te b
ody
mea
sure
d ag
ains
t the
whi
te s
tand
ard.
For
me
that
mea
nt I
had
to s
uffe
r th
at h
umili
atin
g qu
estio
n,"W
hat a
re y
ou?"
Gro
win
g up
, I h
ad n
o se
nse
of h
umor
abo
ut it
. Eve
ry ti
me
I w
as a
sked
wha
t I w
as, I
sin
cere
ly f
elt a
s if
blin
ding
spo
t-lig
hts
had
betr
ayed
me,
and
had
rev
eale
d th
at, c
rim
e of
crim
es, I
was
n't w
hite
. I la
ugh
now
, rem
embe
ring
how
inba
sket
ball,
I a
nd a
noth
er A
sian
wer
e co
nsig
ned
to th
e "f
or-
eign
" te
am b
ecau
se, t
o th
e m
iddl
e-sc
hool
min
d, w
e cl
earl
yco
uldn
't qu
alif
y as
"A
mer
ican
" pl
ayer
s. K
ids
wou
ld w
ant t
om
ake
fun
of m
e an
d ca
ll m
e a
raci
al s
lur,
yet
the
old
stan
dbys
,"n
igge
r" o
r ev
en "
chin
k,"
didn
't se
em to
app
ly. T
hey'
d tr
y"c
hink
" an
d ad
d "g
ook"
for
goo
d m
easu
re. H
a, I
fel
t lik
esa
ying
, I a
m n
eith
er o
f th
ose!
Yet
nor
cou
ld I
say
that
I w
asw
hite
. In th
is c
ount
ry I
was
n't A
mer
ican
not b
ecau
se I
had
emig
rate
d, b
ut b
ecau
se I
was
n't w
hite
. The
nam
e "A
mer
ican
"w
as a
ppar
ently
ver
y m
uch
tied
to r
ace.
My
expe
rien
ce h
as s
how
n th
at w
hite
s ha
ve a
bet
ter
clai
mto
bei
ng "
Am
eric
an"
than
I d
id, a
nd th
at m
eant
they
wer
eex
empt
fro
m th
eir
own
ques
tion,
"W
hat a
re y
ou?"
, a q
ues-
tion
I co
uld
neve
r as
k of
them
. Whi
le w
hite
s, a
mon
g th
em-
selv
es, c
ould
ask
, "W
ho a
re y
ou?"
I w
as to
them
a "
Wha
t?"
a bo
dy b
efor
e a
pers
on.
How
do
you
defi
ne y
ours
elf?
Do
you
thin
k of
you
rsel
f in
term
s of
a p
artic
ular
"ra
ce"?
Can
you
iden
tify
with
any
thin
gin
thes
e Pr
ojec
t HIP
-HO
P vo
ices
?
SH
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Voi
ces
I ha
d to
lear
n w
ho I
was
, and
par
t of
that
mea
nt w
hat r
ace
I w
as. M
y ra
ce w
as d
efin
ed b
y th
ose
arou
nd m
e. I
t was
n't e
asy
for
peop
le to
pla
ce m
y ra
cial
iden
tity.
Som
e th
ough
t I w
asL
atin
o, o
ther
s th
ough
I w
as a
mix
, bet
wee
n L
atin
o, B
lack
, and
even
whi
te. S
ome
figu
red
me
for
bein
g N
ativ
e A
mer
ican
.N
one
wer
e ri
ght.
I am
Ind
ian
Am
eric
an. M
y pa
rent
s em
igra
ted
to th
e U
S. I
was
bor
n an
d ra
ised
in B
osto
n, a
nd h
ave
lived
ther
eal
l my
life.
But
ther
e w
ere
no o
ther
Ind
ians
in m
y ne
ighb
orho
od.
The
refo
re, o
n ac
coun
t of
my
brow
n sk
in, p
eopl
e pu
t me
inw
hich
ever
cat
egor
y m
akes
sen
se to
them
. It's
inte
rest
ing
to b
eca
lled
a "s
pic"
whe
n yo
u're
not
.R
ace
is s
omet
hing
pla
ced
upon
me
by s
ocie
ty. S
ince
it is
base
d on
how
one
look
s, r
egar
dles
s of
my
true
rac
ial i
dent
ity,
I be
cam
e w
hat I
look
ed li
ke, B
lack
or
Lat
ino.
Yet
one
thin
g ha
sre
mai
ned
the
sam
e: th
ough
peo
ple
can'
t pla
ce w
hat I
am
, the
ykn
ow I
am
cer
tain
ly n
ot w
hite
.G
row
ing
up "
non-
whi
te"
has
its p
ositi
ves
and
nega
tives
.Si
nce
I liv
ed in
a m
ostly
poo
r an
d w
orki
ng-c
lass
Bla
ck a
ndL
atin
o ne
ighb
orho
od, I
was
mor
e ac
cept
ed b
y B
lack
s an
dL
atin
os o
n ac
coun
t of
our
shar
ed "
non-
whi
te"
skin
. I b
ecam
ea
"per
son
of c
olor
," a
nd f
orm
ed a
com
mun
ity w
ith o
ther
peop
le o
f co
lor.
I a
lso
felt
mor
e co
mfo
rtab
le w
ith B
lack
s an
dL
atin
os b
ecau
se w
e fa
ced
ever
yday
rac
ism
. The
re w
as a
taci
tun
ders
tand
ing
betw
een
us th
at, b
ecau
se o
f ou
r sh
ared
lack
of
whi
te s
kin,
we'
d ha
ve to
stic
k to
geth
er. O
f co
urse
my
colo
r w
asa
burd
en a
s w
ell.
I ha
d to
dea
l with
har
assi
ng p
olic
e, c
onde
-sc
endi
ng te
ache
rs, a
nd o
ther
pai
ns p
eopl
e of
col
or f
ace
in w
hite
soci
ety.
I am
bro
wn.
Peo
ple
see
that
, yet
they
don
't kn
ow th
ehi
stor
y be
hind
my
colo
r, th
at m
y pa
rent
s ca
me
from
a c
ount
ryw
hich
str
uggl
ed a
gain
st a
col
onia
l for
ce. T
hey
don'
t car
e to
unde
rsta
nd th
e ri
ch c
ultu
re o
f In
dia.
I a
m n
o on
e be
yond
my
colo
r. I
am
bro
wn
and
not t
o be
trus
ted,
to b
e w
atch
ed m
ore
care
fully
, to
be s
tupi
d an
d le
ss-t
han,
to b
e di
ffer
ent.
I am
dif
-fe
rent
, but
why
doe
s m
y di
ffer
ence
attr
act t
he f
ear
and
unce
r-ta
inty
I s
ee in
thei
r lo
oks?
Rac
e is
a c
onst
ruct
whi
ch h
as s
hape
dho
w I
've
been
trea
ted,
as
it ha
s in
flue
nced
how
I s
ee p
eopl
e.
wou
ld s
tay
ther
e; th
ey w
ould
be
calle
d "C
olor
ed"
if it
fel
lou
t. T
his
was
"sc
ienc
e,"
apar
thei
d-st
yle.
The
US
raci
al h
iera
rchy
The
one
thin
g th
e va
riou
s ra
cial
cla
ssif
icat
ions
ado
pted
by d
iffe
rent
cou
ntri
es d
o sh
are
is th
at th
ey e
volv
ed o
ver
time
to s
erve
the
inte
rest
s of
thos
e w
ith p
ower
.In
col
onia
lA
mer
ica,
the
mos
t pre
ssin
g ne
ed w
as f
or la
bor.
At f
irst
,pe
ople
wer
e di
vide
d in
to tw
o ca
tego
ries
: "C
hris
tians
" an
d"h
eath
en."
Peo
ple
of a
ll co
lors
red,
bla
ck a
nd w
hite
wer
e en
slav
ed, s
ome
for
life,
som
e fo
r sh
orte
r pe
riod
s. O
nly
grad
ually
, sla
very
bec
ame
equa
ted
with
col
or. B
y th
e en
d of
the
17th
cen
tury
, peo
ple
who
wer
e co
nsid
ered
"w
hite
" w
ere
bein
g tr
eate
d di
ffer
ently
fro
m e
nsla
ved
Afr
ican
s, a
nd c
on-
ditio
ns o
f sl
aver
y an
d fr
eedo
m w
ere
bein
g de
fine
d in
law
inte
rms
of c
olor
. Whi
te a
nd B
lack
wer
e so
on d
rive
n fa
r ap
art,
as s
lave
s be
cam
e pr
oper
ty a
nd w
ere
wri
tten
out o
f th
ehu
man
rac
e.B
y th
e tim
e th
e C
onst
itutio
n w
as w
ritte
n in
the
late
18t
hce
ntur
y, 2
0 pe
rcen
t (75
0,00
0) o
f th
e to
tal p
opul
atio
n of
fou
rm
illio
n pe
ople
in th
e U
nite
d St
ates
wer
e en
slav
ed. T
here
wer
e 20
0,00
0 in
dent
ured
ser
vant
sw
hite
peo
ple
who
coul
d be
mad
e to
wor
k lik
e sl
aves
, but
onl
y fo
r se
t per
iods
of
time.
Hal
f th
e po
pula
tion
wer
e w
omen
, who
cou
ld n
ot v
ote,
coul
d no
t sue
or
be s
ued
in c
ourt
, and
had
no
cont
rol o
ver
thei
r ow
n ea
rnin
gs. A
t lea
st a
thir
d of
the
whi
te m
ales
cou
ldno
t vot
e, b
ecau
se th
ey d
id n
ot o
wn
enou
gh p
rope
rty.
The
new
nat
ion
was
for
whi
tes
only
espe
cial
ly f
or th
ose
who
wer
e m
ale
and
suff
icie
ntly
ric
h.W
e he
ar o
f th
e "o
ne d
rop
rule
" de
fini
ng a
ll pe
ople
with
mix
ed A
fric
an a
nd w
hite
anc
estr
y as
"N
egro
" or
"B
lack
" in
the
18th
and
19t
h ce
ntur
ies.
It e
nabl
ed s
lave
ow
ners
to d
efin
era
cial
ly-m
ixed
chi
ldre
n, o
ften
thei
r ow
n, a
s "N
egro
" in
ord
erto
kee
p th
em e
nsla
ved.
Aft
er s
lave
ry w
as a
bolis
hed,
the
one-
drop
rul
e w
as p
rese
rved
in th
e "c
olor
line
" up
hold
ing
whi
tesu
prem
acy.
Ear
ly in
the
20th
cen
tury
it w
as w
ritte
n in
to la
wby
man
y So
uthe
rn s
tate
s to
cem
ent t
he "
Jim
Cro
w"
syst
em o
fse
greg
atio
n. T
he p
aran
oia
amon
g So
uthe
rn w
hite
s ab
out
"inv
isib
le b
lack
ness
" in
thei
r m
idst
peop
le w
ho lo
ok"w
hite
" bu
t are
rea
lly "
blac
k"sh
ows
how
littl
e "r
ace"
had
to d
o w
ith a
ppea
ranc
e.In
his
boo
k W
ho is
Bla
ck?
One
Nat
ion'
s D
efin
ition
, F. J
ames
Dav
is w
rite
s:"C
once
rn a
bout
peo
ple
pass
ing
as w
hite
bec
ame
so g
reat
that
eve
n be
havi
ng li
ke b
lack
s or
will
ingl
y as
soci
atin
g w
ithth
em w
as o
ften
trea
ted
as m
ore
impo
rtan
t tha
n an
y pr
oof
ofac
tual
bla
ck a
nces
try.
...ra
ce b
ecam
e en
tirel
y a
soci
al c
ateg
ory
with
no
nece
ssity
for
any
bio
logi
cal b
asis
." 3
So r
ace
was
not
a b
iolo
gica
l rea
lity,
but
inst
ead
a so
cial
real
ity w
hich
evo
lved
ove
r tim
e. I
t was
not
just
a "
colo
r,"
but
also
a m
atte
r of
cul
ture
of h
ow y
ou a
cted
. You
r as
soci
a-tio
ns a
nd li
fe s
tyle
wou
ld e
arn
you
a pa
rtic
ular
pla
ce in
the
raci
al h
iera
rchy
. Rac
e as
a s
ocia
l cat
egor
y w
as in
vent
ed b
yth
e po
wer
ful i
n so
ciet
y to
kee
p so
cial
con
trol
.
Whe
re d
id "
race
" co
me
from
?
The
wor
d "r
ace"
at f
irst
had
not
hing
to d
o w
ith s
kin
colo
r. I
t ent
ered
the
Eng
lish
lang
uage
abo
ut f
our
hund
red
year
s ag
o to
just
ify
natio
n-fo
rmat
ion.
The
Ang
lo-S
axon
s(w
ho in
habi
ted
Eng
land
) us
ed "
race
" to
des
crib
e th
eir
own
dist
inct
trad
ition
s.A
long
with
oth
er g
roup
s of
Eur
opea
ns, t
he E
nglis
h gr
ewri
ch o
ff th
e tr
ansa
tlant
ic s
lave
trad
e an
d co
loni
zed
larg
e pa
rts
of th
e w
orld
, usi
ng th
eir
supe
rior
mili
tary
tech
nolo
gy to
dom
inat
e in
dige
nous
peo
ples
and
take
con
trol
of
thei
r la
ndan
d re
sour
ces.
It w
as in
this
per
iod
of E
urop
ean
colo
niza
tion
of o
ther
peo
ple'
s la
nd th
at "
race
" w
as f
irst
use
d in
a b
iolo
gica
lse
nse.
Eur
opea
n sc
ient
ists
atte
mpt
ed to
cla
ssif
y al
l liv
ing
thin
gs, i
nclu
ding
peo
ple,
in th
e w
orld
. Arm
ed w
ith th
e ne
wsc
ienc
e of
ant
hrop
olog
y, th
ey m
easu
red
hum
an s
kulls
toev
alua
te "
race
s" a
nd li
ne th
em u
p al
ong
the
so-c
alle
d "C
hain
of B
eing
."A
t the
hea
d of
the
Cha
in, t
hey
plac
ed th
eir
coun
trym
en, t
he w
hite
Eur
opea
ns. A
Ger
man
pro
fess
or, J
.Fr
iedr
ich
Blu
men
bach
, gav
e th
em th
e na
me
"Cau
casi
an"
in17
95 b
ecau
se h
e th
ough
t tha
t the
mou
ntai
ns o
f th
e C
auca
sus
wer
e pr
obab
ly th
eir
orig
inal
hom
e.
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
3
The
whi
te c
lub
"Whi
te"
or "
Cau
casi
an"
has
been
as
diff
icul
t to
defi
neas
"B
lack
." I
n th
e U
S th
ere
wer
e bi
tter
stru
ggle
s in
the
19th
cent
ury
abou
t whi
ch g
roup
s sh
ould
be
acce
pted
as
"whi
te."
The
nat
ion'
s fo
undi
ng im
mig
rant
gro
up, t
he E
nglis
h, d
id n
otw
ant t
o sh
are
thei
r st
atus
with
sou
ther
n an
d ea
ster
n E
urop
e-an
s, o
r th
e Ir
ish
and
Jew
s. A
gain
and
aga
in th
e "r
ace"
car
dw
ould
be
play
ed, a
s ne
w im
mig
rant
gro
ups
prov
ed th
eyw
ere
wor
thy
part
icip
ants
in th
e "A
mer
ican
Dre
am"
byke
epin
g th
eir
dist
ance
fro
m A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s, a
nd b
uyin
gin
to th
e id
eolo
gy o
f w
hite
sup
rem
acy.
Popu
lar
raci
smde
epen
ed in
the
19th
cen
tury
, as
vari
ous
ethn
ic g
roup
s tr
ied
to p
rove
thei
r w
orth
as
whi
te p
atri
ots
by s
pear
head
ing
phys
ical
atta
cks
agai
nst B
lack
peo
ple
and
forc
ing
them
out
of jo
bs a
nd n
eigh
borh
oods
.A
few
imm
igra
nt g
roup
s re
mai
ned
outs
ide
the
dom
i-na
nt c
ateg
orie
s of
"bl
ack"
and
"w
hite
." T
he C
hine
se, f
orin
stan
ce, w
ho m
ade
up a
tent
h of
Cal
ifor
nia'
s po
pula
tion
inth
e m
id n
inet
eent
h ce
ntur
y, w
ere
cultu
rally
dis
tinct
fro
mB
lack
s an
d w
ere
neve
r gi
ven
the
oppo
rtun
ity to
join
the
"whi
te"
club
.T
hey
rem
aine
d "n
on w
hite
s."
Stan
ding
outs
ide
the
exis
ting
raci
al h
iera
rchy
, the
Chi
nese
wer
e ta
r-ge
ted
by s
tate
legi
slat
ures
and
the
US
Con
gres
s, w
hich
trie
dto
keep
them
out
of
the
coun
try
alto
geth
er b
y pa
ssin
gE
xclu
sion
Act
s ai
med
at C
hine
se im
mig
rant
s in
188
2, 1
888,
1892
, 190
2, a
nd 1
904.
Rac
e an
d th
e U
S C
ensu
sIn
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es, t
he c
onfu
sion
sur
roun
ding
cat
ego-
ries
of
"rac
e" r
emai
ns u
nres
olve
d, a
nd b
ecom
es m
ore
illog
i-ca
l as
the
coun
try
beco
mes
mor
e di
vers
e. B
y th
e m
iddl
e of
the
next
cen
tury
, var
ious
"m
inor
ity"
grou
ps w
ill b
e th
em
ajor
ity o
f th
e po
pula
tion.
Thi
s co
nfus
ion
can
be s
een
in th
e sh
iftin
g cl
assi
fica
tions
used
in U
S C
ensu
s re
port
s. T
he f
irst
cen
sus
was
con
duct
edin
179
0. I
t cou
nted
"fr
ee w
hite
mal
es,"
"fr
ee w
hite
fem
ales
,""o
ther
per
sons
" (i
nclu
ding
fre
e B
lack
s an
d In
dian
s liv
ing
in
whi
te s
ettle
men
ts)
and
"sla
ves.
"Fo
r tw
o ce
ntur
ies,
US
Cen
sus
clas
sifi
catio
ns h
ave
been
am
essy
mix
ture
of
cate
gori
es b
ased
on
"rac
e,"
ethn
icity
, na-
tiona
lity,
and
ling
uist
ic g
roup
. Som
e co
untr
ies
have
que
s-tio
ned
whe
ther
rac
ial c
lass
ific
atio
n sy
stem
s sh
ould
n't b
eab
olis
hed
alto
geth
er, s
ince
no
one
can
agre
e on
a r
atio
nal a
ndco
nsis
tent
sch
eme
that
ref
lect
s th
e w
orld
's d
iver
sity
of
peop
les.
Can
ada,
rea
ctin
g ag
ains
t the
way
Naz
i Ger
man
yus
ed th
e "s
cien
ce o
f ra
ce"
to a
ttem
pt to
ext
erm
inat
e Je
ws
and
Gyp
sies
, dro
pped
rac
ial c
ateg
orie
s fr
om it
s C
ensu
s in
195
1.
The
deb
ate
over
"m
ultir
acia
l"
In th
e U
nite
d St
ates
, rat
her
than
mov
ing
to a
bolis
h ra
cial
cate
gori
es, t
here
hav
e be
en e
ffor
ts to
add
new
one
s fo
rA
rabs
/Mid
dle
Eas
tern
ers,
Cap
e V
erde
ans,
Cre
oles
, and
Eur
opea
n-A
mer
ican
s to
the
2000
Cen
sus.
The
re h
as a
lso
been
a p
ush
to in
clud
e th
e ca
tego
ry "
mul
tirac
ial"
to r
epre
-se
nt c
hild
ren
who
se p
aren
ts a
re o
f di
ffer
ent r
aces
. (In
the
US
toda
y th
ere
are
abou
t a m
illio
n an
d a
half
inte
rrac
ial m
ar-
riag
es.)
Cri
tics
say
this
wou
ld s
impl
y ad
d to
the
conf
usio
n. W
how
ould
it a
pply
to in
the
US,
whe
re u
p to
90
perc
ent o
f A
fric
anA
mer
ican
s ar
e be
lieve
d to
hav
e at
leas
t one
whi
te a
nces
tor?
Rec
ent g
enet
ic e
vide
nce
also
sug
gest
s th
at a
ll E
urop
eans
(Cau
casi
ans)
are
a h
ybri
d po
pula
tion,
bea
ring
gen
es w
hich
are
65 p
erce
nt A
sian
in o
rigi
n an
d 35
per
cent
Afr
ican
. Wha
tse
nse
does
it m
ake
to c
reat
e a
"cat
ch a
ll" c
ateg
ory
for
chil-
dren
of
vari
ous
com
bina
tions
of
mix
ed-r
ace
rela
tions
hips
?Is
it lo
gica
l, fo
r ex
ampl
e, to
incl
ude
a ch
ild w
hose
par
ents
are
"Bla
ck"
and
"whi
te"
in th
e sa
me
clas
sifi
catio
n w
ith a
chi
ldw
hose
par
ents
are
Nat
ive
Ala
skan
and
Jap
anes
e?T
he s
tron
gest
cri
ticis
m o
f th
e "m
ultir
acia
l" p
ropo
sal
has
com
e fr
om A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s w
ho b
elie
ve it
wou
lddi
min
ish
thei
r in
flue
nce
and
thei
r sh
are
of f
eder
al g
rant
s by
redu
cing
thei
r nu
mbe
rs.
Eve
r si
nce
the
1960
s, c
ensu
sst
atis
tics
have
bee
n us
ed to
mon
itor
and
enfo
rce
legi
slat
ion
agai
nst d
iscr
imin
atio
n an
d se
greg
atio
n, a
nd to
det
erm
ine
the
way
vot
ing
dist
rict
s ar
e dr
awn.
The
"on
e dr
op r
ule"
Act
ivity
US
Bur
eau
of C
ensu
s R
acia
l Cla
ssif
icat
ions
(19
90)
Whi
teB
lack
or
Neg
roA
mer
ican
Ind
ian
(Pri
nt n
ame
of e
nrol
led
or p
rinc
ipal
trib
e)E
skim
oA
leut
Asi
an o
r Pa
cifi
c Is
land
erC
hine
seFi
lipin
oH
awai
ian
Kor
ean
Vie
tnam
ese
Japa
nese
Asi
an I
ndia
nSa
moa
nG
uam
ania
nO
ther
If o
ther
rac
e, p
leas
e pr
int
Is th
is p
erso
n of
Spa
nish
or
His
pani
c or
igin
?N
oY
esM
exic
an, M
exic
an-A
mer
ican
, Chi
cano
Puer
to R
ican
Cub
anY
es, o
ther
Spa
nish
, His
pani
c(f
or e
xam
ple,
Arg
entin
ian,
Col
umbi
an, D
omin
ican
, Nic
arag
uan,
Salv
ador
an, S
pani
ard
Whi
ch o
f th
ese
cate
gori
es is
bas
ed o
n "r
ace"
? N
atio
nal-
ity?
Lan
guag
e?T
he c
lass
sho
uld
divi
de in
to tw
os.
With
out t
alki
ng to
you
r pa
rtne
r, w
rite
dow
n w
hich
of
the
abov
e ca
tego
ries
you
thin
k he
or
she
belo
ngs
to. A
lso
wri
tedo
wn
your
ow
n cl
assi
fica
tion.
Now
com
pare
list
s. A
reth
ey th
e sa
me?
Do
you
thin
k yo
u be
long
to m
ore
than
one
cate
gory
? W
hat w
ould
you
like
to s
ee c
hang
ed o
n th
eC
ensu
s fo
rm?
121
3H
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:
Act
ivity
1951
UN
ESC
O S
tate
men
t on
Rac
eSc
ient
ists
are
gen
eral
ly a
gree
d th
at a
ll m
en li
ving
toda
ybe
long
to a
sin
gle
spec
ies,
Hom
o sa
pien
s, a
nd a
re d
eriv
ed f
rom
a co
mm
on s
tock
....S
ome
of th
e ph
ysic
al d
iffe
renc
es b
etw
een
hum
an g
roup
s ar
e du
e to
dif
fere
nces
in h
ered
itary
con
stitu
-tio
n an
d so
me
to d
iffe
renc
es in
the
envi
ronm
ents
in w
hich
they
hav
e be
en b
roug
ht u
p. I
n m
ost c
ases
, bot
h in
flue
nces
have
bee
n at
wor
k....
Nat
iona
l, re
ligio
us, g
eogr
aphi
cal,
lingu
istic
and
cul
tura
lgr
oups
do
not n
eces
sari
ly c
oinc
ide
with
rac
ial g
roup
s; a
nd th
ecu
ltura
l tra
its o
f su
ch g
roup
s ha
ve n
o de
mon
stra
ted
conn
ec-
tion
with
rac
ial t
raits
.A
mer
ican
s ar
e no
t a r
ace,
nor
are
Fren
chm
en, n
or G
erm
ans.
... M
osle
ms
and
Jew
s ar
e no
mor
era
ces
than
are
Rom
an C
atho
lics
and
Prot
esta
nts.
...
Such
a c
lass
ific
atio
n do
es n
ot d
epen
d on
any
phy
sica
lch
arac
ter,
nor
doe
s, f
or e
xam
ple,
ski
n co
lor
by it
self
nec
essa
r-ily
dis
tingu
ish
one
maj
or g
roup
fro
m a
noth
er. F
urth
erm
ore,
so f
ar a
s it
has
been
pos
sibl
e to
ana
lyze
them
, the
dif
fere
nces
in p
hysi
cal s
truc
ture
whi
ch d
istin
guis
h on
e m
ajor
gro
up f
rom
anot
her
give
no
supp
ort t
o po
pula
r no
tions
of
any
gene
ral
'sup
erio
rity
' or
'infe
rior
ity' w
hich
are
som
etim
es im
plie
d in
refe
rrin
g to
thes
e gr
oups
....
The
sci
entif
ic m
ater
ial a
vaila
ble
to u
s at
pre
sent
doe
s no
tju
stif
y th
e co
nclu
sion
that
inhe
rite
d ge
netic
dif
fere
nces
are
am
ajor
fac
tor
in p
rodu
cing
the
diff
eren
ces
betw
een
the
cultu
res
and
cultu
ral a
chie
vem
ents
of
diff
eren
t peo
ples
or
grou
ps. I
tdo
es in
dica
te, o
n th
e co
ntra
ry, t
hat a
maj
or f
acto
r in
exp
lain
ing
such
dif
fere
nces
is th
e cu
ltura
l exp
erie
nce
whi
ch e
ach
grou
pha
s un
derg
one.
...
The
re is
no
evid
ence
for
the
exis
tenc
e of
so-
calle
d 'p
ure'
race
s.... Rea
d th
is s
tate
men
t car
eful
ly. W
hat d
oes
it m
ean?
Why
do y
ou th
ink
a U
nite
d N
atio
ns a
genc
y fe
lt th
e ne
ed to
issu
esu
ch a
sta
tem
ent i
n th
e af
term
ath
of W
orld
War
II?
fina
lly s
eem
ed to
pro
duce
som
e be
nefi
ts, a
s it
enla
rged
the
num
ber
of p
eopl
e co
unte
d "B
lack
" an
d in
crea
sed
thei
r ac
cess
to f
eder
al s
pend
ing.
Cen
sus
stat
istic
s ar
e us
ed b
y fe
dera
lpr
ogra
ms
assi
stin
g m
inor
ity b
usin
esse
s, a
nd o
ther
aff
irm
a-tiv
e ac
tion
and
educ
atio
nal e
nric
hmen
t pro
gram
s. T
hey
are
also
use
d to
pre
vent
"re
dlin
ing"
the
refu
sal o
f ba
nks
and
othe
r fi
nanc
ial i
nstit
utio
ns to
giv
e m
ortg
ages
and
loan
s to
resi
dent
s of
min
ority
nei
ghbo
rhoo
ds.
Opp
onen
ts o
f th
e "m
ultir
acia
l" c
ateg
ory
feel
that
the
long
his
tory
of
stru
ggle
beh
ind
"Bla
ck"
as a
rac
ial d
esig
na-
tion
shou
ld n
ot b
e ov
erlo
oked
or
thro
wn
away
not,
that
is,
until
the
syst
em o
f ra
cial
hie
rarc
hy a
nd w
hite
pri
vile
ge a
refu
lly d
ism
antle
d. A
Clin
ton
Adm
inis
trat
ion
task
for
ce h
asar
gued
that
suc
h a
cate
gory
wou
ld "
add
to r
acia
l ten
sion
san
d fu
rthe
r fr
agm
enta
tion
of o
ur p
opul
atio
n,"
and
has
rec-
omm
ende
d th
at A
mer
ican
s be
per
mitt
ed to
che
ck m
ore
than
one
cate
gory
to d
escr
ibe
them
selv
es o
n th
e ce
nsus
for
m.
Rac
ism
: wha
t is
it?
Man
y pe
ople
in th
e U
nite
d St
ates
bel
ieve
that
the
coun
-tr
y ha
s al
read
y m
oved
bey
ond
raci
sm, a
nd c
reat
ed a
leve
lpl
ayin
g fi
eld
for
all t
o co
mpe
te e
qual
ly f
or s
ocie
ty's
ben
efits
.In
Uni
t Six
of
this
cur
ricu
lum
, we
will
exa
min
e th
e ev
iden
cefo
r th
is v
iew
. But
fir
st w
e ha
ve to
def
ine
our
term
s.W
e us
e th
e w
ord
prej
udic
e to
ref
er to
indi
vidu
al a
tti-
tude
s to
war
ds a
per
son
or g
roup
bas
ed o
n pr
econ
ceiv
edno
tions
whi
ch le
ad to
judg
men
ts b
eing
for
med
with
out a
cons
ider
atio
n of
the
fact
s. P
eopl
e ar
e bi
gots
and
act
out
of
bigo
try
if th
ey e
xpre
ss o
pen
disl
ike
and
hatr
ed o
f ot
her
grou
ps.
Rac
ial d
iscr
imin
atio
n re
fers
to th
e ex
clus
ion
ofin
divi
dual
s an
d gr
oups
bel
ongi
ng to
a p
artic
ular
rac
e or
ethn
icity
fro
m c
erta
in jo
bs, n
eigh
borh
oods
, sch
ools
, and
soci
al o
ppor
tuni
ties.
Ope
nly
raci
st s
ocie
ties,
like
the
US
Sout
h be
fore
the
late
196
0s a
nd S
outh
Afr
ica
unde
r th
eA
part
heid
sys
tem
, giv
e di
scri
min
atio
n th
e fo
rce
of la
w.
Rac
ism
as
we
will
use
it h
ere
(and
as
Dr.
Mar
tin L
uthe
rK
ing,
Jr.
, use
d th
e te
rm),
is n
ot s
impl
y ab
out t
he a
ttitu
des,
disl
ikes
, and
mot
ivat
ion
of in
divi
dual
s, o
r in
divi
dual
act
s of
bigo
try
and
disc
rim
inat
ion.
Ins
tead
, rac
ism
ref
ers
to th
e w
ayso
ciet
y as
a w
hole
is a
rran
ged,
and
how
the
econ
omic
,ed
ucat
iona
l, cu
ltura
l, an
d so
cial
rew
ards
of
that
soc
iety
are
dist
ribu
ted.
It i
s ab
out c
olle
ctiv
e in
just
ice.
No
mat
ter
how
muc
h in
divi
dual
atti
tude
s m
ay c
hang
e, w
e ca
nnot
def
eat
raci
sm u
ntil
we
brin
g ab
out s
truc
tura
l and
inst
itutio
nal
chan
ge, a
nd tr
ansf
orm
colle
ctiv
e re
latio
nshi
ps b
etw
een
grou
ps. T
here
are
no
win
ners
and
lose
rs in
the
battl
e ag
ains
tra
cism
. Its
def
eat i
s no
t a v
icto
ry f
or o
ne p
artic
ular
gro
up,
but f
or s
ocie
ty a
s a
who
le, a
nd f
or u
s al
l as
hum
an b
eing
s.T
hink
bac
k fi
fty
year
s. W
hen
we
look
bac
k at
the
segr
e-ga
ted
Sout
h in
195
0, it
's e
asy
enou
gh to
mak
e di
stin
ctio
nsbe
twee
n pr
ejud
ice,
dis
crim
inat
ion,
and
rac
ism
.Im
agin
e yo
u w
ere
a w
hite
hig
h sc
hool
stu
dent
in th
eM
issi
ssip
pi D
elta
.It
wou
ld b
e ha
rd f
or y
ou n
ot to
hav
ece
rtai
n pr
econ
ceiv
ed n
otio
ns o
r pr
ejud
ices
abo
ut B
lack
peop
le, b
ased
on
ever
ythi
ng y
ou a
re to
ld in
the
whi
te s
ocie
tyw
hich
is y
our
wor
ld. Y
ou a
ren'
t sur
e w
hat t
o m
ake
of th
e fe
wC
hine
se s
tude
nts
in y
our
scho
ol, w
hich
had
bee
n ex
clus
ivel
yfo
r w
hite
s a
few
yea
rs b
efor
e. Y
ou w
ere
happ
y th
at th
ey k
ept
to th
emse
lves
, sin
ce y
ou b
elie
ved
all p
eopl
e sh
ould
stic
kw
ith th
eir
own
kind
.4A
s fo
r th
e ra
cism
whi
ch d
eter
min
ed h
ow s
ocie
ty w
asar
rang
edw
ho h
ad w
ealth
and
pow
er a
nd w
ho w
as p
oor
and
pow
erle
ssyo
u pr
obab
ly d
idn'
t giv
e it
muc
h th
ough
t.W
asn'
t tha
t the
way
thin
gs h
ad a
lway
s be
en?
You
took
it f
orgr
ante
d th
at w
hite
s sh
ould
be
at th
e to
p, m
akin
g th
e de
cisi
ons,
and
that
ther
e w
ould
be
disc
rim
inat
ion
alon
g ra
cial
line
s,ke
epin
g th
e ra
ces
from
sha
ring
sch
ools
, nei
ghbo
rhoo
ds a
ndev
en c
emet
erie
s.If
you
wer
e a
Bla
ck te
enag
er w
hose
fam
ily h
ad m
oved
from
the
Sout
h to
the
Nor
th f
ifty
yea
rs a
go, y
ou p
roba
bly
expe
rien
ced
the
sam
e so
rt o
f pr
ejud
ice
and
bigo
try
you
had
know
n in
the
Sout
h in
you
r in
tera
ctio
ns w
ith w
hite
soc
iety
.B
ut y
ou w
ere
relie
ved
that
ther
e w
as n
o op
en d
iscr
imin
atio
nin
the
form
of
"whi
tes
only
" si
gns,
and
that
you
r pa
rent
sw
ere
not t
urne
d aw
ay w
hen
they
wen
t to
vote
.In
som
esc
hool
s B
lack
and
whi
te c
hild
ren
stud
ied
toge
ther
. But
ther
e
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
155
14
was
no
deny
ing
that
rac
ism
exi
sted
in th
e N
orth
as
wel
l as
the
3out
h. Y
our
fam
ily c
ould
fin
d ho
usin
g on
ly in
the
ghet
to,
whe
re e
very
thin
g w
as m
ore
expe
nsiv
e th
an in
the
adja
cent
whi
te n
eigh
borh
oods
. Fac
tory
jobs
pay
ing
dece
nt w
ages
wen
t onl
y to
whi
te p
eopl
e. T
here
was
no
disg
uisi
ng th
eex
iste
nce
of a
rac
ial h
iera
rchy
, kep
t in
plac
e by
soc
ial c
usto
m,
and
by e
cono
mic
and
pol
itica
l pow
er in
stea
d of
by
law
.A
s w
e sh
all s
ee, t
he M
ovem
ent o
f th
e 19
50s
and
60s
mad
eth
e So
uth
mor
e lik
e th
e N
orth
. It e
nded
lega
l seg
rega
tion
and
gave
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
the
vote
. But
it le
ft th
e ra
cial
hier
arch
y in
pla
ce. D
r. M
artin
Lut
her
Kin
g, J
r. r
ecog
nize
d as
muc
h w
hen
he s
aid
that
the
Civ
il R
ight
s M
ovem
ent d
id n
otgo
far
eno
ugh
and
that
the
chan
ges
it m
ade
"wer
e no
t rea
llysu
bsta
ntiv
e ch
ange
s....
the
root
s of
rac
ism
are
ver
y de
ep in
Am
eric
a; o
ur s
ocie
ty is
stil
l str
uctu
red
on th
e ba
sis
of r
ac-
ism
." 5 Tha
t is
wha
t Dr.
Kin
g to
ld h
is s
taff
in N
ovem
ber
1966
, aye
ar a
nd a
hal
f be
fore
he
was
ass
assi
nate
d at
the
Lor
rain
eM
otel
in M
emph
is, T
enne
ssee
. He
had
com
e to
bel
ieve
that
the
Mov
emen
t mus
t now
wor
k to
clo
se th
e w
ide
econ
omic
gap,
and
was
in M
emph
is o
rgan
izin
g a
mar
ch to
dem
and
bette
r pa
y an
d co
nditi
ons
for
sani
tary
wor
kers
.W
hat w
ould
he
say
if h
e w
ere
aliv
e to
day?
Wou
ld h
em
aint
ain
that
our
soc
iety
is s
till s
truc
ture
d on
the
basi
s of
raci
sm?
Wou
ld h
e sa
y a
raci
al h
iera
rchy
was
stil
l in
plac
e?A
nd if
it is
, wha
t can
we
do a
bout
it?
Footnotes
1. P
aul H
offm
an, "
The
Sci
ence
of
Rac
e,"
Dis
cove
r, S
peci
alIs
sue:
The
Sci
ence
of
Rac
e, N
ovem
ber
1994
.
2. I
n th
is r
esou
rce
we
will
cap
italiz
e B
lack
whe
n re
ferr
ing
to th
e w
ay p
eopl
e of
Afr
ican
des
cent
hav
e ch
osen
tode
scri
be th
emse
lves
.
3. F
. Jam
es D
avis
, Who
is B
lack
? O
ne N
atio
n's
Def
initi
on,
Penn
sylv
ania
Sta
te U
nive
rsity
Pre
ss, 1
991,
p. 1
73.
4. C
hine
se im
mig
rant
s ca
me
to th
e M
issi
ssip
pi D
elta
aft
erth
e C
ivil
War
and
cou
ld n
ot e
asily
be
fit i
nto
the
exis
ting
blac
k-w
hite
rac
ial h
iera
rchy
. See
Jim
Loe
wen
, The
Mis
sis-
sipp
i Chi
nese
: Bet
wee
n B
lack
and
Whi
te, 2
nd e
ditio
n,W
ave
land
Pre
ss, 1
988.
5. Q
uote
d in
D. G
arro
w, B
eari
ng th
e C
ross
: Mar
tin L
uthe
rK
ing
Jr. a
nd th
e So
uthe
rn C
hris
tian
Lea
ders
hip
Con
fere
nce,
Vin
tage
Boo
ks, 1
986,
p. 5
37.
Definitions
Apa
rthe
idth
e A
frik
aans
wor
d fo
r "s
epar
aten
ess.
" It
ref
erre
dto
a s
yste
m o
f ra
cial
sep
arat
ion
and
ineq
ualit
y, w
hich
ena
bled
a sm
all w
hite
min
ority
to d
omin
ate
the
maj
ority
of
peop
le,
who
wer
e cl
assi
fied
as
Afr
ican
or
Col
ored
.
Big
otry
--
a st
ate
of m
ind
in w
hich
pre
judi
ce a
nd s
tere
otyp
es(e
xagg
erat
ed g
ener
aliz
atio
ns a
nd im
ages
abo
ut p
artic
ular
grou
ps)
prod
uce
ofte
n vi
olen
tly h
eld
opin
ions
aga
inst
cer
tain
grou
ps a
nd id
eas.
Big
otry
is c
omm
only
rac
ial,
or ta
kes
the
form
of
sexi
sm, h
omop
hobi
a, a
nti-
Sem
itism
, and
xen
opho
-bi
a (h
atre
d an
d su
spic
ion
of f
orei
gner
s).
Col
oniz
atio
n --
a p
roce
ss b
y w
hich
maj
or tr
adin
g na
tions
took
cont
rol o
f ot
her
coun
trie
s in
ord
er to
get
raw
mat
eria
ls, l
and,
labo
r, a
nd n
ew m
arke
ts.
Dis
crim
inat
ion
trea
ting
one
part
icul
ar g
roup
less
fav
orab
lyth
an a
noth
er, o
ften
thro
ugh
law
s an
d so
cial
pol
icie
s w
hich
appl
y on
ly to
them
. The
gro
up c
an b
e se
t apa
rt b
ecau
e of
its
natio
nal o
rigi
n or
ski
n co
lor.
Jim
Cro
wa
song
and
dan
ce p
opul
ariz
ed b
y w
hite
min
stre
lsin
"bl
ack
face
" ea
rly
in th
e 19
th c
entu
ry. I
t ref
ers
to s
egre
gatio
nla
ws
intr
oduc
ed in
the
Sout
h in
the
late
19t
h ce
ntur
yA
mer
ica'
s fo
rm o
f ap
arth
eid.
The
law
s al
so s
trip
ped
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
of th
e vo
te.
Prej
udic
e --
for
min
g ju
dgm
ents
with
out c
onsi
deri
ng f
actu
alin
form
atio
n. P
reju
dice
can
take
sub
tle f
orm
s or
be
open
lypr
ocla
imed
by
extr
emis
t "ha
te"
orga
niza
tions
.
Rac
e --
a c
lass
of
indi
vidu
als
desc
ende
d fr
om a
com
mon
ance
stor
, who
sha
re c
omm
on p
hysi
cal c
hara
cter
istic
s ba
sed
on th
eir
adap
tatio
n to
the
inte
nsity
of
sunl
ight
and
oth
eren
viro
nmen
tal f
acto
rs. T
here
is n
o su
ch th
ing
as a
"pu
re"
race
,an
d si
mila
ritie
s be
twee
n pe
ople
of
diff
eren
t rac
ial g
roup
s fa
rou
twei
gh th
eir
diff
eren
ces.
Rac
ism
--
a te
rm r
efer
ring
to a
sys
tem
of
dom
inat
ion
and
cont
rol,
in w
hich
inst
itutio
ns, s
ocia
l str
uctu
res,
and
bel
iefs
refl
ect t
he v
iew
that
one
rac
e is
sup
erio
r to
ano
ther
.
16H
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:17
Act
ivity
The
aut
hor
of W
hat D
oes
it M
ean
to b
e "W
hite
"?ha
s ha
d an
unu
sual
bac
kgro
und.
Wha
t do
you
thin
k of
her
und
erst
andi
ng o
f w
hat i
t is
to b
e"w
hite
" in
this
soc
iety
? D
oes
anyt
hing
she
say
sre
late
to y
our
own
expe
rien
ce o
r th
ough
ts?
Wha
t is
mea
nt b
y "w
hite
pri
vile
ge"?
Peg
gyM
cInt
osh
wro
te a
pap
er c
alle
d "W
hite
Pri
vile
ge:
Unp
acki
ng th
e In
visi
ble
Kna
psac
k" (
Inde
pend
ent
Scho
ol, W
inte
r 19
90).
She
dis
cuss
es h
ow s
he le
arne
dto
see
rac
ism
in te
rms
of "
invi
sibl
e sy
stem
s co
nfer
-ri
ng d
omin
ance
on
my
grou
p,"
and
not j
ust a
sin
divi
dual
act
s of
mea
nnes
s. S
he th
en g
ives
a li
stof
exa
mpl
es o
f th
is s
ort o
f w
hite
pri
vile
ge, i
nclu
d-in
g su
ch th
ings
as
"I c
an, i
f I
wis
h, a
rran
ge to
be
inth
e co
mpa
ny o
f m
y ra
ce m
ost o
f th
e tim
e,"
and
"If
Ish
ould
nee
d to
mov
e, I
can
be
pret
ty s
ure
of r
entin
gor
pur
chas
ing
hous
ing
in a
n ar
ea th
at I
can
aff
ord
and
in w
hich
I w
ould
wan
t to
live.
" So
me
item
s on
her
list s
eem
fai
rly
obvi
ous,
suc
h as
: "I
can
turn
on
the
tele
visi
on o
r op
en to
the
fron
t pag
e of
the
pape
ran
d se
e pe
ople
of
my
race
wid
ely
repr
esen
ted.
"O
ther
may
not
see
m s
o ob
viou
s: "
I am
nev
er a
sked
to s
peak
for
all
the
peop
le o
f m
y ra
cial
gro
up."
Pegg
y M
cInt
osh
belie
ves
that
"w
hite
s ar
e ca
re-
fully
taug
ht n
ot to
rec
ogni
ze w
hite
pri
vile
ge, a
sm
ales
are
taug
ht n
ot to
rec
ogni
ze m
ale
priv
ilege
."
Do
you
agre
e w
ith h
er?
Wha
t ite
ms
wou
ld y
ou p
uton
the
list?
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Voi
ces:
Wha
t Doe
s it
Mea
n to
be
"Whi
te"?
I am
a w
hite
fem
ale.
Whe
n w
e fi
rst m
oved
into
Rox
bury
, I w
asex
cite
d be
caus
e I
was
goi
ng to
mak
e ne
w f
rien
ds, g
o to
a n
ewsc
hool
, and
be
livin
g tw
o bl
ocks
aw
ay f
rom
my
best
fri
end.
I
rem
embe
r w
hen
we
wer
e m
ovin
g in
peo
ple
wou
ld c
ome
up a
ndas
k us
if w
e w
ere
the
new
fam
ily m
ovin
g in
. I d
idn'
t und
erst
and
the
look
s. I
just
thou
ght t
hat p
eopl
e w
ere
not u
sed
to s
eein
gfa
mili
es m
ove
in. L
ater
, as
I w
as ta
lkin
g to
my
mot
her
abou
t thi
s,sh
e re
calls
that
the
neig
hbor
s w
ere
neith
er a
ngry
or
raci
st, b
ut w
ere
just
sho
cked
that
a w
hite
fam
ily w
ould
com
e an
d liv
e w
ith th
em.
The
re a
re o
ther
inci
dent
s. W
hen
I w
as 1
1, m
y m
othe
r se
nt m
eto
the
stor
e to
get
for
mul
a fo
r m
y ba
by c
ousi
n. A
s I
was
wal
king
hom
e, a
pol
ice
car
stop
ped
me
and
the
offi
cers
ask
ed if
I w
as lo
stan
d if
I n
eede
d a
ride
hom
e. I
res
pond
ed th
at I
was
not
lost
and
infa
ct I
onl
y liv
ed a
blo
ck a
way
. Loo
king
bac
k I
supp
ose
it w
as a
goo
dth
ing
that
a p
olic
e of
fice
r w
ould
sto
p an
d as
k a
child
if th
ey w
ere
lost
, but
I f
elt t
hat h
e w
as a
utom
atic
ally
ass
umin
g th
at b
ecau
se I
was
whi
te I
cou
ld n
ot li
ve th
ere.
Thi
s w
as th
e fi
rst t
ime
my
eyes
wer
e op
ened
to th
e di
ffer
ence
s be
twee
n w
hite
and
Bla
ck p
eopl
e.W
hen
I w
as in
ele
men
tary
and
mid
dle
scho
ol I
iden
tifie
d m
ore
with
Bla
ck a
nd L
atin
o ch
ildre
n. T
his
was
fin
e be
caus
e w
hen
you
are
a ch
ild, c
olor
is n
ot a
n is
sue.
Som
etim
es I
rem
embe
r ki
dsto
uchi
ng m
y ha
ir a
nd c
omm
entin
g on
how
it w
as s
ofte
r an
d lig
hter
(bro
wn)
than
thei
rs. I
wen
t to
the
Kin
g M
iddl
e Sc
hool
whi
ch w
asm
ostly
Bla
ck. A
lmos
t all
of th
e w
hite
s in
Kin
g w
ere
in a
dvan
ced
plac
emen
t exc
ept f
or m
e be
caus
e I
had
tran
sfer
red
from
Tim
ilty.
So I
was
the
only
whi
te f
emal
e in
my
clas
s. T
his
still
was
not
an
issu
e fo
r m
e, b
ut it
was
an
issu
e fo
r so
me
of th
e pe
ople
in m
y cl
ass.
Bes
ides
the
look
s, I
wou
ld g
et p
ushe
d w
alki
ng d
own
to th
eca
fete
ria
som
etim
es, o
r so
meo
ne w
ould
sla
m m
y lo
cker
shu
t. A
tfi
rst I
thou
ght t
hat i
t was
bec
ause
they
did
n't l
ike
me,
but
Igr
adua
lly c
augh
t on
that
they
did
n't l
ike
my
skin
col
or.
The
fir
st y
ears
at B
osto
n L
atin
wer
e ex
trem
ely
hard
for
me.
Iw
as u
sed
to g
oing
to s
choo
l with
non
-whi
te p
eopl
e, n
ow h
alf
of m
ygr
ade
was
whi
te. N
ot o
nly
wer
e th
ey w
hite
, but
they
wer
e m
iddl
eto
upp
er c
lass
whi
tes.
I r
emem
ber
a fr
iend
ask
ing
me
to c
ome
to h
erho
use.
I h
ad a
lway
s ca
lled
my
apar
tmen
t a h
ouse
so
I as
sum
ed th
isw
as w
hat s
he m
eant
. Whe
n sh
e to
ok m
e to
her
hou
se, w
hich
was
in W
est R
oxbu
ry, I
don
't th
ink
I ke
pt m
y m
outh
clo
sed
the
entir
ebu
s ri
de. H
er f
amily
had
thre
e ca
rs, a
bac
k an
d fr
ont y
ard,
fou
rfl
oors
in th
eir
hous
e, a
nd th
is w
as th
e pa
rt th
at a
maz
ed m
e th
e
mos
t: sh
e ha
d th
e sa
me
colo
r ca
rpet
all
thro
ugh
the
hous
e. I
trie
dto
pla
y it
off
that
I w
as u
sed
to li
ving
in s
uch
a gr
eat p
lace
but
itdi
dn't
wor
k th
at w
ell.
She
kept
ask
ing
if I
was
all
righ
t. B
lack
peop
le d
id n
ot a
ccep
t me
beca
use
I w
as w
hite
, and
whi
te p
eopl
edi
d no
t acc
ept m
e be
caus
e I
was
n't w
hite
eno
ugh.
