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CHAPTER 3The Physiological Basis of Behavior
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THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
The Nervous system--is the complex
arrangement throughout the body of highly specialized cells, the neurons, which acts as a communication system, enabling the organism to respond to external and internal stimuli.
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THE RECEIVING MECHANISM
Sense organs are sensitive nerve endings located in certain body parts. Its attributes are:A.) Sensitivity and Irritability: The Power to
react to stimulusB.) Conductivity: The power to conduct
nerve impulsesC.) Specificity: the attribute of reacting to
particular stimulusD.) Adaptability: the power to become used
to a particular stimulus.
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TYPES OF SENSE ORGANS ACCORDING TO LOCATION:
A.)Extroceptors-found in the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, skin and are sensitive to external stimulus.
B.) Interoceptors- sense organs in the respiratory tract, digestive and genito-urinary tract.
C.) Proprieoceptors- are embeded in muscles, tendons and joints.
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THE REACTING MECHANISM
A.Muscles of three kinds:
VoluntaryInvoluntaryCardiac or heart
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Voluntary muscles: Muscles that move and
work when we want them to
Examples:Arm musclesLeg musclesNeck muscles
Voluntary Muscles
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Involuntary muscles: Muscles that keep
working whether we think about them or not
Examples:StomachLungsMuscles in the heart
Involuntary Muscles
The Nervous system along with other chemicals in the body controls our involuntary muscles
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Attached to bones by strong fibers called tendons
Muscles work in pairs to move the bones:
Example: biceps (relaxes and stretches) and triceps (contract and pull up the elbow)
Muscle is long, round, and cross striped
Skeletal Muscles
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Cardiac Muscles Can be found only in the HEART
Muscle contracts and relaxes about 70 times a minute without stopping or getting tired
Muscle is strained both crossways and longways
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Smooth Muscles Found in many different organs throughout the body
Examples: esophagus, stomach, and intestines
Muscle is slender and smooth without cross stripes.
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Fun Facts
The main purpose of the Muscular System is for all the muscles to work together to create
movement!
Muscles make up almost 50% of our body weight
There are more than 600 muscles in the human body
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MUSCLE CHARACTERISTICS Contractility-power of muscles to
shorten.
Tonicity- power to be in partial
contraction.
Extensibility-power to stretch
Elasticity-power to resume to its
original shape.
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MUSCLE FUNCTIONS Functions 1. To lend shape to the body as the
skeletal or voluntary muscles of the arms and legs do
2. To propel food and waste product along the intestinal pathway as smooth muscles in the digestive tract do
3. For movement as when the arms and legs move or when we move the mouth to form the sounds of speech
4. To control the flow of blood, automatically opening and closing the blood vessels in response to body needs.
5. To convert mechanical energy to mechanical work
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DUCT GLANDS
B.Glands- are special secreting organs which pour their secretions either directly or indirectly to the bloodstream.
-have ducts or canals thru which they pour out their secretions. These includes lachrymal(tear) glands, sebaceous (sweat);salivary, gastric, sex and mammary glands.
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ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
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PITUITARY GLAND Pituitary gland is located beneath hypothalamus
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Hypothalamus
Neurosecretorycells of thehypothalamus
Axon
Anteriorpituitary
Posteriorpituitary
HORMONE ADH Oxytocin
TARGET Kidney tubules Mammary glands,uterine muscles
POSTERIOR PITUITARY
Stores & releases 2 hormones produced in hypothalamus:Antidiuretic hormone
(ADH/vasopressin) which promotes H20 conservation by kidneys
Oxytocin which stimulates contractions of uterus during parturition & contractions of mammary gland alveoli for milk-ejection reflex
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ANTERIOR PITUITARY Secretes 6
trophic hormones that maintain size of targets High blood
levels cause target to hypertrophy Low levels
cause atrophy
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ANTERIOR PITUITARY
Growth hormone (GH) promotes growth, protein synthesis, & movement of amino acids into cells
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates thyroid to produce & secrete T4 & T3
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol, aldosterone
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ANTERIOR PITUITARY
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates growth of ovarian follicles & sperm production
Luteinizing hormone (LH) causes ovulation & secretion of testosterone in testes
Prolactin (PRL) stimulates milk production by mammary glands
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ANTERIOR PITUITARY Other hormones/products of the
pituitary gland include: MSH - influences skin pigmentation in
some vertebrates and fat metabolism in mammals
Endorphins - inhibit the sensation of pain
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ANTERIOR PITUITARY CONTINUED
Releasing & inhibiting hormones from hypothalamus are released from axon endings into capillary bed in median eminence Carried by
hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system directly to another capillary bed in A. Pit. Diffuse into A. Pit. &
regulate secretion of its hormones
