Religions and Philosophies of China

Instructor Pacas

Early Religions of China

• During the Shang and Zhou Dynasties the Chinese engaged in Ancestor Worship and also incorporating some elements of steppe nomadic religious traditions.

• Under the Zhou, the Mandate of Heaven was introduced and adopted by the ethnic Chinese population so that it became a facet of Chinese culture.

Zhou China

• Under the Zhou the Chinese developed the I Ching (Book of Changes) which set down in writing the oracle divinations of ox shoulder bones and tortoise shells used by the Shang and early part of Zhou dynasty.

End of Western Zhou 771 BCE

• The period that followed the fall of the Western Zhou in 771 BCE witnessed China fragmenting into 148 petty kingdoms/states.

• The period from 771-256 BCE is known as the Eastern Zhou and it is divided into the Spring and Autumn period (771-404 BCE) and the Warring States period (403 – 256 BCE).

Zhou China

Chinese philosophies

• Due to the instability of the period, Chinese philosophers began to question the Zhou’s claim of the Mandate of Heaven and its efficacy in explaining political developments of the period.

• It seemed to well educated Chinese that military strength and organization determined success more than strict adherence to Heaven’s Mandate.

Philosophies Cont’d

• The period between 771- circa 600 BCE witnessed a thriving period of diverse philosophies in China.

• These philosophers pondered diverse set of questions but predominantly how rulers could rule their respective territory most effectively.

• Because the period was one of massive military actions the need for large well supplied professional troops was essential and thus this became a central issue to contemplate.

Cont’d

• Many of these petty states abolished the traditional system of serfdom that had existed under the Zhou and Shang and assigned land directly to peasant families who were taxed and a portion of their production taken to supply the professional armies of the state instead of local lords.

Conscription of peasants

• Peasants were also conscripted into the military, which now was increasingly becoming only males who served, and advancements in the military based on merit as opposed to social economic class.

• These developing strict guidelines under which certain states operated gave rise to the school of thought known as the Legalist School (faija).

Legalist School

• The Legalist School believed in standardization and codification of these laws that governed these states.

• They believed in strict adherence to the law.

• Infractions should be met with a harsh punishment to deter challenges.

• The state should always strive to prepare itself for war.

Confucius 551 – 479 BCE

• Kongzi (Confucius) challenged what he felt was the extremely harsh philosophy of the Legalist School and opted for a softer way of influencing and eliciting correct behavior from people by setting the correct example.

• He argued that people were essentially benevolent/good but just needed to be shown by example how to behave correctly.

Confucius

Confucius Cont’d

• Confucius hoped to convince rulers to adopt his idealistic vision of benevolent rule based on the early Zhou rituals and reverence of ancestors.

• He argued that the most basic human quality was our capacity to empathize with each other (virtue of ren which translates to humanity, benevolence, kindness).

Confucius Cont’d

• Confucius claimed that the most important quality that a king had to possess was ‘virtue’ and through exercising virtue his followers would be inspired to follow him loyally and reciprocate virtuous behavior.

• Confucius was strictly a philosopher (like Socrates or Aristotle) and did not claim any supernatural ability like Judeo-Christian prophets.

Confucian School 479-256 BCE

• Confucian philosophers continued challenging the Legalist Schools of thought championing the Confucian ideal of inherent human goodness in all people and promoting the idea of virtue and virtuous action.

• Expanding on these ideas were two prominent Confucian philosophers, Mengzi (Mencius) and Xunzi who were active Confucian philosophers during the Warring State period.

Mengzi (Mencius)

• Championed Confucian philosophy but also added to it by advocating the social hierarchy of the time.

• He reasoned that it was correct that those that work with their heads should rule over those that work with their hands.

• Yet he also admonished kings and princes that the common people were more important than their leaders.

Xunzi

• Xunzi was responsible for attempting to synchronize aspects of Legalist thought with Confucianism.

• He believed in strict adherence to the law.• But that law should be based on virtues.• Filial piety, commitment for one’s family, was the

fundamental foundation for all other moral teachings and behavior.

• He explained natural catastrophes as works of nature not a punishment from ‘Heaven’ (and that it was the responsibility of leaders to attempt to safe-guard against).

Challenge to Confucians and Legalists

• Mozi argued that both the Confucians and Legalists were wasting their time with insignificant ponderings.

• Ultimately, rulers owed the people the basic necessities of life Mozi argued.

• His school of philosophy was known as the Mohists.

Laozi-Daoism-The Way• Laozi- another philosopher who challenged the

Confucians and Legalists argued that the only constant in life was ever present change.