As
that
fir
st y
ear
ende
d, I
had
man
aged
to m
ake
frie
nds
with
the
Bla
ck c
row
d. I
stil
l nev
er le
t any
of
my
frie
nds
com
e ov
er to
my
hous
e be
caus
e I
was
ash
amed
of
it. T
he f
irst
tim
e a
Bla
ck p
erso
nfr
om L
atin
invi
ted
me
over
to h
is h
ouse
I w
as e
xcite
d be
caus
e I
thou
ght t
hat h
e w
ould
be
livin
g ju
st li
ke m
e. A
s w
e pu
lled
up to
his
hous
e I
just
sat
ther
e an
d st
ared
. His
hou
se w
as e
ven
bigg
er a
ndm
ore
lavi
shly
dec
orat
ed th
an m
y w
hite
fri
end'
s ho
use
had
been
. Ire
mem
ber
feel
ing
alm
ost b
etra
yed.
How
cou
ld th
e B
lack
gro
up b
eri
ch?
Wer
en't
Bla
ck p
eopl
e su
ppos
ed to
be
diff
eren
t?W
hen
I w
as 1
4 I
star
ted
seei
ng a
guy
nam
ed K
eith
. Kei
th w
asa
guy
I ha
d kn
own
alm
ost a
ll of
my
life.
He
was
two
year
s ol
der
than
me
and
he w
as B
lack
. He
won
ove
r m
any
of m
y B
lack
and
Lat
ino
frie
nds,
but
he
didn
't m
eet a
ny o
f m
y w
hite
fri
ends
for
som
etim
e. W
hen
my
whi
te f
rien
ds f
ound
out
that
I w
as d
atin
g a
Bla
ckgu
y, th
ey w
ere
hurt
that
I h
adn'
t tol
d th
em. W
hen
I ex
plai
ned
that
I th
ough
t I w
ould
lose
thei
r fr
iend
ship
bec
ause
he
was
Bla
ck, t
his
hurt
them
eve
n m
ore.
I lo
st s
ome
frie
nds
over
this
and
I b
egan
toge
t rea
lly a
ngry
. Why
did
it m
atte
r? W
hat d
oes
bein
g "w
hite
"m
ean?
Was
this
rel
atio
nshi
p m
ore
acce
ptab
le w
ith m
y B
lack
frie
nds
beca
use
they
saw
me
mor
e as
a 'B
lack
' whi
te?
I w
as n
ottr
ying
to b
e B
lack
or
whi
te a
nym
ore,
I w
as ju
st b
eing
me.
Som
e w
hite
s lik
e to
live
in a
bub
ble.
By
this
I m
ean
that
it is
easi
er f
or th
em to
thin
k th
at e
very
one
is tr
eate
d fa
irly
, and
that
Bla
cks
are
not a
s in
flue
ntia
l as
whi
tes
beca
use
they
do
not t
ry h
ard
enou
gh. A
sha
red
thou
ght a
mon
g w
hite
teen
ager
s an
d th
eir
par-
ents
is "
wel
l, w
hy d
on't
they
just
get
a jo
b?"
How
can
som
eone
get
a jo
b, if
they
hav
e a
baby
bro
ther
to lo
ok a
fter
, tw
o yo
unge
rsi
blin
gs, a
nd th
eir
mot
her
wor
ks a
t a r
etai
l job
that
pay
s $6
an
hour
? A
com
mon
sce
nari
o is
that
of
a te
enag
e m
othe
r w
ith a
chi
ld.
The
fat
her
has
left
, and
the
mot
her
had
to g
o on
wel
fare
. She
has
no
mon
ey f
or d
ay c
are
so s
he c
an't
get a
job.
She
can
't qu
it sc
hool
beca
use
scho
ol o
ffer
s da
y ca
re. H
ow c
an th
is g
irl g
et a
job?
Man
y w
hite
s ju
st w
ant t
he e
asy
fix
with
out g
ettin
g at
the
root
of th
e pr
oble
m. I
thin
k it'
s tim
e fo
r th
em to
sta
rt lo
okin
g at
thin
gsin
thei
r co
mpl
exity
, and
sto
p de
alin
g ju
st in
ste
reot
ypes
.
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
7
1819
UN
IT T
WO
: Aft
er R
econ
stru
ctio
nB
efor
e w
e ca
n se
e cl
earl
y ho
w f
ar w
e ha
ve c
ome,
we
mus
tkn
ow w
here
we
have
bee
n.It
is im
port
ant t
o kn
ow o
urhi
stor
y, h
owev
er p
ainf
ul it
may
be, a
nd to
lear
n ho
w c
hang
eca
me
abou
t. In
May
a A
ngel
ou's
wor
ds:
His
tory
, des
pite
its
wre
nchi
ng p
ain,
Can
not b
e un
lived
, but
if f
aced
With
cou
rage
, nee
d no
t be
lived
aga
in.
On
the
Puls
e of
Mor
ning
Whe
n w
e st
udy
hist
ory
we
find
that
it s
eldo
m m
oves
ina
stra
ight
line
. Jus
t whe
n th
ings
see
m to
be
getti
ng b
ette
r,th
ere
may
be
a lo
ss o
f m
omen
tum
, and
a r
ever
se o
f di
rect
ion.
Tha
t's w
hat h
appe
ned
in th
e la
te 1
9th
cent
ury
whe
n th
ega
ins
of R
econ
stru
ctio
n w
ere
rolle
d ba
ck. O
ne h
undr
edye
ars
late
r, w
e fi
nd o
urse
lves
in th
e m
iddl
e of
a s
imila
r ro
llba
ck, t
his
time
of th
e ga
ins
of th
e M
ovem
ent o
f 50
s an
d 60
s.
The
pro
mis
e of
Rec
onst
ruct
ion
The
dec
ade-
long
(18
67-1
877)
per
iod
of R
econ
stru
ctio
nw
hich
fol
low
ed th
e C
ivil
War
can
be
seen
as
a se
cond
cha
nce
for
the
natio
n to
live
up
to th
e id
eals
of
equa
lity
expr
esse
d in
the
Dec
lara
tion
of I
ndep
ende
nce.
Eri
c Fo
ner
in h
is b
ook
Rec
onst
ruct
ion:
Am
eric
a's
Unf
inis
hed
Rev
olut
ion
calle
d R
e-co
nstr
uctio
n "a
mas
sive
exp
erim
ent i
n in
terr
acia
l dem
oc-
racy
with
out p
rece
dent
in th
e hi
stor
y of
this
or
any
othe
rco
untr
y th
at a
bolis
hed
slav
ery
in th
e 19
th c
entu
ry. "
'Im
med
iate
ly a
fter
the
Civ
il W
ar, t
he n
ewly
-fre
ed s
lave
sto
ok th
e in
itiat
ive
to p
ool t
heir
ow
n m
eage
r re
sour
ces
to b
uyla
nd a
nd e
rect
bui
ldin
gs f
or s
choo
ls. T
hey
also
org
aniz
edm
ass
mee
tings
to d
eman
d eq
ualit
y an
d th
e vo
te.
By
1868
the
Four
teen
th A
men
dmen
t to
the
Con
stitu
tion
had
barr
ed s
tate
s fr
om d
enyi
ng c
itize
ns "
equa
l pro
tect
ion
ofth
e la
ws"
and
fro
m d
epri
ving
them
of
"lif
e, li
bert
y or
pro
p-er
ty w
ithou
t due
pro
cess
of
law
." T
he A
men
dent
gav
e m
ale
free
dmen
in th
e So
uth
the
righ
t to
vote
this
at a
tim
e w
hen
all w
omen
wer
e de
priv
ed o
f th
e vo
te.
The
Fif
teen
thA
men
dmen
t of
1870
ext
ende
d th
e vo
te to
Afr
ican
-Am
eric
anm
ales
in th
e N
orth
(an
d in
so
doin
g, a
nger
ed w
hite
wom
en,
who
wer
e st
ill w
ithou
t the
vot
e).
Adu
lt A
fric
an-A
mer
ican
mal
es r
egis
tere
d to
vot
e in
hug
enu
mbe
rs a
nd o
rgan
ized
thei
r ow
n po
litic
al g
roup
s. T
hey
wen
t to
the
polls
des
pite
the
terr
or p
erpe
trat
ed b
y th
e ne
wly
-fo
rmed
Ku
Klu
x K
lan,
whi
ch, t
o ci
te ju
st o
ne in
stan
ce, k
illed
som
e 2,
000
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
in th
e fe
w w
eeks
bef
ore
the
1868
ele
ctio
ns in
Lou
isia
na. A
fric
an-A
mer
ican
del
egat
espa
rtic
ipat
ed in
sub
stan
tial n
umbe
rs in
the
cons
titut
iona
lco
nven
tions
that
wer
e he
ld in
the
Sout
hern
sta
tes
to c
reat
est
ate
cons
titut
ions
abo
lishi
ng s
lave
ry. B
etw
een
1861
and
1901
,22
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
sat i
n th
e U
S C
ongr
ess,
and
ther
e w
ere
794
Afr
ican
-Am
eric
an r
epre
sent
ativ
es in
sta
te le
gisl
atur
es.
The
def
eat o
f R
econ
stru
ctio
n
But
ther
e w
as h
ardl
y an
y pr
ogre
ss o
n th
e ec
onom
ic f
ront
.H
uge
trac
ts o
f la
nd h
ad b
een
conf
isca
ted
by th
e fe
dera
lgo
vern
men
t fro
m S
outh
ern
plan
ters
who
fle
d th
eir
plan
ta-
tions
dur
ing
the
Civ
il W
ar. B
oth
the
dest
itute
new
ly-f
reed
slav
es a
nd la
ndle
ss p
oor
whi
tes
had
hope
d to
be
give
n so
me
of th
is la
nd. T
he F
reed
men
's B
urea
u ha
d pl
ans
to le
ase
it to
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
in f
orty
-acr
e ho
mes
tead
s. B
ut th
e go
v-er
nmen
t bro
ke it
s pr
omis
e, a
nd in
stea
d ga
ve m
ost o
f th
e la
ndba
ck to
its
form
er o
wne
rs a
nd h
ande
d ov
er a
noth
er 1
00m
illio
n ac
res
of f
eder
al la
nd to
the
railw
ays.
Aft
er h
undr
eds
of y
ears
of
ensl
avem
ent A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s w
ere
told
to f
end
for
them
selv
es.
The
gov
ernm
ent's
dec
isio
n to
den
y fr
eedm
en a
ny m
ea-
sure
of
econ
omic
inde
pend
ence
was
a c
ritic
al tu
rnin
g po
int
in o
ur c
ount
ry's
his
tory
. Bef
ore
long
they
had
bee
n fo
rced
back
ont
o pl
anta
tions
und
er a
sys
tem
of
econ
omic
ser
fdom
calle
d th
e sh
arec
ropp
ing
syst
em. B
lack
(an
d w
hite
) sh
are-
Mile
ston
es o
f R
econ
stru
ctio
nT
he T
hirt
eent
h A
men
dmen
t (18
65)
The
fir
st p
art o
f th
is A
men
dmen
t to
the
Con
stitu
tion
abol
ishe
d sl
aver
y an
d "i
nvol
unta
ry s
ervi
tude
." T
he s
econ
dpa
rt s
tate
d th
at "
Con
gres
s sh
all h
ave
pow
er to
enf
orce
this
artic
le b
y ap
prop
riat
e le
gisl
atio
n."
The
Civ
il R
ight
s A
ct (
1866
)T
his
Act
gav
e ci
tizen
ship
and
the
equa
l ben
efit
of th
e la
ws
to a
ll pe
rson
s bo
rn in
the
US,
with
the
exce
ptio
n of
Ind
ians
.C
ases
ari
sing
fro
m th
e vi
olat
ion
of th
e ri
ghts
of
peop
le o
nce
held
in s
lave
ry w
ould
be
trie
d in
fed
eral
cou
rts.
The
Fou
rtee
nth
Am
endm
ent (
1868
)St
ates
wer
e ba
rred
fro
m d
enyi
ng c
itize
ns "
equa
l pro
tec-
tion
of th
e la
ws"
and
fro
m d
epri
ving
them
of
"lif
e, li
bert
y or
prop
erty
with
out d
ue p
roce
ss o
f la
w."
The
Am
endm
ent a
lso
gave
mal
e fr
eedm
en in
the
Sout
h th
e ri
ght t
o vo
te.
The
Fif
teen
th A
men
dmen
t (18
70)
Thi
s A
men
dmen
t ext
ende
d th
e vo
te to
Afr
ican
-Am
eric
anm
ales
in th
e N
orth
and
pro
hibi
ted
the
Stat
es f
rom
abr
idgi
ngvo
ting
righ
ts.
The
Enf
orce
men
t Act
(18
70)
The
186
6 C
ivil
Rig
hts
Act
was
str
engt
hene
d by
this
legi
s-la
tion,
whi
ch g
ave
fede
ral c
ourt
s ad
ditio
nal p
enal
ties
in c
ases
of r
acia
lly-m
otiv
ated
inte
rfer
ence
with
vot
ing
righ
ts.
The
Ku
Klu
x K
lan
Act
(18
71)
Thi
s ac
t was
inte
nded
to p
rote
ct B
lack
peo
ple
from
the
Ku
Klu
x K
lan.
Any
per
son
who
dep
rive
d an
othe
r of
con
stitu
-tio
nal r
ight
s w
as li
able
to p
enal
ties
in f
eder
al c
ourt
s.
The
Civ
il R
ight
s A
ct (
1575
)A
fter
fiv
e ye
ars
in C
ongr
ess,
this
act
fin
ally
pas
sed
whe
nse
ctio
ns b
arri
ng s
egre
gatio
n in
sch
ools
and
chu
rche
s w
ere
drop
ped.
It d
ecla
red
that
all
pers
ons
wer
e en
title
d to
equ
alen
joym
ent o
f pu
blic
acc
omm
odat
ions
, suc
h as
trai
ns, s
hips
,th
eate
rs, h
otel
s, w
aitin
g ro
oms,
and
bus
ines
ses.
9R.0
21H
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:
Rol
ling
Bac
k th
e G
ains
of R
econ
stru
ctio
nT
he S
laug
hter
hous
e C
ases
(18
71)
In a
5-4
dec
isio
n, th
e U
S Su
prem
e C
ourt
rul
ed th
at th
eFo
urte
enth
Am
endm
ent d
id N
OT
pla
ce th
e ri
ghts
of
citiz
ens
unde
r fe
dera
l pro
tect
ion.
The
dec
isio
n sa
id th
at th
e na
tiona
lgo
vern
men
t cou
ld n
ot in
terf
ere
with
a s
tate
's "
righ
t" to
fai
l to
prot
ect c
ivil
righ
ts o
f ci
tizen
s. I
f a
stat
e ch
ose
not t
o pr
otec
tits
citi
zens
, tha
t was
its
busi
ness
.
Min
or v
. Hap
pers
ett (
1875
)V
irgi
nia
Min
or b
roug
ht s
uit a
gain
st a
n el
ectio
n of
fici
al in
Mis
sour
i who
ref
used
to a
ccep
t her
bal
lot w
hen
she
at-
tem
pted
to v
ote.
The
Sup
rem
e C
ourt
dec
lare
d un
anim
ousl
yth
at c
itize
nshi
p di
d no
t con
fer
suff
rage
on
anyo
ne. T
heex
pans
ive
defi
nitio
n of
citi
zens
hip
in th
e 14
th A
men
dmen
tw
as th
us c
onsi
dera
bly
narr
owed
, with
dir
e re
sults
for
AM
-ca
n A
mer
ican
s as
wel
l as
wom
en. I
t was
but
a m
atte
r of
tim
ebe
fore
Bla
cks
wer
e de
priv
ed o
f th
e vo
te b
y in
dire
ctm
eans
.
US
v. C
ruik
shan
k (1
876)
The
Sup
rem
e C
ourt
una
nim
ousl
y ru
led
that
it w
as th
eob
ligat
ion
of th
e st
ates
, not
the
fede
ral g
over
nmen
t, to
pro-
tect
the
righ
ts o
f A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s.
Hal
l v. D
uCui
r (1
878)
The
Sup
rem
e C
ourt
rul
ed th
at th
e C
onst
itutio
n's
Com
-m
erce
Cla
use
(Art
icle
1, S
ectio
n 8)
pre
vent
ed th
e st
ates
fro
mpr
ohib
iting
seg
rega
tion
on in
ters
tate
rai
lroa
ds.
Civ
il R
ight
s C
ases
(18
83)
The
Sup
rem
e C
ourt
, with
one
dis
sent
ing
vote
, dec
lare
dth
e C
ivil
Rig
hts
Act
of
1875
unc
onst
itutio
nal.
The
dec
isio
nas
sert
ed th
at B
lack
s m
ust n
o lo
nger
"be
the
spec
ial f
avor
ite o
fth
e la
ws.
" T
he d
isse
nt w
as w
ritte
n by
Jus
tice
John
Mar
shal
lH
arla
n, w
ho a
rgue
d th
at p
riva
te r
acia
l dis
crim
inat
ion
was
aba
dge
of s
ervi
tude
whi
ch v
iola
ted
the
13th
Am
endm
ent.
Ples
sy v
. Fer
guso
n (1
896)
The
Sup
rem
e C
ourt
rul
ed th
at r
acia
l seg
rega
tion
was
lega
l if
faci
litie
s fo
r th
e ra
ces
wer
e "s
epar
ate
but e
qual
."
crop
pers
wer
e lo
aned
sm
all t
ract
s of
land
for
thei
r ow
n us
ein
ret
urn
for
grow
ing
and
pick
ing
cotto
n fo
r th
eir
land
lord
s.U
sual
ly th
ey e
nded
up
hope
less
ly in
deb
t.A
t the
sam
e tim
e, r
acis
m w
as b
eing
giv
en a
new
"sc
ien-
tific
" ju
stif
icat
ion.
In 1
859
Cha
rles
Dar
win
pub
lishe
d hi
spa
thbr
eaki
ng d
escr
iptio
n of
the
law
s of
evo
lutio
n, O
n th
eO
rigi
n of
Spe
cies
: The
Pre
serv
atio
n of
Fav
ored
Rac
es in
the
Stru
ggle
for
Lif
e. B
y th
e tim
e of
Rec
onst
ruct
ion,
Dar
win
'sth
eory
of
evol
utio
n an
d "s
trug
gle
for
exis
tenc
e" h
ad b
een
popu
lari
zed
to s
uppo
rt r
acia
l hie
rarc
hy.
The
so-
calle
ddo
ctri
ne o
f "S
ocia
l Dar
win
ism
" m
aint
aine
d th
at c
erta
inra
ces
wer
e ca
lled
natu
rally
"su
peri
or"
and
othe
rs "
infe
rior
."W
hite
sup
rem
acis
ts a
rgue
d th
at th
e la
ws
of n
atur
e re
quir
edth
at A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s be
eco
nom
ical
ly a
nd s
ocia
lly s
ubor
-di
nate
to w
hite
s. A
ny o
ther
arr
ange
men
t wou
ld, t
hey
said
,be
a v
iola
tion
of G
od's
pla
n.T
his
sort
of
raci
st id
eolo
gy c
ontr
ibut
ed to
the
failu
re o
fR
econ
stru
ctio
n.In
the
Nor
th, w
hite
wor
kers
fea
red
that
free
dmen
wou
ld c
ome
in h
uge
num
bers
to c
ompe
te f
or th
eir
jobs
. Rac
ism
ser
ved
the
inte
rest
s of
thos
e w
ho w
ante
d to
keep
the
wor
k fo
rce
divi
ded
to m
axim
ize
prof
its.
In th
eSo
uth,
Bla
ck w
orke
rs w
ere
prev
ente
d fr
om h
oldi
ng jo
bsal
ongs
ide
whi
te w
orke
rs, a
nd s
hunn
ed w
hen
they
atte
mpt
edto
join
the
Sout
hern
Far
mer
s' A
llian
ce.
By
the
mid
187
0s m
any
one-
time
supp
orte
rs o
f R
econ
-st
ruct
ion
felt
"eno
ugh
had
been
don
e" f
or th
e fr
eedm
en a
ndit
was
tim
e to
end
fed
eral
inte
rven
tion
in th
e So
uth
and
"ret
urn
to n
orm
al."
Rat
her
than
exp
and
dem
ocra
cy, t
hey
wan
ted
to e
xpan
d th
e ec
onom
y.T
he c
losi
ng d
ecad
es o
f th
e 19
th c
entu
ry a
re k
now
n as
the
"Gild
ed A
ge."
It w
as a
tim
e of
an
unpr
eced
ente
d up
surg
e in
gree
d an
d co
rrup
tion,
as
the
big
indu
stri
alis
ts c
onso
lidat
edth
eir
hold
ings
in r
ailw
ays,
oil,
ste
el, a
nd b
anks
and
mad
ew
aron
the
trad
e un
ions
. All
of th
is w
as d
one
in th
e na
me
of "
free
ente
rpri
se,"
whi
ch h
eld
that
ther
e sh
ould
be
no in
terf
eren
cew
ith th
e "n
atur
al la
ws"
that
gov
erne
d th
e m
arke
tpla
ce.
Ifth
e ec
onom
ic s
yste
m g
ave
rich
es to
a f
ew, w
hile
the
man
yre
mai
ned
fear
ful f
or th
eir
jobs
, so
be it
.
By
1877
, whe
n R
econ
stru
ctio
n w
as o
ffic
ially
at a
n en
d,on
e in
fiv
e of
the
wor
k fo
rce
was
tota
lly u
nem
ploy
ed, a
ndon
ly o
ne in
fiv
e co
uld
coun
t on
stea
dy w
ork.
Ins
tead
of
com
ing
toge
ther
to f
ight
for
thei
r co
mm
on in
tere
sts,
Bla
ckan
d w
hite
wor
kers
wer
e pu
shed
apa
rt b
y ra
cism
.
The
cou
rts
lead
the
way
bac
kwar
ds
The
his
tory
of
Rec
onst
ruct
ion
has
impo
rtan
t les
sons
for
the
pres
ent.
It te
ache
s us
that
Con
stitu
tiona
l Am
endm
ents
and
Con
gres
sion
al la
ws
are
not s
elf-
enfo
rcin
g. U
nles
s pe
ople
know
that
they
exi
st, a
nd d
eman
d th
at th
ey b
e im
plem
ente
d,th
ese
"gua
rant
ees"
of
civi
l rig
hts
and
liber
ties
can
be s
trip
ped
of m
eani
ng o
r si
mpl
y ig
nore
d al
toge
ther
.T
he c
ourt
s, th
en a
s to
day,
ref
lect
ed th
e pu
blic
acc
epta
nce
of in
just
ice
and
the
larg
er s
ocia
l, ec
onom
ic a
nd p
oliti
cal
forc
es in
soc
iety
. Low
er c
ourt
judg
es a
nd U
S Su
prem
e C
ourt
just
ices
in th
e 18
70's
and
188
0's
favo
red
prop
erty
rig
hts
over
pers
onal
rig
hts,
and
gav
e le
gitim
acy
to w
hite
sup
rem
acy.
The
cou
rts
wer
e ab
le to
exp
loit
the
lack
of
agre
emen
t ove
rw
hat "
equa
l rig
hts"
mea
nt in
pra
ctic
e in
thei
r in
terp
reta
tion
of th
e T
hirt
eent
h, F
ourt
eent
h, a
nd F
ifte
enth
Am
endm
ents
and
Civ
il R
ight
s A
cts.
The
y w
ere
also
abl
e to
app
eal t
oA
mer
ican
s' lo
ngst
andi
ng d
istr
ust o
f a
cent
raliz
ing
natio
nal
gove
rnm
ent t
o cl
aim
that
und
er th
e C
onst
itutio
n, p
rote
ctio
nof
rig
hts
prop
erly
bel
onge
d to
the
stat
es. I
t was
, the
cou
rts
clai
med
, up
to th
e st
ates
and
not
the
fede
ral g
over
nmen
t to
deci
de w
heth
er A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s ha
d an
y ri
ghts
wor
thpr
otec
ting.
2T
o sh
ow w
hat t
his
mea
nt in
pra
ctic
e, in
187
6 th
e U
SSu
prem
e C
ourt
rul
ed u
nani
mou
sly
in th
e ca
se o
f U
S v.
Cru
iksh
ank
in f
avor
of
96 m
embe
rs o
f a
whi
te m
ob w
ho h
adm
assa
cred
60
Bla
ck p
osse
mem
bers
who
had
bee
n gu
ardi
nga
cour
thou
se in
Lou
isia
na. T
hey
coul
d no
t be
char
ged
with
mur
der
in th
e st
ate
cour
ts b
ecau
se th
e st
ate
gove
rnm
ent
wou
ld n
ot a
ct, a
nd th
ey c
ould
not
be
char
ged
in f
eder
alco
urts
sin
ce m
urde
r w
as n
ot a
fed
eral
cri
me.
So
they
wer
ech
arge
d un
der
the
1870
Civ
il R
ight
s E
nfor
cem
ent A
ct w
ith
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
2223
9
LA
TE
1%
Cot
aum
e...
inte
rfer
ing
with
the
Bla
ck p
osse
's r
ight
s of
ass
embl
y, d
uepr
oces
s an
d eq
ual p
rote
ctio
nof
the
law
s. T
he S
upre
me
Cou
rt, h
owev
er, s
aid
it w
as th
e ob
ligat
ion
of th
e st
ates
, not
the
fede
ral g
over
nmen
t, to
pro
tect
the
righ
ts o
f B
lack
s, a
ndsi
nce
the
mas
sacr
e w
as n
ot p
erpe
trat
ed b
y st
ate
offi
cial
s bu
tby
pri
vate
citi
zens
, the
atta
cker
s sh
ould
go
free
.D
urin
g th
e ne
xt tw
enty
yea
rs th
e U
S Su
prem
e C
ourt
perm
itted
seg
rega
tion
and
the
dise
nfra
chis
emen
t ofA
fric
anA
mer
ican
s an
d ba
rred
fed
eral
act
ion
agai
nst
the
Ku
Klu
xK
lan.
The
inte
rest
of
the
dom
inan
t cla
ss, b
oth
Nor
than
dSo
uth,
in r
ollin
g ba
ck A
fric
an-A
mer
ican
gai
ns w
as e
spec
ially
inte
nse
in th
e 18
90s,
whe
n it
seem
ed th
at p
oorf
arm
ers
mig
htjo
in f
orce
s ac
ross
rac
ial l
ines
to o
ppos
e th
ebi
g pr
oper
tyho
lder
s.In
189
6 th
e Su
prem
e C
ourt
put
its
stam
p of
app
rova
l on
Jim
Cro
w s
egre
gatio
n in
its
deci
sion
in th
e ca
se o
f Pl
essy
v.
Ferg
uson
.In
189
2 H
omer
Ple
ssy
got o
n a
trai
n in
New
Orl
eans
to te
st a
n 18
90 s
egre
gatio
n la
w in
Lou
isia
naw
hich
orde
red
railw
ays
to p
rovi
de s
epar
ate
carr
iage
s fo
rw
hite
s.T
he r
ailw
ay c
ompa
nies
wer
e no
t hap
py w
ith th
is la
w, s
ince
enfo
rcin
g it
mea
nt e
xtra
wor
k. T
hey
back
ed th
e te
st c
ase.
Ples
sy lo
oked
whi
te (
he la
ter
told
the
cour
t he
was
"of
mix
edde
scen
t, in
the
prop
ortio
n of
sev
en e
ight
hs C
auca
sian
and
one
eigh
th A
fric
an b
lood
"),a
nd in
form
ed th
e tr
ain
cond
ucto
rth
at h
e w
as "
a N
egro
" be
fore
ref
usin
g to
mov
e fr
omth
e"w
hite
s on
ly"
carr
iage
and
bei
ng a
rres
ted.
In c
ourt
Ple
ssy
clai
med
that
the
Lou
isia
na la
w v
iola
ted
both
the
Thi
rtee
nth
and
Four
teen
th A
men
dmen
ts to
the
US
Con
stitu
tion.
His
law
yer
aske
d, "
will
the
cour
t hol
d th
at a
:sin
gle
drop
of
Afr
ican
blo
od is
suf
fici
ent t
o co
lor
aw
hole
ocea
n of
Cau
casi
an w
hite
ness
?"3
In it
s ru
ling
the
US
Supr
eme
Cou
rt d
rew
in p
art f
rom
the
,cas
e of
Rob
erts
v. C
ity o
f B
osto
n,w
hich
in 1
850
had
uphe
ld th
eI
segr
egat
ion
of B
osto
n's
scho
ols.
With
onl
y on
e di
ssen
ting
vote
, the
Cou
rt r
uled
that
rac
ial
segr
egat
ion
was
lega
l if
faci
litie
s fo
r th
e ra
ces
wer
e "s
epar
ate
bute
qual
." J
ustic
e Jo
hnM
arsh
all H
arla
n, a
for
mer
sla
veow
ner,
wro
te th
ese
wor
dsin
diss
ent:
"But
in th
e vi
ew o
f th
e C
onst
itutio
n, in
the
eye
of th
e la
w,
ther
e is
in th
is c
ount
ry n
o su
peri
or, d
omin
ant,
rulin
g cl
ass
ofci
tizen
s. T
here
is n
o ca
ste
here
. Our
Con
stitu
tion
is c
olor
-bl
ind,
and
nei
ther
kno
ws
nor
tole
rate
s cl
asse
s am
ong
citiz
ens.
In r
espe
ct o
f ci
vil r
ight
s, a
ll ci
tizen
s ar
e eq
ual b
efor
e th
e la
w.
The
hum
bles
t is
the
peer
of
the
mos
t pow
erfu
l. T
he la
wre
gard
s m
an a
s m
an, a
nd ta
kes
no a
ccou
nt o
f hi
s su
rrou
ndin
gsor
of
his
colo
r w
hen
his
civi
l rig
hts
as g
uara
ntee
d by
the
supr
eme
law
of
the
land
are
invo
lved
."H
arla
n co
nclu
ded
that
"th
e th
in d
isgu
ise
of 'e
qual
'ac
com
mod
atio
n...w
ill n
ot m
isle
ad a
nyon
e no
r at
one
for
the
wro
ng th
is d
ay d
one.
"T
wo
year
s la
ter
the
Supr
eme
Cou
rt r
uled
that
a M
issi
s-si
ppi p
lan
to ta
ke th
e vo
te a
way
fro
m A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s w
asno
t unc
onst
itutio
nal.
Oth
er S
outh
ern
stat
es f
ollo
wed
Mis
siss
ippi
's e
xam
ple.
Am
ong
the
met
hods
they
use
d to
depr
ive
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
of th
e vo
te w
ere
poll
taxe
s,gr
andf
athe
r cl
ause
s (w
hich
sai
d on
ly th
ose
peop
le c
ould
vote
who
se g
rand
fath
ers
had
been
ent
itled
to v
ote)
, and
liter
acy
test
s an
d te
sts
abou
t the
Con
stitu
tion
and
gove
rn-
men
t (w
hich
wer
e se
ldom
giv
en to
whi
tes)
.A
t the
end
of
the
cent
ury,
in C
umm
ing
v. G
eorg
ia, t
heSu
prem
e C
ourt
dec
ided
that
a w
hite
hig
h sc
hool
did
not
have
to b
e cl
osed
bec
ause
a s
choo
l dis
tric
t did
not
hav
e th
efu
nds
to m
aint
ain
a sc
hool
for
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans.
The
myt
hof
sep
arat
e bu
t "eq
ual"
was
ful
ly e
xpos
ed.
Lyn
ch la
w
Supr
eme
Cou
rt r
ulin
gs g
ave
the
gree
n lig
ht to
uns
peak
-ab
ly b
ruta
l rac
ial v
iole
nce.
Whi
te s
upre
mac
ists
use
d fe
ar a
sa
tool
of
soci
al c
ontr
ol. B
etw
een
1889
and
191
8, a
t lea
st 3
,224
peop
le, m
ostly
Bla
ck m
en, w
ere
hang
ed, b
eate
n an
d bu
rned
to d
eath
by
lync
h m
obs
in b
oth
the
Nor
th a
nd S
outh
. The
maj
ority
of
the
vict
ims
had
neve
r be
en f
orm
ally
cha
rged
with
a c
rim
e.B
y th
e da
wn
of th
e 20
th c
entu
ry v
igila
nte
viol
ence
had
bec
ome
a "n
atur
al"
part
of
the
Am
eric
anla
ndsc
ape.
Des
pera
te to
aw
aken
the
natio
nal c
onsc
ienc
e, th
e
tslo
W Y
ou 1
4Joh
l
lou
AR
EN
I Fl
uori
M14
51T
INT
HIS
rim
of
)1-
14L
TR
AIN
, AR
.T
AE
W
PLE
-i5Y
, 0
0O
N, C
OM
E o
r4,C
rEH
EcA
t4C
rr I
N H
ER
E
aIN
EC
ASE
r A
K o
t4E
EIG
HT
H 1
5t-A
c-IL
. 7 I
"LA
TE
7-91
11PA
S6Po
n
OFF
IC.E
.L
Cg*
J'T
you
A %
Atm
.IN
tot>
> B
et A
use-
rou
cA
1°4
0-C
AE
INN
ilt e
gT o
vA'°
(-ur
`ILt
sgs
5 A
co4
MA
TN
oA
INE
ux-m
tp
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1U O
POIP
I:yo
u A
IEA
N T
O S
AY
TH
AI
secA
vs
c 1
An
...2.
....S
-1,2
_A
ND
TT
KIS
II5
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.rA
cTT
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r..,
v. A
ITE
.c_
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+,,.
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OP'
gIL
E 1
5 K
,D1c
M.A
.S'
10
24B
ES
T C
OP
Y A
VA
ILA
BLE
25H
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:
Act
ivity
I w
atch
ed a
n an
gry
mob
cha
in h
im to
an
iron
sta
ke. I
wat
ched
them
pile
woo
d ar
ound
his
hel
ples
s bo
dy. I
wat
ched
them
pou
r ga
solin
e on
this
woo
d. A
nd I
wat
ched
thre
e m
ense
t thi
s w
ood
on f
ire.
I s
tood
in a
cro
wd
of 6
00 p
eopl
e as
the
flam
es g
radu
ally
cre
pt n
eare
r an
d ne
arer
to th
e he
lple
ssN
egro
. I w
atch
ed th
e bl
aze
clim
b hi
gher
and
hig
her,
enc
irlin
ghi
m w
ithou
t mer
cy. I
hea
rd h
is c
ry o
f ag
ony
as th
e fl
ames
reac
hed
him
and
set
his
clo
thin
g on
fir
e....
Soo
n he
bec
ame
quie
t. T
here
was
no
doub
t tha
t he
was
dea
d....
An
odor
of
burn
ing
fles
h re
ache
d m
y no
stri
ls. I
fel
t sud
denl
y si
cken
ed...
."I
'm h
ungr
y,"
som
eone
com
plai
ned,
"L
et's
get
som
ethi
ng to
eat."
Cri
sis,
Nov
embe
r 19
25
Bac
k of
the
wri
thin
g, y
ellin
g, c
ruel
-eye
d de
mon
s w
hobr
eak,
des
troy
, mai
m a
nd ly
nch
and
burn
at t
he s
take
is a
knot
, lar
ge o
r sm
all,
of n
orm
al h
uman
bei
ngs
and
thes
ehu
man
bei
ngs
at h
eart
are
des
pera
tely
afr
aid
of s
omet
hing
.O
f w
hat?
Of
man
y th
ings
but
usu
ally
of
losi
ng th
eir
jobs
, of
bein
g de
clas
sed,
deg
rade
d or
act
ually
dis
grac
ed; o
f lo
sing
thei
r ho
pes,
thei
r sa
ving
s, th
eir
plan
s fo
r th
eir
child
ren;
of
the
actu
al p
angs
of
hung
er; o
f di
rt, o
f cr
ime.
And
of
all t
his,
mos
tub
iqui
tous
in m
oder
n in
dust
rial
soc
iety
is th
at f
ear
of u
n-em
ploy
men
t."W
.E.B
. DuB
ois,
"T
he S
hape
of
Fear
, " N
orth
Am
eric
anR
evie
w, J
une
1926
A s
cene
sim
ilar
to th
e on
e de
scri
bed
in th
e N
AA
CP
publ
icat
ion
Cri
sis
has
been
rep
eate
d lit
eral
ly th
ousa
nds
of ti
mes
in th
e U
S si
nce
the
late
19t
h ce
ntur
y. H
ow c
ould
such
thin
gs h
ave
happ
ened
with
so
little
pub
lic o
utcr
y?H
ow c
onvi
ncin
g is
the
expl
anat
ion
for
lync
hing
giv
en b
yW
.E.B
. DuB
ois?
If
fear
lies
beh
ind
this
sor
t of
grou
pbe
havi
or, w
hat o
utle
ts a
re p
eopl
e fi
ndin
g fo
r th
eir
fear
sto
day?
Do
you
thin
k th
at r
acis
m a
nd f
ear
are
still
rela
ted?
Giv
e ex
ampl
es.
NA
AC
P pl
aced
an
ad in
a n
ewsp
aper
in 1
922
whi
ch r
ead:
"Do
you
know
that
the
US
is th
e on
ly la
nd o
n E
arth
whe
rehu
man
bei
ngs
are
BU
RN
ED
AT
TH
E S
TA
KE
?"T
his
mes
sage
fel
l on
deaf
ear
s. A
ttem
pts
to g
et C
ongr
ess
to p
ass
a fe
dera
l law
aga
inst
lync
hing
fai
led.
Rac
ial v
iole
nce
took
the
form
of
orga
nize
d po
grom
s in
man
y N
orth
ern
citie
sas
Wor
ld W
ar I
end
ed, a
nd A
fric
an A
mer
ican
sol
dier
s re
-tu
rned
hom
e. W
hite
wor
kers
fea
red
thei
r co
mpe
titio
n fo
rjo
bs a
nd h
ousi
ng.
Rac
ial i
deol
ogy
blin
ded
them
to th
ebe
nefi
ts o
f ri
sing
abo
ve th
e po
litic
s of
div
ide
and
rule
and
led
to m
ajor
rac
e ri
ots
with
larg
e lo
ss o
f lif
e in
Eas
t St.
Lou
is,
Chi
cago
, Was
hing
ton,
D.C
., K
noxv
ille,
Om
aha
and
othe
rci
ties. The
des
truc
tion
of th
e A
fric
an-A
mer
ican
com
mun
ity o
fR
osew
ood,
Flo
rida
--
the
subj
ect o
f a
rece
nt f
ilm -
- oc
curr
edon
a la
rger
sca
le in
192
1 in
Tul
sa, O
klah
oma.
A m
ob o
f 10
,000
whi
tes
used
mac
hine
gun
s an
d ai
rpla
nes
to a
ttack
a p
rosp
er-
ous
neig
hbor
hood
kno
wn
as "
Litt
le A
fric
a."
The
y de
stro
yed
18,0
00 h
omes
. The
y al
so r
an in
to s
tron
g B
lack
res
ista
nce.
At
leas
t 50
whi
tes
and
200
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
wer
e ki
lled
som
e es
timat
es a
re f
ar h
ighe
r.T
he c
atal
yst f
or th
e de
stru
ctio
n in
Tul
sa w
as th
e ru
mor
of
an a
ssau
lt on
a w
hite
wom
an b
y a
Bla
ck m
an. B
ut th
eun
derl
ying
rea
son
was
whi
te e
nvy
at B
lack
eco
nom
ic a
d-va
nces
in th
e ar
ea r
efer
red
to a
s "B
lack
Wal
l Str
eet,"
inpa
rtic
ular
the
fact
that
som
e 50
0 B
lack
s ow
ned
parc
els
ofla
nd c
onta
inin
g oi
l.T
he A
fric
an-A
mer
ican
his
tori
an J
ohn
Hop
e Fr
ankl
in, w
ho c
ame
to T
ulsa
as
a ch
ild f
our
year
s af
ter
the
atta
ck, m
aint
aine
d th
at b
y fi
ghtin
g ba
ck, A
fric
an A
mer
i-ca
ns h
ad b
roke
n th
roug
h th
e fe
ar w
hich
had
bee
n us
ed to
keep
them
in "
thei
r pl
ace.
" H
e w
rote
that
"th
e se
lf-c
onfi
denc
eof
Tul
sa's
Neg
roes
soa
red,
thei
r bu
sine
sses
pro
sper
ed, t
heir
inst
itutio
ns f
lour
ishe
d, a
nd th
ey s
impl
y ha
d no
fea
r of
whi
tes.
"4Fi
fty
year
s la
ter,
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
all o
ver
the
Sout
hw
ould
fin
d ne
w w
ays
to o
verc
ome
the
fear
and
wou
ldbu
ild th
e M
ovem
ent.
Footnotes
1. Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished
Rev
olut
ion,
186
3-18
77, H
arpe
r &
Row
, 198
8, p
. xxv
.
2. O
n th
e su
bjec
t of
the
Four
teen
th A
men
dmen
t, se
eH
owar
d M
eyer
, The
Am
endm
ent t
hat R
efus
ed to
Die
,C
hilto
n B
ook
Com
pany
, 197
3.
3. A
. Leo
n H
iggi
nbot
ham
, Jr.
Sha
des
of F
reed
om: R
acia
lPo
litic
s an
d Pr
esum
ptio
ns o
f th
e A
mer
ican
Leg
al S
yste
m,
Oxf
ord
Uni
vers
ity P
ress
, 199
6, p
. 112
.
4. Q
uote
d in
Her
bert
Sha
piro
, Whi
te V
iole
nce
and
Bla
ckR
espo
nse:
Fro
m R
econ
stru
ctio
n to
Mon
tgom
ery,
Uni
vers
ityof
Mas
sach
uset
ts P
ress
, 198
8, p
. 185
.
Definitions
Cas
te -
- a
soci
al c
lass
, usu
ally
bas
ed o
n bi
rth,
sep
arat
edfr
om o
ther
s by
dis
tinct
ions
of
rank
, pro
fess
ion
or w
ealth
.
Ideo
logy
--
a se
t of
belie
fs w
hich
for
m th
e ba
sis
of a
polit
ical
or
econ
omic
sys
tem
, or
refl
ect t
he o
utlo
ok a
ndas
pira
tions
of
a pa
rtic
ular
gro
up o
r cu
lture
. The
ideo
logy
of w
hite
sup
rem
acy,
the
belie
f th
at w
hite
s co
nstit
ute
asu
peri
or r
ace,
pre
vaile
d in
the
Sout
h be
fore
and
aft
erR
econ
stru
ctio
n.
Pogr
om--
an
orga
nize
d at
tack
on
or m
assa
cre
of a
min
ority
gro
up.
Oft
en s
uch
atta
cks
are
a re
sult
ofsc
apeg
oatin
g an
d ar
e gi
ven
offi
cial
enc
oura
gem
ent,
asth
ey w
ere
in th
e R
ussi
an E
mpi
re u
nder
the
Cza
rs, w
ithJe
ws
as th
e ta
rget
. Ind
ivid
uals
or
grou
ps a
re s
cape
goat
edw
hen
they
are
mad
e to
bea
r bl
ame
for
shor
tcom
ings
and
soci
al p
robl
ems
who
se o
rigi
ns li
e el
sew
here
.
Vig
ilant
e --
a p
erso
n w
ho ta
kes
law
enf
orce
men
t int
o hi
sor
her
ow
n ha
nds.
Lyn
chin
gs w
ere
a fo
rm o
f vi
gila
ntis
mus
ed to
inst
ill f
ear
and
ensu
re d
omin
atio
n an
d so
cial
cont
rol.
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
owe1
2711
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Voi
ces:
The
Im
port
ance
of
Con
fron
ting
His
tory
Loo
k ar
ound
you
. I m
ean
real
ly lo
ok a
roun
d. S
tep
out o
fyo
ur c
omfo
rt z
one,
and
see
Am
eric
a's
educ
atio
nal s
yste
ms
for
wha
t the
y re
ally
are
: ins
titut
ions
sat
isfi
ed w
ith h
idin
gtr
uths
, and
dis
inte
rest
ed in
cha
nge.
I w
as r
aise
d in
a s
mal
l tow
n in
sou
ther
n M
assa
chus
etts
.I
atte
nded
a p
riva
te k
inde
rgar
ten
and
firs
t gra
de, b
ut a
fter
that
it w
as p
ublic
ele
men
tary
sch
ool f
or m
e. I
rem
embe
rbe
ing
the
only
Bla
ck s
tude
nt in
the
scho
ol f
or a
whi
le, u
ntil
my
youn
ger
sist
er e
nter
ed. I
t was
alw
ays
diff
icul
t as
a ch
ildto
fin
d a
happ
y m
ediu
m b
etw
een
the
pro-
Bla
ckne
ss a
ndB
lack
Pri
de I
exp
erie
nced
at h
ome,
and
the
lily
whi
tene
ss th
atw
as e
ver
pres
ent a
t sch
ool.
Bla
ck H
isto
ry M
onth
at h
ome
was
fill
ed w
ith E
yes
on th
ePr
ize
and
othe
r cu
ltura
l pre
sent
atio
ns o
n PB
S. A
t sch
ool,
my
teac
hers
wou
ld p
ass
arou
nd f
lash
car
ds w
ith p
ictu
res
and
biog
raph
ies
of "
Out
stan
ding
Neg
roes
," f
eatu
ring
the
ever
-pr
esen
t Ros
a Pa
rks
and
Mar
tin L
uthe
r K
ing,
Jr.
We
wer
e to
ldof
a ti
me
long
ago
, whe
n a
wom
an w
as e
xhau
sted
aft
er a
long
day
at w
ork,
and
bec
ause
of
her
tired
ness
ref
used
to g
ive
uphe
r se
at a
nd ir
onic
ally
sta
rted
a m
ovem
ent.
We
neve
rle
arne
d of
her
soc
ial c
omm
itmen
t, an
d th
at s
he h
ad g
one
toth
e H
ighl
ande
r C
ente
r to
get
exp
erie
nce
orga
nizi
ng f
orso
cial
cha
nge.
We
wer
e al
so b
rief
ed o
n a
man
who
was
an
exce
ptio
n an
da
"cre
dit t
o th
e ra
ce,"
the
mos
t im
port
ant m
an in
the
stru
ggle
,D
r. K
ing.
By
the
time
I gr
adua
ted
from
ele
men
tary
sch
ool,
I co
uld
tell
you
plen
ty a
bout
Ros
a Pa
rks
or M
artin
Lut
her
Kin
g, b
ut a
sk m
e ab
out a
nyon
e el
se li
ke M
arcu
s G
arve
y or
Fann
ie L
ou H
amer
, and
I w
as lo
st.
For
juni
or h
igh
and
high
sch
ool,
I re
turn
ed to
pri
vate
scho
ol. T
here
I f
ound
a n
ew w
ay f
or a
sch
ool t
o ta
ckle
Bla
ckH
isto
ry.
The
fir
st M
onda
y of
Bla
ck H
isto
ry M
onth
, the
Hea
dmas
ter
wou
ld r
ead
the
"I h
ave
a dr
eam
" sp
eech
to th
een
tire
scho
ol, a
nd th
en w
e w
ould
be
dism
isse
d ba
ck to
clas
ses.
Not
hing
fur
ther
was
exp
lore
d in
cla
ss; n
othi
ng w
asad
ded
to th
e sc
hool
day
. It's
fun
ny h
ow w
e ca
n be
nd o
ver
back
war
ds to
acc
omm
odat
e to
pics
like
dru
nk d
rivi
ng a
ndda
te r
ape,
eve
n in
the
clas
sroo
m, a
nd w
hen
Bla
ck H
isto
ryM
onth
com
es a
roun
d, th
ere'
s no
tim
e to
add
any
thin
g to
the
curr
icul
um.
Rig
ht b
efor
e I
hear
d ab
out P
roje
ct H
IP-H
OP,
I h
ad c
ome
to th
e re
aliz
atio
n th
at if
I w
ante
d to
lear
n ab
out t
he h
isto
ry o
fm
y pe
ople
, I w
ould
hav
e to
fin
d a
way
to d
o th
at o
n m
y ow
n.I
rem
embe
r al
l the
ang
er I
fel
t, an
d th
e hu
rt. T
he h
isto
ry o
fB
lack
s in
this
cou
ntry
is a
sto
ry o
f pr
ide,
of
stru
ggle
and
of
pers
ever
ance
. It's
a s
tory
that
has
its
high
s an
d lo
ws,
a s
tory
with
par
ts th
at m
ake
you
wan
t to
cry,
and
par
ts th
at m
ake
you
wan
t to
shou
t for
joy.
But
the
mos
t im
port
ant t
hing
abou
t Bla
ck H
isto
ry is
that
it is
Am
eric
a's
hist
ory.
It's
the
hist
ory
of B
lack
Am
eric
a as
wel
l as
whi
te A
mer
ica,
and
ever
yone
els
e w
ho in
habi
ts th
is c
ount
ry.
Whe
n A
mer
ica
rem
embe
rs c
erta
in p
arts
of
its h
isto
ry, i
tlik
es to
labe
l the
m th
e "n
ever
, eve
r ag
ain"
par
tsth
isap
plie
s to
sla
very
, the
inte
rnm
ent o
f Ja
pane
se A
mer
ican
s,an
d Ji
m C
row
seg
rega
tion.
Wel
l, I
have
to a
sk m
ysel
f, is
the
coun
try
real
ly s
eein
g th
e er
ror
of h
er w
ays?
Thi
nk a
bout
it.
If s
ocie
ty r
eally
car
ed a
bout
pre
vent
ing
past
hor
rors
fro
m h
appe
ning
aga
in, d
on't
you
thin
k th
ere
wou
ld b
e an
urg
ency
abo
ut e
duca
ting
our
youn
g ab
out t
hese
mat
ters
? W
e, A
mer
ica'
s fu
ture
, sho
uld
not b
e fo
rced
to le
arn
abou
t his
tory
on
our
own
time.