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FEEDBACK CONTROL OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY
Target glands produce hormones that feedback to regulate the anterior pituitary and the hypothalamus
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HIGHER BRAIN FUNCTION & ANTERIOR PITUITARY SECRETION
Hypothalamus receives input from higher brain centers that can affect Pituitary secretionE.g. psychological stress affects circadian rhythms,
menstrual cycle, & adrenal hormones
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ADRENAL GLAND
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ADRENAL GLANDS
Sit on top of kidneys
outer cortex inner medulla
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ADRENAL GLANDS
Adrenal CortexMineralocorticoids
Aldosterone which stimulate kidneys to reabsorb Na+ and secrete K
GlucocorticoidsCortisol which inhibits glucose utilization &
stimulates gluconeogenesis. Inhibits inflammation, Supresses the immune system
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ADRENAL MEDULLA
Secretes Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
"fight or flight" response causes:
Increased respiratory rate Increased HR & cardiac outputGeneral vasoconstriction which increases venous returnGlycogenolysis & lipolysisEtc, etc, etc
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DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH ADRENAL HORMONE LEVELS Cushing’s disease
Hyperadrenocorticism widened face with acne and flushing fatty deposits over back of neck stretch marks, easy bruising, hair overgrowth diabetes mellitus muscle loss and fatigue depression and psychosis moon-like face,
Addison’s disease Hypoadrenocorticism
Hyperpigmentation, weight loss
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THYROID GLAND
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THYROID GLAND
Is located just below the larynx
Secretes T4 & T3 which set BMR & are needed for growth, development
Also secretes Calcitonin which lowers blood calcium levels
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Hypothyroidism People with inadequate T4 & T3 levels
are hypothyroid Have low BMR, weight gain, lethargy,
cold intolerance Hyperthyroidism
Autoimmune disease where antibodies act like TSH & stimulate thyroid gland to grow & oversecrete = hyperthyroidism Characterized by exopthalmos, weight
loss, heat intolerance, irritability/anxiety, high BMR, rapid heart rate
DISEASES OF THE THYROID
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GRAVES’ DISEASE Graves disease
is a form of hyperthyroidism that often presents with exopthalmos
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PARATHYROID GLAND
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PARATHYROID GLANDS
On the surface of thyroid gland
Secrete Parathyroid hormone (PTH) Elevates
blood Ca2+ levels
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PARATHYROID HORMONE AND CALCITONIN: CONTROL OF BLOOD CALCIUM Two antagonistic hormones, parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin play the major role in calcium (Ca2+) homeostasis in mammals
CalcitoninThyroid glandreleasescalcitonin.
StimulatesCa2+ depositionin bones
ReducesCa2+ uptakein kidneys
STIMULUS:Rising bloodCa2+ level
Blood Ca2+
level declinesto set point
Homeostasis:Blood Ca2+ level
(about 10 mg/100 mL)
Blood Ca2+
level risesto set point
STIMULUS:Falling bloodCa2+ level
StimulatesCa2+ releasefrom bones
Parathyroidgland
IncreasesCa2+ uptakein intestines
Activevitamin D
Stimulates Ca2+
uptake in kidneys
PTH
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PANCREASISLETS OF
LANGERHANS
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ISLETS OF LANGERHANS
Glugacon raises blood sugar (a cells) Insulin secreted
Which lowers blood sugar (b cells)
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DIABETES MELLITUS Diabetes mellitus is the best-known endocrine
disorder Is caused by a deficiency of insulin or a
decreased response to insulin in target tissues Is marked by elevated blood glucose levels
Type I diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent diabetes) Is an autoimmune disorder in which the
immune system destroys the beta cells of the pancreas
Type II diabetes mellitus (non-insulin-dependent diabetes) Is characterized either by a deficiency of
insulin or, more commonly, by reduced responsiveness of target cells due to some change in insulin receptors
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Alphas secrete glucagon in response to low blood glucose during periods of fastingStimulates glycogenolysis & lipolysis Increases blood glucose
ISLETS OF LANGERHANS CONTINUED
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GONADS: SEX & REPRODUCTIVE HORMONES
Gonads (testes & ovaries) secrete steroid hormones
The testes primarily synthesize androgens, the main one being testosterone Which stimulate the development and maintenance
of the male reproductive system Estrogens, the most important of which is
estradiol Are responsible for the maintenance of the female
reproductive system and the development of female secondary sex characteristics
Progestins, which include progesterone Are primarily involved in preparing and maintaining
the uterus in mammals
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TESTOSTERONE Testosterone causes an increase in muscle and
bone mass and is often taken as a supplement to cause muscle growth
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PLACENTA
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PLACENTA Placenta
secretes estrogen, progesterone, hCG which maintains pregnancy,prevents eggs from ripening in the ovary, and numerous polypeptide hormones
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THE CONNECTING MECHANISM-THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
A. The Neuron is the basic conducting unit of the nervous system. It has 3 principal parts: Dendrites-are specialized signal-receiving structures where the impulse (input)enters ; the cell body (central region) which integrates input and output and the axon where the output is discharged.