• Only change is constant• To rise is to fall, to strive for strength will

eventually lead to weakness, etc. • extremely abstract thinking the main principle of

change in the universe is the reversal of opposites (unceasing alteration of yin and yang) from the Daodejing or Tao-te-jing.

• Daoist philosophy has become central to certain Buddhist sects and also part of martial arts.

The Warring States 403-221 BCE• All the philosophical schools that

developed during the Eastern Zhou to challenge the Legalist School came under attack by the Legalists of Qin State.

• Well organized and embracing Legalist philosophy, the Qin would eventually emerged as the victor of the all the warring states in 221 BCE.

Qin Empire

Other Seminal Works

• Perhaps no other work has been more influential in the field of military analysis as the work produced by Sun Tzu, The Art of War.

• “War is the greatest affair of the state, the basis of life and death, the Way (Dao) to survival or extinction. It must be thoroughly pondered and analyzed.” Sun Tzu circa 350 BCE

Religions of Asia:Hinduism, Shinto, Buddhism,

and IslamInstructor Pacas

Hinduism• Hinduism is a

combination of Dravidian religious beliefs mixed with Indo-Aryan beliefs.

• It is polytheistic• It is a collection of

ceremonies, philosophies, and beliefs synthesized into a dynamic cultural tradition.

History of Hinduism

• The Civilization of the Indus Valley already worshipped members of the pantheon associated with present day Hinduism, such as Shiva, quite possibly the ideas of reincarnation (though without the moral gauge associated in later centuries)*, a rudimentary form of the concepts of dharma and karma before the coming of the Indo-Aryans who would introduce the Vedic/current aspects of present day Hinduism.

Indo-Aryans

• The intrusion of the Indo-Aryans among the Dravidian groups during the migration period of Indo-Europeans (circa 2500-1300 BCE) weaved a rich tapestry of amalgamated religious doctrines of Indo-European and Dravidian beliefs and literary works such as the Vedas, Upanishad, and the Mahabharata and Ramayana.

The Vedas• The Vedas which translates in the Sanskrit as

knowledge are a large body of texts originating in ancient India during the period of Indo-Aryan intrusion (1700-1500 BCE).

• These texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism.

• It is claimed that they were introduced to humanity by the gods. They are supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called sruti ("what is heard"), distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called smrti ("what is remembered").

Vedas Cont’d• The Vedic texts are organized around four canonical

collections known as Saṃhitās, • The first three are related to the performance of sacrifice.• The Rigveda contains hymns to be recited by the

participants of the ceremony.• The Yajurveda contains formulas to be recited by the

priest.• The Samaveda contains formulas to be sung by those

that service the priest in the ceremony.• The fourth is the Atharvaveda, a collection of spells and

incantations, and charms.• The individual verses contained in these compilations

are known as mantras.

Upanishad

• Upanishad writings are a collection of philosophical texts which form the theoretical basis for the Hindu religion.

• They are not sruti (revealed truths) but rather seek to explain and make sense of the Vedas (revealed knowledge).

Mahabharata and Ramayana

• Sacred texts of Ancient India that are a compilation of legends concerning wars between forces of good vs. evil, stories of heroes, as well as philosophical works that try to emphasize right actions of human beings.

Basic principles in Hinduism

• Reincarnation

• Karma

• Dharma

Cycle of Life-Reincarnation

• Reincarnation- is the religious or philosophical concept that the soul or spirit, after death, begins a new life in a new body that may be human, animal or spiritual (After the coming of the Indo-Aryans, the individual’s reincarnation depended on the moral quality of the previous life's actions).

• This process can be endless if the soul is incapable of using the time allotted to it, especially as a human, to reach enlightenment.

Karma

• In Hinduism, Karma is the concept of ‘actions’ or ‘deeds’ which have a direct bearing on the cycle of ‘cause and effect’ that will determine how your current existence will be evaluated (productive or not in ending the cycle of rebirth and therefore suffering- known as Samsara).

Dharma

• Divinely inspired/transmitted laws and orders that are meant to keep the natural order of things and thus promote harmony in existence i.e. physical world and spiritual world.

• Following Dharma is the only way to break the cycle of rebirth and suffering of Samsara and reach enlightenment.

Shinto

Shinto

• Shinto or Shintoism is the religion of the ancient Japanese people and it is akin to a combination of ancestor worship of China, shamanistic belief in all things having spirits, and the belief of establishing harmony between the physical realm and that of the spirit.

• Shin-spirit To- Way- translated to “Way of the gods.”