Eve
ryon
e sh
ould
be
lear
ning
abou
t the
pro
blem
s w
e ar
e st
ill e
xper
ienc
ing,
with
roo
ts in
the
past
.W
e sh
ould
be
faci
ng th
e pa
st c
oura
geou
sly,
and
bol
dly
mak
ing
the
pers
onal
com
mitm
ent t
o ou
rsel
ves
and
each
othe
r, th
at w
hat h
appe
ned
in o
ur p
ast w
ill n
ever
, eve
rha
ppen
aga
in, a
nd th
e ra
cism
whi
ch m
ade
it po
ssib
le w
ill b
eco
mpl
etel
y up
root
ed.
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Voi
ces
We
wen
t to
Hel
en K
elle
r's b
irth
plac
ein
Tus
cum
bia,
Ala
bam
a. A
lthou
gh H
elen
Kel
ler
had
been
a s
ocia
list a
nd h
ad s
uppo
rted
the
NA
AC
P, th
em
useu
m d
id n
ot h
ave
any
exhi
bits
on
this
par
t of
her
life.
In
fact
it d
idn'
t men
tion
it at
all.
It ju
st ta
lked
abou
t the
wor
k H
elen
Kel
ler
did
rais
ing
fund
s fo
r th
ebl
ind
and
deaf
. The
re w
as a
con
fede
rate
fla
g ag
ains
tth
e w
all b
ehin
d a
bust
of
Hel
en K
elle
rth
is to
com
mem
orat
e so
meo
ne w
ho s
uppo
rted
the
equa
lity
of B
lack
peo
ple!
The
tour
gui
de, w
ho w
as a
lso
the
cura
tor,
did
not
kno
w a
nyth
ing
abou
t Hel
en K
elle
r'sot
her
activ
ities
. The
pla
ce m
akes
me
real
ize
how
dist
orte
d hi
stor
y re
ally
is.
The
Sou
ther
ners
(an
dN
orth
erne
rs)
are
alw
ays
deny
ing
hist
ory.
The
y ju
stdo
n't f
ace
real
ity a
nd th
e tr
uth.
How
impo
rtan
t is
it to
fac
e "r
ealit
y an
d tr
uth"
?D
o yo
u th
ink
we
shou
ld c
onfr
ont a
ll as
pect
s of
our
hist
ory?
Or
do y
ou th
ink
ther
e ar
e so
me
thin
gs w
hich
we
shou
ld n
ot d
wel
l on
beca
use
they
are
so
pain
ful?
Wha
t wou
ld y
ou li
ke to
lear
n m
ore
abou
t at
scho
ol?
How
do
you
thin
k th
at te
xtbo
oks
disg
uise
hist
ory
and
why
?
1228
29H
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Voi
ces
Ter
rori
sm p
lagu
ed th
e So
uth.
The
Ku
Klu
x K
lan,
as
wel
l as
indi
vidu
als,
with
sub
tle s
uppo
rt f
rom
pol
ice
and
stat
e of
fici
als,
lync
hed,
bur
ned,
and
intim
idat
ed A
fric
anA
mer
ican
s ac
ross
the
Sout
h. Y
oung
Bla
ck m
en a
ndw
omen
wou
ld le
ave
for
scho
ol o
r go
to th
e st
ore
and
neve
r re
turn
. The
ir b
odie
s m
ay n
ever
be
foun
d, th
eir
stor
ies
wou
ld p
ossi
bly
neve
r be
told
.B
oth
Bla
cks
and
whi
tes
wer
e tr
appe
d in
the
segr
e-ga
ted
Sout
h by
fea
r. B
lack
s w
ere
cons
trai
ned
by th
e fe
arof
gro
ups
like
the
KK
K a
nd p
olic
e w
ho c
ontin
ually
subj
ugat
ed th
em s
ever
ely
to p
reve
nt a
ny a
ttem
pt a
tfi
ghtin
g ag
ains
t the
sys
tem
. Man
y w
hite
s w
ere
also
trap
ped
by f
ear,
but
this
fea
r w
as o
f lo
sing
wha
teve
rpr
ivile
ges
they
mig
ht h
ave
in a
soc
iety
bas
ed o
n w
hite
supr
emac
y. B
oth
Bla
cks
and
whi
tes
had
to o
verc
ome
fear
in o
rder
for
cha
nge
to o
ccur
: for
one
gro
up a
fea
r of
terr
or; f
or th
e ot
her
grou
p a
fear
of
the
unkn
own.
Peo
ple
had
to f
ight
for
soc
ial c
hang
e at
thre
e di
ffer
ent l
evel
s: th
ele
gisl
atur
e, c
ourt
s, a
nd s
tree
ts.
If it
is h
ard
getti
ng th
ings
mov
ing
toda
y, h
ow m
uch
mor
e di
ffic
ult m
ust i
t hav
e be
en e
arlie
r th
is c
entu
ry,
whe
n pe
ople
wou
ld lo
se e
very
thin
g, e
ven
thei
r liv
es, i
fth
ey tr
ied
to b
ring
abo
ut c
hang
e? O
r w
as it
eas
ier
then
,be
caus
e th
e th
ings
that
had
to b
e ch
ange
d se
emed
so
very
clea
r an
d pe
ople
fel
t the
y ha
d re
lativ
ely
little
to lo
se?
Is it
in f
act h
arde
r to
day
beca
use
thin
gs a
ren'
t cle
arat
all,
and
we
have
no
sens
e of
whe
re w
e ar
e he
aded
and
wha
t our
pri
oriti
es s
houl
d be
? Is
the
alte
rnat
ive
-- b
eing
satis
fied
with
the
stat
us q
uosi
mpl
y to
o at
trac
tive?
Are
we
too
dazz
led
by m
oney
, fas
hion
, and
suc
cess
?H
ave
we
lost
the
sens
e of
urg
ency
and
str
uggl
e?W
hat w
ould
it ta
ke to
turn
this
situ
atio
n ar
ound
?
UN
IT T
HR
EE
:B
uild
ing
Mom
entu
m f
or C
hang
eW
hat d
oes
it ta
ke to
cre
ate
a m
ovem
ent?
Whe
re d
oes
soci
al c
hang
e co
me
from
? H
ow c
an p
eopl
e ri
se a
bove
the
terr
or th
at h
as b
een
used
to c
ontr
ol th
em a
nd k
eep
them
in"t
heir
pla
ce"?
Wha
t we
know
as
the
Mov
emen
t of
the
1950
s an
d 60
s di
dno
t ari
se o
ut o
f th
in a
ir. T
he w
ay h
ad b
een
prep
ared
for
it b
ybo
th h
isto
rica
l and
eco
nom
ic c
ircu
mst
ance
s, a
nd b
y th
ebr
ave
actio
ns o
f in
divi
dual
s w
ho h
ad, f
or e
xam
ple,
cha
l-le
nged
seg
rega
tion
on th
e bu
ses
in B
irm
ingh
am a
t lea
st 5
0tim
es in
the
peri
od 1
941-
42. T
he w
ay w
as a
lso
prep
ared
by
the
Nat
iona
l Ass
ocia
tion
for
the
Adv
ance
men
t of
Col
ored
Peop
le (
NA
AC
P), w
hich
was
for
med
in 1
910,
the
Urb
anL
eagu
e (f
orm
ed in
191
1), t
he C
ongr
ess
of R
acia
l Equ
ality
or
CO
RE
(19
43),
and
oth
er o
rgan
izat
ions
whi
ch d
evel
oped
stra
tegi
es f
or o
vert
urni
ng J
im C
row
seg
rega
tion.
Act
ion
inth
e st
reet
s, th
e co
urts
, and
legi
slat
ures
fin
ally
res
ulte
d in
apo
wer
ful m
obili
zatio
n fo
r fr
eedo
m a
nd th
e ex
pans
ion
ofde
moc
racy
that
ser
ved
as th
e ca
taly
st f
or th
e en
tire
"rig
hts
revo
lutio
n"th
e w
omen
's m
ovem
ent,
stud
ent m
ovem
ent,
the
mov
emen
t for
rig
hts
for
gays
and
lesb
ians
, for
the
dis-
able
d, f
or L
atin
os, A
sian
s an
d ot
her
ethn
ic g
roup
san
din
spir
ed "
pro-
dem
ocra
cy m
ovem
ents
" ar
ound
the
wor
ld.
Cha
ngin
g ci
rcum
stan
ces
Ear
ly in
the
20th
cen
tury
90
perc
ent o
f A
fric
an A
mer
ican
sliv
ed in
the
Sout
h, w
here
they
mad
e up
a th
ird
of th
e po
p-ul
atio
n. T
his
was
soo
n to
cha
nge.
By
1920
hal
f a
mill
ion
Bla
ck p
eopl
e ha
d le
ft th
e So
uth.
Nea
rly
a m
illio
n m
ore
left
in th
e 19
20s,
see
king
a b
ette
r lif
e an
d ne
w jo
b op
port
uniti
esin
the
Nor
th. D
urin
g th
e G
reat
Dep
ress
ion
of th
e 19
30s,
mill
ions
wer
e fo
rced
off
the
land
as
Sout
hern
agr
icul
ture
colla
psed
. The
y liv
ed in
des
pera
te c
ircu
mst
ance
s, s
ince
the
gove
rnm
ent's
New
Dea
l pro
gram
s in
itial
ly e
xclu
ded
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans.
Thi
s m
igra
tion
from
the
land
con
tinue
d du
ring
the
war
yea
rs o
f th
e 19
40s,
as
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
mov
ed to
nort
hern
and
new
ly in
dust
rial
ized
sou
ther
n ci
ties
seek
ing
jobs
in th
e de
fens
e in
dust
ries
. The
mec
hani
zatio
n of
agr
i-cu
lture
in th
e So
uth
brok
e up
the
old
shar
ecro
ppin
g sy
stem
and
and
ende
d th
e ne
ed f
or S
outh
ern
plan
ters
to h
ave
aso
urce
of
labo
r tie
d to
the
land
. The
old
rig
id c
aste
sys
tem
whi
ch h
ad s
eem
ed s
o pe
rman
ent a
few
dec
ades
bef
ore
was
crum
blin
g, f
reei
ng A
fric
an-A
mer
ican
s to
look
for
new
way
sof
ear
ning
a li
velih
ood.
By
1960
hal
f of
the
Afr
ican
- A
mer
ican
popu
latio
n liv
ed in
Nor
ther
n ur
ban
area
s.'
Thi
s hu
ge s
hift
of
popu
latio
n se
t in
mot
ion
man
y ot
her
chan
ges,
som
e of
them
vio
lent
. The
re w
ere
bloo
dy r
ace
riot
sin
man
y N
orth
ern
citie
s w
hen
Bla
ck w
orke
rs tr
ied
to g
etgo
od f
acto
ry jo
bs r
eser
ved
for
whi
te w
orke
rs, a
nd w
hen
they
trie
d to
mov
e in
to w
hite
res
iden
tial a
reas
.Tra
de u
nion
sre
fuse
d to
adm
it B
lack
wor
kers
, and
age
ncie
s of
the
gov-
ernm
ent,
such
as
the
Fede
ral P
ublic
Hou
sing
Aut
hori
ty,
enfo
rced
rac
ial s
egre
gatio
n.2
Tak
ing
actio
n
But
cha
ngin
g ci
rcum
stan
ces
also
bro
ught
new
opp
ortu
-ni
ties
for
activ
ism
. In
the
Nor
th, A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s co
uld
exer
cise
thei
r ri
ght t
o vo
te, a
nd c
ould
not
be
igno
red
bypo
litic
ians
.D
urin
g th
e ye
ars
of W
orld
War
II,
Afr
ican
-A
mer
ican
labo
r w
as n
eede
d in
def
ense
fac
tori
es a
nd th
eth
reat
of
civi
l unr
est a
t hom
e ha
rmed
the
war
eff
ort.
InJa
nuar
y 19
41, w
hen
A. P
hilip
Ran
dolp
h, h
ead
of th
e B
roth
-er
hood
of
Slee
ping
Car
Por
ters
, ann
ounc
ed p
lans
for
a m
ass
mar
ch in
Was
hing
ton
to p
rote
st d
iscr
imin
atio
n in
the
defe
nse
indu
stry
, Pre
side
nt F
rank
lin D
elan
o R
oose
velt
issu
ed E
x-ec
utiv
e O
rder
880
2 to
hea
d of
f th
e m
arch
.T
his
Ord
erba
rred
rac
ial d
iscr
imin
atio
n in
gov
ernm
ent e
mpl
oym
ent
and
the
defe
nse
indu
stri
es.
The
pot
entia
l of
mas
s ac
tion
to b
ring
abo
ut c
hang
e w
asde
mon
stra
ted,
eve
n th
ough
this
194
1 m
arch
on
Was
hing
ton
neve
r to
ok p
lace
. The
sam
e ye
ar s
aw th
e fi
rst u
se o
f ci
vil
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
313
30
diso
bedi
ence
to c
omba
t rac
ial s
egre
gatio
n,w
hen
a m
ixed
grou
p of
for
mer
stu
dent
s fr
om A
ntio
ch C
olle
ge e
nter
ed a
lega
lly-s
egre
gate
d sw
imm
ing
pool
at G
arfi
eld
Park
nea
rC
leve
land
, Ohi
o, a
nd th
en le
ft p
eace
fully
. The
se s
tude
nts
had
adop
ted
the
tech
niqu
es o
f no
nvio
lent
res
ista
nce
pio-
neer
ed b
y M
ahat
ma
Gan
dhi.
Gan
dhi w
as b
orn
in I
ndia
in 1
869
and
emig
rate
d to
Sou
thA
fric
a in
189
3, w
here
he
was
a s
ucce
ssfu
l law
yer.
Her
e he
deve
lope
d te
chni
ques
of
nonv
iole
nt r
esis
tanc
e to
cam
paig
nfo
r eq
ual r
ight
s fo
r In
dian
s. H
e th
en r
etur
ned
to I
ndia
and
foug
ht B
ritis
h co
loni
alis
m w
ith c
ivil
diso
bedi
ance
pass
ive
acts
of
nonc
oope
ratio
n an
d de
fian
ce w
hich
wer
e in
tend
ed to
indu
ce s
ham
e in
the
colo
nize
rs.
The
civ
il di
sobe
dien
ce a
t Gar
fiel
d Pa
rk in
spir
ed J
ames
Farm
er, a
n A
fric
an-A
mer
ican
lead
er o
f Fe
llow
ship
of
Rec
-on
cilia
tion
(FO
R).
FO
R's
roo
ts w
ere
in th
e Q
uake
r tr
aditi
onof
wor
king
for
rac
ial e
qual
ity th
roug
h pe
acef
ul m
eans
. Aft
erdi
scus
sing
the
sign
ific
ance
of
the
Gar
fiel
d Pa
rk a
ctio
n, F
arm
er,
Geo
rge
Hou
ser,
and
Bay
ard
Rus
tin f
orm
ed th
e C
ongr
ess
ofR
acia
l Equ
ality
(C
OR
E)
to d
evel
op n
onvi
olen
t civ
il di
sobe
-di
ence
as
a st
rate
gy to
com
bat r
acia
l inj
ustic
e.
The
war
aga
inst
rac
ism
In 1
941,
the
year
of
Gar
fiel
d Pa
rk a
nd o
f R
ando
lph'
spl
anne
d m
arch
on
Was
hing
ton,
the
US
wen
t to
war
. Ove
r a
mill
ion
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
serv
ed in
the
segr
egat
ed U
S ar
my
duri
ng W
orld
War
II.
Hal
f se
rved
ove
rsea
s, a
nd m
any
wer
epo
litic
ally
aw
aken
ed b
y th
e ex
peri
ence
. The
y w
ere
risk
ing
and
ofte
n gi
ving
thei
r liv
es to
def
eat N
azis
m a
nd it
s pu
rsui
tof
rac
ial p
urity
. At t
he s
ame
time,
the
Red
Cro
ss w
as k
eepi
ngse
para
te c
onta
iner
s of
"w
hite
blo
od"
and
"bla
ck b
lood
" fo
rth
e U
S tr
oops
. How
cou
ld B
lack
sol
dier
s be
exp
ecte
d to
fig
htfo
r fr
eedo
m, d
emoc
racy
, and
an
end
to a
mur
dero
us r
acis
mab
road
, and
sub
mit
to ly
nchi
ngs,
seg
rega
tion,
and
dis
en-
fran
chis
emen
t at h
ome?
Aft
er th
e w
ar w
as o
ver,
the
US
was
the
dom
inan
t pow
eron
the
wor
ld s
tage
. As
Eur
opea
n co
loni
al e
mpi
res
fell
apar
t,
and
inde
pend
ent n
atio
ns e
mer
ged
in A
fric
a an
d A
sia,
the
US
pose
d as
the
cham
pion
of
thes
e ne
w c
ount
ries
but w
hat
abou
t its
ow
n ra
cist
pra
ctic
es?
How
cou
ld it
just
ify
thes
e in
the
eyes
of
the
wor
ld a
nd th
e ne
w U
nite
d N
atio
ns?
And
how
in th
e ea
rly
year
s of
the
Col
d W
ar w
ith th
e So
viet
Uni
onco
uld
it co
nvin
ce th
ese
coun
trie
s th
at it
s w
ay o
f lif
e w
assu
peri
or to
Com
mun
ism
, whi
le th
e C
omm
unis
ts d
enou
nced
its tr
eatm
ent o
f B
lack
peo
ple?
As
Jim
Cro
w b
ecam
e an
incr
easi
ng e
mba
rras
smen
t to
US
polic
y-m
aker
s, th
ey r
ealiz
ed th
ey h
ad to
act
. In
1948
, a y
ear
afte
r th
e ba
seba
ll pl
ayer
Jac
kie
Rob
inso
n ha
d in
tegr
ated
the
maj
or le
ague
s, P
resi
dent
Tru
man
insi
sted
on
a ci
vil r
ight
spl
ank
in th
e pl
atfo
rm o
f th
e D
emoc
ratic
Par
ty, l
eadi
ngpr
omin
ent S
outh
ern
Dem
ocra
ts to
for
m a
Sta
tes'
Rig
hts
Part
y (t
he "
Dix
iecr
ats"
). T
he s
ame
Stro
m T
hurm
ond
who
was
re-
elec
ted
to th
e U
S Se
nate
in 1
996,
age
d 96
,was
the
Dix
iecr
at c
andi
date
for
Pre
side
nt. A
fter
Tru
man
won
the
1948
ele
ctio
n, h
e is
sued
an
Exe
cutiv
e O
rder
bar
ring
dis
-cr
imin
atio
n on
the
basi
s of
rac
e, c
olor
, rel
igio
n or
nat
iona
lor
igin
in f
eder
al e
mpl
oym
ent.
Cha
nge
was
in th
e ai
r.
Cou
rts
take
on
Jim
Cro
w
Cha
nge
was
beg
inni
ng to
hap
pen
thro
ugh
the
cour
tsbe
fore
Wor
ld W
ar I
I, th
anks
to le
gal c
halle
nges
mou
nted
by
NA
AC
P L
egal
Def
ense
Fun
d at
torn
eys
led
by C
harl
esH
amilt
on H
oust
on a
nd T
hurg
ood
Mar
shal
l. A
t fir
st th
eN
AA
CP
adop
ted
the
stra
tegy
of
aski
ng th
e co
urts
to m
ake
sure
that
the
"sep
arat
e bu
t equ
al"
doct
rine
of
Ples
sy v
. Fer
guso
nw
as p
rope
rly
enfo
rced
; it d
idn'
t im
med
iate
ly tr
y to
get
Ple
ssy
decl
ared
unc
onst
itutio
nal.
In 1
938
the
US
Supr
eme
Cou
rtor
dere
d M
isso
uri t
o pr
ovid
e "e
qual
" fa
cilit
ies
for
Afr
ican
-A
mer
ican
law
stu
dent
s. I
n 19
50 th
e Su
prem
e C
ourt
ord
ered
stat
e gr
adua
te s
choo
ls f
or d
iffe
rent
rac
es to
be
auth
entic
ally
"equ
al."
By
this
tim
e N
AA
CP
law
yers
had
dec
ided
to s
eek
toov
ertu
rn P
less
y an
d th
e co
ncep
t of
"sep
arat
e bu
t equ
al."
The
y w
ere
enco
urag
ed b
y a
cour
ageo
us S
outh
Car
olin
a
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Voc
ies
On
our
trip
Sou
th I
was
sur
pris
ed to
lear
n th
at s
ome
whi
te p
eopl
e di
dn't
go a
long
with
rac
ism
in th
e 19
thce
ntur
y. O
ur f
irst
sto
p w
as H
arpe
r's F
erry
, whi
ch is
now
in W
est V
irgi
nia.
It w
as in
Vir
gini
a ju
st b
efor
e th
eC
ivil
War
whe
n Jo
hn B
row
n le
d hi
s so
ns a
nd a
bout
20
othe
r pe
ople
in a
rai
d. H
e th
ough
t if
he c
aptu
red
the
wea
pons
in th
e fe
dera
l ars
enal
ther
e th
is w
ould
lead
toa
gene
ral s
lave
upr
isin
g. H
e w
ante
d to
arm
the
slav
esan
d ov
erth
row
sla
very
. Wel
l, it
was
n't s
uch
a gr
eat
plan
, as
Fred
eric
k D
ougl
ass
told
him
, and
he
ende
d up
getti
ng c
aptu
red
insi
de a
bui
ldin
g w
e sa
w. B
ut h
e di
dn't
seem
to r
egre
t wha
t he
did.
His
fin
al w
ords
bef
ore
hew
as h
ange
d sh
owed
he
felt
he h
ad d
one
the
righ
t thi
ng.
He
was
will
ing
to d
ie to
hel
p en
d th
e si
n of
sla
very
.I
gues
s Jo
hn B
row
n is
in s
ome
of th
e hi
stor
y bo
oks,
alth
ough
he
mig
ht n
ot a
lway
s be
sho
wn
as a
her
o. B
utot
her
whi
te p
eopl
e w
ho m
ade
sacr
ific
es s
eem
to b
efo
rgot
ten.
We
did
som
e re
sear
ch f
or th
e hi
stor
ian
Jim
Loe
wen
, who
is w
ritin
g a
book
on
how
peo
ple
and
even
ts a
re r
emem
bere
d th
roug
h m
emor
ials
and
mus
e-um
s. H
e as
ked
us to
see
if th
ere
was
stil
l a m
arbl
em
arke
r st
andi
ng in
a s
mal
l tow
n in
Mis
siss
ippi
cal
led
Haz
lehu
rst.
The
mar
ker
was
for
a m
an c
alle
d Jo
hnPr
entis
s M
atth
ews.
He
was
fro
m H
azle
hurs
t.I
was
real
ly s
urpr
ised
to le
arn
ther
e w
ere
whi
te p
eopl
e lik
ehi
m in
the
Sout
h ju
st a
fter
the
Civ
il W
ar. H
e be
lieve
dth
at A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s sh
ould
hav
e th
e sa
me
righ
ts a
sw
hite
peo
ple.
He
star
ted
a po
litic
al p
arty
whi
ch h
adth
e su
ppor
t of
blac
k pe
ople
and
man
y po
or w
hite
farm
ers.
Whe
n he
wen
t to
vote
, he
was
sho
t dea
d, I
gues
s be
caus
e he
was
tryi
ng to
bri
ng w
hite
peo
ple
and
blac
k pe
ople
toge
ther
.W
e fo
und
the
mar
ker
to h
im -
- at
leas
t it i
s st
ill th
ere,
even
if it
doe
sn't
say
how
he
died
or
wha
t he
stoo
d fo
r.
1432
33H
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:
Act
ivity
Judg
e Ju
lius
Wat
ies
War
ing
of C
harl
esto
n, S
outh
Car
olin
a w
as b
orn
in 1
880.
He
was
the
son
of a
sla
ve-
hold
er a
nd h
ad th
e ki
nd o
f "a
rist
ocra
tic"
upbr
ingi
ngty
pica
l of
the
Sout
hern
whi
te e
stab
lishm
ent.
But
as
aju
dge,
he
grad
ually
turn
ed a
gain
st m
any
of th
e id
eas
heha
d gr
own
up w
ith. B
y th
e 19
40s
he h
ad c
ome
to b
elie
veth
at th
e ra
cial
hie
rarc
hy in
the
Sout
h w
as u
njus
t.
"The
re is
abs
olut
ely
no r
easo
nabl
e ex
plan
atio
n fo
rra
cial
pre
judi
ce,"
he
wro
te in
his
dis
sent
in a
195
1 te
st o
f"s
epar
ate
but e
qual
," B
rigg
s v.
Elli
ot. "
It is
all
caus
ed b
yun
reas
onin
g em
otio
nal r
eact
ions
and
thes
e ar
e ga
ined
earl
y in
chi
ldho
od...
Segr
egat
ion
in e
duca
tion
can
neve
rpr
oduc
e eq
ualit
y an
d...i
s an
evi
l tha
t mus
t be
erad
icat
ed."
War
ing'
s op
inio
ns s
hock
ed w
hite
soc
iety
in S
outh
Car
olin
a an
d ar
ound
the
Sout
h. H
e re
ceiv
ed d
eath
thre
ats,
was
soc
ially
shu
nned
, and
had
a c
ross
bur
ned
on h
is la
wn.
Wha
t doe
s it
take
to s
tand
out
aga
inst
pub
lic o
pini
onin
this
way
? H
ave
you
ever
bee
n in
a s
ituat
ion
in w
hich
you
have
take
n a
stan
d w
hich
mad
e yo
u un
popu
lar?
Can
you
imag
ine
a si
tuat
ion
in w
hich
you
wou
ld ta
ke s
uch
ast
and? D
ivid
e in
to s
mal
l gro
ups.
Eac
h gr
oup
shou
ld c
reat
ean
impr
ovis
atio
n in
whi
ch o
ne m
embe
r of
the
grou
p go
esag
ains
t pre
vaili
ng o
pini
on. W
hat a
re th
e co
nseq
uenc
eslik
ely
to b
e of
suc
h an
act
? W
hat a
re th
e re
war
dsif
any
?
judg
e, J
. Wat
ies
War
ing,
who
opp
osed
rac
ial s
egre
gatio
n.T
he g
roup
of
five
edu
catio
n ca
ses
whi
ch r
each
ed th
e U
SSu
prem
e C
ourt
und
er th
e na
me
Bro
wn
v. B
oard
of
Edu
catio
nof
Top
eka
bega
n w
ith B
rigg
s v.
Elli
ot in
Sou
th C
arol
ina'
sC
lare
ndon
Cou
nty.
In
that
cou
nty,
whe
re th
ere
wer
e th
ree
times
as
man
y B
lack
stu
dent
s as
whi
te s
tude
nts,
per
cap
itasp
endi
ng o
n w
hite
stu
dent
s w
as $
179
per
year
, whi
le s
pend
-in
g on
Afr
ican
-Am
eric
an s
tude
nts
was
onl
y $4
3 pe
r ye
ar.
Thu
rgoo
d M
arsh
all a
rgue
d B
row
n v.
Boa
rd b
efor
e a
US
Supr
eme
Cou
rt c
row
ded
with
spe
ctat
ors
in D
ecem
ber
1952
.In
May
195
4, th
e ne
wly
-app
oint
ed C
hief
Jus
tice
Ear
l War
ren
read
the
Cou
rt's
opi
nion
: "W
e co
nclu
de, u
nani
mou
sly,
that
in th
e fi
eld
of p
ublic
edu
catio
n th
e do
ctri
ne o
f 's
epar
ate
but
equa
l' ha
s no
pla
ce. S
epar
ate
educ
atio
nal f
acili
ties
are
in-
here
ntly
une
qual
." F
ifty
-eig
ht y
ears
aft
er it
bec
ame
law
of
the
land
, Ple
ssy
v. F
ergu
son
was
rul
ed u
ncon
stitu
tiona
l. 3
How
ever
, the
Cou
rt d
id n
ot o
rder
des
egre
gatio
n to
take
plac
e im
med
iate
ly. A
yea
r la
ter,
in a
nnou
ncin
g ho
w it
sru
ling
shou
ld b
e im
plem
ente
d, it
ado
pted
a "
go s
low
" ap
-pr
oach
and
ask
ed lo
cal o
ffic
ials
and
judg
es to
dev
elop
de-
segr
egat
ion
plan
s "w
ith a
ll de
liber
ate
spee
d."
Wha
teve
r it
had
in m
ind,
the
Cou
rt in
eff
ect b
ough
t tim
e fo
r So
uthe
rnsc
hool
dis
tric
t off
icia
ls to
fig
ure
out h
ow to
avo
id in
tegr
atin
gth
eir
scho
ols
and
othe
r fa
cilit
ies.
Sin
ce p
ublic
opi
nion
pol
lssh
owed
that
80
perc
ent o
f w
hite
peo
ple
in th
e So
uth
oppo
sed
Bro
wn,
they
cou
ld c
ount
on
publ
ic s
uppo
rt.
It w
ould
take
act
ion
in th
e st
reet
s, a
s w
ell a
s th
e co
urts
, to
brin
g se
greg
atio
n to
an
end.
But
for
the
time
bein
g, th
e"s
tree
ts"
in m
uch
of th
e So
uth
still
bel
onge
d to
the
Ku
Klu
xK
lan
-- a
s th
e m
urde
r in
the
Mis
siss
ippi
Del
ta o
f a
14 y
ear-
old
boy
from
Chi
cago
atte
sted
. Em
met
t Till
was
bru
tally
kill
ed in
Aug
ust 1
955
beca
use
he a
llege
dly
said
"by
e" to
a w
hite
wom
an. A
n al
l-w
hite
jury
acq
uitte
d th
e tw
o w
hite
men
iden
tifie
d in
cou
rt a
s hi
s m
urde
rers
. The
y la
ter
adm
itted
that
they
had
kill
ed h
im. I
t see
med
to b
e bu
sine
ss a
s us
ual i
n th
eSo
uth.
Foot
note
s
1. A
goo
d so
urce
for
this
per
iod
aim
ed a
t you
nger
rea
ders
is J
oe W
illia
ms
Tro
tter,
Jr.
, Fro
m a
Raw
Dea
l to
a N
ew D
eal?
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans,
192
9 19
45, O
xfor
d U
nive
rsity
Pre
ss,
1996
; see
als
o Se
an D
enni
s C
ashm
an, A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s an
dth
e Q
uest
for
Civ
il R
ight
s, 1
990
-199
0, N
YU
Pre
ss, 1
991.
2. S
ee H
erbe
rt S
hapi
ro, W
hite
Vio
lenc
e an
d B
lack
Res
pons
e:Fr
om R
econ
stru
ctio
n to
Mon
tgom
ery,
Uni
vers
ity o
f M
assa
-ch
uset
ts P
ress
, 198
8.
3. T
he m
ost c
ompr
ehen
sive
--
yet r
eada
ble
-- a
ccou
nt o
fth
e le
gal c
halle
nge
clim
axin
g in
Bro
wn
is R
icha
rd K
luge
r,Si
mpl
e Ju
stic
e: T
he H
isto
ry o
f B
row
n v.
Boa
rd o
f E
duca
tion
and
Bla
ck A
mer
ica'
s St
rugg
le f
or E
qual
ity, V
inta
ge B
ooks
, 197
5.
Def
initi
ons
Cat
alys
t --
som
ethi
ng th
at g
ets
thin
gs m
ovin
g. S
ayin
g th
atth
e M
ovem
ent f
or r
ight
s fo
r A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s w
as a
cat
a-ly
st f
or th
e "r
ight
s re
volu
tion"
mea
ns it
led
to a
n ex
pans
ive
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
the
Bill
of
Rig
hts
unde
r U
S Su
prem
e C
ourt
Chi
ef J
ustic
e E
arl W
arre
n, w
hich
enl
arge
d th
e ri
ghts
of
all
Am
eric
ans
in th
e 19
60s
and
70s.
Des
egre
gatio
nth
e pr
oces
s of
und
oing
"se
para
te b
ut e
qual
,"es
peci
ally
in s
choo
ls. T
he c
ourt
s le
d th
e w
ay in
ord
erin
gsc
hool
s to
des
egre
gate
, with
out s
pelli
ng o
ut a
dequ
atel
yw
hat a
des
egre
gate
d sc
hool
wou
ld lo
ok li
ke a
nd h
ow it
cou
ldbe
ach
ieve
d.
New
Dea
l --
gove
rnm
ent-
initi
ated
pro
gram
s un
dert
aken
inth
e 19
30s
by P
resi
dent
Fra
nklin
Del
ano
Roo
seve
lt to
put
peop
le b
ack
to w
ork
and
get t
he e
cono
my
mov
ing
out o
f th
eD
epre
ssio
n w
hich
beg
an in
192
9.
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
153
d
Mov
emen
t Voi
ces:
Ove
rcom
ing
Fear
Hol
lis W
atki
ns w
as th
e 12
th c
hild
bor
n to
sha
recr
oppe
rs in
Sout
hwes
t Mis
siss
ippi
. He
was
19
whe
n he
met
Bob
Mos
es a
ndot
her
activ
ists
in M
cCom
b, M
issi
ssip
pi a
nd b
ecam
e in
volv
ed in
Mov
emen
t act
iviti
es a
s pa
rt o
f th
e St
uden
t Non
viol
ent C
oord
inat
-in
g C
omm
ittee
(SN
CC
). H
e w
as im
med
iate
ly a
nd r
epea
tedl
yja
iled,
gen
eral
ly f
or s
tints
of
40 d
ays.
His
sto
ries
, and
his
son
gs,
gave
us
an in
sigh
t int
o th
e ki
nd o
f m
enta
l out
look
whi
ch h
elpe
dM
ovem
ent a
ctiv
ists
ove
rcom
e fe
ar in
a p
art o
f th
e co
untr
y kn
own
for
its ly
nchi
ngs
and
raci
st b
ruta
lity.
Whi
le w
e w
ere
wor
king
in th
e D
elta
, we
wer
e th
row
n in
jail,
and
then
take
n to
the
Cou
nty
Farm
to w
ork
alon
g th
ero
ads.
Whi
le w
e w
ere
out t
here
on
the
wor
k si
tes,
we
wou
ldbe
thre
aten
ed b
y w
hite
s pa
ssin
g by
. The
y w
ould
aim
thei
rgu
ns a
t us
and
tell
us th
ey w
ere
goin
g to
sho
ot.
We
deci
ded
that
we
wou
ld o
verc
ome
the
Big
F a
nd g
o on
hung
er s
trik
e. O
ne r
easo
n fo
r th
e fe
ar w
as th
at w
e ha
d be
ensh
own
a w
ide
leat
her
stra
p w
ith b
ig h
oles
in it
. We
wer
e to
ldth
at th
ey w
ould
whi
p us
whe
n w
e w
ere
nake
d, a
nd th
e ho
les
wou
ld c
reat
e su
ctio
n, a
nd w
hen
they
sna
pped
it o
ff o
f yo
uth
e sk
in w
ould
blis
ter
up a
nd p
op. T
hey
also
had
a b
oard
with
nai
ls d
rive
n th
roug
h, a
nd a
leat
her
stra
p to
tie
it to
the
hand
so
they
cou
ld b
eat y
ou w
ith it
. It w
as k
ind
of f
righ
teni
ngto
you
ng p
eopl
e, b
ut w
e de
cide
d to
cha
nce
it. W
e to
ld th
emw
e w
ould
n't e
at o
r w
ork
until
we
wer
e m
oved
fro
m th
eC
ount
y Fa
rm. T
hey
thre
aten
ed u
s, b
ut w
e re
fuse
d to
com
eou
t and
go
to w
ork.
The
y as
ked
to ta
lk to
the
lead
er o
f ou
rgr
oup
we
said
whi
ch o
ne?
The
y sa
id th
e le
ader
; we
said
we
all a
re th
e le
ader
s. A
fter
two
days
, the
y sh
ippe
d us
out
of th
e C
ount
y Fa
rm to
Par
chm
an p
riso
n.T
he s
uper
inte
nden
t cam
e to
see
us
him
self
. He
said
that
in P
arch
man
we
wou
ld b
e ca
lling
him
dad
dy a
nd c
ryin
g fo
rm
ercy
. He
said
we
wou
ld b
e th
row
n in
the
hole
. He
said
itso
met
imes
get
s so
hot
in th
e ho
le th
at s
wea
t jus
t rol
ls o
ff th
ew
alls
. The
n he
told
us,
"G
et h
ow y
ou g
ot w
hen
you
cam
ein
to th
e w
orld
." S
o w
e al
l had
to g
et li
ke th
atpu
ll of
f
ever
ythi
ng. T
hen
they
put
all
14 o
f us
in a
cel
l bui
lt fo
r tw
o.E
vent
ually
, the
y pu
t all
of u
s in
sol
itary
con
fine
men
t, an
dw
e sa
w th
at it
did
get
so
hot t
hat t
he w
alls
beg
an to
sw
eat.
The
onl
y pl
ace
you
coul
d ge
t air
was
a li
ttle
crac
k at
the
botto
m o
f th
e do
or. T
hey
kept
us
ther
e fo
r 24
hou
rs. O
ne o
fth
e br
othe
rs p
asse
d ou
t. B
y th
e tim
e th
ey c
ame
to g
et h
im, h
eha
d a
tem
pera
ture
of
104
degr
ees.
The
y ga
ve h
im a
n as
piri
n.T
hey
cons
tant
ly th
reat
ened
to k
ill u
s w
hile
we
wer
eth
ere.
We
figu
red
out i
f w
e w
ent i
nto
the
hole
in g
roup
s of
no m
ore
than
thre
e, it
wou
ldn'
t be
so b
ad. S
o w
e w
ould
ask
,on
e by
one
, to
go in
to th
e ho
le.
In th
e be
ginn
ing,
they
acco
mm
odat
ed u
s. W
e ju
st s
ang
at th
e to
p of
our
lung
s w
hile
we
wer
e in
the
hole
, and
it m
ade
them
so
angr
y. T
hey
wou
ldsa
y, w
hat a
re y
ou d
oing
sin
ging
in th
ere,
shu
t up!
We'
d sa
y,w
e're
alr
eady
in th
e ho
le, w
hat a
re y
ou g
oing
to d
o to
us?
The
y w
ere
so m
ad th
ey'd
take
us
out,
and
wou
ldn'
t put
us
back
in w
hen
we
aske
d. S
o w
e to
ok th
e w
eapo
n of
the
hole
away
fro
m th
em in
the
men
tal b
attle
.O
nce
in M
cCom
b w
hen
I w
as a
rres
ted,
I w
as s
epar
ated
from
the
othe
r st
uden
ts a
nd ta
ken
to a
sm
all r
oom
. The
y ha
dw
hat I
gue
ss w
as s
ome
kind
of
judg
e in
that
roo
m, a
nd a
bout
eigh
t guy
s w
ho lo
oked
like
they
wor
ked
in a
n oi
l fie
ld. T
hey
wer
e go
ing
to m
ake
me
say
"yes
sir
" an
d "n
o si
r" to
them
,an
d I
refu
sed
to d
o th
at. W
hen
I re
fuse
d th
ey m
oved
clo
se to
me
and
thre
aten
ed m
e an
d I
star
ted
mak
ing
a se
nten
ce o
ut o
fm
y an
swer
s, in
stea
d of
say
ing
"yes
sir
," a
nd "
no s
ir."
Aft
erth
at, t
hey
put m
e in
ano
ther
roo
m. A
bout
ten
min
utes
late
r,th
e do
or o
pene
d, a
nd th
ree
men
wal
ked
in in
pla
in c
loth
es.
The
y ha
d a
rope
in th
eir
hand
s, w
ith a
han
ging
noo
se ti
ed in
it. T
here
was
a li
ttle
red
ribb
on a
t the
end
of
the
noos
e."O
K, n
igge
r ge
t up,
we'
re g
oing
to h
ave
a ha
ngin
gto
nigh
t, an
d yo
u're
goi
ng to
be
firs
t." I
just
lean
ed b
ack
in th
ech
air,
look
ed a
t the
m a
nd s
mile
d. A
fter
I lo
oked
them
in th
eey
e fo
r a
whi
le, t
hey
turn
ed a
roun
d an
d w
ent o
ut. S
o I
neve
rw
as h
ange
d.H
ollis
Wat
kins
to P
roje
ct H
IP-H
OP,
Jul
y 18
, 199
7
Act
ivity
Hav
e yo
u ev
er b
een
in a
situ
atio
n w
here
you
had
toov
erco
me
fear
? H
ow d
id y
ou d
o it?
Imag
ine
wha
t it m
ust h
ave
been
like
to g
row
up
ina
soci
ety
whe
re f
ear
was
use
d to
uni
te w
hite
soc
iety
and
keep
Bla
cks
in th
eir
plac
e at
the
botto
m o
f th
e ra
cial
hier
arch
y. W
hat w
ould
it ta
ke to
ove
rcom
e th
at s
ort o
ffe
arfe
ar w
hich
was
par
t of
the
land
scap
e an
d th
e ai
ryo
u br
eath
ed?
Peop
le w
ho tr
ied
to g
et th
e pr
actic
e of
lync
hing
sto
pped
, lik
e th
e co
urag
eous
Afr
ican
-Am
eric
anjo
urna
list I
da B
. Wel
ls B
arne
tt, w
ere
ofte
n th
emse
lves
atta
cked
and
for
ced
to le
ave
tow
nor
wor
se. W
hen
fear
is r
einf
orce
d w
ith b
ruta
l ret
alia
tion,
how
do
you
begi
n to
cha
nge
thin
gs?
How
do
you
thin
k yo
u w
ould
hav
e re
acte
d if
fac
edw
ith s
ome
of th
e si
tuat
ions
des
crib
ed b
y H
ollis
Wat
kins
?T
ry to
imag
ine
your
self
in h
is s
ituat
ion.
Do
you
thin
kth
at b
eing
par
t of
a gr
oup
wou
ld h
elp
you
do th
ings
you
mig
ht o
ther
wis
e be
afr
aid
to d
o? W
hy?
Why
do
you
thin
k si
ngin
g w
as s
o im
port
ant t
o M
ovem
ent a
ctiv
ists
?
We
aske
d H
ollis
Wat
kins
if h
e ev
er f
elt o
ver-
whe
lmed
, and
fel
t his
com
mitm
ent g
ettin
g sh
aky?
"I n
ever
que
stio
ned
my
com
mitm
ent,"
he
told
us.
"The
re w
ere
times
whe
n I
was
afr
aid,
but
I k
new
I h
adto
do
it an
yway
.I
was
mor
e af
raid
of
wha
t mig
htha
ppen
if I
did
n't d
o it
than
if I
did
."
Wha
t do
you
thin
k he
mea
nt b
y th
at s
tate
men
t?
163
3H
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:7
"We
wan
t the
wor
ld to
kno
w th
atw
e no
long
erac
cept
the
infe
rior
pos
ition
of
seco
nd-c
lass
citi-
zens
hip.
We
are
will
ing
to b
e ri
dicu
led,
spa
tup
on a
nd e
ven
suff
er p
hysi
cal v
iole
nce
to o
btai
nFi
rst C
lass
Citi
zens
hip.
"
SNC
C N
ewsl
ette
r, 1
960
UN
IT F
OU
R: T
he M
ovem
ent f
or C
ivil
Rig
hts
"Wha
t is
fres
h, w
hat i
s ne
w in
you
r fi
ght i
s th
e fa
ct th
atit
was
initi
ated
, led
, and
sus
tain
ed b
y st
uden
ts. W
hat i
sne
wis
that
Am
eric
an s
tude
nts
have
com
e of
age
. You
now
take
your
hon
ored
pla
ces
in th
e w
orld
-wid
e st
rugg
le f
or f
reed
om."
Mar
tin L
uthe
r K
ing,
Jr.
to a
Nor
th C
arol
ina
rally
, Feb
ruar
y16
, 196
0
Whe
n Pr
ojec
t HIP
-HO
P gi
ves
pres
enta
tions
on
the
Mov
emen
t of
the
1950
s an
d 60
s,w
e lik
e to
talk
abo
ut tw
oca
mpa
igns
, one
aga
inst
seg
rega
tion,
and
one
for
vot
ing
righ
ts. W
e re
gard
the
Mov
emen
t, w
hose
larg
er a
im is
hum
anri
ghts
, as
som
ethi
ng th
at s
houl
d no
t be
conf
ined
to th
e si
ngle
deca
de o
f 19
55-1
965.
In
light
of
how
muc
h of
the
Mov
emen
t's"u
nfin
ishe
d bu
sine
ss"
rem
ains
,w
e se
e th
e M
ovem
ent a
son
goin
g, a
s so
met
hing
in w
hich
we
can
take
par
t.T
his
hist
ory,
then
, bec
omes
our
tool
. We
can
take
fro
mth
ese
stor
ies
info
rmat
ion
we
can
use
toda
yab
out e
ffec
tive
orga
nizi
ng, s
ucce
ssfu
l str
ateg
izin
g, w
hat i
t mea
ns to
be
ago
od le
ader
. "Fr
eedo
m,"
sai
d D
iane
Nas
h, "
is p
eopl
e re
al-
izin
g th
at th
ey a
re th
eir
own
Iead
ers.
...T
hean
swer
is in
eac
hof
us.
" 1
We
lear
n ab
out t
he r
ole
play
ed b
yyo
ung
peop
le,
like
Dia
ne N
ash,
who
was
18
year
s ol
d w
hen
she
orga
nize
dth
e Fr
eedo
m R
ides
. And
whe
nw
e le
arn
abou
t the
dif
ficu
lties
our
pred
eces
sors
fac
ed, w
e ca
n al
so f
eel a
dee
p ap
prec
iatio
nfo
r w
hat t
hey
endu
red
and
over
cam
e.
The
fig
ht a
gain
st s
egre
gatio
n
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
has
visi
ted
both
the
Sout
h an
d So
uth
Afr
ica.
The
wor
d "a
part
heid
,"A
frik
aans
for
"se
para
te-
ness
," o
rigi
nate
d in
Sou
th A
fric
a, w
here
Bla
cks
wer
e no
tal
low
ed to
live
whe
re w
hite
s liv
ed, t
hey
coul
dn't
atte
ndsc
hool
s se
t apa
rt f
or w
hite
peo
ple,
and
they
wer
e ke
pt o
ut o
ffa
cilit
ies
rese
rved
for
whi
te p
eopl
e. T
he id
ea w
as to
mai
ntai
ntw
o se
para
te s
ocie
ties
in o
ne n
atio
n, o
ne b
lack
and
one
whi
te.
Whi
tes
cont
rolle
d th
e bu
lk o
f th
e la
nd, t
he r
esou
rces
, and
the
mon
ey a
nd w
ere
dete
rmin
ed to
kee
p B
lack
peop
le o
ut o
pow
er.
Tho
ugh
the
conn
ectio
n us
ually
isn'
t mad
e, m
any
aspe
ct:
of th
e ap
arth
eid
syst
em e
xist
ed in
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es b
awl
the
1960
s. N
ot o
nly
wer
e B
lack
s an
d w
hite
s fo
rcib
ly s
epar
ated
but p
ower
econ
omic
and
pol
itica
lre
mai
ned
in w
hit!
hand
s. T
he p
oliti
cal a
nd e
cono
mic
sys
tem
the
gove
rnm
ent
corp
orat
ions
, the
med
ia, e
tc.
mai
nly
serv
ed w
hite
peo
ple
Eve
n in
the
1940
s an
d 50
s, m
any
whi
tes
saw
the
"Neg
ro"
a:ha
ving
no
bette
r fu
nctio
n th
an s
ervi
ng w
hite
peo
ple.
Tha
tan
yway
, was
the
assu
mpt
ion
unde
r w
hich
the
Am
eric
a!so
cial
str
uctu
re o
pera
ted.
But
ther
e w
as a
big
dif
fere
nce
betw
een
the
Uni
ted
Stat
e:an
d So
uth
Afr
ica.
In
Sout
h A
fric
a, a
part
heid
was
the
high
esla
w o
f th
e la
nd b
efor
e it
was
end
ed in
the
1990
s. B
ut in
the
US,
on
pape
r at
leas
t, th
e C
onst
itutio
n an
d B
ill o
f R
ight
s ga
v(al
l Am
eric
ans
cert
ain
righ
ts, i
nclu
ding
the
vote
and
the
righ
to b
e tr
eate
d eq
ually
bef
ore
the
law
. The
Mov
emen
t wa!
abou
t mak
ing
thos
e ri
ghts
mor
e th
an a
pie
ce o
f pa
per.
Wha
t fol
low
s ar
e so
me
of th
e ke
y si
tes
of th
e Pr
ojec
t HIP
-H
OP
itine
rary
.
The
Mon
tgom
ery
bus
boyc
ott
If s
tude
nts
know
littl
e el
se a
bout
the
Mov
emen
t, th
eyha
ve g
ener
ally
hea
rd th
e na
me
Ros
a Pa
rks.
On
Dec
embe
r 1,
1955
this
43-
year
-old
sea
mst
ress
boa
rded
a C
leve
land
Av
enue
bus
and
sat
in th
e fi
rst s
eat j
ust b
ehin
d th
e w
hite
sec
tion.
At t
hat t
ime,
in M
ontg
omer
y, it
was
ille
gal f
or A
fric
anA
mer
ican
s to
rid
e in
the
fron
t of
the
bus.
The
y ha
d to
pay
thei
r fa
re a
t the
fro
nt, b
ut th
en h
ad to
re-
boar
d th
e bu
s at
the
back
. And
if w
hite
peo
ple
wer
e st
andi
ng, B
lack
s, a
s se
cond
-cl
ass
citiz
ens,
had
to g
ive
up th
eir
own
seat
s. T
his
part
icul
aibu
s w
as s
oon
fille
d w
ith w
hite
peo
ple.
A w
hite
man
was
left
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
3J9
17
stan
ding
. The
bus
dri
ver
orde
red
the
Bla
ck r
ider
s to
giv
eth
eir
seat
s up
. All
but P
arks
obe
yed.
The
pol
ice
wer
e ca
lled
in a
nd s
he w
as a
rres
ted.
Ros
a Pa
rks
is o
ften
por
tray
ed a
s a
tired
wom
an, t
ooex
haus
ted
afte
r a
long
day
's w
ork
to m
ove.