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TYPES OF NEURONS According to speed According to basic function
a. Sensory Neurons (afferent fibers)-conduct impulses to the nervous system.
b. Association Neurons-central and connecting conduct impulses with in the nervous system.
c. Motor Neurons (efferent fibers)-conduct impulses away from the nervous system
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THE HUMAN BRAIN
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THE HUMAN BRAIN:
ANATOMY AND
FUNCTIONS
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SKULL ANATOMYThe skull is a rounded layer of bone designed to protect the brain from penetrating injuries.
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INTERIOR SKULL SURFACEThe base of the skull is rough, with many bony protuberances.
These ridges can result in injury to the temporal lobe of the brain during rapid acceleration.
Bony ridges
Injury from contact with skull
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BLOOD VESSELS OF THE SKULL
The brain requires a rich blood supply, and the space between the skull and cerebrum contains many blood vessels.
These blood vessels can be ruptured during trauma, resulting in bleeding.
Groove for middle meningeal artery
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ARTERIES OF THE BRAINThe human brain requires a constant supply of oxygen. A lack of oxygen of just a few minutes results in irreversible damage to the brain.
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THE NEURON
Dendrites:Collects information from other neurons.
Cell Body
Axon:Transmits information to other neurons.
Click image to play or pause video
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THE MENINGES
The meninges are layers of tissue that separate the skull and the brain.
Skull
Dura mater
Arachnoid Layer
Pia Mater
Brain
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EXTERNAL BRAIN STRUCTURES
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THE CEREBRUMThe largest portion of the brain is the cerebrum. It consists of two hemispheres that are connected together at the corpus callosum.
The cerebrum is often divided into five lobes that are responsible for different brain functions.
Corpus callosum
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THE CEREBRUM
The cerebrum’s surface—the neocortex—is convoluted into hundreds of folds.
The neocortex is where all the higher brain functions take place.
Neocortex
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THE NEOCORTEXThe cerebral cortex is a thin layer of cells about 1.5 to 4 mm thick.
The cortex provides the connections and pathways for the highest cognitive functions, such as language and abstract thinking.
The cerebral cortex contains about 25 billion neurons, more than 62,000 miles of axons, and 300,000,000,000,000 synapses.
Neocortex layer
The thin layer of the neocortex is dense with neurons.
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LOBES OF THE CEREBRUM
Parietal Lobe
Temporal Lobe
Frontal Lobe
Limbic Lobe
Occipital Lobe
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FRONTAL LOBEThe frontal lobe is the area of the brain responsible for higher cognitive functions.
These include:
• Problem solving• Spontaneity• Memory• Language• Motivation• Judgment• Impulse control• Social and sexual behavior.
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TEMPORAL LOBEThe temporal lobe plays a role in emotions, and is also responsible for smelling, tasting, perception, memory, understanding music, aggressiveness, and sexual behavior.
The temporal lobe also contains the language area of the brain.
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PARIETAL LOBEThe parietal lobe plays a role in our sensations of touch, smell, and taste. It also processes sensory and spatial awareness, and is a key component in eye-hand co-ordination and arm movement.
The parietal lobe also contains a specialized area called Wernicke’s area that is responsible for matching written words with the sound of spoken speech.
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OCCIPITAL LOBE
The occipital lobe is at the rear of the brain and controls vision and recognition.
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LIMBIC LOBE
The limbic lobe is located deep in the brain, and makes up the limbic system.
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THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
A. Cingulate gyrusB. FornixC. Anterior thalamic
nucleiD. HypothalamusE. Amygdaloid nucleusF. Hippocampus
The limbic system is the area of the brain that regulates emotion and memory. It directly connects the lower and higher brain functions.
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CEREBELLUMThe cerebellum is connected to the brainstem, and is the center for body movement and balance.
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THALAMUSThalamus means “inner room” in Greek, as it sits deep in the brain at the top of the brainstem.
The thalamus is called the gateway to the cerebral cortex, as nearly all sensory inputs pass through it to the higher levels of the brain.
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HYPOTHALAMUSThe hypothalamus sits under the thalamus at the top of the brainstem. Although the hypothalamus is small, it controls many critical bodily functions:
• Controls autonomic nervous system
• Center for emotional response and behavior
• Regulates body temperature
• Regulates food intake
• Regulates water balance and thirst
• Controls sleep-wake cycles
• Controls endocrine system
The hypothalamus is shaded blue. The pituitary gland extends from the hypothalamus.