Shinto Cont’d

• Shinto requires that the believers carry out set guidelines and ceremonies in the worship of spirits and ancestors.

• Also the chanting of prayers to worship both spirits and ancestors in order to keep harmony between both realms.

• The oldest surviving text to date dating to the 8th century CE illustrates that Shinto was already a well established religion in Japan by this date.

Shinto Shrine

The gate or ‘Torii’ to a Shinto shrine is the divisionbetween the physical realm and that of the divine.

Buddhism

Instructor Pacas

• Some time between 7th – 4th century BCE an Indian prince by the name of Siddhartha Gautama developed a philosophy influenced by concepts of Hinduism with the goal transcending the realm of suffering known as Samsara.

• Siddhartha Gautama achieved his goal while still alive of attaining enlightenment and thus became the Buddha (Enlightened One).

The Path

• The Buddha preached a message based on Four Noble Truths:

• Life is suffering

• That there is a cause to that suffering…the main cause of suffering is desire.

• That there is a way to end suffering

• The way is by following the Eightfold Path

Eightfold Path• Right opinion

• Right thought

• Right speech

• Right activity

• Right livelihood

• Right effort

• Right attention

• Right concentration

Buddhism essentially not a religion but a philosophy

• In contrast to a localized approach to religion that seems to have pertained in ancient human societies, The Buddha taught that his analysis was universal, that it was true for all people everywhere regardless of their culture.

• This would allow Buddhism in the centuries following the death of the Buddha to spread from India all the way to China relatively quickly.

Prince Asoka (Ashoka)

• Buddhism in the ancient world got a huge boost when Prince Asoka of the Mauryan Empire (reigned ca 268-239 BCE) became a huge patron of the philosophy.

• According to legend Asoka became interested in Buddhism after he had an epiphany/remorse after a massacre and decided to abandon his violent expansionist policies and become a philosopher king instead.

Asoka Stele

• By the time of Prince Asoka’s possible conversion (there is still discussion concerning this) there existed schisms in the Buddhist schools of philosophy.

• Asoka called a council in 244 BCE to try to develop Buddhist orthodoxy but it only succeeded in further splintering the community.

• Problem was that the arhats (Monks who had attained enlightenment) enjoyed their positions of influence and deference in the community.

• This was challenged by another monk Mahadeva who criticized the arhats for indulging in worldly desires.

• Throughout its history and development, Buddhist philosophy has often synthesized itself with other philosophies and religions and this has made the effective study of its history a bit problematic since all diverse schools of belief claim a certain level of orthodoxy.

• Some schools are atheistic while others assign to the Buddha and Bodhisattvas (those who forego transcendence and stay on earthly realm to help other people reach Nirvana (enlightenment) a level of deification.

Buddhism and the Silk Road

• Buddhism exploded in Central Asia and reached China during the 2nd century BCE-1st century CE.

• Scythian Sakas monks travelled with the caravans from northern India to China were they gained many converts from Eurasian steppe nomads particularly Tocharians/Yueh Chih and the Kushans of northern India.

• From the Tarim Basin it spread to China.

Buddhism and banking

• Buddhist monasteries were responsible for developing a rudimentary banking system as traders along the Silk Road deposited wealth in the temples. A document recording the deposit functioned as a sort of bank note that could be used to withdraw deposits from other monasteries along the way.

• Many of these merchants became benefactors of the temples and soon Buddhist temples were one of the wealthiest communities along the Silk Road.

Islam

Islam• Islam is a fairly modern religion.• Established by the prophet Muhammad who

lived 570 – 632 CE.• It is a monotheistic religion following and

building on the traditions of Judaism and Christianity.

• Its holy text is the Koran (Quran) considered by its adherents to be the word of God (Allah in Arabic- this is God of the Old and New Testament not some other deity).

Islam Cont’d

• Followers consider Muhammad to be the seal of the prophets of God so the last one to be bestowed on humanity by the divine will.

• Muslims or followers of the faith follow sunnah (teachings) through collections in the Hadith (Sayings or thoughts of the prophet).

Islam Cont’d

• Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable and the purpose of existence of all humanity is to love and serve God.

• Muslims also believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed at many times and places before, including through Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, whom they consider prophets.

Islam Cont’d

• Muslims maintain that previous messages and revelations have been partially altered or corrupted over time, but consider the Koran (Quran) to be both the unaltered and the final revelation of God.

Islam Cont’d

• Religious concepts and practices include the five pillars of Islam, which are basic concepts and obligatory acts of worship such as the hajj, and following Sharia (Islamic law), which touches on virtually every aspect of life, culture, and society.