The
rea
lity
is th
atPa
rks
was
wel
l aw
are
of w
hat s
he w
as d
oing
. She
had
bee
nth
e fi
rst S
ecre
tary
for
the
Ala
bam
a St
ate
Con
fere
nce
ofN
AA
CP
bran
ches
. The
sum
mer
bef
ore
her
refu
sal t
o m
ove
on th
e bu
s, s
he h
ad a
ttend
ed a
wor
ksho
p at
the
Hig
hlan
der
Cen
ter
in T
enne
ssee
, a tr
aini
ng c
ente
r fo
r or
gani
zing
.T
here
was
als
o a
hist
ory
in M
ontg
omer
y of
suc
h in
di-
vidu
al a
cts
of r
esis
tanc
e. C
laud
ette
Col
vin,
for
exa
mpl
e, a
15-
year
-ol
d hi
gh-s
choo
l sop
hom
ore,
had
sev
en m
onth
s ea
rlie
rre
fuse
d to
giv
e he
r se
at u
p fo
r a
whi
te p
erso
n. S
he to
o w
asar
rest
ed. T
he p
olic
e ha
d ev
en p
arad
ed h
er b
efor
e he
r sc
hool
-m
ates
whi
le s
he s
at in
the
back
of
thei
r ca
r. C
olvi
n la
ter
join
ed th
e N
AA
CP'
s yo
uth
bran
ch in
Mon
tgom
ery,
whi
chR
osa
Park
s ha
d fo
unde
d.T
he B
lack
com
mun
ity q
uick
ly m
obili
zed
in s
uppo
rt o
fPa
rks.
The
NA
AC
P sa
w in
her
cas
e an
opp
ortu
nity
to a
ttack
segr
egat
ion
in th
e co
urts
. Jo
Ann
Rob
inso
n an
d th
e W
omen
'sPo
litic
al C
ounc
il or
gani
zed
a on
e-da
y bu
s bo
ycot
t whi
ch,
with
the
help
of
an a
llian
ce o
f m
inis
ters
, gre
w to
bec
ome
a38
1-da
y bo
ycot
t. T
he s
trat
egy
was
dir
ect e
cono
mic
act
ion.
The
Bla
ck c
omm
unity
wou
ld n
ot r
ide
the
buse
s. P
eopl
ew
alke
d m
iles
to w
ork,
they
org
aniz
ed c
ar-p
ools
invo
lvin
g15
0 ve
hicl
es, d
rove
wag
ons,
and
eve
n ro
de m
ules
. But
they
kept
off
the
buse
s. T
heir
com
mitm
ent t
o ci
vil r
ight
s ou
t-w
eigh
ed th
e di
ffic
ulty
they
had
to e
ndur
e.B
lack
chu
rche
s be
cam
e ce
nter
s fo
r or
gani
zing
and
re-
new
al. A
gro
up o
f m
inis
ters
org
aniz
ed th
e M
ontg
omer
yIm
prov
emen
t Ass
ocia
tion
(MIA
) to
car
ry o
ut th
e bo
ycot
t. A
new
min
iste
r in
Bir
min
gham
, 26-
year
-old
Mar
tin L
uthe
rK
ing,
pas
tor
of th
e D
exte
r A
venu
e B
aptis
t Chu
rch,
was
nom
inat
ed p
resi
dent
.T
he o
rgan
izin
g in
Mon
tgom
ery
cros
sed
clas
s lin
es, a
nd b
roug
ht th
e en
tire
Afr
ican
-Am
eric
anco
mm
unity
toge
ther
.T
he w
hite
pow
er s
truc
ture
rea
cted
sha
rply
aga
inst
this
affr
ont t
o th
eir
pow
er. T
he B
lack
com
mun
ity in
Mon
tgom
ery
was
, in
effe
ct, d
eman
ding
equ
al tr
eatm
ent.
The
y w
ante
d to
be a
ble
to s
it w
here
they
wan
ted
to. W
hite
s fe
ared
that
if th
eyle
t Bla
cks
sit i
n th
e fr
ont o
f th
e bu
s, th
ey w
ould
dem
and
mor
eri
ghts
. The
y m
ight
eve
n w
ant a
sha
re o
f th
e ec
onom
ic a
ndpo
litic
al p
ower
.T
he m
ayor
thus
beg
an a
"ge
t-to
ugh"
pol
icy,
whi
ch r
eally
mea
nt a
n of
fici
al p
olic
y of
har
assm
ent.
Man
y B
lack
s w
hopa
rtic
ipat
ed in
the
boyc
ott w
ere
fire
d fr
om th
eir
jobs
, pol
ice
targ
eted
car
-poo
lers
with
trum
ped-
up ti
cket
s, s
ome
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
wer
e ph
ysic
ally
atta
cked
, and
the
hom
e of
Dr.
Kin
g w
as b
ombe
d. D
espi
te th
is, t
he b
oyco
tters
pre
vaile
d.M
ovem
ent v
eter
an H
ollis
Wat
kins
has
told
us
that
one
of
the
hard
est o
bsta
cles
Mov
emen
t act
ivis
ts h
ad to
fac
e w
asth
eir
own
fear
. But
onc
e fe
ar (
"the
big
F,"
Hol
lis c
alls
it)
was
over
com
e, a
ctiv
ists
cou
ld f
ocus
on
thei
r ai
ms.
Dur
ing
the
boyc
ott,
a M
ontg
omer
y ju
ry in
dict
ed 8
9 m
inis
ters
, inc
ludi
ngK
ing,
with
a r
arel
y-us
ed la
w. R
athe
r th
an a
wai
t arr
est,
the
boyc
otte
rs im
med
iate
ly w
ent t
o th
e co
urth
ouse
and
ask
ed to
be c
harg
ed. T
his
was
an
exam
ple
of h
ow p
rote
ster
s no
t onl
yfa
ced
fear
, but
cla
imed
thei
r ow
n po
wer
.T
he s
ucce
ss o
f th
e ye
ar-l
ong
boyc
ott s
urpr
ised
eve
ryon
e.T
he s
trat
egy
of e
cono
mic
act
ion
deva
stat
ed M
ontg
omer
y.T
he b
us c
ompa
ny lo
st 6
5 pe
rcen
t of
its in
com
e. B
ecau
se o
f th
ere
stri
cted
trav
el o
f B
lack
s, d
ownt
own
stor
es lo
st o
ver
am
illio
n do
llars
in s
ales
, and
the
US
Supr
eme
Cou
rt, a
t lon
gla
st, d
ecla
red
bus
segr
egat
ion
unco
nstit
utio
nal.
Tod
ay, M
ontg
omer
y is
the
site
of
a be
autif
ul C
ivil
Rig
hts
Mem
oria
l, w
hich
rem
embe
rs th
ose
who
lost
thei
r liv
es in
the
stru
ggle
.
The
sit-
in m
ovem
ent
The
Mov
emen
t eru
pted
on
man
y fr
onts
. Cam
paig
ns in
one
stat
e in
spir
ed s
imila
r pr
otes
ts in
ano
ther
. Soo
n, w
hat
bega
n as
loca
l dem
ands
for
civ
il ri
ghts
ass
umed
a m
ore
natio
nal f
ace.
A n
atio
nal M
ovem
ent w
as ta
king
sha
pe. F
orex
ampl
e, w
hen
four
bla
ck s
tude
nts
from
an
hist
oric
ally
-
Mov
emen
t Voi
ces
"I m
ade
a ch
oice
at a
ge 1
8 to
leav
e H
owar
d U
nive
rsity
and
wor
k fo
r ch
ange
. I h
ad to
bec
ome
mor
e se
riou
s w
hen
Ito
ok o
n th
e re
spon
sibi
lity
of ta
mpe
ring
with
peo
ple'
sliv
es...
Eve
ry ti
me
I to
ok s
omeo
ne d
own
to th
e co
urt h
ouse
tore
gist
er to
vot
e, I
ris
ked
thei
r liv
es a
nd th
eir
jobs
. Aft
er y
ouse
e so
muc
h de
ath
and
viol
ence
and
hat
red,
you
can
get
knoc
ked
out,
neve
r to
rec
over
."L
ike
othe
r st
uden
ts in
the
sit-
ins,
etc
., I
took
big
ris
ks.
We
mad
e a
who
le o
ther
leve
l of
com
mitm
ent,
whi
ch is
why
thin
gs c
hang
ed. T
he s
trug
gle
for
us w
as a
bout
bui
ldin
ghu
man
ity a
nd b
uild
ing
fam
ilies
and
bui
ldin
g co
mm
unity
,no
t abo
ut d
estr
uctio
n. T
oday
we
need
to g
o ba
ck to
the
basi
cs.
We
need
to g
o ba
ck to
lear
ning
our
his
tory
."
Cle
vela
nd S
elle
rs to
Pro
ject
HIP
-HO
P, J
uly
10, 1
997
"The
vas
t maj
ority
of
peop
le in
volv
ed in
the
Civ
il R
ight
sM
ovem
ent w
ere
youn
g pe
ople
. The
env
iron
men
t now
is n
otm
uch
diff
eren
t tha
n in
the
60s.
But
the
maj
or d
iffe
renc
e is
that
then
ther
e w
as a
n or
gani
zatio
n yo
ung
peop
le c
ould
get
into
and
be
in c
harg
e of
to s
ome
degr
ee."
Hol
lis W
atki
ns to
Pro
ject
HIP
-HO
P, J
uly
18, 1
997
"Tod
ay w
e ne
ed to
dea
l with
issu
es a
t loc
al le
vels
, and
at
a hi
stor
ical
junc
ture
the
righ
t iss
ue w
ill h
it an
d w
e ca
n ra
llyto
it. W
e ca
nnot
cre
ate
a w
ave,
but
we
mus
t equ
ip o
urse
lves
men
tally
and
phy
sica
lly to
rid
e th
e w
ave
whe
n th
e w
ave
com
es. N
o on
e kn
ew w
hen
the
sit-
ins
star
ted
that
a w
ave
was
com
ing.
Nat
iona
l mov
emen
ts c
ome
at k
ey p
oint
s in
his
tory
-- w
e m
ust b
e pr
epar
ed."
Rev
. Har
old
Mid
dleb
rook
to P
roje
ct H
IP-H
OP,
July
24,
199
7
1840
41H
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Voi
ces
If I
wer
e a
child
of
the
Mov
emen
t, I
wou
ld w
ant
som
eone
to h
elp
me.
I w
ould
beg
in to
won
der
why
I h
adto
live
in th
is h
ouse
, dri
nk f
rom
this
fou
ntai
n, g
o to
this
scho
ol.
I w
ould
wis
h th
at M
omm
a an
d D
addy
cou
ldpr
otec
t me.
I w
ould
dre
am th
at I
cou
ld w
alk
to s
choo
lan
d no
t be
curs
ed a
nd k
icke
d by
adu
lts.
Just
bec
ause
of
my
colo
r.
If I
wer
e a
child
of
the
Mov
emen
t, I
wou
ld w
ish
that
my
brot
her
coul
d on
ce a
gain
teas
e m
e, o
r pu
ll m
y ha
ir.
I w
ould
wis
h th
at li
fe c
ould
be
the
sam
e as
it w
as b
efor
ehe
was
take
n.B
efor
e he
die
d fo
r th
e ca
use.
If I
wer
e a
child
of
the
Mov
emen
t, I
wou
ld w
ish
peop
le w
ould
sto
p te
lling
me
to "
shhh
" or
"be
qui
et,
girl
," o
r "d
on't
look
him
in th
e ey
es, o
r he
'll s
hoot
you
."I
wou
ld p
lan
to b
e in
visi
ble,
bec
ause
I w
as s
care
d.I
wou
ld w
ant t
o liv
e.
If I
wer
e a
child
of
the
Mov
emen
t, I
wou
ld w
ant a
llot
her
child
ren
to s
top
play
ing
and
look
at m
e, th
e re
alm
e, n
ot m
y co
lor.
I w
ould
wan
t to
be o
n ev
eryo
ne's
min
d, a
lway
s, o
ccup
ying
eve
ryon
e's
thou
ghts
unt
il th
eyco
uld
bear
it n
o lo
nger
.I
wou
ld ju
st w
ant t
o be
fre
e.
Man
y pe
ople
fel
t tha
t you
ng p
eopl
e, e
spec
ially
sm
all
child
ren,
sho
uld
not h
ave
been
on
the
fron
t lin
es o
f no
nvi
olen
t dir
ect a
ctio
n ca
mpa
igns
. Mal
colm
X, f
or in
-st
ance
, sai
d he
did
n't t
hink
that
"yo
ung
stud
ents
sho
uld
be s
ent i
nto
Mis
siss
ippi
, Ala
bam
a an
d th
ese
othe
r pl
aces
with
out s
ome
kind
of
prot
ectio
n" (
Febr
uary
11,
196
5).
Wha
t do
you
thin
k ab
out t
he r
ole
play
ed b
y yo
uth?
Wou
ld th
e M
ovem
ent h
ave
been
so
effe
ctiv
e w
ithou
t it?
Bla
ck N
orth
Car
olin
a co
llege
pra
ctic
ed a
for
m o
f no
nvio
lent
dire
ct a
ctio
n, a
sit-
in, t
heir
exa
mpl
e in
spir
ed s
tude
nt s
it-in
sth
roug
hout
the
Sout
h.O
n Fe
brua
ry 1
, 196
0, f
our
Bla
ck f
resh
men
fro
m N
orth
Car
olin
a A
gric
ultu
ral a
nd T
echn
ical
Col
lege
wal
ked
into
alo
cal W
oolw
orth
's. T
he s
tude
nts
wan
ted
to c
halle
nge
the
segr
egat
ion
law
s. T
hey
inte
nded
to s
how
how
rid
icul
ous
the
segr
egat
ion
law
s w
ere.
The
y m
ade
sure
to b
uy a
few
item
s at
the
stor
e co
unte
r, li
ke to
othp
aste
and
sch
ool s
uppl
ies.
The
nth
ey s
at a
t the
lunc
h co
unte
r, a
war
e th
at th
e st
ate
proh
ibite
dA
fric
an A
mer
ican
s fr
om b
eing
ser
ved.
Whe
n th
e w
aitr
ess
told
them
, "I'm
sor
ry. W
e do
n't s
erve
colo
reds
her
e,"
one
stud
ent,
Eze
ll B
lair
, Jr.
, rep
lied,
"I
beg
todi
sagr
ee w
ith y
ou. W
e've
in f
act a
lrea
dy b
een
serv
ed; y
ou'v
ese
rved
us
at a
sto
re c
ount
er tw
o fe
et f
rom
her
e."
The
poi
ntw
as a
poi
gnan
t one
, tha
t seg
rega
tion
mad
e no
rea
l sen
se. T
hew
aitr
ess
igno
red
the
stud
ents
, but
they
rem
aine
d se
ated
until
the
stor
e cl
osed
. The
nex
t day
they
ret
urne
d, th
is ti
me
rein
forc
ed b
y so
me
20 f
ello
w s
tude
nts,
incl
udin
g fo
ur w
omen
from
nea
r by
Ben
nett
Col
lege
.T
he s
it-in
con
tinue
d a
thir
d da
y. W
hite
stu
dent
s be
gan
taki
ng p
art i
n th
e pr
otes
t.St
uden
ts s
oon
fille
d th
eW
oolw
orth
's. A
fter
a b
omb
thre
at a
nd tw
o w
eeks
of
sit-
ins,
Woo
lwor
th's
shu
t its
doo
rs. B
ut b
y th
en, t
he s
it-in
had
spre
ad to
an
S. H
. Kre
ss s
tore
nea
rby.
In
two
mon
ths
the
sit-
in m
ovem
ent w
as a
ctiv
e in
54
citie
s in
nin
e st
ates
. Eve
n in
New
Yor
k, W
oolw
orth
's s
tore
s w
ere
pick
eted
by
whi
te C
o-lu
mbi
a st
uden
ts.
Whe
n Pr
ojec
t HIP
-HO
P fi
rst v
isite
d G
reen
sbor
o in
199
3,w
e sa
t at t
he W
oolw
orth
's c
ount
er w
here
the
sit-
ins
bega
n.Si
nce
then
, the
Gre
ensb
oro
Woo
lwor
th's
has
bee
n cl
osed
.So
me
of th
e st
ools
hav
e be
en m
oved
to th
e G
reen
sbor
oM
useu
m, a
nd o
ther
s ta
ken
to th
e Sm
ithso
nian
.
The
Mov
emen
t Str
ateg
y of
non
viol
ence
"Non
viol
ent d
irec
t act
ion,
" w
rote
Dr.
Kin
g in
his
Let
ter
from
a B
irm
ingh
am J
ail,
"see
ks to
cre
ate
such
a c
risi
s an
d fo
ster
such
a te
nsio
n th
at a
com
mun
ity w
hich
has
con
stan
tly r
e-fu
sed
to n
egot
iate
is f
orce
d to
con
fron
t the
issu
e. I
t see
ks to
dram
atiz
e th
e is
sue
that
can
no
long
er b
e ig
nore
d."
2T
here
was
not
hing
pas
sive
abo
ut th
is f
orm
of
conf
ront
a-tio
n. I
nste
ad, i
t was
a w
ay o
f fa
cing
inju
stic
e an
d vi
olen
cehe
ad o
n, in
an
atte
mpt
to p
ersu
ade
oppr
esso
rsan
d th
ena
tion
of th
e in
just
ice
of th
eir
actio
ns.
Thi
s st
rate
gy p
rove
d ef
fect
ive.
But
it r
equi
red
rigo
rous
trai
ning
. The
re w
ere
nonv
iole
nce
wor
ksho
ps w
hich
taug
htst
uden
ts h
ow to
con
duct
them
selv
es. "
Sit s
trai
ght,"
for
ex-
ampl
e, o
r "D
on't
laug
h,"
or "
Don
't cu
rse.
" A
s si
t-in
s be
cam
em
ore
popu
lar,
whi
tes
bega
n th
eir
own
cam
paig
n of
har
ass-
men
t. A
s in
the
bus
boyc
ott,
whi
tes
felt
thre
aten
ed b
y th
isdi
spla
y of
stu
dent
pow
er. T
hey
bega
n to
hec
kle
the
stud
ents
,ye
lling
"ni
gger
" at
Bla
cks
and
"nig
ger
love
r" a
t whi
tes.
The
yth
rew
foo
d an
d co
ndim
ents
at t
he s
tude
nts.
Som
e ev
engr
ound
thei
r ci
gare
ttes
into
the
back
s of
pro
test
ers.
The
polic
e hi
t the
stu
dent
s w
ith b
illy
club
s, le
t the
dog
s lo
ose
onth
em, a
nd u
sed
tear
gas
to b
lind
them
.T
hrou
ghou
t all
this
the
stud
ents
had
to r
emai
n di
sci-
plin
ed. T
hey
coul
d no
t ret
alia
te. T
hey
had
to k
eep
in m
ind
that
not
onl
y th
e w
hite
hec
kler
s, b
ut th
e w
hite
pow
er s
truc
ture
awai
ted
any
brea
k of
com
posu
re. I
f a
Bla
ck s
tude
nt s
truc
kba
ck a
t his
ass
aila
nt, t
hat s
tude
nt w
ould
not
onl
y be
arr
este
dan
d pr
obab
ly b
eate
n up
, but
the
stat
e w
ould
be
sure
to p
lay
up th
at in
cide
nt in
ord
er to
dis
cred
it th
e si
t-in
mov
emen
t.B
lack
s ha
d to
rel
y on
the
just
ice
of th
eir
caus
e, a
nd th
ey h
adto
hav
e fa
ith th
at th
e po
wer
s-th
at-b
ew
hich
wer
e w
hite
wou
ld e
vent
ually
rec
ogni
ze ju
stic
e w
as o
n th
eir
side
. Thi
sw
as a
str
ateg
y us
ed a
gain
and
aga
in.
Cer
tain
ly th
e yo
ung
peop
le w
ere
quic
ker
than
adu
lts to
deci
de o
n w
hich
sid
e ju
stic
e la
y. B
y th
e en
d of
196
0 ab
out
70,0
00 p
eopl
e, m
ost o
f th
em s
tude
nts,
had
par
ticip
ated
in a
sit-
in, a
mar
ch, o
r a
rally
. The
you
ng w
ere
part
icul
arly
sui
ted
to ta
ke p
art
and
give
sha
peto
wha
t was
bec
omin
g th
eM
ovem
ent.
The
y ha
d th
e co
urag
e to
dem
and
just
ice.
Mor
epr
actic
ally
, stu
dent
s co
uld
affo
rd to
take
par
t in
activ
ities
whi
ch c
halle
nged
peo
ple
in p
ower
. The
y di
dn't
have
to
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
19
wor
ry s
o m
uch
abou
t an
empl
oyer
fir
ing
them
. Nor
did
they
have
to w
orry
abo
ut s
uppo
rtin
g fa
mili
es.
For
man
y w
hite
stu
dent
s, p
artic
ipat
ion
in th
e gr
owin
gM
ovem
ent w
as a
way
to d
ista
nce
them
selv
es f
rom
the
valu
esth
eir
pare
nts
stoo
d fo
r. M
any
may
hav
e fe
lt di
senc
hant
edw
ith th
e w
orld
of
thei
r pa
rent
s. T
hey
may
hav
e se
en th
eM
ovem
ent a
s an
alte
rnat
ive
to ta
king
thei
r pl
ace
in th
esy
stem
thei
r pa
rent
s su
ppor
ted.
The
ir e
nerg
ies,
they
fel
t,w
ere
bette
r sp
ent i
n w
orki
ng f
or a
bet
ter
wor
ld th
an in
wor
king
to s
usta
in a
n ol
d an
d un
just
one
.T
hat E
aste
r w
eeke
nd o
f 19
60, s
tude
nts
from
Sou
ther
nB
lack
col
lege
s ca
me
toge
ther
to ta
lk a
bout
how
they
cou
ldpl
ay a
par
t in
sust
aini
ng a
mov
emen
t for
cha
nge.
Exp
eri-
ence
d ac
tivis
t Ella
Bak
er, i
n a
spee
ch e
ntitl
ed "
Mor
e T
han
aH
ambu
rger
," s
poke
abo
ut h
ow th
e st
uden
ts n
eede
d to
do
mor
e th
an in
tegr
ate
the
lunc
h co
unte
rs. T
hey
need
ed to
chan
ge th
e en
tire
soci
al s
truc
ture
. Thi
s ta
sk, B
aker
bel
ieve
d,w
as a
task
bes
t lef
t for
you
ng p
eopl
e. T
o th
e ol
der
mem
bers
of th
e co
nfer
ence
, she
sai
d: "
The
you
nger
gen
erat
ion
isch
alle
ngin
g yo
u an
d m
e. T
hey
are
aski
ng u
s to
for
get o
urla
zine
ss a
nd d
oubt
and
fea
r an
d fo
llow
our
ded
icat
ion
to th
etr
uth
to th
e bi
tter
end.
" 3
It w
as a
t thi
s co
nfer
ence
that
SN
CC
, or
the
Stud
ent
Non
viol
ent C
oord
inat
ing
Com
mitt
ee, w
as f
orm
ed. I
t wou
ldbe
com
e th
e dy
nam
o w
hich
pow
ered
man
y of
the
Mov
emen
t'sca
mpa
igns
for
cha
nge.
The
Bir
min
gham
Chi
ldre
n's
Cru
sade
Whe
n Pr
ojec
t HIP
-HO
P vi
sits
Bir
min
gham
, a to
ur o
f th
eC
ivil
Rig
hts
Inst
itute
and
the
exhi
bits
in th
e ad
jace
nt K
elly
Ingr
am P
ark
mak
es it
cle
ar w
hy M
artin
Lut
her
Kin
g, J
r. h
adca
lled
Bir
min
gham
the
mos
t seg
rega
ted
city
in A
mer
ica.
The
city
was
a h
otbe
d of
rac
ial d
isco
rd. B
etw
een
1957
and
1963
,18
unso
lved
bom
bing
s in
Bla
ck n
eigh
borh
oods
ear
ned
the
city
its
nick
nam
e, "
Bom
bing
ham
." T
here
was
eve
n an
inst
ance
of
a sc
ienc
e te
xtbo
ok b
eing
ban
ned
for
disp
layi
ng a
pict
ure
of b
lack
and
whi
te r
abbi
ts to
geth
er. T
he m
ost i
nfa-
mou
s of
Bir
min
gham
's r
esid
ents
was
its
polic
e ch
ief,
Eug
ene
"Bul
l" C
onno
r. H
e w
as c
alle
d th
e "c
omm
issi
oner
of
publ
icsa
fety
," th
ough
he
had
a lo
ng h
isto
ry o
f je
opar
dizi
ng th
esa
fety
of
Bla
ck p
eopl
e.C
ivil
righ
ts le
ader
s pl
anne
d a
cam
paig
n to
cha
lleng
ese
greg
atio
n in
Bir
min
gham
. The
cam
paig
n, P
roje
ct C
, wou
ldse
lect
boy
cott
targ
ets
and
mob
ilize
dem
onst
ratio
ns. T
he "
C"
stoo
d fo
r "c
onfr
onta
tion.
"T
he f
irst
sta
ge o
f Pr
ojec
t C b
egan
with
a r
ound
of
sit-
ins.
"Bul
l" C
onno
r qu
ickl
y ar
rest
ed th
e de
mon
stra
tors
. By
the
wee
k's
end,
mor
e th
an 1
50 h
ad b
een
arre
sted
.C
onno
r re
sort
ed to
a f
ull a
rsen
al o
f te
rror
. In
addi
tion
toni
ghts
ticks
, he
unle
ashe
d po
lice
dogs
upo
n de
mon
stra
tors
,he
use
d fi
re h
oses
with
a c
urre
nts
so s
tron
g th
ey c
ould
rip
the
bark
off
tree
s, a
nd h
e lo
bbed
tear
gas
gre
nade
s at
the
prot
est-
ers.
Dr.
Kin
g ha
d an
ticip
ated
that
Con
nor
wou
ld c
rack
dow
nin
this
way
. His
hop
e w
as th
at th
e m
edia
, esp
ecia
lly te
levi
sion
,w
ould
rep
ort w
hat w
as h
appe
ning
in B
irm
ingh
am to
the
rest
of th
e na
tion,
and
so
stir
the
natio
nal c
onsc
ienc
e. I
t was
"a
vict
ory"
whe
n ca
mer
as f
rom
aro
und
the
wor
ld s
napp
edph
otos
of
Con
nor
load
ing
Dr.
Kin
g in
to a
pol
ice
van.
Kin
g us
ed h
is ti
me
in p
riso
n to
wri
te h
is L
ette
r fr
om a
Bir
min
gham
Jai
l, a
repl
y to
whi
te m
inis
ters
den
ounc
ing
his
Bir
min
gham
cam
paig
n as
"un
wis
e an
d un
timel
y."
He
wro
te,
"For
yea
rs I
hav
e he
ard
the
wor
d 'W
ait.'
It r
ings
in th
e ea
rsof
the
Neg
ro w
ith a
pie
rcin
g fa
mili
arity
. Thi
s 'W
ait'
has
alm
ost a
lway
s m
eant
'Nev
er'..
. jus
tice
too
long
del
ayed
isju
stic
e de
nied
."Pr
ojec
t C w
ent i
nto
a ne
w p
hase
. A s
trat
egy
was
dev
ised
in w
hich
Bla
ck h
igh
scho
ol s
tude
nts
and
child
ren
wou
ldpo
ur in
to th
e st
reet
s to
pro
test
seg
rega
tion.
The
cam
paig
nw
ould
be
dubb
ed "
The
Chi
ldre
n's
Cru
sade
."O
n M
ay 2
, 196
3, 1
,000
Bla
ck k
ids
from
six
to e
ight
een
mar
ched
out
of
the
Sixt
eent
h St
reet
Bap
tist C
hurc
h in
to th
eB
irm
ingh
am s
tree
ts a
nd K
elly
Ing
ram
Par
k. R
epor
ters
fro
mar
ound
the
wor
ld o
bser
ved
as, i
roni
cally
, the
y w
ere
load
edin
to th
e sc
hool
bus
es B
ull C
onno
r ha
d br
ough
t in.
By
the
day'
s en
d, 9
59 c
hild
ren
had
been
jaile
d.
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Voi
ces
Man
y yo
ung
peop
le in
the
Bla
ck c
omm
unity
lack
ase
nse
of e
mpa
thy
for
the
peop
le w
ho h
ave
gone
bef
ore
them
. The
y ar
e de
nied
a p
rope
r in
stru
ctio
n of
his
tory
,an
d fa
ll pr
ey to
the
dog-
eat-
dog,
pre
sent
-mom
ent h
abits
of A
mer
ican
cul
ture
. It i
s ha
rd f
or B
lack
you
th to
fee
l the
pain
and
suf
feri
ng e
ndur
ed b
y th
eir
pred
eces
sors
, tho
sew
ho w
ere
unaf
raid
to m
ake
the
nece
ssar
y ch
ange
sw
hich
lift
ed B
lack
s ou
t of
the
oppr
essi
on o
f Ji
m C
row
.I
can
unde
rsta
nd w
hat i
t is
to n
ot c
are
for
hist
ory.
Idi
dn't
get a
goo
d hi
stor
y ed
ucat
ion,
and
I b
arel
y go
t any
Bla
ck h
isto
ry. T
he C
ivil
Rig
hts
stru
ggle
and
its
achi
evem
ents
wer
e no
t rea
l tom
e. Y
et, a
s I
thin
k ba
ck o
nm
y H
IP-H
OP
trip
, I r
emem
ber
wha
t mad
e th
e pa
in a
ndde
term
inat
ion
of th
e B
lack
fre
edom
fig
hter
s m
ore
real
to m
e. P
eopl
e te
nd to
fee
l sim
ilarl
y w
hen
they
see
pict
ures
or
Mov
emen
t foo
tage
dep
ictin
g ho
w B
lack
sw
ere
open
ly a
buse
d. F
or m
e, it
was
n't s
o m
uch
wha
tw
as h
appe
ning
to th
e B
lack
peo
ple,
it w
as m
ore
how
the
peop
le to
ok th
e ab
use,
how
they
fel
t. I
look
ed a
t the
face
s of
the
peop
le a
nd k
new
that
her
e w
ere
no a
ctor
s.T
hese
fac
es r
egis
tere
d re
al e
mot
ion.
Whe
n lo
okin
g at
chi
ldre
n's
face
s in
a m
ural
of
the
Chi
ldre
n's
Cru
sade
, I s
aw h
ow th
e ar
tist c
aptu
red
ara
nge
of e
mot
ions
. In
som
e I
saw
ang
er, d
istr
ess,
fru
s-tr
atio
n; a
nd in
oth
er f
aces
, det
erm
inat
ion,
ded
icat
ion,
and
hope
. Loo
king
at t
hese
fac
es m
ade
me
a fe
el a
mix
of e
mot
ions
. I f
elt a
ngry
, the
n de
term
ined
, det
erm
ined
to d
o so
met
hing
to e
nsur
e th
at s
ocie
ty w
ill n
ot tr
ead
back
war
ds, w
ill n
ot p
rofa
ne th
e fa
ces
on th
e m
ural
.A
s I
cont
inue
to s
tudy
the
Mov
emen
t, w
hat h
adbe
en a
nger
is n
ow d
edic
atio
n. I
am
ded
icat
ed to
stru
gglin
g fo
r tr
ue e
qual
ity. I
may
not
be
a M
alco
lm X
or A
ngel
a D
avis
, but
ther
e is
a p
lace
for
me
as a
n ac
tivis
tin
my
daily
life
.
2044
45H
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Voi
ces
Part
s of
the
Mis
siss
ippi
Del
ta r
esem
bled
the
squa
tter
cam
ps w
e ha
d se
en in
our
vis
it to
Sou
th A
fric
a. E
ach
hous
e w
as li
ttle
mor
e th
an a
one
-roo
m s
hack
, sha
bbily
put t
oget
her,
and
alw
ays,
it s
eem
ed, a
bout
to f
all a
part
.N
ot to
o lo
ng b
efor
e, w
e'd
driv
en p
ast l
arge
and
luxu
ri-
ous
trac
ts o
f fa
rm la
nd. A
t the
cor
ner
of th
e fi
eld,
whe
reth
e ne
at r
ows
of c
rops
cam
e to
an
end,
sto
od th
e fa
rmer
'sho
use.
The
dif
fere
nce
is b
ette
r de
scri
bed
as b
etw
een
a"f
irst
" an
d "t
hird
wor
ld"
coun
try
than
bet
wee
n th
is a
rea
in M
issi
ssip
pi a
nd th
at a
rea,
a f
ew m
iles
away
.Fa
nnie
Lou
Ham
er h
ad g
row
n up
in th
e D
elta
. Whe
nH
amer
was
44,
she
had
trie
d to
lead
a g
roup
of
Bla
cks
toR
ulev
ille
to r
egis
ter
to v
ote.
Bec
ause
of
her
atte
mpt
, she
was
jaile
d, b
eate
n, a
nd e
vict
ed f
rom
the
farm
land
she
and
her
fam
ily h
ad w
orke
d on
as
shar
ecro
pper
s fo
r 18
year
s.Sh
e th
en b
egan
wor
king
for
SN
CC
. Ham
er w
ould
get
in f
ront
of
a co
ngre
gatio
n of
two
or th
ree
hund
red
peop
le. S
he w
ould
bel
t out
the
whi
p he
r vo
ice
was
,le
adin
g th
e pe
ople
in ju
bile
e, a
nd th
en s
he w
ould
sin
g,"A
re w
e go
nna
figh
t for
just
ice?
"T
he c
ongr
egat
ion
wou
ld lo
udly
rep
ly, "
Am
en!"
"Y
'kno
w, L
ord!
" Sh
ew
ould
then
sin
g, "
Are
we
gonn
a m
arch
for
just
ice?
"A
gain
, the
peo
ple
wou
ld r
eply
, "A
men
!" S
he w
ould
rais
e th
e cr
y ag
ain,
mor
e de
taile
d th
is ti
me,
"A
re w
ego
nna
mar
ch to
mor
row
at 7
AM
?" T
he p
eopl
e, c
augh
t up
in h
er g
race
, wou
ld y
ell,
"AM
EN
!" a
nd th
en H
amer
wou
ld s
ay, "
All
righ
t the
n. I
exp
ect t
o se
e ea
ch a
nd e
very
one
of y
ou to
mor
row
at 6
:30A
M s
harp
!" A
nd th
e pe
ople
,st
ill r
eelin
g, w
ould
arr
ive
the
next
mor
ning
and
mar
ch.
Whi
le in
the
Del
ta, w
e m
ade
it a
poin
t to
visi
t her
gra
vesi
te in
Rul
evill
e.It
is w
ell p
lace
d, in
an
open
fie
ld,
alon
gsid
e th
e gr
ave
of "
Papp
y" H
amer
, her
hus
band
.T
he in
scri
ptio
n on
her
hea
dsto
ne r
eads
, "I
am s
ick
and
tired
of
bein
g si
ck a
nd ti
red.
"
The
nex
t day
, pol
ice
barr
icad
ed th
e Si
xtee
nth
Stre
etB
aptis
t Chu
rch,
whe
re, i
nsid
e, a
noth
er 1
,000
Bla
ck s
tude
nts
had
asse
mbl
ed. W
hen
the
stud
ents
trie
d to
leav
e th
e ch
urch
,C
onno
r un
leas
hed
dogs
upo
n th
em, a
nd h
ad th
e ch
ildre
nbl
aste
d w
ith h
igh-
pres
sure
hos
es w
hich
rip
ped
off
thei
rcl
othi
ng a
nd le
ft th
em b
lood
ied.
Acr
oss
the
natio
n, p
eopl
ew
atch
ed th
eir
tele
visi
on s
cree
ns in
hor
ror.
The
mar
ches
cont
inue
d, s
wel
ling
in s
ize.
By
May
6, m
ore
than
2,0
00de
mon
stra
tors
had
bee
n ja
iled.
The
cos
t of
keep
ing
them
inca
rcer
ated
pla
ced
a gr
eat s
trai
n on
the
polic
e bu
dget
.W
hat f
inal
ly b
roug
ht th
e ci
ty to
the
barg
aini
ng ta
ble
was
the
econ
omic
pre
ssur
e th
e ar
rest
s an
d bo
ycot
ts e
xert
ed.
Bir
min
gham
mer
chan
ts, a
larm
ed a
t the
dro
p in
sal
es, a
gree
dto
des
egre
gate
thei
r st
ores
and
lunc
h co
unte
r, a
nd h
ire
Afr
ican
-Am
eric
an w
orke
rs. T
he c
ity, f
or it
s pa
rt, r
elea
sed
the
dem
onst
rato
rs f
rom
jail
and
agre
ed to
ope
n a
chan
nel f
ordi
scus
sing
rac
e re
latio
ns.
The
Kla
n, h
owev
er, o
ne o
f th
e ci
ty's
uno
ffic
ial a
utho
ritie
s,pr
onou
nced
the
agre
emen
t voi
d. B
ombs
wen
t off
, at t
heho
me
of D
r. K
ing'
s br
othe
r an
d at
Dr.
Kin
g's
hote
l, m
uch
asbo
mbs
had
gon
e of
f in
Mon
tgom
ery
whe
n th
e bu
s bo
ycot
tw
as v
icto
riou
s. I
n Se
ptem
ber
1963
, on
its a
nnua
l you
th d
ay,
a bo
mb
tore
apa
rt th
e ba
sem
ent o
f th
e Si
xtee
nth
Stre
etB
aptis
t Chu
rch,
kill
ing
four
you
ng g
irls
. Lat
er th
e sa
me
day,
two
Eag
le B
oy S
cout
s on
thei
r w
ay h
ome
from
a K
lan
rally
shot
at t
wo
Bla
ck c
hild
ren
ridi
ng o
n a
bicy
cle,
kill
ing
one
ofth
em. O
utra
ges
like
thes
e se
rved
as
a re
min
der
that
eve
ryvi
ctor
y on
ly r
evea
led
how
far
ther
e w
as y
et to
go.
The
cam
paig
n fo
r V
otin
g R
ight
s
Tho
ugh
gain
s ha
d be
en m
ade
in th
e fi
ght a
gain
st s
egre
-ga
tion
by 1
963,
ach
ieve
men
ts w
hich
wer
e w
ritte
n in
to th
eC
ivil
Rig
hts
Act
of
1964
, Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
wer
e st
ill la
rgel
ydi
senf
ranc
hise
d. I
t was
n't s
impl
y th
at A
fric
an A
mer
ican
sdi
dn't
regi
ster
to v
ote.
It w
as m
ore
that
they
cou
ldn'
t reg
iste
rto
vot
e. T
hrou
gh a
var
iety
of
mea
ns, t
heir
nam
es w
ere
kept
off
the
votin
g ro
lls. I
f th
ey tr
ied
to r
egis
ter,
they
wou
ld f
ind
them
selv
es th
e ta
rget
of
whi
te s
upre
mac
ist g
roup
s lik
e th
eK
u K
lux
Kla
n.A
war
e th
at A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s ha
d be
en m
akin
g ci
vil
righ
ts g
ains
, Kla
nsm
en s
tepp
ed u
p th
eir
pres
sure
tact
ics,
inte
nt o
n ke
epin
g th
e vo
te in
whi
te h
ands
. The
Kla
n co
uld
easi
ly a
nd o
penl
y ly
nch
Bla
ck p
eopl
e, o
r m
ake
sure
they
wer
e ha
rass
ed o
r de
priv
ed o
f th
eir
jobs
. Who
, aft
er a
ll, w
ould
puni
sh K
lans
men
, esp
ecia
lly w
hen
loca
l law
enf
orce
men
tan
d th
e po
wer
ful W
hite
s C
itize
ns C
ounc
ils w
ere
likel
y to
be
in s
ympa
thy
with
them
?If
, fin
ally
, a B
lack
per
son
mad
e it
up to
the
stat
e ho
use,
inte
nt o
n re
gist
erin
g to
vot
e, o
ther
mea
sure
s m
ade
sure
he
orsh
e co
uldn
't re
gist
er. L
itera
cy a
nd o
ther
arb
itrar
y te
sts
wer
egi
ven,
and
gen
eral
ly g
iven
onl
y to
Bla
ck p
eopl
e. T
he te
sts
wou
ld a
sk im
poss
ible
que
stio
ns li
ke "
How
man
y bu
bble
sar
e th
ere
in a
bar
of
soap
?" o
r "H
ow m
any
grai
ns o
f sa
nd a
reth
ere
on th
e lo
cal b
each
?"O
r th
ose
appl
ying
to r
egis
ter
wou
ld b
e to
ld th
ey c
ould
not u
nles
s th
ey h
ad a
lrea
dy p
aid
a po
ll ta
x --
whi
ch th
ey h
adbe
en b
arre
d fr
om p
ayin
g be
fore
. The
re w
as a
lso
a "g
rand
-fa
ther
cla
use"
add
ed to
the
stat
e co
nstit
utio
n. S
uch
a cl
ause
held
that
if y
our
gran
dfat
her
hadn
't re
gist
ered
, the
n yo
uco
uldn
't re
gist
er y
ours
elf.
Of
cour
se, n
o A
fric
an A
mer
ican
sw
ould
be
allo
wed
to r
egis
ter
beca
use
thei
r gr
andf
athe
rs h
adbe
en s
lave
s!
The
Mis
siss
ippi
Sum
mer
Pro
ject
In 1
964,
in a
n ef
fort
to r
egis
ter
mor
e B
lack
vot
ers,
CO
FO,
or th
e C
ounc
il of
Fed
erat
ed O
rgan
izat
ions
(w
hich
incl
uded
SNC
C, C
OR
E, t
he N
AA
CP,
and
Dr.
Kin
g's
orga
niza
tion,
SCL
C),
laun
ched
a v
otin
g ri
ghts
sum
mer
pro
ject
aim
ed a
tM
issi
ssip
pi. M
issi
ssip
pi h
ad p
ride
d its
elf
on it
s su
cces
s,th
roug
h in
timid
atio
n an
d te
rror
, in
disc
oura
ging
Afr
ican
-A
mer
ican
vot
er r
egis
trat
ion.
CO
FO in
vite
d as
sist
ance
fro
m th
e N
orth
, bel
ievi
ng th
atth
is w
ould
hel
p fo
cus
natio
nal a
ttent
ion
on w
hat w
as h
ap-
peni
ng in
Mis
siss
ippi
. Hun
dred
s of
stu
dent
vol
unte
ers
from
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
464A
21
all o
ver
the
coun
try
floc
ked
to jo
in th
e 19
64 S
umm
er P
roje
ct.
The
y sa
w it
as
an o
ppor
tuni
ty to
pla
y a
role
in th
eM
ovem
ent.
The
pla
n w
as th
at th
ey w
ould
mov
e in
to B
lack
neig
hbor
hood
s an
d th
ere
enco
urag
e lit
erac
y tr
aini
ng a
ndre
gist
ratio
n.M
issi
ssip
pi b
race
d its
elf
for
wha
t it r
egar
ded
as a
n in
-va
sion
.T
he m
ayor
of
Jack
son
enla
rged
the
polic
e fo
rce,
boug
ht h
undr
eds
of e
xtra
sho
tgun
s an
d a
tank
with
asu
bmac
hine
gun
mou
nted
on
its tu
rret
. Mar
tial l
aw w
asde
clar
ed. "
I m
ay b
e ki
lled
and
you
may
be
kille
d,"
Jim
Form
an, t
he S
NC
C e
xecu
tive
secr
etar
y to
ld s
tude
nts
at a
nor
ient
atio
n se
ssio
n. O
n Ju
ne 2
0, 1
964,
the
firs
t cre
w o
fvo
lunt
eers
, 200
of
them
, wen
t int
o M
issi
ssip
pi.
The
nex
t day
, thr
ee y
oung
men
, And
rew
Goo
dman
,Ja
mes
Cha
ney,
and
Mic
hael
Sch
wer
ner,
wer
e re
port
edm
issi
ng. A
fter
hav
ing
inve
stig
ated
a b
urne
d ch
urch
, the
thre
e ha
d be
en d
etai
ned
in P
hila
delp
hia,
Mis
siss
ippi
for
"spe
edin
g."
Lat
er th
at n
ight
the
sher
iff
rele
ased
them
into
the
hand
s of
the
KK
K. A
ll th
ree
wer
e sh
ot a
t clo
se r
ange
in th
ehe
ad.
The
onl
y A
fric
an A
mer
ican
in th
e gr
oup,
Jam
esC
hane
y, f
rom
nea
rby
Mer
idia
n, w
as b
eate
n be
fore
bei
ngki
lled.
The
ir b
odie
s w
ere
buri
ed in
an
eart
hen
dam
, the
ir c
arw
as b
urne
d.T
he d
ay a
fter
thei
r m
urde
r, th
e sh
erif
f to
ld r
epor
ters
that
thei
r di
sapp
eara
nce
was
pro
babl
y a
publ
icity
stu
nt. M
issi
s-si
ppi o
ffic
ials
sai
d th
at th
is w
as ju
st a
noth
er N
orth
ern
hoax
,ai
med
at s
tirri
ng s
ympa
thy
for
the
Mov
emen
t.T
he F
BI
cond
ucte
d a
half
-hea
rted
sea
rch.
Whe
n th
eyco
mbe
d th
e ri
vers
, the
y fo
und,
to th
eir
emba
rras
smen
t,se
ven
bodi
es o
f ot
her
Bla
ck m
en w
ho h
ad g
one
mis
sing
duri
ng th
e M
ovem
ent.
It w
asn'
t unt
il ea
rly
Aug
ust t
hat t
hebo
dies
of
Goo
dman
, Sch
wer
ner
and
Cha
ney
wer
e fo
und
afte
r a
Kla
n m
embe
r ga
ve th
e FB
I a
tip in
exc
hang
e fo
r a
$30,
000
rew
ard.
Whe
n Pr
ojec
t HIP
-HO
P go
es to
Mer
idia
n, M
issi
ssip
pi,
we
visi
t the
gra
ve o
f Ja
mes
Cha
ney.
We
lear
n th
at C
hane
yw
as n
ot e
ven
perm
itted
to b
e bu
ried
in a
chu
rchy
ard
in h
isto
wn,
bec
ause
it w
as s
aid
he b
roug
ht s
o m
uch
bad
publ
icity
to M
erid
ian
by g
ettin
g ki
lled.
A c
hurc
h, s
ome
dist
ance
aw
ay,
agre
ed to
acc
ept h
is b
ody.
The
fir
st y
ear
we
wen
t to
visi
t his
tom
b, w
e fo
und
that
atin
y pi
ctur
e of
him
em
bedd
ed o
n th
e to
mbs
tone
had
bee
nsh
ot th
roug
h. W
e w
ere
told
that
his
pic
ture
had
bee
n us
ed a
sta
rget
pra
ctic
e by
the
loca
ls. T
he n
ext y
ear
we
visi
ted,
the
entir
e to
mbs
tone
had
bee
n pu
shed
ove
r. A
fla
me
that
was
supp
osed
to b
e m
aint
aine
d w
as p
ut o
ut a
nd a
tree
pla
nted
inhi
s m
emor
y w
as d
estr
oyed
. The
cem
eter
y its
elf
was
insh
ambl
es. I
n so
me
of th
e gr
ave
site
s, y
ou c
ould
eve
n se
e pa
rts
of a
cof
fin
whe
re th
e ea
rth
had
wor
n aw
ay.
Such
dis
resp
ect,
we
disc
over
ed, w
as a
sym
ptom
of
alin
geri
ng p
robl
em. E
ven
now
, man
y st
ill r
esen
t the
Mov
e-m
ent.
Som
e di
spla
y th
eir
raci
sm in
cle
ar w
ays,
as
in v
an-
daliz
ing
Jam
es C
hane
y's
grav
e. O
ther
s, w
ho c
ontin
ue to
hold
pos
ition
s of
pow
er, c
an a
ffor
d to
be
mor
e co
vert
in th
eir
raci
sm. B
ut th
ey s
till m
anag
e, w
heth
er th
roug
h ec
onom
ic o
rpo
litic
al m
eans
, to
muf
fle
Bla
ck v
oice
s.Fo
ur o
f th
e ki
llers
of
the
thre
e ci
vil r
ight
s w
orke
rs s
till
live
in M
erid
ian
and
Phila
delp
hia
whe
re th
ey a
re, w
e w
ere
told
, "re
spec
ted"
mem
bers
of
the
com
mun
ity. O
ne o
wns
ani
ghtc
lub,
ano
ther
is a
sec
urity
gua
rd, a
noth
er h
as b
een
anel
ecte
d ju
stic
e of
the
peac
e, a
fou
rth
belo
ngs
to a
pro
min
ent
civi
c as
soci
atio
n.
Selm
a an
d th
e V
otin
g R
ight
s A
ct
Vot
er r
egis
trat
ion
cont
inue
d to
mov
e at
a s
low
pac
e.St
ate
impo
sed
barr
iers
to r
egis
trat
ion
effe
ctiv
ely
kept
Bla
cks
dise
nfra
nchi
sed.
Dr.
Kin
g an
d ot
her
civi
l rig
hts
lead
ers
real
ized
that
a c
ampa
ign
aim
ed a
t sec
urin
g vo
ting
righ
tsw
ould
hav
e to
fir
st d
ism
antle
sta
te b
arri
ers.
In
1965
they
settl
ed o
n a
stra
tegy
: non
viol
ent d
emon
stra
tions
in S
elm
a.Se
lma,
Ala
bam
a, o
nce
a co
tton
cent
er a
nd s
lave
mar
ket,
had
only
3%
of
its 2
9,00
0 bl
ack
resi
dent
s re
gist
ered
. Sel
ma
had
a hi
stor
y of
har
assi
ng c
ivil
righ
ts w
orke
rs a
nd ta
king
quic
k ac
tion
to s
tam
p ou
t pro
test
s. C
ivil
righ
ts le
ader
s ca
l-cu
late
d th
at if
they
cou
ld g
et th
e na
tiona
l med
ia to
rep
ort o
n
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Voi
ces
Dow
n So
uth
ther
e is
a to
mbs
tone
whi
ch h
as e
ndur
eden
dles
s at
tack
s of
van
dalis
m s
ince
it w
as e
rect
ed to
the
mem
ory
of J
ames
Cha
ney.
Up
until
the
mom
ent w
hen
I sa
w th
e to
mbs
tone
in M
erid
ian,
Mis
siss
ippi
, I w
asab
sorb
ing
the
trip
with
det
ache
d fe
elin
gs.