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THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA
The medulla oblongata merges seamlessly with the spinal cord and creates the base of the brainstem.
The medulla is primarily a control center for vital involuntary reflexes such as swallowing, vomiting, sneezing, coughing, and regulation of cardiovascular and respiratory activity.
The medulla is also the origin of many cranial nerves.
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THE PONSThe pons is the rounded brainstem region between the midbrain and the medulla oblongata. In fact, pons means “bridge” in Latin.
The main function of the pons is to connect the cerebellum to the rest of the brain and to modify the respiratory output of the medulla.
The pons is the origin of several cranial nerves.
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THE VENTRICLES
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The ventricles are a complex series of spaces and tunnels through the center of the brain.
The ventricles secrete cerebrospinal fluid, which suspends the brain in the skull.
The ventricles also provide a route for chemical messengers that are widely distributed through the central nervous system.
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CEREBROSPINAL FLUIDCerebrospinal fluid is a colorless liquid that bathes the brain and spine.
It is formed within the ventricles of the brain, and it circulates throughout the central nervous system.
Cerebrospinal fluid fills the ventricles and meninges, allowing the brain to “float” within the skull.
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THE BRAINSTEMThe brainstem is the most primitive part of the brain and controls the basic functions of life: breathing, heart rate, swallowing, reflexes to sight or sound, sweating, blood pressure, sleep, and balance.
The brainstem can be divided into three major sections.
Detailed brainstem anatomy.
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BRAINSTEM COMPONENTS
Front
RearMore Information:MedullaThalamusPons
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BRAINSTEM DIVISIONS
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla Oblongata
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THE CRANIAL NERVESI. Olfactory nerveII. Optic nerveIII. Oculomotor nerveIV. Trochlear nerveV. Trigeminal nerveVI. Abducens nerveVII. Facial nerveVIII. Vestibulocochlear nerveIX. Glossopharyngeal nerveX. Vagus nerveXI. Accessory nerveXII. Hypoglossal nerve
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BRAIN FUNCTIONS• Vision• Taste• Cognition• Emotion• Speech• Language• Hearing• Motor Cortex• Sensory Cortex• Autonomic Functions
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VISIONThe visual cortex resides in the occipital lobe of the brain.
Sensory impulses travel from the eyes via the optic nerve to the visual cortex.
Damage to the visual cortex can result in blindness.
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TASTEThe gustatory complex (green circle) is the part of the sensory cortex (purple area) that is responsible for taste.
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COGNITIONThe prefrontal cortex is involved with intellect, complex learning, and personality.
Injuries to the front lobe can cause mental and personality changes.
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EMOTIONEmotions are an extremely complex brain function. The emotional core of the brain is the limbic system. This is where senses and awareness are first processed in the brain.
Mood and personality are mediated through the prefrontal cortex. This part of the brain is the center of higher cognitive and emotional functions.
Prefrontal cortex
Limbic system
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SPEECHBroca’s area is where we formulate speech and the area of the brain that sends motor instructions to the motor cortex.
Injury to Broca’s area can cause difficulty in speaking. The individual may know what words he or she wishes to speak, but will be unable to do so.
Broca’s Area
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LANGUAGEWernicke’s area is a specialized portion of the parietal lobe that recognizes and understands written and spoken language.
Wernicke’s area surrounds the auditory association area.
Damage to this part of the brain can result in someone hearing speech, but not understanding it. Wernicke’s Area
Auditory Association Area
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HEARINGThere are two auditory areas of the brain:
• The primary auditory area (brown circle) is what detects sounds that are transmitted from the ear. It is located in the sensory cortex.
• The auditory association area (purple circle) is the part of the brain that is used to recognize the sounds as speech, music, or noise.
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MOTOR CORTEXThe motor portion of the cerebrum is illustrated here. The light red area is the premotor cortex, which is responsible for repetitive motions of learned motor skills. The dark red area is the primary motor area, and is responsible for control of skeletal muscles.
Different areas of the brain are associated with different parts of the body.
Injury to the motor cortex can result in motor disturbance in the associated body part.
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SENSORY CORTEXThe sensory portion of the cerebrum is illustrated here.
Different areas of the brain are associated with different parts of the body, as can be seen below.
Injury to the sensory cortex can result in sensory disturbance in the associated body part.
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AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONS
The brainstem controls the basic functions of life. Damage to these areas of the brain are usually fatal:
•The pons plays a critical role in respiration.
•The medulla oblongata is responsible for respiration and cardiovascular functions.
Pons
Medulla Oblongata