We
arri
ved
at th
e lo
catio
n of
the
isol
ated
gra
ve. A
sI
took
in th
e sc
ene
befo
re m
e, a
hor
rify
ing
real
izat
ion
daw
ned
on m
e. I
did
not
wan
t to
belie
ve th
at th
e pr
one
tom
bsto
ne h
ad r
eally
bee
n kn
ocke
d ov
er b
y op
pone
nts
of h
uman
rig
hts.
We
deci
ded
that
the
leas
t we
coul
d do
was
try
to s
tand
it b
acku
p. E
ight
pai
rs o
f ar
ms
stra
ined
in v
ain
to li
ft th
e m
arbl
e st
one.
Rig
ht n
ow I
can
't un
ders
tand
why
ther
e is
so
muc
hre
sist
ance
and
so
muc
h ha
tred
, bec
ause
that
is w
hat i
tta
kes
to d
isre
spec
t a d
ead
man
. Whe
n I
real
ized
just
how
deep
this
hat
e ha
d to
run
, I u
nder
stoo
d w
hy I
was
ther
e.T
he m
eani
ng o
f th
is tr
ip is
not
onl
y to
edu
cate
, but
also
to c
reat
e an
und
erst
andi
ng o
f re
spon
sibi
litie
s th
atw
e al
l hav
e as
hum
an b
eing
s.T
his
trip
cry
stal
lized
wha
t I n
eed
to k
now
.K
now
ledg
e is
inde
ed p
ower
, but
it is
not
a p
ower
that
sho
uld
be m
onop
oliz
ed b
y a
few
.I
inte
nd to
educ
ate
thos
e ar
ound
me
abou
t the
fac
ts o
f ye
ster
day
and
also
abo
ut th
e fe
elin
gs th
at a
ll co
mm
uniti
es h
ave
tost
art r
e-di
scov
erin
g. T
oday
, the
re is
a c
omm
on f
eelin
gof
apa
thy
that
nee
ds to
be
over
com
e. H
ow m
any
times
have
you
fel
t lik
e yo
u as
an
indi
vidu
al h
ave
no s
tren
gth
to m
ake
chan
ges?
We
have
to le
arn
not t
o gi
ve in
to th
atse
nse
of h
elpl
essn
ess.
One
impo
rtan
t thi
ng I
lear
ned
on th
is tr
ip w
as ju
stho
w it
mad
e a
diff
eren
ce w
hen
peop
le c
ame
toge
ther
rega
rdle
ss o
f ag
e, w
ealth
, col
or. I
als
o kn
ow f
or c
erta
inth
at m
y pe
rson
al jo
urne
y of
dis
cove
ry h
as ju
st b
egun
.
2248
49H
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:
can
0,an
yra
ynl
Ms
lepe
rs40
cal
f -f
ir' a
rt e
Ath
ete
-viO
2nk
btra
isji
1061
)-\-
\plo
t-Ic
ing
.115
.0
nD\R
IA-
keek
ikA
an6
Yoi
N.
oi-k
r al
tern
ate
*an
ko A
iht b
odl.
15m
a.fd
rare
e1te
orev
ex:
,W1
beeA
Nor
ia e
xel
y,D
,
0d%
5ite
5 o
tile,
mov
en*,
Iam
ate}A o
lgax
rnr
eh
caul
ire
oule
ta0 0
O 0 0
eir
Selm
a im
pres
sed
me
afte
r se
eing
the
Edm
und
Pettu
sB
ridg
ean
d un
ders
tand
ing
how
peo
ple
got b
eate
n ju
st b
ecau
seth
eyw
ere
wal
king
pea
cefu
lly a
cros
s a
brid
ge. T
hose
peo
ple
had
anin
ner
stre
ngth
that
peo
ple
now
aday
s do
n't h
ave
and,
trut
hful
ly,
that
peo
ple
toda
y ne
ed. B
ack
then
peo
ple
of th
eco
mm
unity
cam
e to
geth
er. I
f w
e re
acte
d th
e w
ay th
ey d
id to
thin
gs th
atw
ere
nega
tive,
we
coul
d th
ink
mor
e cl
earl
y. T
hink
ing
wou
ldst
op u
s fr
om d
oing
som
e st
upid
stu
ff th
atw
e ar
e do
ing.
wha
t was
hap
peni
ng in
Sel
ma,
the
fede
ral g
over
nmen
t wou
ldbe
for
ced
to p
ay a
ttent
ion
to th
e is
sue
of v
otin
g ri
ghts
.T
his
stra
tegy
wor
ked.
On
Febr
uary
1,1
965
Dr.
Kin
g an
da
num
ber
of s
choo
lchi
ldre
n w
ere
arre
sted
for
mar
chin
g. T
hene
ws
broa
dcas
t the
imag
es o
f ki
ds b
eing
her
ded
into
pol
ice
vans
. As
in B
irm
ingh
am, t
he s
cene
s st
irre
d th
e na
tiona
lco
nsci
ence
. Tw
o da
ys a
fter
Kin
g's
arre
st, a
noth
er,
mor
em
ilita
nt le
ader
, Mal
colm
X, a
rriv
ed in
Sel
ma.
He
told
an
inte
rvie
wer
, "I a
m 1
00 p
erce
nt f
or a
ny e
ffor
tpu
t for
th b
y B
lack
peo
ple
in th
is c
ount
ry to
hav
eac
cess
to th
eba
llot.
And
I f
rank
ly b
elie
ve th
at s
ince
the
ballo
t is
our
righ
t,th
at w
e ar
e w
ithin
our
rig
hts
tous
e w
hate
ver
mea
ns is
nece
ssar
y to
sec
ure
thos
e ri
ghts
....I
bel
ieve
that
it is
rig
ht to
be n
onvi
olen
t with
peo
ple
who
are
nonv
iole
nt. B
ut w
hen
you'
re d
ealin
g w
ith a
n en
emy
who
doe
sn't
know
wha
tno
nvio
lenc
e is
, as
far
as I
'm c
once
rned
, you
're w
astin
gyo
urtim
e."
4O
n Fe
brua
ry 1
8, a
sm
all c
ivil
righ
ts m
arch
in S
elm
aw
asat
tack
ed b
y la
w e
nfor
cem
ent o
ffic
ers.
Jim
mie
Lee
Jac
kson
, a26
-yea
r ol
d de
mon
stra
tor,
rus
hed
to s
hiel
d hi
s m
othe
r fr
omth
e bl
ows
of th
e po
lice.
As
he d
idso
, an
offi
cer
put a
gun
tohi
s be
lly a
nd s
hot h
im.H
e di
ed a
wee
k la
ter.
"Who
kill
ed J
imm
ie L
ee J
acks
on?"
Kin
g as
ked,
as h
ede
liver
ed J
acks
on's
eul
ogy.
In
resp
onse
, he
said
that
Jac
kson
was
kill
ed b
y ev
ery
law
less
she
riff
, eve
ry r
acis
t pol
itici
anfr
om g
over
nor
on d
own,
eve
ry in
diff
eren
t whi
te m
inis
ter,
and
ever
y pa
ssiv
e B
lack
per
son
who
"st
ands
on th
e si
delin
esin
the
stru
ggle
for
just
ice.
"K
ing
then
ann
ounc
ed a
mar
ch f
rom
Sel
ma
to th
e A
laba
ma
stat
e ca
pita
l, M
ontg
omer
y, a
dis
tanc
e of
50
mile
s. T
he m
arch
was
a p
rote
st a
gain
st p
olic
e br
utal
ity a
nd th
e de
nial
of
votin
g ri
ghts
. Geo
rge
Wal
lace
, the
Ala
bam
ago
vern
or, i
m-
med
iate
ly d
ecla
red
that
suc
h a
mar
ch w
ould
not
take
pla
ce.
The
pla
nnin
g pr
ocee
ded
anyw
ay.
On
Sund
ay, M
arch
7, 1
965,
abo
ut 6
00 m
arch
ers
left
the
Bro
wn
Cha
pel A
fric
an M
etho
dist
Chu
rch.
Whe
n th
ey r
each
edth
e E
dmun
d Pe
ttus
brid
ge a
t the
edg
e of
the
tow
n, th
em
arch
ers
saw
, at t
he o
ther
end
, a h
orde
of
arm
ed o
ffic
ers
wea
ring
gas
mas
ks. N
ews
peop
le li
ned
the
brid
ge a
wai
ting
the
conf
ront
atio
n be
twee
n th
e lo
ng c
olum
n of
mar
cher
s an
dth
e po
lice.
The
she
riff
, Jim
Cla
rk, g
ave
the
com
man
d to
atta
ck.
The
hors
emen
cha
rged
and
the
gas
gren
ades
wer
e to
ssed
. Pol
ice
set u
pon
the
mar
cher
s w
ith c
hain
s an
d bi
lly c
lubs
and
cat
tlepr
ods.
Eve
n by
stan
ders
wer
e at
tack
ed. J
ohn
Lew
is o
f SN
CC
,ha
d hi
s sk
ull f
ract
ured
, 16
mar
cher
s en
ded
up h
ospi
taliz
ed;
anot
her
50 r
ecei
ved
emer
genc
y tr
eatm
ent.
The
sav
ager
y of
,th
e "B
lood
y Su
nday
" w
as f
ilmed
and
bro
adca
st in
to h
omes
as a
spe
cial
rep
ort.
The
nat
iona
l con
scie
nce
was
out
rage
d.Sc
ores
of
peop
le w
ho h
ad w
itnes
sed
the
brut
ality
on
thei
r T
Vs
desc
ende
d up
on S
elm
a. K
ing
anno
unce
d an
othe
rm
arch
, whi
ch s
et o
ut o
n M
arch
9. A
gain
, whe
n th
e m
arch
ers
reac
hed
the
Edm
und
Pettu
s B
ridg
e, th
ey w
ere
met
with
arm
ed o
ffic
ers.
The
mar
cher
s fe
ll on
thei
r kn
ees
and
bega
n to
pray
. Rat
her
than
ris
k m
ore
viol
ence
, Kin
g tu
rned
aro
und
and
retu
rned
to th
e ch
urch
, to
the
dism
ay o
f so
me
SNC
Cle
ader
s.In
Sel
ma
that
eve
ning
thre
e m
inis
ters
wer
e at
tack
ed a
sth
ey le
ft a
res
taur
ant.
One
, Jam
es R
eeb,
a w
elfa
re w
orke
r in
Bos
ton'
s sl
ums,
die
d tw
o da
ys la
ter
from
inju
ries
. A n
atio
nal
outc
ry a
gain
wen
t up.
The
nat
ion
had,
in th
e pa
st f
ew w
eeks
,w
itnes
sed
a le
vel o
f vi
olen
ce th
at h
ad c
halle
nged
thei
r id
ea,
of w
hat k
ind
of c
ount
ry A
mer
ica
was
. Dem
onst
ratio
ns a
llov
er th
e co
untr
y en
sued
. Tak
ing
the
cue,
Pre
side
nt J
ohns
onan
noun
ced
a V
otin
g R
ight
s bi
ll."T
heir
cau
se m
ust b
e ou
r ca
use
too,
" Jo
hnso
n sa
id in
ate
levi
sed
addr
ess
to th
e na
tion,
"It
is n
ot ju
st N
egro
es, b
ut a
llof
us,
who
mus
t ove
rcom
e th
e cr
ippl
ing
lega
cy o
f bi
gotr
yan
d in
just
ice,
" an
d in
con
clus
ion
he p
rocl
aim
ed, "
We
shal
l'ov
erco
me!
" 5
The
Sel
ma-
to-M
ontg
omer
y m
arch
was
to ta
ke p
lace
aga
in,
a th
ird
time.
A f
eder
al ju
dge
had
allo
wed
the
mar
ch to
take
plac
e, b
ut G
over
nor
Wal
lace
had
stil
l ref
used
to p
rovi
depo
lice
prot
ectio
n. J
ohns
on th
us f
eder
aliz
ed n
earl
y 2,
000
ofth
e A
laba
ma
Nat
iona
l Gua
rd. H
e al
so d
ispa
tche
d ar
my
troo
ps, t
he F
BI,
and
ano
ther
100
fed
eral
mar
shal
s, a
ll to
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
50B
EST
CO
PYPi
k/IO
LA
:3L
E51
231
ensu
re th
at, f
inal
ly, t
his
mar
ch w
ould
be
succ
essf
ul.
Mor
e th
an th
ree
thou
sand
peo
ple,
Bla
ck a
nd w
hite
,be
gan
agai
n at
Bro
wn'
s C
hape
l. T
his
time
on th
e fo
urth
day
,th
ey a
rriv
ed in
Mon
tgom
ery.
Bef
ore
the
stat
e ca
pito
l bui
ld-
ing
just
dow
n th
e ro
ad f
rom
his
Dex
ter
Ave
nue
Bap
tist
Chu
rch,
Dr.
Kin
g, tr
ium
phan
t, ad
dres
sed
the
natio
n, "
Ikn
ow s
ome
of y
ou a
re a
skin
g to
day,
'How
long
will
it ta
ke?'
I co
me
to s
ay to
you
this
aft
erno
on, h
owev
er d
iffi
cult
the
mom
ent,
how
ever
fru
stra
ting
the
hour
, it w
ill n
ot b
elo
ng...
beca
use
the
arm
of
the
mor
al u
nive
rse
is lo
ng b
ut it
bend
s to
war
d ju
stic
e."
6T
hat v
ery
even
ing
Kla
nsm
en, i
n w
hose
car
sat
an
FBI
info
rmer
, sho
t and
kill
ed a
whi
te w
oman
fro
m D
etro
it, V
iola
Liu
zzo,
who
was
tran
spor
ting
mar
cher
s fr
om M
ontg
omer
yba
ck to
Sel
ma.
Her
dea
th g
ave
the
Vot
ing
Rig
hts
Act
the
impe
tus
it ne
eded
to b
e pa
ssed
by
Con
gres
s. I
n Se
lma
the
Nat
iona
l Vot
ing
Rig
hts
Mus
eum
bea
rs e
loqu
ent w
itnes
s to
the
role
whi
ch th
e to
wn
play
ed in
its
pass
age.
The
Vot
ing
Rig
hts
Act
mea
nt th
at th
e do
or to
dem
ocra
cyw
as o
pene
d w
ider
for
Bla
ck A
mer
ican
s. B
lack
s w
eree
lect
edto
pub
lic o
ffic
es. T
he g
rip
segr
egat
ioni
sts
exer
ted
over
sta
tepo
litic
s lo
osen
ed a
s th
e po
wer
of
the
Bla
ck v
ote
was
fel
t. T
hefe
dera
l gov
ernm
ent a
ppoi
nted
Bla
cks
to p
ositi
ons
of p
ower
.T
hurg
ood
Mar
shal
l, w
ho la
ter
wen
t on
to b
ecom
e th
e fi
rst
Bla
ck ju
stic
e on
the
Supr
eme
Cou
rt, w
as s
elec
ted
as J
ohns
on's
solic
itor
gene
ral.
Des
pite
the
gain
s, h
owev
er, d
istu
rbin
g si
gns
pers
ist.
Whe
n Pr
ojec
t HIP
-HO
P w
ent t
o Se
lma,
we
lear
ned
that
May
or J
osep
h Sm
ither
man
, who
had
cal
led
Dr.
Kin
g "M
artin
Lut
her
Coo
n" in
196
5, r
emai
ns in
off
ice
toda
y. T
he p
eopl
ew
ho k
illed
Jim
mie
Lee
Jac
kson
and
Jam
es R
eeb
have
nev
erbe
en c
onvi
cted
for
thei
r cr
imes
.W
e ar
e re
min
ded
agai
n an
d ag
ain
of th
e fa
ct th
at e
very
gain
has
had
its
hum
an c
ost.
The
str
ateg
y of
non
viol
ence
,th
ough
it h
ad b
een
put t
o ef
fect
ive
use,
had
pro
ved
very
cost
ly. B
y 19
65 m
any
activ
ists
wer
e be
ginn
ing
to p
ay h
eed
toM
alco
m X
's c
all f
or s
elf-
defe
nse,
and
wer
e pr
epar
ed to
turn
away
fro
m n
onvi
olen
t dir
ect a
ctio
n.
Foot
note
s
1. F
red
Pow
ledg
e, W
e Sh
all O
verc
ome:
Her
oes
of th
e C
ivil
Rig
hts
Mov
emen
t, C
harl
es S
crib
ner's
Son
s, 1
993,
p. 1
78.
2. C
layb
orne
Car
son,
et.
al, e
dito
rs, E
yes
on th
e Pr
ize
Civ
ilR
ight
s R
eade
r: D
ocum
ents
, Spe
eche
s, a
nd F
irst
hand
Acc
ount
sfr
om th
e B
lack
Fre
edom
Str
uggl
e, 1
954-
1990
, Pen
guin
Boo
ks,
1991
, p. 1
55.
3. S
anfo
rd W
exle
r, T
he C
ivil
Rig
hts
Mov
emen
t: A
n E
yew
it-ne
ss H
isto
ry, F
acts
on
File
, p. 1
12.
4. M
alco
lm X
: Feb
ruar
y 19
65, T
he F
inal
Spe
eche
s, P
athf
inde
rPr
ess,
199
2, p
p. 2
4-25
.
5. S
anfo
rd W
exle
r, o
p. c
it., p
. 297
.
6. J
ames
M. W
ashi
ngto
n, e
d., A
Tes
tam
ent o
f H
ope:
The
Ess
entia
l Wri
tings
and
Spe
eche
s of
Mar
tin L
uthe
r K
ing,
Jr.
,H
arpe
rCol
lins,
199
1, p
. 230
.
Def
initi
ons
Apa
rthe
id -
- th
e sy
tem
of
raci
al s
epar
atio
n in
Sou
thA
fric
a fi
nally
cam
e to
an
end
with
Nel
son
Man
dela
'sel
ectio
n in
199
4. S
egre
gatio
n in
the
Sout
h w
as li
ke "
petty
apar
thei
d" in
Sou
th A
fric
a (k
eepi
ng th
e ra
ces
apar
t in
scho
ols,
pub
lic a
ccom
mod
atio
ns, h
ousi
ng, j
obs,
etc
.)A
part
heid
had
fea
ture
s th
at th
e U
S sy
stem
lack
ed: s
uch
as th
e re
quir
emen
t tha
t Bla
ck p
eopl
e ca
rry
pass
es to
mov
e fr
om p
lace
to p
lace
, and
ban
tust
ans
or a
for
mof
rese
rvat
ions
for
Bla
ck p
eopl
e fr
om d
iffe
rent
"tr
ibes
" or
ethn
ic g
roup
s.
Bill
of
Rig
hts
the
firs
t ten
am
endm
ents
to th
e U
SC
onst
itutio
n, a
dopt
ed in
Dec
embe
r 17
91, t
o gu
aran
tee
such
indi
vidu
al li
bert
ies
as th
e fr
ee e
xerc
ise
of r
elig
ion,
free
dom
of
spee
ch, t
he p
ress
and
ass
embl
y, f
reed
omfr
om u
nrea
sona
ble
sear
ches
and
sei
zure
s, th
e ri
ght t
o a
jury
tria
l and
due
pro
cess
of
the
law
. The
Fou
rtee
nth
Am
endm
ent e
xten
ds th
ese
righ
ts to
all
peop
le, a
ndpr
otec
ts th
em f
rom
unc
onst
itutio
nal a
ctio
ns b
y st
ate
and
loca
l gov
ernm
ents
as
wel
l as
the
fede
ral g
over
nmen
t.
Boy
cott
-- r
efus
ing
to u
se o
r bu
y so
met
hing
as
a fo
rm o
fpr
otes
t.
Civ
il ri
ghts
--
your
rig
hts
to b
e tr
eate
d eq
ually
bef
ore
the
law
, and
to b
e fr
ee o
f m
ost f
orm
s of
pub
lic a
nd p
riva
tedi
scri
min
atio
n in
em
ploy
men
t, ho
usin
g, a
ccom
mod
a-tio
ns, e
duca
tion,
and
vot
ing.
Civ
il lib
ertie
s ar
e th
e in
-di
vidu
al f
reed
oms
guar
ante
ed to
you
by
the
fede
ral B
illof
Rig
hts
and
the
Mas
sach
uset
ts C
onst
itutio
n.
Gra
ndfa
ther
cla
use
Bla
ck p
eopl
e w
ere
dise
nfra
n-ch
ised
by
this
rul
e, w
hich
sai
d yo
u co
uld
only
reg
iste
rto
vot
e if
you
r gr
andf
athe
r ha
d re
gist
ered
. Dis
enfr
an-
chis
ed m
eans
bei
ng d
epri
ved
of th
e vo
te.
2452
53H
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:
Mov
emen
t Voi
ces
"The
re a
re v
ery
few
hum
an b
eing
s in
this
wor
ldw
ho w
ould
not
use
vio
lenc
e to
pro
tect
them
selv
es.
We
live,
aft
er a
ll, in
a v
iole
nt w
orld
. Vio
lenc
e in
this
wor
ld is
alw
ays
mad
e m
anif
est i
n a
num
ber
ofdi
ffer
ent w
ays.
To
purp
osel
y ke
ep p
eopl
e hu
ngry
and
in p
over
tyth
at's
vio
lenc
e. S
o vi
olen
ce is
n't
alw
ays
abou
t the
kni
fe, t
he g
un, a
nd th
e sw
ord.
You
have
to r
ecog
nize
the
othe
r fo
rms
of v
iole
nce
that
oppr
ess
peop
le.
I w
asn'
t non
viol
ent.
A lo
t of
usad
opte
d no
nvio
lenc
e as
a ta
ctic
onl
y, e
ven
in th
eSC
LC
, Dr.
Kin
g's
orga
niza
tion.
Non
viol
ence
will
wor
k so
met
imes
, but
not
all
the
time.
Ang
ola,
for
inst
ance
, did
not
get
fre
e th
roug
h th
e us
e of
nonv
iole
nce.
"
Ow
en B
rook
s to
Pro
ject
HIP
-H
OP,
Jul
y 13
,19
95.
Do
you
agre
e w
ith O
wen
Bro
oks
abou
t the
var
ious
form
s vi
olen
ce c
an ta
ke o
ther
than
"th
e kn
ife,
the
gun
and
the
swor
d "?
If
you
do a
gree
, giv
e so
me
exam
ples
.
Do
you
thin
k yo
u w
ould
hav
e ha
d th
e se
lf-d
isci
plin
eto
par
ticip
ate
in th
e si
t-in
mov
emen
t? H
ow d
o yo
u th
ink
you
wou
ld h
ave
felt
sitti
ng a
t a lu
nch
coun
ter
whi
le o
ther
peop
le h
aras
sed
you?
Wha
t sor
t of
trai
ning
wou
ld y
oune
ed f
or th
is k
ind
of n
onvi
olen
t dir
ect a
ctio
n?
Bra
inst
orm
a li
st o
f si
tuat
ions
toda
y in
whi
ch th
iski
nd o
f pr
otes
t mig
ht w
ork.
Whe
n w
ould
it b
e in
effe
ctiv
e?
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Voi
ces:
Non
viol
ence
in th
e M
ovem
ent
It w
as in
Pie
term
aritz
burg
, Sou
th A
fric
a, th
at M
ahat
ma
Gan
dhi w
as f
irst
toss
ed o
ut o
f th
e "w
hite
s on
ly"
carr
iage
of
a tr
ain
earl
y th
is c
entu
ry. H
e ha
d re
ad C
ivil
Dis
obed
ienc
e by
our
own
Hen
ry D
avid
Tho
reau
, and
use
d so
me
of it
s id
eas
tode
velo
p hi
s st
rate
gy o
f no
nvio
lent
res
ista
nce.
Lat
er, h
ere
turn
ed to
Ind
ia a
nd u
sed
that
str
ateg
y to
get
the
Bri
tish
toss
ed o
ut o
f hi
s co
untr
y.N
ow, i
n ou
r ow
n co
untr
y's
stru
ggle
with
seg
rega
tion,
Mar
tin L
uthe
r K
ing,
Jr.
, him
self
an
expe
rt o
n be
ing
kick
edou
t of
plac
es, w
as k
now
n to
be
an a
dmir
er o
f G
andh
i. H
e w
asim
pres
sed
by th
e w
ay G
andh
i use
d th
e no
nvio
lent
res
ista
nce
to f
rust
rate
and
eve
ntua
lly e
xpel
the
Bri
tish
colo
nize
rs.
In th
e ea
rly
year
s of
the
Mov
emen
t, ne
arly
eve
ry c
am-
paig
n us
ed th
e st
rate
gy o
f no
nvio
lent
res
ista
nce
or d
irec
tac
tion:
the
bus
boyc
otts
, the
sit-
ins,
the
free
dom
rid
es, t
heC
hild
ren'
s C
rusa
de. T
he h
azar
ds w
ere
appa
rent
: the
str
ateg
yw
ould
stir
fru
stra
tion,
as
it w
as in
tend
ed to
, and
in th
efr
ustr
atio
n pe
ople
wou
ld s
trik
e ou
t. It
was
exa
ctly
her
e, in
the
viol
ent r
eact
ion
to a
non
viol
ent p
rote
st, t
hat t
he s
trat
egy
wou
ld b
e ef
fect
ive.
Non
viol
ence
was
aim
ed a
t the
con
scie
nce
of th
e na
tion.
It h
oped
to m
ake
clea
r th
at ju
stic
e w
as o
n th
esi
de o
f th
e pr
otes
ters
, as
it ho
ped
to m
ake
absu
rd th
e sy
stem
thei
r at
tack
ers
defe
nded
.T
he s
trat
egy
relie
d he
avily
on
the
med
ia. N
onvi
olen
cede
pend
ed o
n th
e m
edia
to d
eliv
er th
e sp
ecta
cle
of o
ne-s
ided
viol
ence
acr
oss
the
natio
n.It
pro
babl
y w
ould
n't h
ave
succ
eede
d so
wel
l bef
ore
the
age
of te
levi
sion
. With
out t
hesp
read
of
such
imag
es, t
he s
acri
fice
of
the
nonv
iole
nt m
ight
as w
ell h
ave
been
in v
ain.
The
apa
rthe
id s
tate
rea
lized
this
in S
outh
Afr
ica,
and
kep
t tel
evis
ion
out o
f th
e co
untr
yal
toge
ther
unt
il ve
ry la
te.
In th
e U
nite
d St
ates
, whe
n pe
ople
saw
how
hor
ribl
ytr
eate
d A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s w
ere,
they
beg
an to
sym
path
ize
with
the
Mov
emen
tor
may
be th
ey ju
st w
ere
emba
rras
sed
at h
ow o
ur c
ount
ry lo
oked
to th
e re
st o
f th
e w
orld
. Sym
path
ym
eant
that
mar
ches
and
ral
lies
wou
ld s
wel
l in
size
as
mor
e
peop
le w
ould
join
them
, pet
ition
s w
ould
be
wri
tten
to s
tate
and
fede
ral o
ffic
ials
dem
andi
ng w
hat t
he h
ell w
as g
oing
on
with
"th
e N
egro
situ
atio
n,"
and
dona
tions
wou
ld f
low
into
orga
niza
tions
like
the
NA
AC
P an
d SN
CC
. Pol
itici
ans
wou
ldbe
indu
ced
to r
eact
bec
ause
thei
r co
nstit
uent
s w
ould
be
conc
erne
d ab
out t
he is
sue.
Pre
side
nt L
yndo
n Jo
hnso
n, f
orin
stan
ce, i
ntro
duce
d th
e V
otin
g R
ight
s A
ct o
nly
afte
r th
ena
tiona
l bro
adca
st o
f th
e Se
lma
mar
cher
s be
ing
beat
en.
In m
any
way
s, n
onvi
olen
t res
ista
nce
was
als
o a
safe
rst
rate
gy. C
an y
ou im
agin
e w
hat w
ould
hap
pen
if e
very
pers
on s
ittin
g-in
at t
he lu
nch
coun
ter
swun
g ba
ck a
t eve
rype
rson
who
squ
irte
d so
me
ketc
hup
on h
im o
r he
r? A
fig
htw
ould
bre
ak o
ut, a
nd it
wou
ld h
ardl
y be
eve
n. F
irst
off
, one
mus
t rem
embe
r th
at th
ese
cam
paig
ns a
re ta
king
pla
ce in
the
Sout
h, a
nd th
us th
ere
wou
ld b
e m
ore
whi
te p
eopl
e pi
ssed
off
at th
ese
"tro
uble
-mak
ers.
" It
wou
ld n
ot b
e un
usua
l for
fiv
eor
six
whi
tes
to b
eat o
n on
e B
lack
per
son.
And
if th
at B
lack
pers
on h
ad h
it a
whi
te, t
he b
eatin
g he
rec
eive
d w
ould
cert
ainl
y be
ser
ious
, if
not d
eadl
y. A
nd w
hat i
f th
e po
lice
arri
ve o
n th
e sc
ene.
The
y se
e w
hite
s hi
tting
Bla
cks,
and
Bla
cks,
alb
eit i
n se
lf-d
efen
se, h
ittin
g ba
ck. W
ho d
o yo
u th
ink
they
'd tu
rn th
eir
club
s on
then
?So
me
peop
le, l
ike
Dr.
Mar
tin L
uthe
r K
ing,
Jr.
, bel
ieve
d in
nonv
iole
nce
as a
mor
al s
trat
egy.
He
belie
ved
that
"th
ere
ism
ore
pow
er in
soc
ially
org
aniz
ed m
asse
s on
the
mar
ch th
anth
ere
is in
gun
s in
the
hand
s of
a f
ew d
espe
rate
men
." O
ther
sfo
llow
ed it
bec
ause
the
alte
rnat
ive
viol
ence
seem
ed s
oun
thin
kabl
e an
d so
unw
inna
ble,
giv
en th
e ar
ms
and
will
-in
gnes
s to
use
them
on
the
othe
r si
de.
Man
y pe
ople
, how
ever
, who
took
par
t in
the
nonv
iole
ntdi
rect
act
ion
of th
e 50
s an
d 60
s, k
ept t
heir
gun
s at
hom
e. T
hey
wan
ted
to m
ake
sure
they
had
som
e fo
rm o
f se
lf-d
efen
se if
the
Kla
n ca
me
calli
ng. K
ing
him
self
had
poi
nted
out
that
"th
epr
inci
ple
of s
elf-
defe
nse,
eve
n in
volv
ing
wea
pons
and
bloo
dshe
d, h
as n
ever
bee
n co
ndem
ned,
eve
n by
Gan
dhi."
("T
he S
ocia
l Org
aniz
atio
n of
Non
-Vio
lenc
e,"
Oct
ober
195
9).
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
on.
25
UN
IT F
IVE
: Bey
ond
the
Civ
il R
ight
s Ph
ase
of ti
re M
ovem
ent
Wha
t was
the
Mov
emen
t? W
hat d
id it
ach
ieve
? W
as it
a su
cces
s or
a f
ailu
re?
You
mig
ht th
ink
thes
e qu
estio
ns a
re e
asy
to a
nsw
er. T
heM
ovem
ent i
s us
ually
des
crib
ed a
s a
stru
ggle
for
"ci
vil r
ight
s"th
at is
, for
eve
ryon
e, r
egar
dles
s of
rac
e, to
be
trea
ted
equa
lly b
efor
e th
e la
w.
Seen
in th
ese
narr
ow le
gal t
erm
s, th
e M
ovem
ent w
as a
succ
ess.
Dur
ing
the
deca
de o
f 19
55 -
65,
mas
s ac
tion
forc
edth
e U
S go
vern
men
t to
resu
me
the
forw
ard
mar
ch s
ignp
oste
dby
Rec
onst
ruct
ion
a ce
ntur
y be
fore
. Mov
emen
t mile
ston
esar
e th
e C
ivil
Rig
hts
Act
of
1964
, whi
ch b
arre
d se
greg
atio
n"o
n th
e gr
ound
of
race
, col
or, r
elig
ion,
or
natio
nal o
rigi
n,"
and
the
Vot
ing
Rig
hts
Act
of
1965
. The
"w
hite
s on
ly"
sign
sca
me
dow
n, a
nd th
e nu
mbe
rs o
f A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s re
gis-
tere
d to
vot
e w
ent u
p.In
195
4 fe
wer
than
a q
uart
er o
f al
lad
ult A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s w
ere
enfr
anch
ised
. By
the
end
ofth
e 60
s, a
s th
e im
pact
of
the
Vot
ing
Rig
hts
Act
was
fel
t, ov
erth
ree
quar
ters
had
reg
iste
red
to v
ote.
The
Mov
emen
t is
not o
ver
As
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
disc
over
ed o
n ou
r jo
urne
ys S
outh
,so
me
vete
rans
of
the
Mov
emen
t do
not s
ee th
e st
rugg
le th
eypa
rtic
ipat
ed in
as
conf
ined
to a
sin
gle
deca
de a
nd to
the
sing
le o
bjec
tive
of a
ttain
ing
lega
l rig
hts.
Ins
tead
, the
y se
e it
as a
con
tinui
ng, l
ong-
term
eff
ort t
o ac
hiev
e ac
tual
(no
t jus
tle
gal)
equ
ality
and
mak
e A
mer
ica
live
up to
its
dem
ocra
ticpr
omis
e."T
he c
onve
ntio
nal t
erm
civ
il ri
ghts
mov
emen
t," w
rite
sM
ovem
ent v
eter
an a
nd h
isto
rian
Vin
cent
Har
ding
, "is
too
narr
ow a
des
crip
tion
for
the
grea
t, B
lack
-led
eru
ptio
n th
atsh
ook
the
anti-
dem
ocra
tic, w
hite
-sup
rem
acis
t fou
ndat
ions
of th
is n
atio
n no
t lon
g ag
o....
At i
ts d
eepe
st a
nd b
est l
evel
s,w
hat w
e so
oft
en c
all t
he c
ivil
righ
ts m
ovem
ent w
as in
fac
t apo
wer
ful o
utcr
oppi
ng o
f th
e co
ntin
uing
str
uggl
e fo
r th
eex
pans
ion
of d
emoc
racy
in th
e U
nite
d St
ates
...."
'
Seen
in th
ese
term
s, th
e M
ovem
ent w
as a
pow
erfu
lca
taly
st f
or th
e ex
pans
ion
of r
ight
s no
t jus
t for
rac
ial m
inor
ities
,bu
t for
wom
en, t
he d
isab
led,
gay
s an
d le
sbia
ns, i
mm
igra
nts,
the
elde
rly,
and
oth
er s
ocia
l gro
ups.
But
as
Dr.
Mar
tin L
uthe
rK
ing,
Jr.
rea
lized
, sha
king
the
foun
datio
ns o
f w
hite
sup
rem
acy
is n
ot th
e sa
me
thin
g as
taki
ng th
ose
foun
datio
ns a
part
, bri
ckby
bri
ck, a
nd b
uild
ing
anew
. It w
asn'
t eno
ugh
just
to ta
kedo
wn
the
"whi
tes
only
" si
gns.
It w
asn'
t eno
ugh
just
to"d
ream
" ab
out a
n in
tegr
ated
, col
or-b
lind
soci
ety.
The
soc
ial
and
econ
omic
str
uctu
res
whi
ch h
ad b
een
built
on
raci
sm h
adto
be
com
plet
ely
reco
nstr
ucte
d. W
hat g
ood
was
it, D
r. K
ing
said
, to
be a
ble
to s
it at
a lu
nch
coun
ter
if y
ou c
an't
affo
rd th
epr
ice
of a
ham
burg
er?
2
The
Bla
ck P
ower
pha
se o
f st
rugg
le
The
Mov
emen
t of
the
peri
od 1
955-
1965
is id
entif
ied
with
Dr.
Kin
g's
stra
tegy
of
nonv
iole
nt d
irec
t act
ion.
But
no
soon
er h
ad P
resi
dent
Joh
nson
sig
ned
the
Vot
ing
Rig
hts
Act
into
law
, tha
n an
era
was
bor
n w
hich
sha
red
Mal
colm
X's
impa
tienc
e w
ith th
e sl
ow p
ace
of c
hang
e an
d th
e vi
olen
ceai
med
at B
lack
peo
ple.
The
Aug
ust 1
965
upri
sing
in th
eW
atts
are
a of
Los
Ang
eles
, spa
rked
by
a co
nfro
ntat
ion
be-
twee
n A
fric
an-A
mer
ican
you
ths
and
whi
te p
olic
e, w
as a
sig
nof
thin
gs to
com
e.M
eanw
hile
, the
con
cept
of
"Bla
ck P
ower
," a
phr
ase
used
by R
icha
rd W
righ
t as
the
title
for
a b
ook,
and
by
the
activ
ist,
sing
er, a
nd a
ctor
Pau
l Rob
eson
in th
e 19
50s,
was
bei
ngdi
scus
sed
in S
NC
C o
ffic
es. I
t wou
ld f
irst
cap
ture
nat
iona
lm
edia
atte
ntio
n at
a M
issi
ssip
pi r
ally
in J
une
1966
.SN
CC
trie
d to
use
the
new
Vot
ing
Rig
hts
Act
to b
ring
dem
ocra
cy a
nd B
lack
pol
itica
l pow
er to
Low
ndes
Cou
nty,
Ala
bam
a, th
roug
h w
hich
the
Selm
a-M
ontg
omer
y m
arch
had
pass
ed. O
ver
80 p
erce
nt o
f th
e C
ount
y's
popu
latio
n w
asB
lack
, and
not
a s
ingl
e B
lack
per
son
had
been
reg
iste
red
tovo
te b
efor
e th
e V
otin
g R
ight
s A
ct. S
NC
C a
ctiv
ists
set
up
an
Mov
emen
t Voi
ces
"The
Mov
emen
t fai
led
in m
any
area
s. T
here
wer
ea
lot o
f ci
rcum
stan
ces
that
mad
e it
happ
en th
at w
ayth
e fe
dera
l gov
ernm
ent's
rep
ress
ion
of o
rgan
izat
ions
,its
rid
ing
herd
on
cert
ain
kind
s of
lead
ers,
and
so
on.
Philo
soph
ical
ly, w
e w
ere
not t
oget
her
in te
rms
of th
ego
als.
Som
e id
ealis
tic p
eopl
e ho
ped
that
the
Mov
emen
tw
ould
be
the
vang
uard
, the
veh
icle
for
bas
ic c
hang
e in
Am
eric
a, s
uch
as th
e re
dist
ribu
tion
of w
ealth
, the
red
is-
trib
utio
n of
land
. We
also
wan
ted
a di
ffer
ent k
ind
ofpo
litic
al s
yste
mon
e th
at w
as m
ore
dem
ocra
tic a
ndhu
man
e. N
one
of th
is h
appe
ned.
"Let
's lo
ok, f
or in
stan
ce, a
t the
ava
ilabi
lity
of h
ealth
care
. Thi
s sh
ould
hav
e be
en a
byp
rodu
ct o
f th
e st
rugg
lew
e w
ent t
hrou
gh. A
s lo
ng a
s I'v
e be
en p
oliti
cally
activ
e, w
e ha
ve a
dvoc
ated
nat
iona
l hea
lth c
are
in th
isco
untr
y."W
e fa
iled
in c
ruci
al a
reas
. You
mus
t eva
luat
e w
hat
I am
telli
ng y
ou, a
nd f
orm
for
you
rsel
f a
visi
on o
f w
hat
you
thin
k A
mer
ica
need
s to
look
like
. And
if y
ouco
nstr
uct a
vis
ion
of w
hat s
ome
peop
le li
ke m
ysel
f ha
vesa
id, y
ou w
ill f
ind
that
we
have
one
hel
luva
long
way
to g
o. Y
ou s
houl
d re
ad m
ore
hist
ory,
and
put
it in
the
cont
ext o
f w
hat y
ou m
ay v
isua
lize
as a
bet
ter
situ
atio
nw
hich
we
need
to s
triv
e fo
r.I
wan
t you
to lo
ok f
oryo
urse
lf, a
nd s
ee if
ther
e is
any
trut
h in
wha
t I s
ay.
"You
hav
e to
wor
k fo
r ch
ange
whe
re y
ou a
re. T
o do
that
, you
hav
e to
und
erst
and
wha
t you
're u
p ag
ains
t,ho
w th
e sy
stem
wor
ks, a
nd w
here
you
wan
t to
be 2
0ye
ars
from
now
."
Ow
en B
rook
s to
Pro
ject
HIP
-HO
P, J
uly
13, 1
995.
Wha
t doe
s yo
ur v
isio
n fo
r th
e co
untr
y lo
ok li
ke?
How
can
you
bri
ng it
abo
ut?
Can
it b
e do
ne in
your
life
time?
265
65
7H
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:
Mov
emen
t Voi
ces
"It i
s tim
e w
e st
oppe
d ou
r bl
ithe
lip s
ervi
ce to
the
guar
ante
es o
f lif
e, li
bert
y an
d pu
rsui
t of
happ
ines
s.T
hese
fin
e se
ntim
ents
are
em
bodi
ed in
the
Dec
lara
tion
ofIn
depe
nden
ce, b
ut th
at d
ocum
ent w
as a
lway
s a
decl
a-ra
tion
of in
tent
rat
her
than
of
real
ity. T
here
wer
e sl
aves
whe
n it
was
wri
tten.
.. an
d to
this
day
, bla
ck A
mer
ican
sha
ve n
ot li
fe, l
iber
ty n
or th
e pr
ivile
ge o
f pu
rsui
ng h
ap-
pine
ss, a
nd m
illio
ns o
f po
or w
hite
Am
eric
ans
are
inec
onom
ic b
onda
ge th
at is
sca
rcel
y le
ss o
ppre
ssiv
e...
Am
eric
a ha
s no
t yet
cha
nged
bec
ause
so
man
y th
ink
itne
ed n
ot c
hang
e, b
ut th
is is
the
illus
ion
of th
e da
mne
d.A
mer
ica
mus
t cha
nge
beca
use
twen
ty-t
hree
mill
ion
blac
kci
tizen
s w
ill n
o lo
nger
live
sup
inel
y in
a w
retc
hed
past
.T
hey
have
left
the
valle
y of
des
pair
; the
y ha
ve f
ound
stre
ngth
in s
trug
gle;
and
whe
ther
they
live
or
die,
they
shal
l nev
er c
raw
l nor
ret
reat
aga
in. J
oine
d by
whi
teal
lies,
they
will
sha
ke th
e pr
ison
wal
ls u
ntil
they
fal
l.A
mer
ica
mus
t cha
nge.
"
Mar
tin L
uthe
r K
ing,
Jr.
, "A
Tes
tam
ent o
f H
ope"
(19
68)
"We
wan
t to
say
that
fir
st, i
t is
clea
r to
me
that
we
have
to w
age
a ps
ycho
logi
cal b
attle
on
the
righ
t for
bla
ckpe
ople
to d
efen
d th
eir
own
term
s, d
efin
e th
emse
lves
as
they
see
fit
and
orga
nize
them
selv
es a
s th
ey s
ee f
it...W
ear
e on
the
mov
e fo
r ou
r lib
erat
ion.
We
have
bee
n tir
edof
tryi
ng to
pro
ve th
ings
to w
hite
peo
ple.
We
are
tired
of
tryi
ng to
exp
lain
to w
hite
peo
ple
that
we'
re n
ot g
oing
tohu
rt th
em...
. The
que
stio
n is
, will
whi
te p
eopl
e ov
erco
me
thei
r ra
cism
and
allo
w f
or th
at to
hap
pen
in th
is c
ount
ry?
If th
at d
oes
not h
appe
n, b
roth
ers
and
sist
ers,
we
have
no
choi
ce, b
ut to
say
ver
y cl
earl
y, m
ove
on o
ver,
or
we'
rego
ing
to m
ove
on o
ver
you.
"
Stok
ely
Car
mic
hael
at U
nive
rsity
of
Cal
ifor
nia
at B
erke
ley,
Nov
embe
r 19
, 196
6
inde
pend
ent p
arty
, the
Low
ndes
Cou
nty
Free
dom
Org
ani-
zatio
n, u
sing
a B
lack
Pan
ther
as
its s
ymbo
l. A
ll se
ven
of th
eir
cand
idat
es f
or lo
cal o
ffic
es w
ere
defe
ated
. Ope
n in
timid
a-tio
n an
d th
reat
s of
eco
nom
ic r
epri
sals
by
the
seve
ral d
ozen
prom
inen
t fam
ilies
who
ow
ned
90 p
erce
nt o
f th
e la
nd s
how
edth
at it
wou
ld ta
ke m
ore
than
the
Vot
ing
Rig
hts
Act
to b
ring
abou
t sub
stan
tial c
hang
e. T
he B
lack
Pan
ther
sym
bol w
ould
soon
be
adop
ted
by th
e B
lack
Pan
ther
Par
ty f
or S
elf-
Def
ense
in O
akla
nd, C
alif
orni
a, w
hich
was
off
icia
lly la
unch
ed in
Oct
ober
, 196
6.SN
CC
vet
eran
Jam
es F
orm
an, w
ho b
rief
ly w
as a
mem
ber
of th
e B
lack
Pan
ther
Par
ty, d
escr
ibed
the
tran
sfor
mat
ion
ofth
e M
ovem
ent i
n th
ese
term
s:"V
otin
g di
scri
min
atio
n an
d se
greg
atio
n of
pub
lic f
acili
-tie
s ha
d ge
nera
lly d
isap
pear
ed in
the
Sout
h af
ter
year
s of
prot
est
that
pro
test
whi
ch p
rodu
ced
the
1964
Civ
il R
ight
sA
ct a
nd th
e 19
65 V
otin
g R
ight
s A
ct. A
t the
sam
e tim
e, th
ene
wly
est
ablis
hed
polit
ical
rig
hts
of b
lack
peo
ple
in th
eSo
uth
wer
e be
ing
unde
rmin
ed b
y w
hite
s in
man
y w
ays:
delib
erat
e m
isco
untin
g of
vot
es, b
ribe
ry, e
cono
mic
intim
i-da
tion
of v
oter
s. T
he S
outh
was
bec
omin
g m
ore
and
mor
elik
e th
e N
orth
. The
fun
dam
enta
ls o
f ra
cism
inad
equa
teho
usin
g, la
ck o
f jo
bs, i
nsuf
fici
ent m
edic
al a
ttent
ion,
infe
rior
educ
atio
nrem
aine
d ba
sica
lly u
ncha
nged
thro
ugho
ut b
lack
com
mun
ities
, whe
ther
in N
ew Y
ork
or M
issi
ssip
pi. T
hus
the
call
for
Bla
ck P
ower
dre
w s
ubst
ance
fro
m th
e re
aliti
es o
f th
eliv
es o
f bl
ack
peop
le a
cros
s th
e na
tion.
With
the
equa
lizin
gof
our
pro
blem
s in
Nor
th a
nd S
outh
, the
con
cept
evo
ked
ana
tiona
l res
pons
e. I
t had
em
erge
d fr
om th
e So
uthe
rn e
x-pe
rien
ce, b
ut h
ad m
eani
ng f
or b
lack
peo
ple
ever
ywhe
re."
3"B
lack
Pow
er"
mea
nt a
new
em
phas
is o
n se
lf-d
efen
se,
raci
al p
ride
, and
gra
ssro
ots
orga
nizi
ng f
or B
lack
cul
tura
l and
econ
omic
adv
ance
men
t.A
ccor
ding
to s
ome
activ
ists
we
met
, it t
ook
the
stru
ggle
to a
hig
her
leve
l and
ens
ured
som
eco
ncre
te g
ains
for
Bla
ck p
eopl
e."T
he B
lack
Pow
er M
ovem
ent,"
Dr.
Cla
ude
Bar
nes
told
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP,
"is
par
t of
the
Mov
emen
t, al
thou
gh it
isno
t wri
tten
abou
t as
such
. Man
y sc
hola
rs w
ant t
o se
para
te
the
two
phas
es o
f th
e M
ovem
ent.
The
civ
il ri
ghts
pha
seac
cept
ed th
e cu
ltura
l ass
umpt
ions
of
the
wid
er c
ount
ry a
nddi
dn't
look
at i
dent
ity.
It b
elie
ved
that
if y
ou ju
st e
xten
dC
onst
itutio
nal r
ight
s to
eve
ryon
e, th
en e
very
thin
g w
ill b
eal
l rig
ht."
4 T
he B
lack
Pow
er M
ovem
ent,
on th
e ot
her
hand
,"r
aise
d qu
estio
ns o
f sy
stem
atic
opp
ress
ion
and
expl
oita
tion,
"an
d th
e ne
ed f
or "
maj
or c
hang
e an
d so
cial
tran
sfor
mat
ion.
"B
arne
s w
as a
lead
er o
f a
stud
ent r
evol
t at h
is G
reen
sbor
o,N
orth
Car
olin
a hi
gh s
choo
l and
the
firs
t stu
dent
to e
nrol
l in
Mal
colm
XL
iber
atio
n U
nive
rsity
, whi
ch m
oved
toG
reen
sbor
o in
197
0. H
e no
w te
ache
s at
Nor
th C
arol
ina
Agr
icul
tura
l and
Tec
hnic
al U
nive
rsity
, who
se s
tude
nts
be-
gan
the
sit-
in m
ovem
ent i
n 19
60.
Dr.
Bar
nes
desc
ribe
d th
e or
gani
zatio
ns f
orm
ed in
the
late
1960
s an
d ea
rly
70s
to f
ight
atte
mpt
s to
shu
t Bla
ck c
olle
ges
and
scho
ols
(see
n as
the
base
of
stud
ent p
rote
st)
and
to w
ork
for
econ
omic
just
ice.
Gra
ssro
ots
activ
ism
led
to im
port
ant
chan
ges,
esp
ecia
lly in
the
econ
omic
sph
ere,
whe
re m
ore
jobs
wer
e op
ened
up
to A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s. A
lthou
gh th
ere
isst
ill, D
r. B
arne
s to
ld u
s, "
inte
nse
segr
egat
ion"
in G
reen
sbor
o's
neig
hbor
hood
s, g
rave
yard
s, a
nd in
stitu
tions
, thi
ngs
are
defi
nite
ly b
ette
r th
an th
ey w
ere
befo
re.
The
citi
es b
urn
Bac
k in
the
sum
mer
of
1967
, as
calls
for
"B
lack
Pow
er"
cam
e to
nat
iona
l atte
ntio
n, d
espe
rate
con
ditio
ns in
urb
angh
etto
s an
d in
cide
nts
of p
olic
e br
utal
ity ig
nite
d up
risi
ngs
in15
0 ci
ties,
mos
tly in
the
Nor
th. N
inet
y pe
ople
wer
e ki
lled,
40,0
00 in
jure
d, a
nd th
e da
mag
e to
pro
pert
y im
men
se. T
here
belli
on in
the
sing
le c
ity o
f D
etro
it la
sted
fiv
e da
ys, c
ausi
ng43
dea
ths.
Hor
rifi
ed b
y th
e vi
olen
ce, D
r. K
ing
was
det
erm
ined
tode
mon
stra
te th
at n
onvi
olen
t met
hods
cou
ld b
e us
ed e
ffec
-tiv
ely
in th
e fi
ght f
or p
oliti
cal p
ower
and
eco
nom
ic ju
stic
e. I
nth
e la
st y
ear
of h
is li
fe, h
e to
ld th
e U
S Se
nate
that
"th
e gr
eat
chal
leng
e fa
cing
the
civi
l rig
hts
mov
emen
t is
to o
rgan
ize
and
gain
iden
tity
with
ghe
tto d
wel
lers
." A
mer
ica
as a
nat
ion
has
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
5 8
5927
neve
r ye
t, he
dec
lare
d, "
com
mitt
ed it
self
to s
olvi
ng th
epr
oble
ms
of it
s N
egro
citi
zens
"an
d no
w ti
me
was
run
ning
out.
5 To
focu
s th
e na
tion'
s at
tent
ion
on e
cono
mic
ineq
ualit
y,D
r. K
ing
plan
ned
to m
obili
ze A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s, p
oor
whi
tes,
His
pani
cs, a
nd N
ativ
e A
mer
ican
s in
a "
Poor
Peo
ple'
s C
am-
paig
n."
He
wan
ted
to b
ring
them
to W
ashi
ngto
n D
C, w
here
they
wou
ld li
ve in
sha
ntie
s an
d ta
ke p
art i
n de
mon
stra
tions
dem
andi
ng th
at th
e go
vern
men
t con
fron
t the
pro
blem
s of
pove
rty
in th
e na
tion'
s ci
ties
and
rura
l are
as.
Mea
nwhi
le, K
ing
ange
red
thos
e in
pow
er b
y co
ndem
n-in
g th
e V
ietn
am W
ar.
Inst
ead
of u
sing
res
ourc
es to
fig
htpo
vert
y at
hom
e, h
e de
clar
ed, t
he U
S ha
d bu
ilt a
mili
tary
mac
hine
to k
ill m
illio
ns o
f V
ietn
ames
e in
a f
utile
and
unj
ust
war
. "It
bec
ame
clea
r to
me
that
the
war
was
doi
ng f
ar m
ore
than
dev
asta
ting
the
hope
s of
the
poor
at h
ome.
It w
asse
ndin
g th
eir
sons
and
thei
r br
othe
rs a
nd th
eir
husb
ands
tofi
ght a
nd to
die
in e
xtra
ordi
nari
ly h
igh
prop
ortio
ns r
elat
ive
to th
e re
st o
f th
e po
pula
tion.
... S
o w
e ha
ve r
epea
tedl
y be
enfa
ced
with
the
crue
l iro
ny o
f w
atch
ing
negr
o an
d w
hite
boy
son
TV
scr
eens
as
they
kill
and
die
toge
ther
for
a n
atio
n th
atha
s be
en u
nabl
e to
sea
t the
m to
geth
er in
the
sam
e sc
hool
s. S
ow
e w
atch
them
in b
ruta
l sol
idar
ity b
urni
ng th
e hu
ts o
f a
poor
villa
ge, b
ut w
e re
aliz
e th
at th
ey w
ould
nev
er li
ve o
n th
e sa
me
bloc
k in
Det
roit.
" 6
In la
ngua
ge r
emin
isce
nt o
f M
alco
lm X
, Dr.
Kin
g pr
aise
d"t
he b
lack
rev
olut
ion"
for
"fo
rcin
g A
mer
ica
to f
ace
all i
tsin
terr
elat
ed f
law
sra
cism
, pov
erty
, mili
tari
sm a
nd m
ate-
rial
ism
.... I
t rev
eals
sys
tem
ic r
athe
r th
an s
uper
fici
al f
law
san
d su
gges
ts th
at r
adic
al r
econ
stru
ctio
n of
soc
iety
itse
lf is
the
real
issu
e to
be
face
d."
7T
he s
trug
gle
for
econ
omic
equ
ality
took
Dr.
Kin
g to
Mem
phis
, Ten
ness
ee in
Apr
il 19
68. H
e in
tend
ed to
lead
am
arch
of
stri
king
san
itatio
n w
orke
rs w
ho w
ere
dem
andi
ngun
ion
reco
gniti
on a
nd d
ecen
t wag
es. O
n A
pril
4th
he d
ied
on th
e ba
lcon
y of
the
Lor
rain
e M
otel
in M
emph
is, k
illed
by
a sn
iper
's b
ulle
t.In
the
wak
e of
his
dea
th, m
ore
than
a h
undr
ed c
ities
wen
t
up in
fla
mes
. The
nat
ion'
s te
levi
sion
scr
eens
wer
e do
mi-
nate
d by
imag
es o
f th
e N
atio
nal G
uard
and
arm
y in
ful
lba
ttle
gear
pat
rolli
ng o
ur o
wn
burn
ing
stre
ets,
whi
le o
ther
US
sold
iers
bur
ned
villa
ges
in V
ietn
am.
The
Ker
ner
Com
mis
sion
A m
onth
bef
ore
Dr.
Kin
g's
assa
ssin
atio
n, a
doc
umen
t of
unus
ual h
ones
ty a
nd in
sigh
t was
pub
lishe
d by
the
Nat
iona
lA
dvis
ory
Com
mis
sion
on
Civ
il D
isor
ders
, app
oint
ed b
yPr
esid
ent L
yndo
n Jo
hnso
n an
d ch
aire
d by
Otto
Ker
ner.
The
Com
mis
sion
, tw
o of
who
se m
embe
rs w
ere
Afr
ican
Am
eri-
can,
wro
te a
bout
the
ange
r bo
iling
ove
r in
so
man
y ci
ties:
"Seg
rega
tion
and
pove
rty
have
cre
ated
in th
e ra
cial
ghet
to a
des
truc
tive
envi
ronm
ent t
otal
ly u
nkno
wn
to m
ost
whi
te A
mer
ican
s. W
hat w
hite
Am
eric
ans
have
nev
er f
ully
unde
rsto
odbu
t wha
t the
Neg
ro c
an n
ever
for
get
is th
atw
hite
soc
iety
is d
eepl
y im
plic
ated
in th
e gh
etto
. Whi
tein
stitu
tions
cre
ated
it, w
hite
inst
itutio
ns m
aint
ain
it, a
ndw
hite
soc
iety
con
done
s it.
" 8
The
Ker
ner
Com
mis
sion
exa
min
ed th
e ro
le p
laye
d by
whi
te r
acis
m th
roug
hout
our
nat
ion'
s hi
stor
y. I
t tra
ced
the
Mov
emen
t's a
ttem
pts
to b
ring
abo
ut c
hang
e, a
nd th
e de
spai
rth
at m
ade
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
embr
ace
mor
e m
ilita
nt d
e-m
ands
for
Bla
ck P
ower
whe
n th
ey "
coul
d se
e pr
ogre
ssto
war
d eq
ualit
y ac
com
pani
ed b
y bi
tter
resi
stan
ce. P
erha
psm
ost o
f al
l, th
ey c
ould
fee
l the
per
sist
ent,
perv
asiv
e ra
cism
that
kep
t the
m in
infe
rior
seg
rega
ted
scho
ols,
res
tric
ted
them
to g
hetto
s, b
arre
d th
em f
rom
fai
r em
ploy
men
t, pr
ovid
eddo
uble
sta
ndar
ds in
cou
rts
of ju
stic
e, in
flic
ted
bodi
ly h
arm
on th
eir
child
ren,
and
blig
hted
thei
r liv
es w
ith a
sen
se o
fho
pele
ssne
ss a
nd d
espa
ir."
9T
he r
epor
t, w
ritte
n w
hen
11.9
per
cent
of
the
natio
n's
whi
tes
and
40.6
per
cent
of
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
and
othe
rra
cial
min
oriti
es w
ere
livin
g be
low
the
pove
rty
leve
l, m
ade
seve
ral u
rgen
t rec
omm
enda
tions
to P
resi
dent
Joh
nson
'sgo
vern
men
t. T
hese
incl
uded
the
need
to in
tegr
ate
scho
ols,
impr
ove
hous
ing,
ope
n up
the
exis
ting
job
stru
ctur
e, c
reat
e
Act
ivity
Bla
ck P
anth
er P
arty
Man
ifes
to o
f 19
66(e
xtra
cts)
1. W
e w
ant f
reed
om. W
e w
ant p
ower
to d
eter
min
e th
ede
stin
y of
our
Bla
ck C
omm
unity
.2.
We
wan
t ful
l em
ploy
men
t for
our
peo
ple.
3. W
e w
ant a
n en
d to
the
robb
ery
by th
e C
API
TA
LIS
T o
fou
r B
lack
Com
mun
ity.
4. W
e w
ant d
ecen
t hou
sing
, fit
for
shel
ter
of h
uman
bein
gs.
5. W
e w
ant e
duca
tion
for
our
peop
le th
at e
xpos
es th
etr
ue n
atur
e of
this
dec
aden
t Am
eric
an s
ocie
ty. W
e w
ant
educ
atio
n th
at te
ache
s us
our
true
his
tory
and
our
rol
e in
the
pres
ent-
day
soci
ety.
6. W
e w
ant a
ll bl
ack
men
to b
e ex
empt
fro
m m
ilita
ryse
rvic
e.7.
We
wan
t an
imm
edia
te e
nd to
PO
LIC
E B
RU
TA
LIT
Yan
d M
UR
DE
R o
f bl
ack
peop
le.
8. W
e w
ant f
reed
om f
or a
ll bl
ack
men
hel
d in
fed
eral
,st
ate,
cou
nty
and
city
pri
sons
and
jails
.9.
We
wan
t all
blac
k pe
ople
bro
ught
to tr
ial t
o be
trie
d in
cour
t by
a ju
ry o
f th
eir
peer
gro
up o
r pe
ople
fro
m th
eir
blac
k co
mm
uniti
es, a
s de
fine
d by
the
cons
titut
ion
of th
eU
nite
d St
ates
.10
. We
wan
t lan
d, b
read
, hou
sing
, edu
catio
n, c
loth
ing,
just
ice
and
peac
e. A
nd a
s ou
r m
ajor
pol
itica
l obj
ectiv
e, a
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
-sup
ervi
sed
pleb
isci
te to
be
held
thro
ugho
ut th
e bl
ack
colo
ny in
whi
ch o
nly
blac
k co
loni
alsu
bjec
ts w
ill b
e al
low
ed to
par
ticip
ate,
for
the
purp
ose
ofde
term
inin
g th
e w
ill o
f bl
ack
peop
le a
s to
thei
r na
tiona
lde
stin
y.
Whi
ch o
f th
ese
dem
ands
do
you
thin
k al
arm
ed th
e au
thor
ities
the
mos
t? D
o yo
u th
ink
that
this
Man
ifes
to w
ould
fin
d m
any
supp
orte
rs to
day?
2860
61H
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:
COUNTERINTELLIGENCE PROGRAM
BLACK NATIONALIST
HATE GROUPS
RACIAL INTELLIGENCE
GOALS
3/4/68
1. Prevent the coalition of, militant black
nationalist groups. In unity there is strength; a
truism that is no less valid for all its triteness. An
effective coalition of black nationalist groups might
be the first step toward a real "Mau Mau" in America,
the beginning of a true black revolution.
2. Prevent the rise of a "messiah" who could
unify, and electrify, the militant black nationalist
movement. Malcolm X might have been such a "messiah ;"
he is the martyr of the movement today. Martin Luther
King, Stokely Carmichael and Elijah Muhammed all aspire
to this position. Elijah Muhammed is less of a threat
because of his age. King could be a very real contender
for this position should he abandon his supposed
"obedience" to "white, liberal doctrines" (nonviolence)
and embrace black nationalism. Carmichael has the neces-
sary charisma to be a real threat in this way.
3. Prevent violenep on the part of black
nationalist groups. This is of primary importance, and
is, of course, a goal of our investigative activity; it
should also be a goal of the Counterintelligence Pro-
gram. Through counterintelligence it should be possible
to pinpoint potential troublemakers and neutralize them
before they exercise their potential for violence.
4. Prevent militant black nationalist groups
and leaders from gaining rawileat21111tty,
5. A final goal should be to prevent the long-
range arowth of militant black nationalist organiza-
tions, especially among youth.
TARGETS
Primary targets of the Counterintelligence Pro-
gram, Black Nationalist-Hate Groups, should be the most
violent and radical groups and their leaders. We should
emphasize those leaders and organizations that are
nationwide in scope and are most capable of disrupting
this country. These targets should include the radical
and violence-prone leaders, members, and followers of
the:
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM)
Nation of Islam (NOI)
Offices handling these cases and those of
Stokely Carmichael of SNCC, H. Rap Brown of SNCC, Mar-
tin Luther King of SCLC, Maxwell Stanford of RAM, and
Elijah Muhammed of NOI, should be alert for counterin-
telligence suggestions. ...
two
mill
ion
new
jobs
for
the
inne
r ci
ties,
pro
vide
new
fed
eral
fund
s fo
r w
elfa
re, s
et u
p ci
vilia
n re
view
boa
rds
to o
vers
eeth
e po
lice,
and
rec
ruit
mor
e A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s in
to th
epo
lice
forc
e an
d th
e m
edia
. "O
ur n
atio
n,"
the
Com
mis
sion
war
ned,
"is
mov
ing
tow
ard
two
soci
etie
s, o
ne b
lack
, one
whi
tese
para
te a
nd u
nequ
al."
It c
ould
be
argu
ed, o
f co
urse
, tha
t thi
s w
as n
othi
ng n
ew.
The
re h
ad a
lway
s be
en tw
o so
ciet
ies
in th
e na
tion.
Wha
t the
Ker
ner
Com
mis
sion
suc
ceed
ed in
hig
hlig
htin
g w
as h
owre
lativ
ely
little
had
cha
nged
in th
e co
untr
y si
nce
the
"whi
te's
only
" si
gns
cam
e do
wn.
The
Mov
emen
t had
cle
arly
not
yet
gone
far
eno
ugh. T
he F
BI
stri
kes
back
But
the
head
of
the
FBI,
J. E
dgar
Hoo
ver,
was
det
erm
ined
that
it g
o no
fur
ther
. By
1967
his
org
aniz
atio
n ha
d de
clar
edw
ar o
n B
lack
mili
tanc
y.T
he F
BI's
Cou
nter
- In
telli
genc
ePr
ogra
m (
CO
INT
EL
PRO
) ha
d be
en c
reat
ed in
195
6 to
"neu
tral
ize"
(th
at is
, "to
cau
se to
cea
se to
exi
st a
s a
polit
ical
forc
e")
indi
vidu
als
and
dom
estic
gro
ups
whi
ch w
ere
seen
as
a th
reat
to n
atio
nal s
ecurity.10
It u
sed
psyc
holo
gica
l war
fare
,in
filtr
atio
n, h
aras
smen
t thr
ough
the
lega
l sys
tem
, vio
lenc
e,an
d ev
en a
ssas
sina
tion
agai
nst i
ts ta
rget
s. I
t was
pub
licly
expo
sed
afte
r th
e th
eft o
f C
OIN
TE
LPR
O f
iles
in 1
971.
Eve
n-tu
ally
, the
FB
I w
as f
orce
d to
mak
e pu
blic
info
rmat
ion
abou
tits
pro
gram
s ai
med
at d
estr
oyin
g th
e C
omm
unis
t Par
ty, t
heSo
cial
ist W
orke
rs P
arty
, gro
ups
wor
king
for
Pue
rto
Ric
anin
depe
nden
ce, C
hica
no a
ctiv
ists
, the
Am
eric
an I
ndia
nM
ovem
ent,
and
a ra
nge
of a
nti-
war
, fem
inis
t, ga
y, a
ndst
uden
t gro
ups.
Hig
h on
the
FBI's
list
of
targ
eted
org
aniz
atio
ns w
ere
wha
t the
y te
rmed
"B
lack
Nat
iona
list H
ate
Gro
ups.
" A
mem
o fr
om J
. Edg
ar H
oove
r to
"al
l off
ices
" or
ders
age
nts
to"e
xpos
e, d
isru
pt, m
isdi
rect
, dis
cred
it, o
r ot
herw
ise
neut
raliz
eth
e ac
tiviti
es o
f bl
ack
natio
nalis
t hat
e-ty
pe o
rgan
izat
ions
and
grou
ping
s, th
eir
lead
ersh
ip, s
poke
smen
, mem
bers
hip,
and
supp
orte
rs...
.und
er n
o ci
rcum
stan
ces
shou
ld th
e ex
ist-
ence
of
the
prog
ram
be
mad
e kn
own
outs
ide
the
Bur
eau
[FB
I]...
." (
FBI
Mem
o of
Aug
ust 2
5, 1
967
from
Hoo
ver
to "
All
Off
ices
.")
CO
INT
EL
PRO
sou
ght t
o cr
eate
spl
its in
org
aniz
a-tio
ns, a
nd to
div
ide
grou
ps a
long
rac
ial a
nd e
thni
c lin
es a
ndtu
rn th
em a
gain
st e
ach
othe
r. I
t was
par
ticul
arly
bru
tal i
nits
trea
tmen
t of
the
Bla
ck P
anth
ers.
In
Chi
cago
, the
FB
I se
ntfo
rged
lette
rs to
str
eet g
angs
whi
ch tu
rned
them
aga
inst
the
Bla
ck P
anth
ers.
On
Dec
embe
r 4,
196
9 it
help
ed th
e C
hica
gopo
lice
assa
ssin
ate
Bla
ck P
anth
er le
ader
s Fr
ed H
ampt
on a
ndM
ark
Cla
rk a
s th
ey la
y as
leep
in th
eir
beds
."M
oder
ate"
Bla
ck le
ader
s di
d no
t esc
ape
FBI
scru
tiny.
Mar
tin L
uthe
r K
ing,
Jr.
was
wir
etap
ped.
Sho
rtly
bef
ore
hew
as s
ched
uled
to r
ecei
ve th
e N
obel
Pea
cePr
ice,
the
FBI
used
tape
s fr
om h
is b
edro
om to
enc
oura
ge h
im to
com
mit
suic
ide.
The
FB
I ke
pt f
iles
on S
NC
C le
ader
s, F
anni
e L
ou H
amer
and
othe
r M
ovem
ent a
ctiv
ists
. Cle
vela
nd S
elle
rs, w
ho h
ad b
een
prog
ram
dir
ecto
r of
SN
CC
whe
n he
was
20 y
ears
old
, was
accu
sed
of p
artic
ipat
ing
in "
a ri
ot"
in O
rang
ebur
g, S
outh
Car
olin
a in
196
8 an
d se
rved
a y
ear
in ja
il. S
elle
rs h
ad b
een
shot
in th
e "r
iot"
also
kno
wn
as th
e O
rang
ebur
g M
assa
cre
whi
ch w
as th
e cu
lmin
atio
n of
13
year
s of
stu
dent
pro
test
in th
e to
wn.
Fol
low
ing
a de
mon
stra
tion
by s
tude
nts
outs
ide
a bo
wlin
g al
ley
whi
ch r
efus
ed to
inte
grat
e,th
e So
uth
Car
o-lin
a H
ighw
ay P
atro
lmen
, Sou
th C
arol
ina
Nat
iona
l Gua
rds-
men
, and
loca
l pol
ice
surr
ound
ed th
e ca
mpu
sof
Sou
thC
arol
ina
Stat
e C
olle
ge, a
pre
dom
inan
tly B
lack
col
lege
inO
rang
ebur
g. T
hey
then
fir
ed w
ithou
t war
ning
at n
earl
y 40
0st
uden
ts w
ho w
ere
gath
ered
on
the
cam
pus.
Thr
ee s
tude
nts,
Hen
ry S
mith
, Sam
uel H
amm
ond,
and
Del
ano
Mid
dlet
on,
wer
e ki
lled.
Tw
enty
-eig
ht o
ther
s w
ere
wou
nded
. The
inju
red,
man
y of
who
m w
ere
shot
in th
e ba
ck, w
ere
initi
ally
refu
sed
trea
tmen
t at t
he c
ount
y ho
spita
l whe
re th
ey w
ere
take
n fo
r tr
eatm
ent.
Cle
vela
nd. S
elle
rs to
ld P
roje
ct H
IP-H
OP
that
he
was
delib
erat
ely
targ
eted
for
arr
est b
ecau
se o
f hi
s po
litic
al a
c-tiv
ities
. "W
here
ver
I w
ould
hav
e go
ne, I
wou
ld h
ave
run
into
the
sam
e ki
nd o
f re
spon
se. W
hat h
appe
ned
in O
rang
ebur
gha
ppen
ed to
som
e de
gree
all
over
whe
re th
ere
was
a
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
62B
ES
T C
OP
Y A
VA
ILA
BLE
6329
Mov
emen
t and
peo
ple
wer
e pl
acin
g th
eir
lives
on
the
linef
orso
cial
cha
nge.
" 11
No
polic
e w
ere
ever
cha
rged
with
the
deat
hs o
f th
e st
uden
ts. I
n 19
93 S
elle
rs w
as is
sued
a p
ardo
nby
the
Stat
e of
Sou
th C
arol
ina.
Ear
lier
in th
e 60
s, th
e FB
I ha
d ru
n ba
ckgr
ound
che
cks
onci
vil r
ight
s de
mon
stra
tors
to s
ee if
they
had
Com
mun
ist
conn
ectio
ns, a
nd h
ad r
efus
ed to
ext
end
them
pro
tect
ion.
Typ
ical
of
the
FBI's
res
pons
e to
the
viol
ence
per
petu
ated
by
the
Kla
n w
as it
s ha
lf-h
eart
ed in
vest
igat
ion
of th
e 19
63bo
mbi
ng o
f B
irm
ingh
am's
Six
teen
th S
tree
t Bap
tist C
hurc
h,w
hich
kill
ed f
our
Sund
ay S
choo
l gir
ls. T
he in
vest
igat
ion
into
the
bom
bing
was
fin
ally
reo
pene
d in
Jul
y 19
97.
The
war
on
Bla
ck e
lect
ed o
ffic
ials
Aft
er C
OIN
TE
LPR
O w
as p
ublic
ly e
xpos
ed, i
t was
, the
FBI
clai
med
, shu
t dow
n. B
ut it
s m
etho
dsan
d its
rac
ism
lived
on.
The
re is
evi
denc
e, f
or in
stan
ce, t
hat t
he F
BI
was
invo
lved
in tr
ying
to o
vert
urn
Bla
ck m
ajor
ities
in th
e el
ectio
nof
cou
nty
com
mis
sion
ers
and
scho
ol b
oard
mem
bers
inA
laba
ma
in 1
984.
Its
cam
paig
n to
dis
cred
it B
lack
ele
cted
offi
cial
s w
as, a
ccor
ding
to R
ep. D
ymal
ly, c
alle
d th
e"F
ruhm
ensc
hen"
(G
erm
an f
or p
rim
itive
man
) pr
ogra
m. 1
2T
ake
the
case
of
Edd
ie C
arth
an, e
lect
ed th
e fi
rst B
lack
may
or o
f T
chul
a (p
opul
atio
n 20
00)
in th
e M
issi
ssip
pi D
elta
in 1
977,
at t
he a
ge o
f 27
. As
a 12
yea
r ol
d, C
arth
an h
ad g
one
to ja
il fo
r 3
days
for
taki
ng p
art i
n M
ovem
ent d
emon
stra
-tio
ns. H
e se
rved
as
Tch
ula'
s m
ayor
for
ove
r th
ree
year
s,du
ring
whi
ch ti
me
he p
aved
str
eets
in th
e B
lack
com
mun
ity,
built
new
hou
ses,
and
bro
ught
tran
spor
t to
the
elde
rly
and
disa
bled
. Tch
ula
beca
me
an e
xam
ple
to o
ther
Del
ta to
wns
,an
d a
chal
leng
e to
the
stat
us q
uo.
Dur
ing
his
time
as m
ayor
, the
sof
t-sp
oken
Edd
ie C
arth
anto
ld P
roje
ct H
IP-H
OP
on J
uly
17, 1
997,
the
"pow
ers
that
be
did
ever
ythi
ng e
xcep
t sho
ot m
e to
get
me
out o
f of
fice
." A
nFB
I ag
ent c
ame
to T
chul
a sh
ortly
aft
er h
e w
as e
lect
ed m
ayor
to p
repa
re f
or h
is p
oliti
cal a
ssas
sina
tion.
The
med
ia h
elpe
dis
olat
e hi
m f
rom
the
com
mun
ity.
3064
The
Gov
erno
r pu
t Tch
ula
unde
r m
artia
l law
and
sen
t in
carl
oads
of
stat
e tr
oope
rs. T
he s
tate
legi
slat
ure
pass
ed a
law
allo
win
g th
e bo
ard
of a
lder
man
to r
un th
e to
wn
inst
ead
ofth
e m
ayor
. The
re w
ere
daily
thre
ats
on h
is li
fe. H
is h
ouse
was
sho
t at,
and
he h
ad to
hav
e a
24-h
our
guar
d. F
inal
ly, h
ew
as a
ccus
ed o
f "s
impl
e as
saul
t" o
n a
polic
e of
fice
r an
dse
nten
ced
to th
ree
year
s in
pri
son
(no
one
else
in th
e hi
stor
yof
the
Stat
e of
Mis
siss
ippi
has
bee
n gi
ven
a pr
ison
sen
tenc
efo
r "s
impl
e as
saul
t").
His
cas
e w
as ta
ken
up b
y A
mne
sty
Inte
rnat
iona
l. H
e sp
ent 1
8 m
onth
s in
pri
son,
muc
h of
it in
solit
ary
conf
inem
ent a
nd lo
cked
dow
n w
ith d
eath
row
pris
oner
s.E
ddie
Car
than
told
us
that
he
still
has
a h
ard
time
earn
ing
a liv
ing,
and
thin
ks h
e is
stil
l und
er s
urve
illan
ce. H
e al
sobe
lieve
s th
at if
the
com
mun
ity h
ad g
iven
him
mor
e su
ppor
t,he
wou
ld n
ot h
ave
been
jaile
d. B
ut, h
e sa
ys, t
here
is s
till a
"dee
p em
bedd
ed f
ear
that
peo
ple
have
to d
eal w
ith. T
here
used
to b
e a
fear
of
surv
ival
, of
phys
ical
har
m. T
oday
it is
am
enta
l, em
otio
nal f
ear
a fe
ar o
f th
e fu
ture
, a h
elpl
ess
feel
ing.
"
Def
initi
ons
Am
nest
y In
tern
atio
nal
an in
tern
atio
nal o
rgan
izat
ion,
who
se h
eadq
uart
ers
is in
Lon
don,
whi
ch w
orks
to f
ree
"pri
sone
rs o
f co
nsci
ence
" ar
ound
the
wor
ld a
nd to
end
tort
ure
and
the
deat
h pe
nalty
.
FBI
orig
inal
ly c
alle
d th
e B
urea
u of
Inv
estig
atio
n, it
was
set u
p as
par
t of
the
US
Dep
artm
ent o
f Ju
stic
e in
190
8.It
adde
d "F
eder
al"
to it
s na
me
duri
ng F
rank
lin R
oose
velt'
spr
esid
ency
. As
earl
y as
191
7, it
targ
eted
the
Bla
ck c
omm
u-ni
ty f
or s
urve
illan
ce, l
ooki
ng f
or e
vide
nce
of s
ubve
rsiv
eac
tiviti
es. I
t was
hea
ded
by J
. Edg
ar H
oove
r fr
om 1
924
to19
72. A
nyon
e in
tere
sted
in r
acia
l jus
tice
was
con
side
red
a"R
ed"
or "
Com
mun
ist"
by
Hoo
ver.
Foot
note
s1.
Vin
cent
Har
ding
, Hop
e an
d H
isto
ry: W
hy W
e M
ust S
hare
the
Stor
y of
the
Mov
emen
t, O
rbis
Boo
ks, 1
991,
p. 1
.
2. D
enni
s C
ashm
an, A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s an
d th
e Q
uest
for
Civ
il R
ight
s, 1
900-
1990
, NY
U P
ress
, 199
1, p
. 210
.
3. J
ames
For
man
, The
Mak
ing
of B
lack
Rev
olut
iona
ries
,O
penH
and
Publ
ishi
ng C
o., 1
985,
p. 4
57.
4. J
uly
10, 1
997
mee
ting
in G
reen
sbor
o, N
orth
Car
olin
a.C
laud
e B
arne
s' s
tude
nt a
ctiv
ities
are
des
crib
ed in
Tho
-m
as D
ent,
Sout
hern
Jou
rney
: A R
etur
n to
the
Civ
il R
ight
sM
ovem
ent,
Will
iam
Mor
row
and
Com
pany
, 199
7, p
. 53.
5. D
. Gar
row
, Bea
ring
the
Cro
ss: M
artin
Lut
her
Kin
g, J
r. a
ndth
e So
uthe
rn C
hris
tian
Lea
ders
hip
Con
fere
nce,
Vin
tage
Boo
ks,
1986
, p. 6
09.
6. "
A T
ime
to B
reak
the
Sile
nce,
" A
pril
1967
, Tes
tam
ent o
fH
ope:
The
Ess
entia
l Wri
tings
and
Spe
eche
s of
Mar
tin L
uthe
rK
ing,
Jr.
, p. 2
33.
7. "
A T
esta
men
t of
Hop
e,"
in A
Tes
tam
ent o
f H
ope,
The
Ess
entia
l Wri
tings
, p. 3
15.
8. T
he R
iot R
epor
t: A
Sho
rten
ed V
ersi
on o
f th
e R
epor
t of
the
Nat
iona
l Adv
isor
y C
omm
issi
on o
n C
ivil
Dis
orde
rs, V
ikin
gPr
ess,
196
9, p
. 20.
9. O
p ci
t., p
. 130
.
10. R
icha
rd C
rile
y, T
he F
BI
and
the
Firs
t Am
endm
ent,
Firs
tA
men
dmen
t Fou
ndat
ion,
199
0, p
. 29.
11. M
eetin
g of
Jul
y 10
, 199
7. W
e al
so m
et th
e ow
ner
ofth
e A
ll St
ar B
owlin
g A
lley
who
had
ref
used
to in
tegr
ate
his
faci
litie
s in
196
8. H
e di
d no
t reg
ret h
is e
arlie
r ac
tions
.
12. M
ary
Saw
yer,
Har
assm
ent o
f B
lack
Ele
cted
Off
icia
ls:
Ten
Yea
rs L
ater
, Vot
er E
duca
tion
and
Reg
istr
atio
n, I
nc.,
1987
; Spe
ech
by R
ep. M
ervy
n D
ymal
ly (
CA
) in
Con
-gr
essi
onal
Rec
ord
of J
anua
ry 2
7, 1
988,
p. H
31.
Hig
hway
s in
to th
e Pa
st:
Voi
ces
Hea
rd a
t Sch
ool
Bla
ck p
eopl
e in
my
scho
ol a
lway
s si
t tog
ethe
r du
ring
lunc
h tim
e, a
nd th
ey d
on't
real
ly ta
lk to
any
of
the
whi
tepe
ople
. The
Asi
ans
have
thei
r ow
n lu
nch
tabl
e to
o, b
utat
leas
t I c
an ta
lk w
ith s
ome
of th
em. I
thin
k w
e sh
ould
all h
ave
assi
gned
sea
ts s
o th
at w
hite
peo
ple
will
get
tokn
ow s
ome
Bla
ck p
eopl
e. I
f w
e do
n't h
ave
a di
alog
ue o
nra
ce, h
ow w
ill w
e ev
er u
nder
stan
d th
is p
robl
em?
I kn
ow th
at B
lack
peo
ple
have
bee
n op
pres
sed
in th
isso
ciet
y, b
ut le
t's f
ace
it, th
ey c
an p
retty
muc
h do
wha
tth
ey w
ant t
oday
. Loo
k at
Bill
Cos
by o
r M
icha
el J
orda
n.C
'mon
now
, aff
irm
ativ
e ac
tion
is s
impl
y re
vers
e ra
cism
agai
nst w
hite
peo
ple.
I m
ean,
ther
e ar
e po
or w
hite
peop
le to
o! W
hy a
re th
ey f
orgo
tten?
I do
n't t
hink
a B
lack
man
can
mak
e it
in th
is s
ocie
ty. T
hetr
uth
is th
is is
a s
ocie
ty f
ound
ed u
pon
one
prem
ise:
whi
te s
upre
mac
y. L
ook
arou
nd y
ou. T
he p
olic
e bu
sthi
s he
ad o
pen.
Sch
ools
trea
t him
as
infe
rior
. The
med
iapa
int h
im a
s a
crim
inal
.W
hat's
left
? Pr
ison
?
Let
me
be h
ones
t: I
real
ly d
on't
trus
t Bla
ck p
eopl
e. I
don'
t lik
e th
e m
usic
they
list
en to
. I d
on't
like
the
clot
hes
they
wea
r. A
nd I
don
't lik
e th
e w
ay th
ey s
peak
. I m
ean,
c'm
on, h
ow h
ard
is it
to s
peak
pro
per
Eng
lish!
Loo
k,th
ey're
kill
ing
them
selv
es o
ff a
nyw
ay!
For
wha
t? F
orsn
eake
rs a
nd s
tupi
d th
ings
like
that
! I'm
not
say
ing
all
Bla
ck p
eopl
e ar
e lik
e th
is. A
few
kno
w w
hat t
hey'
redo
ing.
But
thos
e pe
ople
nee
d to
get
thei
r ac
t tog
ethe
r.
Bla
ck p
eopl
e ha
ve c
erta
inly
bee
n di
scri
min
ated
aga
inst
.B
ut it
hap
pene
d a
long
tim
e ag
o. W
hy s
houl
d I
be h
eld
resp
onsi
ble
for
wha
t oth
er p
eopl
e di
d?I
thin
k w
esh
ould
mak
e su
re w
e do
n't d
iscr
imin
ate
the
othe
r w
ayei
ther
. It's
eas
y to
be
raci
st to
war
ds w
hite
peo
ple
too.
Do
you
agre
e w
ith a
ny o
f th
ese
voic
es?
UN
IT S
IX: T
he M
ovem
ent's
Unf
inis
hed
Bus
ines
s"T
he p
robl
em o
f th
e tw
entie
th c
entu
ry is
the
prob
lem
of
the
colo
r lin
e."
W.E
.B. D
uBoi
s (1
903)
Tod
ay, r
acis
m is
far
mor
e ca
mou
flag
ed th
an it
was
ear
lier
in th
e ce
ntur
y. I
t is
buri
ed in
inst
itutio
nal p
ract
ices
. It i
shi
dden
in c
oded
lang
uage
and
sub
tle m
essa
ges
som
e pe
ople
get w
hen
they
sho
p, o
r lo
ok f
or a
pla
ce to
live
or
for
a ta
xi, o
rha
ve d
ealin
gs w
ith th
e po
lice.
Tod
ay, w
ell-
fund
ed p
ress
ure
grou
ps a
nd o
pini
on-m
aker
s in
sist
that
"ra
cism
is o
ver"
and
that
eve
n in
its
heyd
ay, i
t was
n't s
o ba
d. T
hey
are
rew
ritin
ghi
stor
y to
ref
lect
thei
r vi
ews.
Jim
Cro
w s
egre
gatio
n, o
ne o
fth
eir
lead
ing
wri
ters
rec
ently
sta
ted,
was
"in
par
t" a
n ef
fort
of th
e So
uthe
rn r
ulin
g el
ite "
to p
rote
ct b
lack
s. "
'A
s Pr
ojec
t HIP
-HO
P di
scov
ered
whe
n w
e vi
site
d th
e"R
ed N
eck
Shop
" in
Lau
rens
, Sou
th C
arol
ina,
eve
n th
e K
lan
has
adop
ted
a ne
w p
ose
and
new
mar
ketin
g te
chni
que
suite
d to
thes
e tim
es w
hen
open
ly r
acis
t lan
guag
e is
no
long
er a
ccep
tabl
e. W
e do
n't h
ate
Bla
cks,
thei
r m
essa
ge g
oes.
We
just
love
whi
tes.
The
y im
ply
that
thei
r us
e of
vio
lenc
e to
achi
eve
thei
r en
ds is
a th
ing
of th
e pa
st.
Des
pite
ple
ntif
ul e
vide
nce
sugg
estin
g ot
herw
ise,
the
gove
rnm
ent h
as r
efus
ed to
see
a p
atte
rn o
f K
lan
or o
ther
hat
egr
oup
invo
lvem
ent i
n th
e bu
rnin
g of
mor
e th
an tw
o hu
ndre
dB
lack
chu
rche
s in
the
Sout
h si
nce
1990
. In
Rul
evill
e, M
is-
siss
ippi
, the
hom
etow
n of
Mov
emen
t act
ivis
t Fan
nie
Lou
Ham
er, N
ew M
ount
Zio
n C
hurc
h ha
s be
en b
urne
d tw
ice
and
shot
at f
rom
a n
earb
y br
idge
, whi
ch h
as b
een
defa
ced
with
Ku
Klu
x K
lan
slog
ans.
Ars
on a
ttack
s on
Bla
ck c
hurc
hes,
the
base
of
Mov
emen
t org
aniz
ing
and
com
mun
ity a
ctio
n, s
till
occu
r on
a m
ore
or le
ss m
onth
ly b
asis
. 2
A g
row
ing
dive
rsity
The
nat
ion
look
s di
ffer
ent a
s w
ell.
Imm
igra
nts
from
Afr
ica,
Asi
a an
d th
e Pa
cifi
c, C
entr
al a
nd L
atin
Am
eric
a an
dth
e C
arib
bean
, hav
e m
ade
the
"min
ority
" po
pula
tion
in-
crea
sing
ly d
iver
se. T
he 1
990
Cen
sus
reve
aled
that
20
mill
ion
resi
dent
s in
the
US
had
been
bor
n in
a d
iffe
rent
cou
ntry
, ahi
gher
num
ber
that
at a
ny p
oint
in o
ur h
isto
ry.
The
ir p
rese
nce
has
give
n th
e co
untr
y an
ext
raor
dina
rylin
guis
tic a
nd c
ultu
ral w
ealth
. But
it h
as a
lso
stim
ulat
ed a
nti-
imm
igra
nt f
ears
and
out
righ
t xen
opho
bia.
Man
y A
mer
ican
sof
Eur
opea
n de
scen
t fea
r be
ing
over
whe
lmed
by
imm
igra
nts
who
do
not l
ook
or s
ound
like
them
. Som
e m
embe
rs o
fna
tive-
born
min
ority
gro
ups
fear
they
will
lose
jobs
to th
ene
wco
mer
s, w
ho a
re s
een
as a
sou
rce
of c
heap
labo
r.W
.E.B
. DuB
ois'
"co
lor
line"
has
bee
n bl
urre
d by
the
incr
easi
ngly
var
ied
popu
latio
n, b
ut it
has
not
bee
n di
s-so
lved
. The
rac
ial h
iera
rchy
, with
"w
hite
" on
top,
has
not
been
ove
rtur
ned.
Rac
ial s
tere
otyp
es a
bout
"no
nwhi
te"
grou
ps a
boun
d, a
nd d
rive
ant
i-im
mig
rant
legi
slat
ion
The
polit
ics
of d
ivid
e an
d ru
le s
et o
ne g
roup
aga
inst
ano
ther
, and
enco
urag
e th
em to
fig
ht f
or th
e ev
er s
mal
ler
piec
es o
f th
eA
mer
ican
pie
res
erve
d fo
r pe
ople
who
are
nei
ther
whi
te n
orw
ell o
ff. Lea
rnin
g fr
om th
e le
sson
s of
his
tory
For
the
firs
t hal
f of
this
cen
tury
, the
Uni
ted
Stat
es to
ler-
ated
the
Jim
Cro
w s
yste
m. R
acis
m w
as m
ade
all t
oo v
isib
leby
"w
hite
s on
ly"
sign
s an
d by
vot
ing
boot
hs w
here
onl
yw
hite
peo
ple
coul
d ca
st th
eir
ballo
ts. O
ver
the
next
20
year
s,it
seem
ed th
at w
e m
ight
fin
ally
be
prep
ared
to d
eal w
ith 3
50ye
ars
of r
acia
l opp
ress
ion.
The
lega
l und
erpi
nnin
gs o
f w
hite
supr
emac
y w
ere
abol
ishe
d. B
ut b
efor
e po
wer
rel
atio
nshi
psan
d in
stitu
tiona
l str
uctu
res
coul
d be
rem
ade,
the
mom
entu
mw
as s
topp
ed, a
nd th
e ac
hiev
emen
ts o
f th
e M
ovem
ent b
egan
to b
e ro
lled
back
.In
ord
er to
und
erst
and
whe
re w
e ar
e no
w a
nd h
ow w
e
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
6 6
6731
can
star
t mov
ing
forw
ard
agai
n, w
e m
ust t
ake
stoc
k of
the
Mov
emen
t's g
ains
and
loss
es. A
s w
e do
so,
we
shou
ld a
skou
rsel
ves:
are
we
real
ly p
repa
red
to s
ee th
e cl
ock
agai
ntu
rned
bac
k as
it w
as a
cen
tury
ago
, whe
n th
e ga
ins
ofR
econ
stru
ctio
n w
ere
unde
rmin
ed?
If s
o, th
e pr
oble
m o
f th
etw
enty
-fir
st c
entu
ry, w
hen
"min
oriti
es"
beco
me
the
maj
or-
ity p
opul
atio
n, w
ill s
till b
e th
e pr
oble
m c
olor
line
.
Ope
ning
the
door
to e
cono
mic
opp
ortu
nity
The
Civ
il R
ight
s A
ct o
f 19
64 w
as s
uppo
sed
to e
nd e
m-
ploy
men
t dis
crim
inat
ion
on th
e ba
sis
of r
ace,
sex
, or
natio
n-al
ity. B
ut it
is o
ne th
ing
to p
ass
a la
w, a
nd a
noth
er th
ing
tom
ake
it w
ork.
For
year
s af
ter
1964
ther
e w
as li
ttle
sign
of
chan
ge, s
ince
ther
e w
ere
so m
any
subt
le w
ays,
sho
rt o
f op
en b
igot
ry, t
oex
clud
e A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s al
toge
ther
, or
keep
them
in lo
wst
atus
pos
ition
s. F
or in
stan
ce, t
hey
coul
d be
told
that
they
didn
't ha
ve e
noug
h se
nior
ity to
be
prom
oted
. Or
they
wer
eno
t hir
ed b
ecau
se th
ey h
ad n
ot s
core
d hi
gh e
noug
h on
cert
ain
exam
s. T
hese
exa
ms
wer
e of
ten
as u
nrel
ated
to jo
bpe
rfor
man
ce a
s th
e Ji
m C
row
test
s fo
r vo
ter
regi
stra
tion
wer
eun
rela
ted
to g
ood
citiz
ensh
ip.
Pres
iden
ts K
enne
dy, J
ohns
on, a
nd N
ixon
had
issu
edex
ecut
ive
orde
rs r
equi
ring
fed
eral
em
ploy
ers
to in
crea
se th
enu
mbe
rs o
f A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s in
the
wor
kpla
ce. W
hat
beca
me
know
n as
aff
irm
ativ
e ac
tion
open
ing
up jo
bs a
ndin
stitu
tions
that
had
long
bee
n cl
osed
to m
inor
ities
and
wom
enw
as n
ever
a c
oher
ent g
over
nmen
t pol
icy.
At f
irst
it w
as a
tim
id a
nd p
iece
mea
l atte
mpt
to c
hang
e re
crui
tmen
tin
pub
lic e
mpl
oym
ent.
It w
as g
radu
ally
ext
ende
d to
incl
ude
wom
en a
nd o
ther
rac
ial m
inor
ities
, and
ado
pted
on
a vo
l-un
tary
bas
is b
y la
rge
priv
ate
empl
oyer
s an
d un
iver
sitie
s.A
ffir
mat
ive
actio
n w
as n
ever
abo
ut "
spec
ial p
rivi
lege
s,"
and
rare
ly im
pose
d nu
mer
ical
"qu
otas
."In
stea
d, it
was
an
atte
mpt
to d
eal w
ith a
his
tory
and
inst
itutio
ns w
hich
had
syst
emat
ical
ly d
ehum
aniz
ed A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s an
d ot
her
min
ority
gro
ups,
and
exc
lude
d th
em (
as w
ell a
s w
omen
of
all r
aces
) fr
om d
esir
able
opp
ortu
nitie
s. I
t was
inte
nded
tore
med
y pa
st a
nd p
rese
nt d
iscr
imin
atio
n, a
nd to
mak
e jo
bsav
aila
ble
to q
ualif
ied
peop
le r
egar
dles
s of
rac
e or
gen
der.
Aff
irm
ativ
e ac
tion
polic
ies
urge
d em
ploy
ers
to m
ake
a "g
ood
faith
" ef
fort
to b
ring
wom
en a
nd m
embe
rs o
f m
inor
itygr
oups
into
wor
kpla
ces
that
wer
e pr
evio
usly
all
mal
e an
d al
lw
hite
. Thi
s co
uld
be d
one
by b
road
enin
g th
e ap
plic
ant p
ool
beyo
nd th
e "o
ld b
oy"
netw
ork,
and
by
judg
ing
appl
ican
ts o
nth
eir
abili
ty to
do
the
job,
rat
her
than
on
thei
r ed
ucat
iona
lcr
eden
tials
or
on te
st s
core
s w
hich
had
not
hing
to d
o w
ith a
part
icul
ar li
ne o
f w
ork.
Onl
y oc
casi
onal
ly w
ere
timet
able
san
d nu
mer
ical
goa
ls f
or h
irin
g an
d "s
et a
side
s" f
or m
inor
itybu
sine
sses
incl
uded
in a
ffir
mat
ive
actio
n pr
ogra
ms.
Aft
er 2
0 ye
ars
of a
ffir
mat
ive
actio
n, th
e nu
mbe
r of
Afr
ican
-Am
eric
an p
olic
e of
fice
rs h
ad tr
iple
d, th
e nu
mbe
r of
Afr
ican
-Am
eric
an f
irem
en h
ad g
one
up f
ivef
old,
and
ther
ew
ere
sign
ific
ant g
ains
in o
ther
pro
fess
ions
and
uni
vers
ityen
rollm
ent.
Whi
te w
omen
rea
ped
even
mor
e su
bsta
ntia
lga
ins. But
we
mus
t loo
k at
the
over
all p
ictu
re to
put
thes
ere
sults
in p
ersp
ectiv
e. W
hite
mal
es a
ccou
nt f
or o
nly
a th
ird
of th
e na
tion'
s po
pula
tion,
and
onl
y 15
per
cent
of
job
ap-
plic
ants
. But
they
stil
l mak
e up
80
perc
ent o
f th
e U
S H
ouse
of R
epre
sent
ativ
es, 9
2 pe
rcen
t of
the
Sena
te, 9
2 pe
rcen
t of
seni
or e
xecu
tives
of
Fort
une
500
com
pani
es a
nd 9
0 pe
rcen
t of
new
spap
er e
dito
rs. 3
Whi
le A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s w
ith p
ost-
grad
uate
pro
fess
iona
l deg
rees
are
less
like
ly to
hol
d m
ana-
geri
al p
ositi
ons
than
whi
tes
with
hig
h sc
hool
dip
lom
as, t
heav
erag
e w
hite
hig
h sc
hool
dro
pout
toda
y ea
rns
as m
uch
asa
Bla
ck m
ale
with
two
year
s of
col
lege
. The
mai
nstr
eam
econ
omy
may
hav
e be
en o
pene
d up
to n
ew g
roup
s, b
utw
hite
mal
es a
re s
till i
n a
dom
inan
t pos
ition
. 4
End
urin
g in
equa
litie
s
Oth
er e
cono
mic
indi
cato
rs s
how
how
littl
e ha
s fu
nda-
men
tally
cha
nged
in th
e M
ovem
ent's
aft
erm
ath.
Aff
irm
a-tiv
e ac
tion
has
inde
ed s
ucce
eded
in e
nlar
ging
the
Bla
ck
Act
ivity
1. A
n Iv
y L
eagu
e co
llege
has
just
sen
t out
lette
rs o
fad
mis
sion
, and
you
are
hap
py th
at y
ou h
ave
been
ac-
cept
ed. B
ut a
t the
sam
e tim
e, y
ou f
ear
you
mig
ht h
ave
gotte
n in
bec
ause
bot
h yo
ur f
athe
r an
d gr
andf
athe
rat
tend
ed th
e co
llege
and
you
kno
w it
giv
es p
refe
renc
eto
rel
ativ
es o
f al
umni
.Is
this
aff
irm
ativ
e ac
tion?
Wha
t sho
uld
be d
one
abou
t it?
2. Y
ou d
ecid
ed to
join
the
arm
y af
ter
high
sch
ool.
You
did
not l
ike
the
thou
ght o
f fi
ghtin
g in
a w
ar, b
ut y
ou w
ere
awar
e th
at v
eter
ans
got p
refe
renc
e w
hen
they
app
lied
for
cert
ain
educ
atio
nal b
enef
its a
nd c
ivil
serv
ice
jobs
,w
heth
er o
r no
t the
y ha
d ta
ken
part
in a
war
.Is
this
aff
irm
ativ
e ac
tion?
Wha
t sho
uld
be d
one
abou
t it?
3. Y
ou a
re h
opin
g to
get
a n
ew g
over
nmen
t con
trac
t for
your
con
stru
ctio
n co
mpa
ny. Y
ou f
eel f
airl
y co
nfid
ent
that
you
will
bea
t out
riv
al f
irm
s si
nce
you
are
on y
our
own
turf
, and
kno
w a
num
ber
of p
oliti
cian
s an
d ot
her
pow
er b
roke
rs p
erso
nally
. In
fact
, som
e of
them
hav
ebe
en y
our
good
fri
ends
sin
ce s
choo
l.Is
this
aff
irm
ativ
e ac
tion?
4. Y
ou ju
st s
tart
ed y
our
own
wel
ding
bus
ines
s an
dho
pe to
qua
lify
for
a lo
cal g
over
nmen
t con
trac
t. T
hetr
oubl
e is
you
are
a w
oman
, and
the
"old
boy
net
wor
k"ha
d a
good
laug
h w
hen
you
said
you
wan
ted
the
job.
Shou
ld y
ou b
e ab
le to
ben
efit
from
aff
irm
ativ
e ac
tion?
5. Y
ou a
re a
n A
fric
an-A
mer
ican
col
lege
gra
duat
eco
mpe
ting
to g
et in
to m
edic
al s
choo
l. A
lthou
gh y
ou d
idw
ell a
t col
lege
, you
kno
w th
at th
ousa
nds
of o
ther
med
ical
scho
ol a
pplic
ants
hav
e a
com
para
ble
reco
rd. Y
ou a
lso
know
that
the
num
ber
of A
fric
an-A
mer
ican
med
ical
scho
ol g
radu
ates
is d
eclin
ing,
leav
ing
man
y ho
spita
lsse
rvin
g po
or n
eigh
borh
oods
with
out d
octo
rs.
Shou
ld y
ou b
e ab
le to
ben
efit
from
aff
irm
ativ
e ac
tion?
3268
69H
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:
Act
ivity
Imag
ine
that
this
car
toon
by
a Pr
ojec
t HIP
-HO
Pst
uden
t app
eare
d in
you
r sc
hool
new
spap
er. Y
ou h
ave
stro
ng f
eelin
gs a
bout
it. W
rite
a le
tter
to th
eed
itor
of th
e
pape
r, e
ither
agr
eein
g w
ith, o
r at
tack
ing,
the
cart
oon'
s
poin
t of
view
. Giv
e ar
gum
ents
to s
uppo
rt y
our
posi
tion.
tlp::'
1111
1111
iiini
fillu
itfitl
fin1
1111
1111
1111
1111
1111
111
1111
mid
dle
clas
s, to
abo
ut a
thir
d of
the
entir
e B
lack
pop
ulat
ion.
But
mem
bers
of
that
mid
dle
clas
s st
ill e
arn
only
70
cent
s fo
rev
ery
dolla
r ea
rned
by
whi
tes.
In s
ome
resp
ects
, thi
ngs
are
getti
ng w
orse
. The
med
ian
inco
me
of A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s of
all
clas
ses,
whi
ch h
ad b
een
61 p
erce
nt o
f th
e w
hite
med
ian
inco
me
in 1
970,
act
ually
de-
clin
ed b
y th
e m
id 1
980s
to 5
5 pe
rcen
t. T
he r
eal e
arni
ngs
ofL
atin
o m
ales
, age
d 20
- 2
9, h
as d
eclin
ed 2
7 pe
rcen
t bet
wee
n19
73-1
993,
and
the
real
ear
ning
s of
Afr
ican
-Am
eric
an m
ales
in th
e sa
me
age
grou
p ha
s de
clin
ed 4
8 pe
rcen
t. T
he g
apbe
twee
n B
lack
and
whi
te in
com
es h
as g
row
n w
ider
, as
man
ufac
turi
ng jo
bs d
isap
pear
ed.
Tod
ay, o
ne th
ird
of a
llA
fric
an A
mer
ican
s liv
e be
low
the
pove
rty
line,
and
46
perc
ent o
f th
eir
child
ren
(and
40
perc
ent o
f L
atin
o ch
ildre
n)liv
e in
pov
erty
. With
the
over
all u
nem
ploy
men
t rat
e in
the
US
twic
e as
hig
h fo
r B
lack
s as
for
whi
tes,
it is
est
imat
ed th
at1.
6 m
illio
n jo
bs n
eed
to b
e m
ade
avai
labl
e to
Afr
ican
Am
eri-
cans
if th
ey a
re to
cat
ch u
p. 5
Whe
n w
e lo
ok n
ot ju
st a
t inc
ome
but a
t wea
lth, i
nclu
ding
all t
he a
sset
s (t
he p
rope
rty
peop
le o
wn
thei
r ho
uses
, car
s,fi
nanc
ial h
oldi
ngs,
and
so
on)
each
gro
up p
osse
sses
, the
diff
eren
ce is
eve
n m
ore
star
tling
. For
eve
ry d
olla
r w
orth
of
asse
ts o
wne
d by
mid
dle
clas
s w
hite
s, m
embe
rs o
f th
e A
fri-
can
Am
eric
an m
iddl
e cl
ass
poss
ess
wea
lth w
orth
onl
y 15
cent
s. I
f al
l cla
sses
are
incl
uded
, whi
tes
own
12 ti
mes
the
amou
nt o
f w
ealth
ow
ned
by A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s. A
rec
ent
stud
y an
alyz
ing
ongo
ing
disc
rim
inat
ion
in e
xten
ding
loan
s,an
d m
ortg
ages
and
in h
ousi
ng m
arke
ts f
inds
that
the
"cum
u-la
tive
effe
cts
of th
e pa
st h
ave
seem
ingl
y ce
men
ted
blac
ks a
tth
e bo
ttom
of
soci
ety'
s ec
onom
ic h
iera
rchy
....m
ater
ially
,w
hite
s an
d bl
acks
con
stitu
te tw
o na
tions
." 6
The
sam
e hi
stor
ical
cir
cum
stan
ces
do n
ot a
ppea
r to
appl
y to
rec
ent i
mm
igra
nt g
roup
s, in
clud
ing
new
com
ers
from
Asi
a, th
e C
arib
bean
, and
Lat
in A
mer
ica.
The
y do
not
find
them
selv
es tr
appe
d to
the
sam
e ex
tent
by
the
coun
try'
sre
fusa
l to
addr
ess
the
econ
omic
lega
cy o
f ra
cism
.Fo
r a
num
ber
of r
easo
ns o
utlin
ed b
y th
e au
thor
s of
the
book
Bla
ckW
ealth
/Whi
te W
ealth
, the
y ha
ve a
n ea
sier
tim
e es
tabl
ishi
ngth
emse
lves
in b
usin
ess
and
getti
ng a
head
.
Now
here
are
the
"tw
o na
tions
" m
ore
visi
ble
tlian
inho
usin
g pa
ttern
s, w
hich
hav
e be
en d
escr
ibed
as
a fo
rmre
side
ntia
l apa
rthe
id. 7
The
ghe
tto c
ondi
tions
des
crib
ed b
yth
e K
erne
r C
omm
issi
on h
ave
wor
sene
d ov
er th
e ye
ars.
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
and
Lat
inos
hav
e lo
ng b
een
larg
ely
conf
ined
to s
peci
fic
geog
raph
ical
are
as b
y in
stitu
tiona
l pra
c-tic
es s
uch
as "
redl
inin
g"(u
sed
by th
e Fe
dera
l Hou
sing
Aut
hori
ty, b
anks
, and
rea
ltors
to k
eep
raci
al m
inor
ities
in"t
heir
ow
n" n
eigh
borh
oods
), r
acia
l cov
enan
ts p
reve
ntin
gpr
oper
ty f
rom
bei
ng s
old
to m
inor
ities
, zon
ing
rest
rict
ions
,an
d th
e pl
anne
d se
greg
atio
n of
sub
sidi
zed
hous
ing
.E
ven
afte
r th
e fe
dera
l gov
ernm
ent c
omm
itted
itse
lf to
"fa
irho
usin
g" in
the
late
60s
, it c
ontin
ued
to s
ubsi
dize
seg
rega
ted
hous
ing.
Lin
geri
ng in
stitu
tiona
l rac
ism
and
rac
ial p
reju
dice
have
com
bine
d to
kee
p th
e su
burb
s la
rgel
y w
hite
.
Une
qual
edu
catio
nR
esid
entia
l seg
rega
tion
has
mad
e it
diff
icul
t to
dese
gre-
gate
the
scho
ols.
Sou
ther
n sc
hool
s w
ere
still
alm
ost e
ntir
ely
segr
egat
ed in
the
earl
y 60
s, n
earl
y a
deca
de a
fter
the
Bro
wn
deci
sion
. But
the
Civ
il R
ight
s A
ct o
f 19
64 f
orce
d sc
hool
s in
the
Sout
h to
des
egre
gate
or
lose
thei
r fe
dera
l dol
lars
. Res
ults
wer
e dr
amat
ic, a
s So
uthe
rn s
choo
ls b
ecam
e th
e le
ast s
egre
-ga
ted
in th
e na
tion
by 1
970.
In A
pril
1971
in it
s de
cisi
on in
Sw
ann
v. C
harl
otte
-M
eckl
enbe
rg B
oard
of
Edu
catio
n, th
e U
S Su
prem
e C
ourt
or-
dere
d th
at s
choo
l chi
ldre
n sh
ould
be
buse
d to
ach
ieve
inte
-gr
ated
sch
ools
. The
rul
ing
caus
ed s
uch
an o
utcr
y in
bot
h th
eN
orth
and
the
Sout
h th
at b
usin
g w
as n
ot tr
ied
out u
ntil
1974
.B
ut in
that
yea
r th
e Su
prem
e C
ourt
hea
rd th
e ca
se M
illik
en v
.B
radl
ey. I
t rul
ed th
at s
tude
nts
coul
d no
t be
buse
d be
twee
nth
e (l
arge
ly B
lack
) m
etro
polit
an a
rea
of D
etro
it an
d its
wel
l-to
-do
whi
te s
ubur
bs. M
inor
ity s
tude
nts
wer
e to
be
conf
ined
to r
un-d
own
inne
r-ci
ty s
choo
ls in
thei
r ow
n ne
ighb
orho
ods,
or b
used
to s
choo
ls in
low
-inc
ome
whi
te u
rban
nei
ghbo
r-ho
ods,
as
happ
ened
with
vio
lent
con
sequ
ence
s in
Bos
ton
inth
e ea
rly
80s.
Onc
e ag
ain
poor
whi
tes
turn
ed to
rac
ial
viol
ence
out
of
fear
of
losi
ng w
hat l
ittle
they
had
.
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
7 0
7133
Rec
ent S
upre
me
Cou
rt r
ulin
gs h
ave
perm
itted
the
rese
greg
atio
n of
sch
ools
, by
rele
asin
g sc
hool
dis
tric
ts f
rom
cour
t-or
dere
d de
segr
egat
ion
plan
s be
fore
they
hav
e be
enca
rrie
d ou
t to
com
plet
ion.
The
aut
hors
of
a re
cent
boo
k ab
out
the
rese
greg
atio
n of
sch
ools
are
wor
ried
abo
ut th
e pu
blic
'ssi
lenc
e on
the
issu
e. T
hey
argu
e th
at "
dese
greg
atio
n, p
rope
rly
unde
rsto
od, i
s an
atta
ck o
n th
e un
derl
ying
sys
tem
of
in-
equa
lity
and
a de
man
d th
at th
e ef
fect
ive
inst
itutio
ns a
ndop
port
uniti
es b
e sh
ared
with
thos
e w
ho h
ave
hist
oric
ally
been
trea
ted
mos
t unf
airl
y."
8N
ow b
oth
the
Supr
eme
Cou
rt a
nd s
ocie
ty a
t lar
ge a
ppea
rto
hav
e tu
rned
thei
r ba
ck o
n th
at g
oal.
The
res
ult m
ay b
e th
atbo
th s
egre
gatio
n an
d ne
w r
acia
l bar
rier
s to
opp
ortu
nity
will
be e
rect
ed "
in a
soc
iety
whe
re o
nly
half
of
the
child
ren
will
be w
hite
in tw
enty
-fiv
e ye
ars.
" 9
Tod
ay, A
fric
an A
mer
ican
sm
ake
up a
sm
alle
r pe
rcen
tage
of
the
teac
hing
for
ce th
an th
eydi
d in
197
0. S
choo
ls a
re a
gain
sta
rkly
div
ided
by
race
and
qual
ity in
mos
t Nor
ther
n ci
ties.
In
the
Sout
h, th
e cl
ock
has
been
rol
led
back
on
dese
greg
atio
n, a
s w
hite
s sh
ifte
d th
eir
child
ren
to p
riva
te s
choo
ls, m
any
of th
em c
hurc
h-ba
sed.
Man
y So
uthe
rn s
tate
s no
w h
ave
a pr
ivat
e sc
hool
sys
tem
for
whi
tes,
and
a f
inan
cial
ly-s
tarv
ed p
ublic
sch
ool s
yste
m, m
ainl
yfo
r A
fric
an-A
mer
ican
chi
ldre
n.In
Mis
siss
ippi
, Pro
ject
HIP
-HO
P le
arne
d ab
out t
he w
aypo
wer
ful m
embe
rs o
f th
e St
ate
Sove
reig
nty
Com
mis
sion
wor
ked
to p
reve
nt s
choo
l int
egra
tion,
and
(w
ith F
BI
supp
ort)
to d
iscr
edit
and
even
des
troy
Mov
emen
t act
ivis
ts. C
reat
edby
the
stat
e's
gove
rnor
in th
e w
ake
of th
e Su
prem
e C
ourt
'sB
row
n de
cisi
on, t
he C
omm
issi
on la
sted
unt
il 19
77. I
ts im
pact
lives
on.
As
we
wer
e to
ld b
y fo
rmer
Sta
te S
enat
or H
enry
Kir
ksie
, "E
ven
toda
y B
lack
s ar
e gi
ven
the
shor
t end
of
ever
yst
ick,
in te
rms
of e
duca
tion
and
econ
omic
opp
ortu
nity
."10
Tod
ay th
ere
are
33,0
00 c
hild
ren
in p
ublic
sch
ools
in J
acks
on,
Mis
siss
ippi
. Onl
y 3,
600
are
whi
te.
"Rac
ism
is o
ver"
Why
sho
uld
anyt
hing
mor
e be
don
e fo
r ra
cial
min
ori-
ties?
Man
y pe
ople
- (i
nclu
ding
pro
min
ent p
oliti
cian
s, S
u-pr
eme
Cou
rt ju
stic
es, a
nd m
embe
rs o
f co
nser
vativ
e pr
essu
regr
oups
) ha
ve f
or s
ome
time
argu
ed th
at r
acis
m is
no
long
era
maj
or o
bsta
cle
for
getti
ng a
head
. The
Mov
emen
t, th
ey s
ay,
abol
ishe
d th
e fo
rms
of le
gal d
iscr
imin
atio
n w
hich
had
kep
tm
embe
rs o
f di
ffer
ent r
aces
fro
m c
ompe
ting
on a
n eq
ual
foot
ing.
Whi
te s
upre
mac
y, w
ithou
t a le
g to
sta
nd o
n, in
thei
rvi
ew s
impl
y co
llaps
ed. I
ndiv
idua
ls w
ere
left
fre
e to
com
pete
as e
qual
s fo
r a
"col
or-b
lind"
soc
iety
's r
ewar
ds.
The
eff
ort t
o co
nvin
ce A
mer
ican
s th
at th
e pl
ayin
g fi
eld
isno
w le
vel
that
if p
eopl
e of
col
or d
on't
get a
head
they
hav
eon
ly th
emse
lves
to b
lam
ega
ther
ed f
orce
dur
ing
the
econ
omic
rec
essi
on o
f th
e m
id 1
970s
, whi
ch b
egan
to tu
rn th
etid
e ag
ains
t aff
irm
ativ
e ac
tion.
The
pub
lic s
eem
ed to
bel
ieve
that
the
battl
e ag
ains
t rac
ism
had
bee
n w
on. I
n th
e la
te 1
970s
the
Supr
eme
Cou
rt h
eard
the
Bak
ke c
ase
and
cam
e cl
ose
totu
rnin
g ag
ains
t aff
irm
ativ
e ac
tion.
Mea
nwhi
le, w
hite
Am
eric
ans
in a
Gal
lup
surv
ey r
anke
d "t
he p
robl
em o
f bl
ack
Am
eric
ans"
as
the
very
low
est [
31st
) w
hen
aske
d to
ran
k 31
dom
estic
and
inte
rnat
iona
l iss
ues
acco
rdin
g to
thei
r im
por-
tanc
e. W
hite
Am
eric
ans
refu
sed
to a
ccep
t any
res
pons
ibili
tyfo
r w
orse
ning
con
ditio
ns in
the
Bla
ck c
omm
unity
or
for
cont
inui
ng in
equa
litie
s. T
hey
belie
ved
that
rac
ial o
ppre
ssio
nw
as s
omet
hing
whi
ch h
ad e
xist
ed in
the
past
, but
that
thei
rge
nera
tion
shou
ld n
ot h
ave
to p
ay f
or th
e m
ista
kes
of p
revi
-ou
s ge
nera
tions
.
The
Sup
rem
e C
ourt
aga
in tu
rns
back
the
cloc
k
In th
e de
cade
s si
nce
then
, the
Sup
rem
e C
ourt
has
led
the
way
in r
ollin
g ba
ck th
e ga
ins
of th
e M
ovem
ent,
muc
h as
itun
derm
ined
the
achi
evem
ents
of
Rec
onst
ruct
ion
a ce
ntur
yag
o. S
imila
r la
ngua
ge a
nd a
rgum
ents
hav
e be
en u
sed
by th
eSu
prem
e C
ourt
in b
oth
peri
ods.
For
inst
ance
, whe
n th
eSu
prem
e C
ourt
dec
lare
d th
e C
ivil
Rig
hts
Act
of
1875
to b
eun
cons
titut
iona
l, th
e m
ajor
ity o
pini
on s
tate
d:"W
hen
a m
an h
as e
mer
ged
from
sla
very
...th
ere
mus
t be
som
e st
age
in th
e pr
ogre
ss o
f hi
s el
evat
ion
whe
n he
take
s th
e
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Voi
ces
As
Proj
ect H
IP -
HO
P m
embe
rs, w
e re
ach
out t
o th
eyo
uth,
and
sho
w h
ow c
hang
e ha
s ha
ppen
ed. P
eopl
eca
me
toge
ther
to o
vert
urn
the
law
s an
d so
cial
nor
ms
that
hav
e op
pres
sed
Bla
ck p
eopl
e fo
r ce
ntur
ies.
We
talk
abo
ut th
e ro
le w
hich
you
ng p
eopl
e lik
e ou
rsel
ves
play
ed in
that
str
uggl
e. A
nd w
e al
so tr
y to
sho
w h
owra
cism
stil
l exi
sts,
and
the
urge
nt n
eed
to f
ight
it to
day.
Thi
s is
the
mos
t dif
ficu
lt of
the
thre
e le
sson
s. R
ac-
ism
in to
day'
s so
ciet
y is
mor
e su
btle
than
it w
as w
hen
ther
e w
ere
sign
s se
para
ting
the
race
s. B
ut if
you
rea
llylo
ok a
nd k
now
wha
t you
are
look
ing
at, y
ou'll
see
raci
sm a
s cl
ear
as a
whi
te h
ood.
We
have
ano
ther
dif
ficu
lt ch
alle
nge,
whi
ch is
toin
still
a s
ense
of
hope
in p
eopl
e w
ho d
on't
wan
t to
stru
ggle
for
not
hing
. A lo
t of
yout
h w
ho k
now
wha
t the
Mov
emen
t acc
ompl
ishe
d ar
e aw
are
of th
e ro
llbac
k of
thes
e ac
com
plis
hmen
ts, a
nd f
eel l
ike
little
has
rea
llych
ange
d. T
hey
look
aro
und,
and
see
that
som
e gr
oups
are
still
on
the
top,
and
oth
ers
on th
e bo
ttom
. The
y se
eho
w th
e ec
onom
y w
orks
, and
rec
ogni
ze th
at B
lack
peop
le a
re f
illin
g th
e pr
ison
s. G
ivin
g pe
ople
who
are
awar
e of
all
of th
is a
sen
se o
f ho
pe a
nd n
ew p
ossi
bilit
ies
is a
rea
l tas
k.T
hen
ther
e ar
e th
ose
youn
g pe
ople
who
wer
e bo
rnin
to th
e 80
s, a
tim
e of
par
tyin
g an
d ig
nora
nt b
liss.
The
se y
outh
don
't ha
ve a
rea
son
to s
trug
gle.
The
yar
en't
educ
ated
at a
ll ab
out t
he M
ovm
ent,
and
feel
tota
lly p
ower
less
and
pol
itica
lly d
ead.
To
get o
urm
essa
ge a
cros
s to
them
is th
e bi
gges
t cha
lleng
e of
all
but o
ne w
e m
ust r
ise
to if
we
are
goin
g to
bri
ng c
hang
eto
geth
er.
How
do
you
thin
k yo
u ca
n to
day
crea
te a
sen
se o
fho
pe a
nd o
verc
ome
the
feel
ing
of b
eing
pow
erle
ss?
347
273
Hig
hway
s in
to th
e Pa
st:
US
Supr
eme
Cou
rt R
oll B
ack
City
of
Ric
hmon
d v.
Cro
son
The
judg
men
t mea
ns th
at "
set-
asid
e" p
rogr
ams
will
onl
ybe
con
stitu
tiona
l if
they
ben
efit
indi
vidu
als
who
can
pro
veth
at th
ey h
ave
pers
onal
ly (
not a
s pa
rt o
f a
grou
p) b
een
vict
ims
of a
cts
of d
iscr
imin
atio
n.
War
ds C
ove
Pack
ing
Co.
Inc
. v. A
nton
ioT
he S
upre
me
Cou
rt in
198
9 ru
led
that
a s
tatis
tical
dem
-on
stra
tion
of "
disp
arat
e im
pact
" on
larg
e nu
mbe
rs o
f w
orke
rsdi
d no
t pro
ve d
iscr
imin
atio
n. T
he C
ourt
als
o m
ade
it m
uch
easi
er f
or e
mpl
oyer
s to
def
end
thei
r hi
ring
and
pro
mot
ion
prac
tices
.
Mar
tin v
. Wilk
sT
he S
upre
me
Cou
rt in
198
9 up
held
the
righ
t of
whi
tefi
refi
ghte
rs to
cha
lleng
e a
cour
t set
tlem
ent i
n B
irm
ingh
am,
Ala
bam
a w
hich
set
long
-ter
m g
oals
for
hir
ing
and
prom
otin
gA
fric
an A
mer
ican
s in
the
fire
dep
artm
ent.
Thi
s de
cisi
on h
asle
d to
long
-acc
epte
d co
urt-
appr
oved
set
tlem
ents
bei
ng c
hal-
leng
ed a
s "r
ever
se d
iscr
imin
atio
n" a
gain
st w
hite
s.
Patte
rson
v. M
cLea
n C
redi
t Uni
onT
he S
upre
me
Cou
rt r
uled
in 1
989
that
onc
e a
cont
ract
issi
gned
, em
ploy
ees
can
no lo
nger
use
the
Civ
il R
ight
s A
ct o
f18
66 to
pro
tect
them
selv
es f
rom
rac
ial h
aras
smen
t.
Ada
rand
Con
stru
ctor
s, in
c. v
. Pen
aIn
199
5 th
e Su
prem
e C
ourt
dec
ided
that
pro
gram
s w
hich
com
bat r
acia
l dis
crim
inat
ion
shou
ld b
e vi
ewed
in th
e sa
me
light
as
mea
sure
s w
hich
per
petu
ate
raci
al d
iscr
imin
atio
nas
unco
nstit
utio
nal.
It o
utla
wed
all
but t
he m
ost "
narr
owly
tailo
red"
fed
eral
aff
irm
ativ
e ac
tion
prog
ram
s.
Red
istr
ictin
g de
cisi
ons
In 1
995
and
1996
the
Supr
eme
Cou
rt d
ecla
red
that
rac
eca
nnot
be u
sed
as a
"pr
edom
inan
t fac
tor"
whe
n vo
ting
dist
rict
sar
e re
draw
n. I
n so
doi
ng, i
t ove
rrul
ed a
198
2 am
endm
ent t
oth
e 19
65 V
otin
g R
ight
s A
ct, w
hich
hel
d th
at d
istr
icts
cou
ld b
edr
awn
in a
way
that
max
imiz
ed m
inor
ity v
otin
g st
reng
th.
The
rul
ings
will
mea
n th
at f
ewer
mem
bers
of
min
ority
gro
ups
will
be
elec
ted
to f
eder
al, s
tate
, and
loca
l off
ice.
rank
of
a m
ere
citiz
en, a
nd c
ease
s to
be
the
spec
ial f
avor
ite o
fth
e la
ws.
" T
oday
, the
sam
e ar
gum
ent i
s us
ed a
gain
st a
ffir
-m
ativ
e ac
tion,
whi
ch, i
t is
clai
med
, giv
es B
lack
peo
ple
"spe
-ci
al p
rivi
lege
s" a
nd is
a f
orm
of
"rev
erse
dis
crim
inat
ion"
agai
nst w
hite
s, w
ho a
re n
ow th
e re
al v
ictim
s of
rac
ism
.Si
nce
1989
, the
Sup
rem
e C
ourt
has
str
uck
dow
n m
eth-
ods
used
to f
ight
rac
ial h
aras
smen
t and
em
ploy
men
t dis
-cr
imin
atio
n. N
egot
iate
d ag
reem
ents
(kn
own
as "
cons
ent
decr
ees"
) w
hich
for
ced
polic
e an
d fi
re d
epar
tmen
ts to
hir
ew
omen
and
min
ority
app
lican
ts a
re n
ow b
eing
abo
lishe
d,an
d st
ate
and
loca
l gov
ernm
ent p
rogr
ams
that
set
asi
de a
cert
ain
perc
enta
ge o
f co
ntra
cts
for
Bla
ck-a
nd H
ispa
nic-
owne
dbu
sine
sses
are
bei
ng s
hut d
own.
The
atta
ck o
n af
firm
ativ
e ac
tion
thre
aten
s to
hit
educ
a-tio
n es
peci
ally
har
d. I
n 19
96 th
e Su
prem
e C
ourt
ref
used
tore
view
a d
ecis
ion
by th
e U
S C
ourt
of
App
eals
for
the
5th
Cir
cuit
barr
ing
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f T
exas
Law
Sch
ool f
rom
cons
ider
ing
the
race
of
appl
ican
ts it
adm
itted
. The
res
ult i
sth
at to
day
the
ente
ring
cla
ss a
t the
Uni
vers
ity o
f T
exas
Law
Scho
ol is
onc
e ag
ain
all w
hite
. A s
imila
r ba
ckw
ards
mov
e-m
ent h
as o
ccur
red
in C
alif
orni
a's
univ
ersi
ties
sinc
e af
firm
a-tiv
e ac
tion
was
end
ed b
y pu
blic
ref
eren
dum
.Su
prem
e C
ourt
dec
isio
ns a
re a
lso
rest
rict
ing
the
polit
ical
repr
esen
tatio
n of
min
ority
gro
ups.
In
1993
ther
e w
ere
8,00
0B
lack
ele
cted
off
icia
ls in
the
coun
try,
a s
igni
fica
nt in
crea
sefr
om f
ewer
than
100
in 1
965,
whe
n th
e V
otin
g R
ight
s A
ct w
aspa
ssed
, but
stil
l onl
y 2
perc
ent o
f al
l ele
cted
off
icia
ls.
The
Vot
ing
Rig
hts
Act
is n
ow u
nder
atta
ck. T
he S
upre
me
Cou
rt h
as r
uled
that
rac
e ca
n no
t be
cons
ider
ed a
"pr
edom
i-na
nt f
acto
r" w
hen
votin
g di
stri
ct b
ound
arie
s ar
e re
-dra
wn
(as
they
are
aft
er e
very
10-
year
cen
sus
a pr
oces
s kn
own
asre
dist
rict
ing)
. It h
as s
truc
k do
wn
seve
ral d
istr
icts
dra
wn
tom
axim
ize
Bla
ck v
otin
g st
reng
th a
nd e
nsur
e B
lack
rep
re-
sent
atio
n, a
s pr
ovid
ed b
y a
1982
am
endm
ent t
o th
e V
otin
gR
ight
s A
ct. E
vent
ually
, thi
s co
uld
mea
n th
at th
e U
S C
ongr
ess,
and
stat
e an
d lo
cal l
egis
latu
res
and
othe
r el
ectiv
e of
fice
s,in
clud
ing
scho
ol b
oard
s, m
ay a
gain
be
near
ly a
s "w
hite
" as
they
wer
e be
fore
the
pass
age
of th
e V
otin
g R
ight
s A
ct.
Still
the
polit
ics
of d
ivid
e an
d ru
leW
hy is
whi
te A
mer
ica
toda
y so
will
ing
to m
ove
back
-w
ards
? It
is d
iffi
cult
to a
nsw
er th
is q
uest
ion
with
out r
efer
-en
ce to
the
role
pla
yed
by th
e m
edia
in s
cape
goat
ing
cert
ain
grou
ps, a
nd to
the
conc
entr
atio
n of
pow
er in
few
er a
nd f
ewer
hand
s. F
or in
stan
ce, w
ith a
ll th
e ta
lk a
bout
"w
elfa
re q
ueen
s"ha
ving
bab
ies
just
to g
et b
igge
r ch
ecks
, you
may
be
surp
rise
dto
lear
n th
at o
n av
erag
e, f
amili
es o
n w
elfa
re h
ave
few
er th
antw
o ch
ildre
n pe
r fa
mily
.T
he la
st tw
o de
cade
s ha
ve b
een
a tim
e of
rap
id e
cono
mic
uphe
aval
. Job
s w
hich
onc
e se
emed
sec
ure
have
dis
appe
ared
alto
geth
er o
r m
oved
abr
oad
in s
earc
h of
che
ap la
bor.
Inc
omes
are
decl
inin
g, f
orci
ng m
ore
and
mor
e fa
mili
es to
scr
ambl
e fo
rtw
o or
mor
e in
com
es. I
nsec
urity
mak
es it
is e
asy
to b
lam
e"t
he o
ther
"po
or p
eopl
e on
wel
fare
who
gob
ble
up ta
xes,
imm
igra
nts
who
take
jobs
, Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
give
n "s
peci
alpr
ivile
ges"
by
affi
rmat
ive
actio
n. I
t is
easi
er to
turn
aga
inst
peop
le w
ho a
re e
ven
mor
e in
secu
re a
nd m
argi
nal t
han
it is
tode
al w
ith th
e po
wer
ful f
orce
s re
spon
sibl
e fo
r th
e si
tuat
ion.
Mon
ey r
ules
, as
the
natio
n's
wea
lth is
red
istr
ibut
ed u
p-w
ards
.Si
nce
the
1980
s U
S A
dmin
istr
atio
ns h
ave
mad
ede
cisi
ons
that
hav
e de
epen
ed p
over
ty, w
ith th
e bu
rden
falli
ng o
verw
helm
ingl
y on
peo
ple
of c
olor
. The
y ha
ve e
nded
soci
al p
rogr
ams
in th
e in
ner
citie
s,an
d tr
aini
ng p
rogr
ams
for
the
unem
ploy
ed, a
nd s
hred
ded
the
wel
fare
saf
ety
net w
hile
,at
the
sam
e tim
e, g
ivin
g th
e ri
ch b
ig ta
x br
eaks
and
eng
inee
ring
a m
assi
ve tr
ansf
er o
f w
ealth
fro
m e
very
body
els
e to
the
alre
ady
rich
.C
ensu
s st
atis
tics
show
that
the
rich
est 2
.5m
illio
n A
mer
ican
s (t
he to
p on
e pe
r ce
nt)
now
rec
eive
as
muc
h in
com
e af
ter
taxe
s as
the
botto
m 1
00 m
illio
n (b
otto
m 4
0pe
r ce
nt),
and
the
top
10 p
erce
nt o
wn
70 p
erce
nt o
f al
l wea
lthin
the
coun
try
(up
from
50
perc
ent 2
0 ye
ars
ago)
. The
US
has
the
grea
test
con
cent
ratio
ns o
f w
ealth
and
pov
erty
in th
ew
este
rn in
dust
rial
wor
ld.
The
con
tinui
ng e
xist
ence
of
raci
sm h
as a
llow
ed th
ese
polit
ical
cho
ices
to b
e m
ade.
Ins
tead
of
ques
tioni
ng th
ew
isdo
m o
f th
ese
polic
ies,
the
med
ia h
ave
focu
sed
atte
ntio
n
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
7475
35
on th
e be
havi
or a
nd f
amily
str
uctu
re o
f th
e po
or; e
spec
ially
poor
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans,
as
the
root
cau
se o
f th
eir
pove
rty.
If
they
wer
e w
illin
g to
wor
k an
d ha
d in
tact
fam
ilies
, we
are
told
, the
y w
ould
be
able
to b
ette
r th
emse
lves
, lik
e ev
eryb
ody
else
. Im
agin
e if
, ins
tead
of
blam
ing
the
poor
, the
new
spap
ers
and
tele
visi
on r
egul
arly
fea
ture
d st
atem
ents
like
this
one
,m
ade
by a
whi
te m
inis
ter
wor
king
in th
e So
uth
Bro
nx:
"Of
cour
se th
e fa
mily
str
uctu
re b
reak
s do
wn
in a
pla
celik
e th
e So
uth
Bro
nx!
Eve
ryth
ing
brea
ks d
own
in a
pla
ce li
keth
is. T
he p
ipes
bre
ak d
own.
The
pho
ne b
reak
s do
wn.
The
elec
tric
ity a
nd h
eat b
reak
dow
n. T
he s
piri
t bre
aks
dow
n.T
he b
ody
brea
ks d
own.
The
imm
une
agen
ts o
f th
e he
art
brea
k do
wn.
Why
wou
ldn'
t the
fam
ily b
reak
dow
n al
so?
Ifw
e sa
w th
e pe
ople
in th
ese
neig
hbor
hood
s as
par
t of
the
sam
e hu
man
fam
ily to
whi
ch w
e be
long
, we'
d ne
ver
put
them
in s
uch
plac
es to
beg
in w
ith. B
ut w
e do
NO
T th
ink
ofth
em th
at w
ay."
11
Get
ting
toug
h on
cri
me
Whe
n m
anuf
actu
ring
indu
stri
es m
oved
out
of
neig
hbor
-ho
ods
like
the
Sout
h B
ronx
, a d
rug
econ
omy,
soc
ial d
e-st
ruct
ion,
and
des
pair
mov
ed in
.In
stea
d of
see
king
toer
adic
ate
root
cau
ses
and
arre
st th
ose
who
pro
fit m
ost f
rom
impo
rtin
g an
d di
stri
butin
g ill
egal
dru
gs, t
he p
olic
e an
dco
urts
hav
e fi
lled
jails
with
sm
all s
tree
t dea
lers
.D
rug
addi
ctio
n, a
nd th
e "w
ar o
n dr
ugs,
" ha
ve b
ecom
e a
form
of
soci
al c
ontr
ol.
Dru
g us
e ki
lls s
ocia
l act
ivis
m a
nd e
ffec
tive
prot
est.
The
"war
on
drug
s,"
foug
ht a
lmos
t exc
lusi
vely
in n
eigh
borh
oods
inha
bite
d by
peo
ple
of c
olor
, has
ope
ned
the
way
to f
orm
s of
polic
ing
once
ass
ocia
ted
with
aut
hori
tari
an s
tate
s, n
ot d
e-m
ocra
cies
.It
has
als
o m
ade
pris
ons
our
fast
est g
row
ing
indu
stry
.A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s m
ake
up 1
2 pe
rcen
t of
the
natio
n's
popu
latio
n. D
espi
te th
e fa
ct th
at o
nly
12 p
erce
nt o
f th
eA
fric
an-A
mer
ican
pop
ulat
ion
have
bee
n es
timat
ed to
use
or
sell
drug
s, th
e gr
eat m
ajor
ity o
f th
ose
arre
sted
in d
rug
swee
ps h
ave
been
Bla
ck. A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s ar
e tw
ice
aslik
ely
to g
et p
riso
n te
rms
as y
oung
whi
te m
ales
arr
este
d on
iden
tical
cha
rges
. Und
er f
eder
al la
w th
ere
is a
man
dato
ryfi
ve-y
ear
pris
on s
ente
nce
for
poss
essi
ng f
ive
gram
s of
cra
ckco
cain
e, w
hile
pos
sess
ion
of th
at m
uch
pow
dere
d co
cain
e(t
he s
ubur
ban
drug
of
choi
ce)
gets
the
offe
nder
ten
mon
ths'
prob
atio
n.T
he k
ind
of p
olic
ing
and
med
ia c
over
age
aim
ed a
t com
-m
uniti
es o
f co
lor
have
cri
min
aliz
ed B
lack
you
th, i
nfla
med
raci
al f
ears
, and
bui
lt su
ppor
t for
new
get
-tou
gh a
ppro
ache
sto
fig
htin
g cr
ime,
no
mat
ter
wha
t the
cos
t. A
ccor
ding
to th
eW
ashi
ngto
n D
C-b
ased
Sen
tenc
ing
Proj
ect's
199
5 re
port
, ove
r30
per
cent
of
Bla
ck m
ales
bet
wee
n th
e ag
es o
f 20
and
29
and
12 p
erce
nt o
f L
atin
o m
ales
are
toda
y ei
ther
in ja
il, o
r on
par
ole
or a
wai
ting
tria
l (th
e fi
gure
for
whi
te y
oung
men
is 6
.7pe
rcen
t). T
he p
riso
n po
pula
tion
grew
a s
tagg
erin
g 40
per
-ce
nt b
etw
een
1990
and
199
5. W
ith o
ne m
illio
n pe
ople
in s
tate
and
fede
ral p
riso
ns, a
nd a
fur
ther
hal
f m
illio
n in
city
and
coun
ty ja
ils, w
e le
ad th
e w
orld
in th
e ra
te a
t whi
ch w
e lo
ckup
our
citi
zens
. Bec
ause
onl
y fo
ur s
tate
s pe
rmit
pris
oner
sto
vot
e, la
rge
num
bers
of
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
and
Lat
inos
are
bein
g de
priv
ed o
f th
e fr
anch
ise.
It is
not
just
in u
rban
are
as th
at p
eopl
e of
col
or f
eel
unju
stly
trea
ted
by th
e cr
imin
al ju
stic
e sy
stem
.In
rur
alM
issi
ssip
pi, f
or in
stan
ce, "
the
host
ile a
ttitu
de o
f la
w e
n-fo
rcem
ent p
erso
nnel
con
tinue
s to
cre
ate
an a
tmos
pher
e of
fear
in m
ost A
fric
an-A
mer
ican
com
mun
ities
.In
thes
eco
mm
uniti
es m
any
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
feel
that
ver
y lit
tleha
s ch
ange
d si
nce
the
era
of le
galiz
ed s
egre
gatio
n.-1
2C
omm
unity
act
ivis
ts a
re tr
oubl
ed b
y th
e fa
ct th
at s
ince
198
9in
Mis
siss
ippi
, at l
east
40
Afr
ican
-Am
eric
an y
outh
s ha
vedi
ed in
sus
pici
ous
circ
umst
ance
s in
cou
nty
jails
.T
heir
deat
hs h
ave
been
rul
ed "
suic
ide"
by
loca
l off
icia
ls a
nd la
ter
by th
e FB
I.W
hat i
f th
e na
tion'
s ja
ils w
ere
bein
g fi
lled
by y
oung
whi
te m
en?
Do
you
thin
k w
e as
a p
eopl
e w
ould
be
sopr
epar
ed to
exp
and
the
pris
on s
yste
m, p
ayin
g m
ore
to k
eep
a no
nvio
lent
, fir
st-t
ime
offe
nder
inca
rcer
ated
than
it c
osts
to
Mov
emen
t Voi
ces
"If
you
hold
the
grou
ps d
own,
you
als
o ho
ld y
our-
self
dow
n. B
ut th
e po
wer
s th
at b
e ar
e st
ill s
o bl
inde
d by
raci
sm th
at th
ey h
ave
not c
ome
to th
is r
ealiz
atio
n. I
tco
sts
$21,
000
per
capi
ta p
er a
nnum
to in
carc
erat
e an
indi
vidu
al. T
hey'
d ra
ther
do
that
than
mak
e th
e ki
nds
of c
hang
es in
the
com
mun
ities
and
the
educ
atio
nal
inst
itutio
ns th
at w
ould
for
esta
ll sh
ovel
ing
all t
hese
you
ngpe
ople
into
thes
e ja
ils a
nd p
riso
ns. T
hat's
a n
atio
nal
prob
lem
, not
just
a M
issi
ssip
pi p
robl
em. W
e ar
e se
en a
sex
pend
able
. The
y ha
ven'
t got
ove
r th
eir
inna
te f
eelin
gth
at s
ome
peop
le a
re in
feri
or...
The
re is
so
muc
h to
be
done
. A lo
t has
not
bee
npa
ssed
dow
n th
at s
houl
d ha
ve b
een
pass
ed d
own.
..D
on't
wai
t to
know
who
you
are
bef
ore
beco
min
gen
gage
d in
act
ion.
A lo
t of
peop
le d
isco
vere
d w
ho th
eyw
ere
thro
ugh
enga
gem
ent.
Lif
e w
ill p
ass
you
by if
you
stan
d by
wai
ting
to d
isco
ver
who
you
are
."
Ow
en B
rook
s to
Pro
ject
HIP
-HO
P, J
uly
13, 1
995
"The
se d
ays
no o
ne w
ants
to g
et in
volv
ed in
pol
itics
.A
s a
resu
lt a
smal
l gro
up o
f pe
ople
con
trol
the
polit
ical
proc
ess.
You
ng p
eopl
e ha
ve to
dea
l with
this
. Pol
itics
dete
rmin
e th
e fu
ture
. With
out y
our
invo
lvem
ent i
npo
litic
s, th
e fu
ture
cou
ld b
e a
disa
ster
. We
need
mor
eth
an in
volv
emen
t in
elec
tora
l pol
itics
. We
need
tore
vita
lize
gras
s-ro
ots
orga
niza
tions
. But
I c
an't
give
you
a bl
uepr
int.
You
hav
e to
fin
d yo
ur o
wn
path
. Lea
rnno
t to
mak
e th
e sa
me
mis
take
s w
e m
ade.
Lea
rn a
tole
ranc
e of
div
erge
nt o
pini
ons,
as
long
as
you
are
mov
ing
tow
ard
the
sam
e go
al."
Cla
ude
Bar
nes
to P
roje
ct H
IP-H
OP,
Jul
y 10
,199
7-
36H
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Voi
ces
"Whe
re d
o w
e go
fro
m h
ere?
" ca
n on
ly b
e ad
dres
sed
whe
n th
e un
cert
aint
y of
our
fut
ure
forc
es u
s to
put
emph
asis
on
the
ques
tion
and
its s
igni
fica
nce.
With
the
aid
of s
ever
al v
eter
ans
of th
e M
ovem
ent,
we
wer
e ab
le to
pin
poin
t som
e of
the
prob
lem
s th
at, i
fun
conf
ront
ed, b
ecom
e ba
rrie
rs in
the
Afr
ican
-Am
eri-
cans
' pat
h to
true
fre
edom
. We
lear
ned
that
fea
r st
ands
as o
ne o
f ou
r bi
gges
t pro
blem
sfe
ar to
inve
stig
ate
ach
urch
bur
ning
or
polic
e as
saul
t; fe
ar th
at is
pre
vent
ing
us f
rom
fur
ther
pro
gres
s.Fe
ar n
ouri
shed
bec
omes
end
emic
and
und
efea
tabl
e.W
e m
ust f
ind
way
s to
dis
mis
s fe
ar, a
nd in
still
pri
de a
ndho
pe in
thos
e ex
peri
enci
ng th
e A
mer
ican
nig
htm
are.
The
cre
atio
n of
com
mun
ity is
ste
p on
e. W
ithou
t it,
dial
ogue
bet
wee
n th
e di
vide
d w
ill n
ot, c
anno
t, be
achi
eved
. It i
s fr
om th
at d
ialo
gue,
that
str
uggl
e, th
at a
llel
se g
row
s.T
he o
verw
helm
ing
obst
acle
to c
omm
unity
cur
rent
lyis
the
colle
ctio
n of
atti
tude
s w
ith w
hich
my
gene
ratio
nha
s be
en p
rogr
amm
ed. M
ater
ialis
m a
nd th
e as
sort
edpe
tty s
oap
oper
a st
uff
have
mad
e th
eir
dest
ruct
ive
pres
ence
s fe
lt. T
he M
ovem
ent f
izzl
ed in
the
1980
s an
dit
beca
me
all a
bout
"m
e."
The
his
tory
has
not
bee
npa
ssed
on,
whi
le a
val
ue o
f th
e su
perf
icia
l has
. The
se a
rech
alle
nges
fac
ing
my
gene
ratio
n.
Abo
ve a
re tw
o vi
ews
of s
ome
of th
e ch
alle
nges
fac
ing
yout
h to
day.
Now
that
you
hav
e le
arne
d ab
out t
heM
ovem
ent,
wou
ld y
ou c
hoos
e to
pla
y a
part
? If
so,
whe
rew
ould
you
beg
in?
Wha
t wou
ld y
ou li
ke to
cha
nge
inyo
ur c
omm
unity
? In
you
r sc
hool
? H
ow w
ould
you
go
abou
t it?
put t
hat p
erso
n th
roug
h co
llege
? O
r do
you
thin
k w
e w
ould
beco
me
mor
e aw
are
of h
ow th
e "w
ar o
n dr
ugs"
thre
aten
s th
elib
ertie
s w
e of
ten
take
for
gra
nted
? T
he B
ill o
f R
ight
s, w
hich
prom
ises
peo
ple
secu
rity
fro
m u
nrea
sona
ble
sear
ches
inth
eir
hom
es, c
ount
s fo
r lit
tle w
hen
a SW
AT
team
in p
aram
ili-
tary
gea
r is
kno
ckin
g do
wn
the
door
.
Mov
ing
forw
ard
agai
n
"I lo
ok f
orw
ard
to th
e re
-em
erge
nce
of o
ur la
rge-
scal
est
rugg
le f
or d
emoc
racy
... f
illed
with
par
ticip
ants
of
man
yco
lors
, off
erin
g cr
eativ
e al
tern
ativ
es f
or th
e liv
es o
f us
all.
"V
ince
nt H
ardi
ng, H
ope
and
His
tory
Afr
ican
-Am
eric
an, E
urop
ean-
Am
eric
an, A
sian
-Am
eri-
can
and
Lat
ino,
we,
mem
bers
of
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP,
ref
lect
the
incr
easi
ngly
div
erse
pop
ulat
ion
of th
is la
nd. W
e kn
ow th
atou
r co
untr
y is
cap
able
of
bette
r th
ings
. Our
enc
ount
ers
with
Am
eric
a's
free
dom
fig
hter
s ha
ve ta
ught
us
that
trem
endo
usch
ange
is p
ossi
ble
if w
e ar
e pr
epar
ed to
wor
k fo
r it,
to ta
keri
sks,
and
per
haps
to m
ake
sacr
ific
es.
To
get m
ovin
g ag
ain,
we
have
to k
now
how
far
we
have
com
e. W
e ha
ve to
be
hone
st a
bout
the
loss
es, a
s w
ell a
s th
ega
ins;
the
back
war
d as
wel
l as
the
forw
ard
mov
emen
t."O
ur f
ears
," H
ollis
Wat
kins
told
us,
"pr
even
t us
from
acce
ptin
g th
e re
ality
of
wha
t we
are
seei
ng. W
e re
fuse
toac
cept
the
trut
h th
at w
e ha
ve n
ot m
ade
as m
uch
prog
ress
as
soci
ety
says
we
have
. We
mis
s ho
w s
imila
r th
ings
are
to h
owth
ey w
ere
back
then
. We
still
nee
d to
ove
rcom
e th
e fe
ar. W
ew
ant p
rogr
ess
to b
e m
ade,
and
hat
e to
acc
ept t
he tr
uth
that
dom
inat
ion
and
cont
rol a
re s
till h
ere.
You
ng p
eopl
e ge
tov
erw
helm
ed, a
nd s
ee s
o m
any
diff
eren
t iss
ues,
they
don
'tkn
ow w
here
to s
tart
. But
sta
rt s
omew
here
, and
it w
ill b
egin
to m
ake
a po
sitiv
e di
ffer
ence
." 1
3T
he to
rch
has
been
pas
sed
to u
s, th
e na
tion'
s yo
uth.
We
take
to h
eart
Cle
vela
nd S
elle
rs' w
ords
, "O
nce
you
are
clea
rab
out w
here
you
wan
t to
go, h
ow y
ou g
et th
ere
won
't be
as
diff
icul
t as
you
may
thin
k."
Foot
note
s1.
Din
esh
D'S
ouza
, The
End
of
Rac
ism
, Fre
e Pr
ess,
199
5, p
.170
.
2. T
he F
ourt
h W
ave:
A C
ontin
uing
Con
spir
acy
to B
urn
Bla
ckC
hurc
hes,
Cen
ter
for
Dem
ocra
tic R
enew
al, M
arch
199
7.
3.C
hest
er H
artm
an, e
dito
r, D
oubl
e E
xpos
ure
and
Rac
e in
Am
eric
a, M
.E. S
harp
e, 1
997,
p. 1
2.
4. T
im W
ise,
Litt
le W
hite
Lie
s: T
he T
ruth
abo
ut A
ffir
mat
ive
Act
ion
and
"Rev
erse
Dis
crim
inat
ion,
" T
wom
ey C
ente
r fo
r Pe
ace
thro
ugh
Just
ice,
Loy
ola
Uni
vers
ity, 1
995.
5. S
tatis
tics
in th
is u
nit a
re ta
ken
from
new
spap
ers,
Dou
ble
Exp
osur
e an
d R
ace
in A
mer
ica;
Ran
dy A
ldel
ba a
nd N
ancy
Folb
re, T
he W
ar o
n th
e Po
or, C
ente
r fo
r Po
pula
r E
cono
mic
s,19
96; "
The
Gro
win
g D
ivid
e: I
nequ
ality
and
the
Roo
ts o
fE
cono
mic
Ins
ecur
ity,"
Uni
ted
for
a Fa
ir E
cono
my,
199
5.
6.M
elvi
n O
liver
& T
hom
as S
hapi
ro, B
lack
Wea
lth/W
hite
Wea
lth: A
New
Per
spec
tive
on R
acia
l Equ
ality
, Rou
tledg
e, 1
995,
PP. 5
-7.
7.D
ougl
as S
. Mas
sey
and
Nan
cy A
. Den
ton,
Am
eric
anA
part
heid
: Seg
rega
tion
and
the
Mak
ing
of th
e U
nder
clas
s, H
arva
rdU
nive
rsity
Pre
ss, 1
993.
8. G
ary
Orf
ield
, Sus
an E
. Eat
on, D
ism
antli
ng D
eseg
rega
tion:
The
Qui
et R
ever
sal o
f B
row
n v.
Boa
rd o
f E
duca
tion,
The
New
Pre
ss,
1996
, p. 3
66.
9. O
p. c
it., p
. 28.
10. M
eetin
g w
ith P
roje
ct H
IP -
HO
P, J
uly
17, 1
997.
11. Q
uote
d in
Jon
atha
n K
ozol
, Am
azin
g G
race
: The
Liv
es o
fC
hild
ren
and
the
Con
scie
nce
of a
Nat
ion,
Har
per
Cro
wn,
199
5,pp
. 180
-181
.
12. T
he V
isio
n, S
trat
egy
and
Prog
ram
of
Wor
k of
Sou
ther
nE
cho,
Inc
, Jac
kson
, MS,
Nov
embe
r 19
95, p
. 10.
13. M
eetin
g w
ith P
roje
ct H
IP-H
OP,
Jul
y 18
, 199
7.
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
79.
37
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Voi
ces:
A V
isit
toth
e R
ed N
eck
Shop
One
of
the
mos
t hor
rifi
c si
tuat
ions
that
I e
ncou
nter
edw
hile
I w
as o
n Pr
ojec
t Hip
-Hop
'97,
was
the
visi
t to
the
Ku
Klu
x K
lan
mus
eum
, in
Lau
rens
, Sou
th C
arol
ina.
Obv
ious
lyot
her
mem
bers
and
I e
xpec
ted
inte
nse
amou
nts
of r
acis
m in
this
tow
n, e
spec
ially
fro
m th
e ow
ner
of th
is s
hop.
Unq
ues-
tiona
bly
this
is w
hat w
e en
coun
tere
d, b
ut w
e al
so f
ound
som
ethi
ng th
at n
o on
e ex
pect
ed: f
eelin
gs o
f po
wer
less
ness
born
of
the
sens
e th
at n
othi
ng h
ad r
eally
cha
nged
.T
he m
useu
m it
self
is b
uilt
in th
e ol
d E
cho
Mov
ie T
heat
er,
and
is n
ot p
hysi
cally
kep
t up
wel
l. T
he o
utsi
de is
dir
ty, s
igns
are
falli
ng o
ff a
nd s
ticke
rs a
rest
artin
g to
pee
l off
of
the
win
dow
s. I
n th
e w
indo
ws
are
adve
rtis
emen
ts f
or p
ara-
pher
nalia
the
stor
e se
lls.
I re
mem
ber
a ch
ild's
tee-
shir
tsa
ying
"Je
sus
Chr
ist s
uppo
rts
the
KK
K!"
We
deci
ded
to v
isit
the
Red
Nec
k Sh
op, t
he m
useu
m's
gift
sho
p, b
ut n
ot to
pay
the
entr
y fe
e fo
r th
e m
useu
m it
self
.W
e as
ked
John
How
ard,
the
prop
riet
or, "
How
can
you
sel
lsu
ch r
acis
t pro
paga
nda?
" H
is r
eply
was
a b
arel
y au
dibl
est
atem
ent t
hat e
xpre
ssed
his
for
mer
bel
ief
in th
e K
lan
and
that
he
no lo
nger
bel
ieve
d w
hat t
he K
lan
stan
ds f
or, b
ut h
eth
inks
he
shou
ld s
till s
ell t
hese
item
s be
caus
e th
ey r
epre
sent
hist
ory.
It w
as e
xtre
mel
y in
tere
stin
g ta
lkin
g w
ith h
im b
ecau
seaf
ter
a w
hile
he
bega
n to
ope
n up
and
talk
abo
ut h
is r
ole
inth
e K
lan
and
how
his
life
was
with
them
. He
said
he
was
aG
rand
Dra
gon.
Whi
le h
e w
as p
art o
f th
is o
rgan
izat
ion,
he
said
he
neve
r hu
rt a
nyon
e, b
ut h
e ha
d he
ard
stor
ies
of s
ome
peop
le w
ho d
id. H
e sa
id th
at if
Bla
ck p
eopl
e w
ante
d to
live
in A
mer
ica
fine
, but
just
kee
p th
em s
epar
ate
from
whi
tes.
Insi
de th
e gi
ft s
hop
ther
e w
ere
all s
orts
of
raci
st s
ouve
-ni
rs. O
ne it
em w
as c
alle
d a
'nig
glet
'. N
iggl
ets
are
smal
ldi
stor
ted
char
acte
riza
tions
of
Bla
ck p
eopl
e. S
mal
l Bla
ckch
ildre
n w
ere
turn
ed in
to h
alf
hum
an a
nd h
alf
anim
alco
mpl
ete
with
pitc
h bl
ack
skin
and
big
pin
k lip
s. O
ther
thin
gs th
at w
ere
sold
in th
e sh
op w
ere
KK
K e
mbl
ems,
conf
eder
ate
flag
s an
d bo
oks
on h
ow to
sta
rt y
our
own
chap
ter
of th
e K
KK
. The
re w
as a
lso
a ch
ildre
n's
clot
hing
corn
er. T
o ex
pose
chi
ldre
n to
this
type
of
inte
nse
hatr
ed f
rom
such
an
earl
y st
age
in li
fe is
to e
ntir
ely
anni
hila
te a
ny c
hanc
eth
at th
ey w
ill g
row
up
to b
e an
ope
n-m
inde
d fu
nctio
ning
indi
vidu
al.
Thi
s is
not
reg
ular
chi
ldre
n's
clot
hing
I a
mta
lkin
g ab
out.
On
tee-
shir
ts th
ere
wer
e ph
rase
s lik
e "M
ych
ild's
gro
win
g up
to b
e a
rebe
l!"
or "
My
baby
is a
con
fede
r-at
e ba
by"
and
so o
n. I
f yo
u th
ink
that
this
sto
re is
devo
id o
fbu
sine
ss, y
ou a
re m
ista
ken.
Whi
le w
e w
ere
ther
e, th
ree
men
cam
e in
to th
e sh
op, b
ough
t tee
-shi
rts,
book
s, f
lags
and
left
.W
hen
the
mus
eum
/gif
t sho
p w
as s
tart
ed, b
oyco
ttsw
ere
orga
nize
d by
a c
oalit
ion
oflo
cal B
lack
min
iste
rs, a
ndJe
sse
Jack
son
also
cal
led
on A
ttorn
ey G
ener
al J
anet
Ren
o an
dG
over
nor
Dav
id B
easl
ey to
shu
t dow
n th
e sh
op. O
bvio
usly
they
fai
led.
Man
y pe
ople
, inc
ludi
ng m
ysel
f, h
ave
had
the
assu
mpt
ion
that
"w
ell,
may
be if
peo
ple
wer
e st
ill p
rote
stin
gto
day
the
mus
eum
wou
ld b
e sh
ut d
own.
" H
owev
er, h
owca
n lo
cal p
eopl
e sh
ut d
own
som
ethi
ngth
at is
adv
ertis
ing
the
min
dset
of
an e
ntir
e to
wn
gove
rnm
ent?
Lau
rens
is a
sm
all t
own,
abo
ut 9
,500
peo
ple,
with
nea
rly
half
of
the
resi
dent
s be
ing
Bla
ck. W
e le
arne
d th
at r
acis
m in
Lau
rens
is n
ot li
mite
d to
this
sho
p. I
n th
e ea
rly
90s
a ch
urch
built
a s
choo
l so
that
whi
te c
hild
ren
wou
ld n
ot h
ave
to g
o to
scho
ol w
ith B
lack
chi
ldre
n. A
loca
l Bla
ck w
oman
that
we
spok
e to
sai
d th
at s
he f
elt t
hat n
othi
ng h
ad r
eally
cha
nged
beca
use
the
maj
ority
of
the
City
Cou
ncil
still
thou
ght l
ike
the
Red
neck
sho
p ow
ner.
Eve
n th
ough
the
polic
e fo
rce
has
been
inte
grat
ed, s
he f
eels
that
"W
hen
Bla
ck f
olks
get
a li
ttle
bit o
fpo
wer
, the
y ac
t jus
t lik
e w
hite
fol
k."
Bla
ck c
hild
ren
are
hara
ssed
whe
n th
ey a
re ju
st h
angi
ng o
ut, w
hile
whi
te s
tu-
dent
s ca
n dr
ink
and
hang
out
till
the
earl
y m
orni
ng h
ours
.If
the
pow
er s
truc
ture
that
you
live
und
er is
aga
inst
you
from
the
begi
nnin
g, h
ow c
an y
ou f
ight
it?
Thi
s ov
erw
helm
-in
g fe
elin
g of
pow
erle
ssne
ss is
nat
ionw
ide,
whi
ch te
lls m
eth
at th
e yo
uth
have
to b
ecom
e m
ore
invo
lved
in th
eir
com
-m
uniti
es, s
peak
out
aga
inst
hat
e an
d ha
te g
roup
s, a
nd s
tart
to r
eally
look
at h
ow r
acis
m is
sus
tain
ed in
our
soc
iety
.
Def
initi
ons
Aff
irm
ativ
e ac
tion
this
term
ref
ers
to th
e ex
ecut
ive
orde
rs, a
dmin
istr
ativ
e de
cisi
ons
and
cour
t rul
ings
dat
ing
from
the
1960
s th
at a
ttem
pted
to o
pen
up o
ppor
tuni
-tie
s, e
spec
ially
in e
mpl
oym
ent a
nd e
duca
tion,
to q
ualif
ied
indi
vidu
als
in g
roup
s th
at h
ad h
isto
rica
lly b
een
shut
out:
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans,
mem
bers
of
othe
r m
inor
itygr
oups
and
wom
en. A
ffir
mat
ive
actio
nha
s no
t bee
nab
out q
uota
sor
sac
rifi
cing
qua
lity
to g
et th
e nu
mbe
rsri
ght.
Bak
keth
e Su
prem
e C
ourt
in 1
979
in th
e ca
se o
fR
egen
ts o
f th
e U
nive
rsity
of
Cal
ifor
nia
v. B
akke
hel
d th
atth
e m
inor
ity s
et-a
side
at t
he U
nive
rsity
of
Cal
ifor
nia-
Dav
is M
edic
al S
choo
l, w
hich
res
erve
d 16
of
100
plac
esfo
r A
fric
an A
mer
ican
s, d
iscr
imin
ated
aga
inst
Ala
nB
akke
, a w
hite
app
lican
t. T
he c
ase
did
not d
o aw
ayw
ith a
ffir
mat
ive
actio
n al
toge
ther
, but
sai
d ra
ce c
ould
not b
e th
e de
cidi
ng f
acto
r in
adm
issi
ons.
Red
linin
gth
e pr
actic
e by
whi
ch b
anks
and
lend
ing
agen
cies
wou
ld d
raw
a r
ed li
ne a
roun
d m
inor
ity c
om-
mun
ities
and
den
y th
em m
ortg
ages
and
loan
s
Rev
erse
dis
crim
inat
ion
the
notio
n th
at a
ffir
mat
ive
actio
n vi
ctim
izes
whi
tes
as a
gro
up b
y no
t allo
win
gth
em to
com
pete
fai
rly
for
jobs
and
edu
catio
nal p
lace
s.
Set-
asid
esan
aff
irm
ativ
e ac
tion
appr
oach
that
re-
serv
ed a
cer
tain
per
cent
age
of g
over
nmen
t con
trac
ts f
orm
inor
ity f
irm
s.
SWA
T te
am th
e Sp
ecia
l Wea
pons
and
Tac
tics
squa
dsw
hich
act
as
spec
ial f
orce
s fo
r m
any
urba
n po
lice
de-
part
men
ts.
3880
81H
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Voi
ces
Som
e m
ay a
rgue
that
our
soc
iety
is o
r is
nea
ring
aco
nditi
on w
here
col
or is
no
long
er ta
ken
into
acc
ount
.T
hey
poin
t out
that
the
mar
ks o
f ra
cial
dis
crim
inat
ion
have
van
ishe
d, a
nd w
e ha
ve s
ince
mad
e st
ride
s as
aso
ciet
y to
war
ds th
e id
eal o
f "c
olor
-blin
dnes
s."
If w
e ar
e bl
ind
to a
nyth
ing,
it is
not
to c
olor
but
to th
eef
fect
s of
col
or in
our
soc
iety
. The
her
alds
of
the
colo
r-bl
ind
soci
ety
are
quic
k to
cite
the
gain
s of
the
60s
as a
nex
cuse
to f
orgo
mea
sure
s ne
cess
ary
for
the
90s.
The
dang
er in
the
idea
l of
a co
lor-
blin
d so
ciet
y is
that
in it
sap
peal
, it d
istr
acts
fro
m th
e hi
stor
ical
and
cur
rent
rea
lity,
that
col
or is
and
con
tinue
s to
be
a re
leva
nt a
nd p
reva
lent
fact
or in
soc
iety
. It i
s ve
ry e
asy
to b
e lu
red
into
an
uncr
itica
l acc
epta
nce
of th
e id
eal.
Sure
ly, t
he m
ost e
xplic
it si
gns
of r
acia
l dis
crim
ina-
tion
have
bee
n re
mov
ed s
ince
the
60s.
If
not m
ore
equa
l,so
ciet
y ha
s at
the
leas
t bec
ome
mor
e se
nsiti
ve a
bout
its
appe
aran
ce. T
houg
h co
lor
itsel
f ha
s no
t bec
ome
less
visi
ble,
the
way
s in
whi
ch c
olor
is u
sed
as a
mar
k ag
ains
tw
hich
to d
iscr
imin
ate
have
bec
ome
less
dec
iphe
rabl
e.A
t one
tim
e it
was
eas
ier
to s
ee th
at p
eopl
e of
col
or in
this
coun
try
suff
ered
an
unde
niab
le h
andi
cap.
Now
, how
-ev
er, e
very
one
has
an e
xcep
tion
that
dis
prov
es th
e ru
le.
Peop
le c
an p
oint
to a
thle
tes,
cel
ebri
ties,
or
othe
r pu
blic
or p
riva
te f
igur
es a
s pr
oof
that
our
s is
a s
ocie
ty w
hich
has
rise
n ab
ove
raci
sm, w
hich
is n
ow "
colo
r-bl
ind"
.Su
ch a
con
clus
ion
is n
ot o
nly
wro
ng, i
t is
dang
erou
s.W
e m
ust n
ow lo
ok to
que
stio
ns o
f po
wer
and
pri
vile
ge.
To
have
pow
er is
to b
e in
con
trol
, and
to e
njoy
pri
vile
geis
to b
e ab
le to
sta
y in
con
trol
. Who
then
is r
eally
inco
ntro
l of
our
soci
o-ec
onom
ic s
truc
ture
? O
ur in
stitu
-tio
ns?
The
ideo
logi
es u
pon
whi
ch o
ur s
ocie
ty o
pera
tes?
The
n if
we
are
to lo
ok a
t the
dis
empo
wer
ed, w
hose
fac
esdo
we
imag
ine?
And
wha
t col
or a
re th
ese
face
s?
Do
The
se H
eadl
ines
Ref
lect
aC
olor
=B
lind
Soci
ety?
US
says
BH
Ahe
ldun
its f
or w
hite
sR
acis
t cop
sca
ught
in a
ct
of a
busi
rq;B
lack
man
n.
How
a M
ichi
gan
cam
pus
erup
ted
in r
acia
l str
ife
PIO
II/0
,11;
101
It
11'5
2 I1
1111
/
110,
1,1:
41.
SIII
S111
111.
1i11
1111
1111
'S
1I11
1111
1.11
111
Vile
,la*
NI,
1
Oa,
leaA
,Dea
thin
Jailh
ouse
:T
heR
ulin
g-,
a Su
icid
e,T
hePe
arL
ynch
ing
`Rig
ht n
ow, w
e're
In
the
mid
st o
f a
civi
lw
ar o
n th
is c
ampu
s,an
d yo
u ca
n't t
urn
your
hac
k on
It.'
11,5
15 F
OU
NT
AIN
. bla
ck o
ryph
"mon
,
Th.
, wt.,
a f
ew r
aria
lly r
ni,..
....
Ka
DE
RR
IC
Arm
y to
inve
stig
ate
hate
grou
p ac
tivity
ante
d:W
illio
ntitt
unitt
inan
l1'
rimit
colo
rblin
dN
..i-t
tlt,
del
liPlo
Yer
sI
conn
ed th
eir
amm
etat
ion
at
.111
1111
1S in
the
natio
n's
art;
ea
SA
T tv
oreo
note
,t,;,
,t,.
'At,
form
er A
rmy
both
r
K]s
r"R
ut b
fael
ts'
....It
,. m
oms;
itonk
erA
wlit
t and
Mon
umen
tS
tree
t In
the
Hun
k.. H
illpr
ojec
t )eo
terd
ay.
Cla
shde
fine
srac
ial f
ault
lin*
es
Ku
Mu%
Kla
n N
rand
Tita
nN
atha
n T
hom
asto
n lm
PS
abu
rnin
g ro
s. N
at
orirl
aN n
ight
In a
fiel
d ne
arW
edow
ee. A
la.
Rai
n ho
lds
sway
in A
la.
cwse
c0)\
)S4-
(*),
6i.
146y
'
Prov
okes
Whi
teC
4orc
h
veV
Geo
rgia
Supe
rint
ende
nt11
111/
Bat
tles
a Su
btle
Rac
ism
111w
Rac
ialG
apO
D.
ortg
ages
2.1.
:111
SO
N. G
ig-
Sill
ilyC
ifilli
rH
ISO
ilbl
ocks
hav
eit
high
ervi
leof
rej
ectio
n11
1110
111.
1
liIui
ihai
iw
hite
s,ho
t
u11
hnlls
iflk
(A6\
5C
-11
611-t
veS
ese
e6s
,
Stad
enSO
ilnA
n..
-1 .a
lach
f'.1
/.4...
...ac
eifr
`'12o
-° n
iteIl
se i 11
*Y
e
ra
\-0
vttk
,
Bla
cks
still
fac
e hi
ghlo
an-r
ejec
tion
rate
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
8 2
BE
ST
CO
PY
AV
AIL
AB
LE8
339
Cor
nel W
est S
peak
s fo
r Pr
ojec
t HIP
-HO
PT
he tr
aditi
on to
str
uggl
e fo
r de
cenc
y an
d di
gnity
is e
xact
lyw
hat i
t is
all a
bout
...T
his
trad
ition
sta
ys a
live
prec
isel
y be
caus
e a
sign
ific
ant n
umbe
r of
you
ng p
eopl
e be
lieve
that
it's
wor
th f
ight
ing
for,
hen
ce th
ey d
ispr
opor
tiona
tely
con
trib
ute
to th
e su
bsta
nce
ofth
is tr
aditi
on...
Can
we
pass
the
bato
n? T
hat's
the
ques
tion.
For
me
ther
e ar
efo
ur b
asic
pill
ars
for
youn
g pe
ople
. The
fir
st is
som
ethi
ng p
rofo
undl
yun
-Am
eric
an. T
hat i
s, a
sen
se o
f hi
stor
y. T
here
is s
impl
y no
way
that
a tr
aditi
onal
str
uggl
e ca
n st
ay a
live
in a
hot
el c
ivili
zatio
nw
ithou
t a s
ense
of
hist
ory.
Situ
atin
g yo
urse
lf in
a s
ituat
ion
bigg
erth
an y
ou a
nd lo
catin
g yo
urse
lf in
a n
arra
tive
larg
er th
an y
ou s
o th
atyo
u ca
n co
nnec
t you
rsel
f, r
elat
e yo
urse
lf to
thos
e w
ho c
ame
befo
re,
and
mea
sure
you
rsel
f ag
ains
t the
hig
h st
anda
rds
of v
isio
n an
dan
alys
is a
nd c
oura
ge th
at th
ey h
ave
set.
And
I'm
not
just
talk
ing
abou
t the
gre
ates
t hits
of
the
stru
ggle
. I'm
talk
ing
abou
t nam
eles
san
d nu
mer
ous
fore
fath
ers
and
fore
mot
hers
, who
ver
y fe
w p
eopl
ekn
ow a
bout
, who
you
mig
ht k
now
in y
our
fam
ily...
It is
so
very
dif
ficu
lt to
hav
e th
e se
nse
of h
isto
ry th
at I
'm ta
lkin
gab
out,
espe
cial
ly f
or y
oung
peo
ple.
Bec
ause
you
ng p
eopl
e ha
vegr
own
up in
a p
artic
ular
sta
ge o
f ou
r ho
tel c
ivili
zatio
n in
whi
chm
arke
t for
ces
bom
bard
them
with
an
inte
nsity
that
we
olde
r fo
lkdi
d no
t exp
erie
nce.
.. T
here
is n
o do
ubt i
n m
y m
ind
that
hip
-hop
itsel
f, a
s a
cultu
re, a
s m
usic
, is
not p
rim
arily
abo
ut ju
st s
ound
and
note
s. I
t's a
bout
you
ng p
eopl
e w
rest
ling
with
soc
ial b
reak
dow
n, o
fw
hich
larg
e nu
mbe
rs o
f ol
der
peop
le a
re f
earf
ul, a
nd n
o lo
nger
abl
eto
pro
vide
you
ng p
eopl
e w
ith c
ounc
il an
d w
isdo
m a
nd lo
ve...
In a
dditi
on to
a s
ense
of
hist
ory,
bei
ng a
ble
to r
ead
our
pres
ent
mom
ent a
s hi
stor
y, w
e ne
ed a
sen
se o
f em
path
y. T
hat i
s w
hat I
love
abou
t Pro
ject
HIP
-HO
P. I
t doe
sn't
sim
ply
build
on
the
gran
dcr
eativ
ity a
nd o
rigi
nalit
y of
you
ng p
eopl
e in
the
Am
eric
an m
usic
altr
aditi
on, a
nd in
par
ticul
ar, t
he b
lack
mus
ical
trad
ition
. But
it's
abou
t try
ing
to g
ener
ate
the
whe
els
of im
agin
atio
n, to
con
ceiv
e of
wha
t it's
like
to b
e in
the
shoe
s of
oth
er p
eopl
e. T
hat e
mpa
thy,
at i
tsbe
st, i
s to
be
able
to s
tep
outs
ide
of o
ne's
ow
n pe
rson
al w
orld
and
proj
ect o
nese
lf in
to a
noth
er w
orld
, so
that
whe
n yo
u co
me
back
toyo
ur w
orld
, you
r w
orld
has
cha
nged
. You
've
been
tran
sfor
med
...T
he r
easo
n w
hy P
roje
ct H
IP-H
OP
is s
o ve
ry im
port
ant i
sbe
caus
e it'
s no
t jus
t a m
atte
r of
you
ng f
olk
havi
ng f
un. I
t's a
ctua
llyan
aff
irm
atio
n of
the
best
of
wha
t the
dem
ocra
tic tr
aditi
on is
abo
ut,
and
I m
ust s
ay in
all
open
ness
, I b
elie
ve th
at th
e be
st o
f th
e bl
ack
free
dom
str
uggl
e is
the
best
of
the
Am
eric
an d
emoc
ratic
trad
ition
.B
ecau
se if
eno
ugh
fello
w c
itize
ns c
an w
rest
le w
ith th
e vi
ciou
sle
gacy
of
whi
te s
upre
mac
y, th
ey c
an w
rest
le w
ith n
earl
y an
ythi
ngel
se in
Am
eric
a.R
ace
is th
e ra
wes
t ner
ve in
the
coun
try.
It i
s th
e m
ost e
xplo
sive
issu
e. I
go
as f
ar a
s br
othe
r Ja
mes
Bal
dwin
, who
say
s th
at it
is th
eon
e is
sue
whi
ch, i
n al
l its
man
ifes
tatio
ns, h
as th
e ca
paci
ty to
bri
ngdo
wn
the
curt
ain
on th
is p
reci
ous
expe
rim
ent i
n de
moc
racy
cal
led
Am
eric
a. S
o if
we
can
wre
stle
with
rac
e, th
en w
e're
mor
e th
anlik
ely
able
to d
eal w
ith p
over
ty a
nd th
e va
st e
cono
mic
ineq
ualit
yan
d th
e ug
ly le
gacy
of
mal
e su
prem
acy
and
hom
opho
bia.
Of
cour
se P
roje
ct H
IP-H
OP
reco
gniz
es th
at r
ace
goes
han
d in
han
dw
ith e
xpan
ding
dem
ocra
tic a
bilit
ies
and
poss
ibili
ties.
The
thir
d pi
llar
is c
oura
ge. A
nd th
is is
som
ethi
ng w
hich
I th
ink
youn
g pe
ople
can
teac
h ol
der
peop
le. S
o m
any
olde
r pe
ople
I k
now
feel
that
they
hav
e su
ch a
gra
nd m
oral
vis
ion
and
a ve
ry s
harp
anal
ysis
, but
whe
n it
com
es ti
me
to a
ctin
g on
it, a
ll of
a s
udde
nth
ings
get
so
ambi
guou
s an
d co
mpl
ex th
at th
ey c
an't
take
a s
tand
...C
oura
ge is
a v
irtu
e. I
t is
not l
earn
ed...
You
bec
ome
cour
ageo
usby
bei
ng c
oura
geou
s, b
y ta
king
a r
isk.
..The
you
ng p
eopl
e ha
ve to
be a
ble
to s
ee c
oura
ge a
nd s
pend
tim
e ar
ound
thos
e fo
lks
who
are
enga
ged
in c
onsi
sten
tly c
oura
geou
s ac
tivity
...L
ast b
ut n
ot le
ast,
in a
dditi
on to
a s
ense
of
hist
ory
and
empa
thy
and
cour
age,
we'
ve g
ot to
hav
e a
sens
e of
hop
e, a
nd w
e've
got
tobe
quea
th th
at s
ense
of
hope
to y
oung
peo
ple.
But
I d
on't
belie
veyo
ung
peop
le w
ill e
ver
inst
ill w
ithin
them
selv
es a
sen
se o
f ho
peun
less
we
spea
k to
thei
r se
nse
of d
espa
ir...
We'
ve g
ot to
ack
now
l-ed
ge th
at d
espa
ir a
nd tr
ansf
igur
e it
into
hop
e kn
owin
g th
at y
oung
peop
le h
ave
to m
ake
a le
ap o
f fa
ith b
eyon
d th
e bu
llets
, bey
ond
the
fune
rals
; a le
ap o
f fa
ith th
at s
ays
"Loo
k, e
ven
if th
ere'
s no
t eno
ugh
evid
ence
, we'
re s
till a
ble
to r
ecog
nize
that
for
you
the
wor
ld is
stil
lin
com
plet
e an
d hi
stor
y is
stil
l unf
inis
hed.
The
fut
ure
is s
till o
pen-
ende
d, a
nd w
hat y
ou th
ink
and
do s
till
mak
es a
dif
fere
nce.
..We
can
turn
to th
e fr
eedo
m f
ight
ers
of th
e19
60s
and
say
"Kee
p yo
ur e
yes
not o
n ea
ch o
ther
's in
adeq
uaci
es,
keep
you
r ey
es o
n th
e pr
ize.
"Pr
ofes
sor
Cor
nel W
est o
f H
arva
rd U
nive
rsity
at a
ben
efit
for
Proj
ect
HIP
-HO
P So
uth
Afr
ica,
Apr
il 22
, 199
6.
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Voi
ces
Wha
t allo
ws
one
hum
an b
eing
to s
ee th
e su
ffer
ing
ofan
othe
r hu
man
bei
ng a
nd s
tay
sile
nt a
nd in
activ
e? S
om
any
peop
le a
re w
illin
g to
talk
abo
ut th
e pr
oble
ms
inth
e w
orld
, but
so
few
are
will
ing
to d
o an
ythi
ng to
alte
rth
e w
rong
s th
ey s
ee a
roun
d th
em. O
nly
whe
n w
e as
indi
vidu
als
are
able
to m
ove
past
the
com
plai
ning
sta
gean
d lo
ok to
war
ds p
ositi
ve a
ctio
n ca
n th
ings
beg
in to
chan
ge.
Imag
ine
if R
osa
Park
s ha
d si
mpl
y co
mpl
aine
d ab
out
the
inju
stic
es o
f se
greg
atio
n on
Mon
tgom
ery
buse
s. S
hene
ver
wou
ld h
ave
been
the
cata
lyst
whi
ch h
elpe
d en
dJi
m C
row
seg
rega
tion
in th
e So
uth.
Alo
ng w
ith o
ther
stu
dent
s fr
om th
e B
osto
n ar
ea, I
was
abl
e to
lear
n m
ore
abou
t Ros
a Pa
rks
and
man
ype
ople
like
her
who
se n
ames
rem
ain
unkn
own
to m
ost
of u
s. I
was
abl
e to
bri
dge
the
gap
betw
een
the
natio
n's
rece
nt h
isto
ry a
nd th
e re
spon
sibi
litie
s of
you
ng p
eopl
eto
day.
Mee
ting
peop
le w
ho h
ad s
pent
thei
r yo
uth
figh
ting
for
wha
t the
y be
lieve
d in
insp
ired
me
to b
egin
a si
mila
r fi
ght.
Thr
ough
thei
r st
orie
s, th
ey p
asse
d on
the
torc
h of
res
ista
nce,
alo
ng w
ith th
e ch
alle
nges
that
stil
lab
ound
.I
can'
t jus
t sit
back
and
let t
he d
espa
ir th
at is
rai
ning
dow
n up
on y
oung
peo
ple
dam
pen
my
effo
rts
to c
onfr
ont
inju
stic
e in
this
cou
ntry
. The
mor
e I
lear
n ab
out t
hehe
roin
es a
nd h
eroe
s w
ho d
edic
ated
thei
r liv
es to
the
Mov
emen
t, th
e le
ss I
can
sta
y st
ill. S
eein
g th
e ro
le y
oung
peop
le h
ave
play
ed in
kee
ping
the
Mov
emen
t aliv
e, h
owca
n I
stay
pas
sive
?I
know
ther
e ar
e ot
hers
who
fee
l lik
e I
do, b
ut th
ink
the
prob
lem
is to
o bi
g, o
r th
at th
ey a
re to
o lit
tle to
rea
llych
ange
any
thin
g. I
thin
k w
e m
ust d
edic
ate
ours
elve
s to
chan
ge. E
ven
if w
e be
com
e aw
are
of a
pro
blem
that
mig
ht s
eem
tiny
or
insi
gnif
ican
t, w
e m
ust n
ot s
tay
sile
ntor
the
wor
ld w
ill n
ever
cha
nge.
4084
BE
ST
CO
PY
AV
AIL
AB
LE8
5H
ighw
ays
into
the
Past
:
Film
s an
d O
ther
Res
ourc
es
All
Pow
er to
the
Peop
le!
The
Bla
ck P
anth
er P
arty
and
Bey
ond,
Ele
ctro
nic
New
s G
roup
, PO
B 8
6208
, Los
Ang
eles
, CA
Eye
s on
the
Priz
e, P
arts
I a
nd I
I (a
tota
l of
14 s
egm
ents
),pr
oduc
ed b
y B
lack
side
, ava
ilabl
e fr
om P
BS
Vid
eo, 1
320
Bra
ddoc
k Pl
ace,
Ale
xand
ria,
VA
223
14
Free
dom
on
my
Min
d, p
rodu
ced
and
dire
cted
by
Con
nie
Fiel
ds a
nd M
arily
n M
ufor
d, C
lari
ty F
ilm R
elea
se, c
all
(510
) 84
1-34
69
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
Sout
h A
fric
a, a
35-
min
ute
film
ava
il-ab
le f
rom
Cam
brid
ge E
duca
tiona
l, (8
00)
468-
4227
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
vide
otap
es o
f in
terv
iew
s w
ithM
ovem
ent v
eter
ans
(als
o av
aila
ble
on a
udio
tape
)
Aud
io R
esou
rces
I'm G
onna
Let
it S
hine
: a G
athe
ring
of
Voi
ces
for
Free
dom
(civ
il ri
ghts
son
gs),
ava
ilabl
e fr
om th
e H
ighl
ande
r C
en-
ter,
195
9 H
ighl
ande
r W
ay, N
ew M
arke
t, T
N 3
7820
Let
the
Cir
cle
Be
Unb
roke
n, a
12-
part
rad
io s
erie
s, 1
997,
avai
labl
e fr
om N
atio
nal P
ublic
Rad
io
Jour
nals
Rac
e &
Cla
ss, p
rodu
ced
by th
e In
stitu
te o
f R
ace
Rel
atio
nsin
Lon
don,
ava
ilabl
e fr
om N
ancy
Mur
ray
at th
e B
ill o
fR
ight
s E
duca
tion
Proj
ect,
(617
) 48
2-31
70 x
314
.
Rac
e T
raito
r, J
ourn
al o
f th
e N
ew A
bolit
ioni
sm, a
vaila
ble
from
PO
Box
603
, Cam
brid
ge, M
A 0
2140
For
info
rmat
ion
abou
t mat
eria
l on
civi
l rig
hts
and
civi
llib
ertie
s av
aila
ble
from
the
AC
LU
, con
tact
Nan
cy M
urra
y,(6
17)
482-
3170
x 3
14.
Sele
ct B
iblio
grap
hyIn
add
ition
to w
orks
cite
d in
the
foot
note
s, w
e re
com
men
d:
Bra
nch,
Tay
lor,
Par
ting
the
Wat
ers:
Am
eric
a in
the
Kin
g Y
ears
1954
-63,
Sim
on a
nd S
chus
ter,
198
8
Bro
wn,
Cyn
thia
Sto
kes,
ed.
, Rea
dy F
rom
With
in, S
eptim
a C
lark
and
the
Civ
il R
ight
s M
ovem
ent,
Afr
ica
Wor
ld P
ress
, Inc
., 19
90
Car
son,
Cla
ybor
ne, I
n St
rugg
le: S
NC
C a
nd th
e B
lack
Aw
aken
-in
gs o
f th
e 19
60s,
Har
vard
Uni
vers
ity P
ress
, 198
1
Chu
rchi
ll, W
ard
and
Jim
Van
der
Wal
l, A
gent
s of
Rep
ress
ion:
The
FB
I's S
ecre
t War
s A
gain
st th
e B
lack
Pan
ther
Par
ty a
nd th
eA
mer
ican
Ind
ian
Mov
emen
t, So
uth
End
Pre
ss, 1
988
Cur
ry, C
onst
ance
, Silv
er R
ight
s, A
Har
vest
Boo
k, 1
995
Free
, Mel
vin
D.,
Afr
ican
Am
eric
ans
and
the
Cri
min
al J
ustic
eSy
stem
, Gar
land
Pub
lishi
ng, I
nc.,
1996
Gar
row
, Dav
id J
., Pr
otes
t at S
elm
a: M
artin
Lut
her
Kin
g, J
r. a
ndth
e V
otin
g R
ight
s A
ct o
f 19
65, Y
ale
Uni
vers
ity P
ress
, 197
8
Glic
k, B
rian
, War
At H
ome:
Cov
ert A
ctio
n ag
ains
t U.S
. Act
ivis
tsan
d W
hat W
e C
an D
o A
bout
It,
Sout
h E
nd P
ress
, 198
9
Hac
ker,
And
rew
, Tw
o N
atio
ns, B
lack
and
Whi
te, S
epar
ate,
Hos
tile,
Une
qual
, Cha
rles
Scr
ibne
r's S
ons,
199
2
Jenn
ings
, Jam
es, U
nder
stan
ding
the
Nat
ure
of P
over
ty in
Urb
anA
mer
ica,
Pra
eger
, 199
4
Kiv
el, P
aul,
Upr
ootin
g R
acis
m: H
ow W
hite
Peo
ple
Can
Wor
k fo
rR
acia
l Jus
tice,
New
Soc
iety
Pub
lishe
rs, 1
996
Lev
ine,
Elle
n, F
reed
om's
Chi
ldre
n: Y
oung
Civ
il R
ight
s A
ctiv
ists
Tel
l The
ir O
wn
Stor
ies,
G.P
. Put
nam
's S
ons,
199
3
Law
renc
e, C
harl
es &
Mar
i Mat
suda
, We
Won
't G
o B
ack:
Mak
ing
the
Cas
e fo
r A
ffir
mat
ive
Act
ion,
Hou
ghto
n M
iffl
in, 1
997
Loe
wen
, Jam
es W
., L
ies
My
Tea
cher
Tol
d M
e, T
ouch
ston
e, 1
995
Lub
iano
, Wah
neem
a, e
d., T
he H
ouse
that
Rac
e B
uilt,
Pan
theo
nB
ooks
, 199
7
Mal
com
X in
Con
test
: A S
tudy
Gui
de to
the
Man
and
His
Tim
es,
Scho
ol P
ress
Voi
ces,
199
2
Mar
able
, Man
ning
, Bey
ond
Bla
ck a
nd W
hite
: Tra
nsfo
rmin
gA
fric
an-A
mer
ican
Pol
itics
, Ver
so, 1
995
Mill
s, K
ay, T
his
Litt
le L
ight
of
Min
e: T
he L
ife
of F
anni
e L
ouH
amer
, A D
utto
n B
ook,
199
3
Mos
es, G
reg,
Rev
olut
ion
of C
onsc
ienc
e: M
artin
Lut
her
Kin
g, U
r.an
d th
e Ph
iloso
phy
of N
onvi
olen
ce, T
he G
uilf
ord
Pres
s, 1
997
O'R
eilly
, Ken
neth
, Bla
ck A
mer
ican
s: T
he F
BI
File
s, C
arro
ll an
dG
raf
Publ
ishe
rs, I
nc.,
1994
Payn
e, C
harl
es M
., I'v
e G
ot th
e L
ight
of
Free
dom
: The
Org
aniz
-in
g T
radi
tion
and
the
Mis
siss
ippi
Fre
edom
Str
uggl
e, U
nive
rsity
of C
alif
orni
a Pr
ess,
199
5
The
resa
Per
ry, e
d., T
each
ing
Mal
colm
X, R
outle
dge,
199
6
Sitk
off,
Har
vard
, The
Str
uggl
e fo
r B
lack
Equ
ality
,195
4-19
92, H
illan
d W
ang,
199
3
Stei
nber
g, S
teph
en, T
urni
ng B
ack:
The
Ret
reat
fro
m R
acia
l Jus
-tic
e in
Am
eric
an T
houg
ht a
nd P
olic
y, B
eaco
n Pr
ess,
199
5
Wes
t, C
orne
l, R
ace
Mat
ters
, Bea
con
Pres
s, 1
993
Wils
on, W
illia
m J
uliu
s, W
hen
Wor
k D
isap
pear
s: T
he W
orld
of
the
New
Urb
an P
oor,
Alf
red
A. K
nopf
, 199
6
Zin
n, H
owar
d, Y
ou C
an't
Be
Neu
tral
on
a M
ovin
g T
rain
: APe
rson
al H
isto
ry o
f O
ur T
imes
, Bea
con
Pres
s, 1
994
His
tory
, Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
8687
41
The
Bill
of
Rig
hts
Edu
catio
n Pr
ojec
t and
Pro
ject
HIP
-HO
PT
he B
ill o
f R
ight
s E
duca
tion
Proj
ect d
evel
ops
inno
va-
tive
stra
tegi
es o
f ci
tizen
ship
edu
catio
n de
sign
ed to
mak
e th
eB
ill o
f R
ight
s re
leva
nt to
you
ng p
eopl
e. F
ound
ed in
Nov
embe
r19
87 b
y th
e A
mer
ican
Civ
il L
iber
ties
Uni
on o
f M
assa
chus
etts
,in
coo
pera
tion
with
the
Mas
sach
uset
ts D
epar
tmen
t of
Edu
-ca
tion
and
the
Mas
sach
uset
ts B
ar A
ssoc
iatio
n, th
e Pr
ojec
ten
cour
ages
teac
hers
and
mid
dle
and
high
sch
ool s
tude
nts
toth
ink
criti
cally
abo
ut th
e di
ffic
ult i
ssue
s be
ing
deba
ted
inso
ciet
y an
d th
e co
urts
, see
ing
this
as
esse
ntia
l to
the
futu
rew
ell-
bein
g of
dem
ocra
cy.
Dur
ing
the
past
dec
ade,
the
Bill
of
Rig
hts
Edu
catio
nPr
ojec
t has
hel
d te
n co
nfer
ence
s fo
r te
ache
rs o
n ci
vil r
ight
san
d ci
vil l
iber
ties
issu
es, f
ourt
een
conf
eren
ces
for
up to
600
stud
ents
eac
h, s
ix s
umm
er in
stitu
tes
for
teac
hers
, tw
o an
ti-ra
cism
ret
reat
s fo
r st
uden
ts, a
nd s
mal
ler
wor
ksho
ps a
ndot
her
even
ts. O
ur n
ewsl
ette
r, B
ill o
f R
ight
s N
etw
ork,
is s
ent
free
of
char
ge to
3,0
00 te
ache
rs a
roun
d M
assa
chus
etts
.T
he P
roje
ct h
as p
lace
d a
part
icul
ar e
mph
asis
on
the
need
to f
ight
rac
ism
, and
to f
acili
tate
stu
dent
con
tact
acr
oss
raci
alan
d et
hnic
line
s. T
he c
ente
rpie
ce o
f ou
r an
ti-ra
cism
edu
ca-
tion
is P
roje
ct H
IP-H
OP
(Hig
hway
s in
to th
e Pa
st: H
isto
ry,
Org
aniz
ing
& P
ower
), w
hich
we
laun
ched
in c
oope
ratio
nw
ith T
eens
as
Com
mun
ity R
esou
rces
and
the
Mas
sach
uset
tsSt
uden
t Alli
ance
Aga
inst
Rac
ism
and
Vio
lenc
e in
199
3. T
his
inno
vativ
e "r
ollin
g cl
assr
oom
" in
volv
es ta
king
a d
iver
segr
oup
of h
igh
scho
ol s
tude
nts
on a
5,0
00-m
ile to
ur o
f th
eSo
uth,
vis
iting
key
site
s of
the
Mov
emen
t of
the
1950
s an
d60
s, a
nd m
eetin
g w
ith M
ovem
ent v
eter
ans
and
youn
g pe
ople
who
are
invo
lved
toda
y in
wor
king
for
pos
itive
soc
ial c
hang
e.In
199
6 re
pres
enta
tives
fro
m e
ach
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
tour
of
the
Sout
h jo
urne
yed
to S
outh
Afr
ica.
In th
e po
st-t
our
phas
e of
Pro
ject
HIP
-HO
P, s
tude
ntpa
rtic
ipan
ts b
ecom
e te
ache
rs, a
nd g
o in
to s
choo
ls ta
lkin
gab
out t
heir
exp
erie
nces
. The
y ha
ve m
ade
pres
enta
tions
toov
er 1
5,00
0 of
thei
r pe
ers.
An
eigh
th g
rade
r at
a s
choo
l in
wes
tern
Mas
sach
uset
ts e
valu
ated
Pro
ject
HIP
-HO
P's
visi
t to
her
clas
s th
is w
ay: "
I ha
ve n
ever
hea
rd s
peak
ers
who
stir
up
your
em
otio
ns, o
r ha
ve s
poke
n be
tter
than
them
. I h
ones
tlym
ean
it.I'm
not
eve
r go
ing
to f
orge
t it."
The
HIP
-HO
Ppr
ogra
m h
as e
xpan
ded
the
educ
atio
nal h
oriz
ons
and
rang
eof
ski
lls o
f pa
rtic
ipan
ts, a
nd e
nabl
ed th
em to
ser
ve th
eir
scho
ols
and
loca
l com
mun
ities
as
advo
cate
s an
d ex
ampl
es.
Proj
ect H
IP-H
OP
has
been
fea
ture
d in
the
loca
l and
natio
nal m
edia
, inc
ludi
ng T
he N
ew Y
ork
Tim
es a
nd N
atio
nal
Publ
ic R
adio
. It r
ecei
ved
a "S
peci
al R
ecog
nitio
n A
war
d"fr
om th
e M
assa
chus
etts
Bla
ck L
egis
lativ
e C
aucu
s in
199
5."V
iole
nce,
Non
viol
ence
, and
the
Les
sons
of
His
tory
: Pro
ject
HIP
-HO
P Jo
urne
ys S
outh
," b
y N
ancy
Mur
ray
and
Mar
coG
arri
do, w
as p
ublis
hed
in th
e H
arva
rd E
duca
tiona
l Rev
iew
inits
spe
cial
issu
e on
You
th a
nd V
iole
nce
(Sum
mer
199
5). I
tssi
te o
n th
e W
orld
Wid
e W
eb c
an b
e co
ntac
ted
eith
er th
roug
hA
OL
(ke
ywor
d A
CL
U a
nd th
en S
tude
nt R
ight
s) o
r at
http
:ww
w.u
sers
.aol
.com
/mcl
uf/ h
ome.
h tm
l.T
he B
ill o
f R
ight
s E
duca
tion
Proj
ect a
nd P
roje
ct H
IP-
HO
P ha
ve b
een
supp
orte
d by
the
gene
rosi
ty o
f in
divi
dual
dono
rs, a
nd th
e fo
llow
ing
foun
datio
ns a
nd c
orpo
ratio
ns:
Ban
kBos
ton,
Rut
h M
. Bat
son
Edu
catio
nal F
ound
atio
n, B
oehm
Foun
datio
n, B
osto
n G
lobe
Fou
ndat
ion,
the
Bos
ton
Foun
da-
tion,
Che
resh
Fam
ily F
und,
Chu
rch
Hom
e So
ciet
y, E
astm
anFu
nd, E
duca
tion
for
Act
ion,
Fle
et I
nves
tmen
t Ser
vice
s, F
oley
Hoa
g &
Elio
t Fou
ndat
ion,
Gra
nt T
ripp
el M
emor
ial F
und,
Gre
eley
Fou
ndat
ion,
Hya
ms
Foun
datio
n, th
e L
otus
Phi
lan-
thro
py P
rogr
am, P
rote
stan
t Epi
scop
al C
hurc
h in
the
USA
,R
ESI
ST, T
rini
ty C
hurc
h, th
e U
S T
rust
Com
pany
.Fo
r m
ore
info
rmat
ion
abou
t Pro
ject
HIP
-HO
P, o
r to
sche
dule
a p
rese
ntat
ion,
con
tact
Nan
cy M
urra
y at
the
Bill
of
Rig
hts
Edu
catio
n Pr
ojec
t.
The
Bill
of
Rig
hts
Edu
catio
n Pr
ojec
t99
Cha
uncy
Str
eet,
Suite
310
Bos
ton,
MA
021
11te
l (61
7) 4
82-3
170
x. 3
14
Mov
emen
t Voi
ces
Cla
ude
Bar
nes
A r
adic
al s
tude
nt le
ader
in G
reen
sbor
o, N
orth
Car
o-lin
a in
the
late
196
0s a
nd 1
970s
, Cla
ude
Bar
nes
now
teac
hes
Polit
ical
Sci
ence
at t
he N
orth
Car
olin
a A
gric
ul-
ture
and
Tec
hnol
ogy
Uni
vers
ity.
Ow
en B
rook
sO
wen
Bro
oks
is o
rigi
nally
fro
m B
osto
n, M
assa
chu-
setts
and
has
bee
n a
Mov
emen
t act
ivis
t for
mor
e th
an 5
0ye
ars.
Aft
er h
eari
ng F
anni
e L
ou H
amer
spe
ak a
t a r
ally
,he
mov
ed to
Gre
envi
lle, i
n th
e M
issi
ssip
pi D
elta
, and
wor
ked
for
the
Del
ta M
inis
try
on v
oter
reg
istr
atio
n an
dco
mm
unity
edu
catio
n an
d de
velo
pmen
t.
Rev
. Har
old
Mid
dleb
rook
Har
old
Mid
dleb
rook
had
bee
n a
yout
h m
inis
ter
atth
e E
bene
zer
Bap
tist C
hurc
h in
Atla
nta
whe
re h
e liv
edw
ith D
r. K
ing'
s fa
mily
. He
was
pre
sent
at t
he L
orra
ine
Mot
el in
Mem
phis
whe
n D
r. K
ing
was
ass
assi
nate
d.T
oday
, he
has
a m
inis
try
in K
noxv
ille,
Ten
ness
ee.
Cle
vela
nd S
elle
rsC
leve
land
Sel
lers
bec
ame
the
prog
ram
dir
ecto
r of
SNC
C a
t age
20.
He
was
arr
este
d an
d im
pris
oned
aft
erth
e O
rang
ebur
g M
assa
cre
in in
196
8, a
nd la
ter
rece
ived
a pa
rdon
fro
m th
e G
over
nor
of S
outh
Car
olin
a. H
ecu
rren
tly te
ache
s A
fric
an A
mer
ican
Stu
dies
at t
he U
ni-
vers
ity o
f So
uth
Car
olin
a.
Hol
lis W
atki
nsT
he f
irst
Mis
siss
ippi
stu
dent
to b
ecom
e in
volv
ed in
SNC
C, h
e jo
ined
in 1
961
whe
n he
was
19
year
s ol
d. H
ew
as a
mem
ber
of th
e SN
CC
Fre
edom
Sin
gers
. In
1989
he
foun
ded
Sout
hern
Ech
o in
Jac
kson
, Mis
siss
ippi
to w
ork
for
Bla
ck e
mpo
wer
men
t. H
e tr
avel
ed to
Sou
th A
fric
aw
ith P
roje
ct H
IP-H
OP
in th
e su
mm
er o
f 19
96.
42
8889
Hig
hway
s in
to th
e Pa
st:
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