Distinguishing the Middle and the Extremes by Asaïga

Commentary by Vasubandhu Translated by John Dunne

Draft Translation with brief annotations: not for circulation

Chapter One: Characteristics

Having honored the son of the Sugata who is the author of this treatise and the one who taught it to me and others, I will attempt to explicate its meaning.

First, he outlines the body of the treatise:

Characteristics, obscurations, the ultimate, the development of the antidote, the stages of that development, the attainment of the effect, and the excellence of the vehicle.

The following seven topics are discussed in this treatise: the characteristics of the conceptual construction of the unreal and of emptiness, the obscurations, the ultimate, the development of the antidote, the stages of the development of the antidote, the attainment of the effect, and the excellence of the vehicle, which is the seventh topic.

Beginning with the characteristics, he says:

The conceptual construction of the unreal exists; duality does not exist in it, but emptiness exists in it; it also exists in terms of that, namely, emptiness. //1//

The conceptual construction of the unreal is the conception of object and subject. Emptiness is the lack of object and subject in the conceptual construction of the unreal. It, the conceptual construction of the unreal, also exists in emptiness. Thus, the following quote gives the correct definition of emptiness: ‘That in which something does not exist is empty of that thing’; knowing this, one truly sees. ‘But what remains here is real here;’ knowing this, one truly knows.

Therefore, it has been determined that everything is neither empty nor not empty because the conceptual construction of the unreal exists; because duality does not exist; and because emptiness and the conceptual construction of the unreal exist in each other; that is the middle way. //2//

“It has been determined” means “It has been taught”; “everything” means the compounded, called the conceptual construction of the unreal, and the uncompounded, called emptiness. It has been taught that everything is neither empty of emptiness and the conceptual construction of the unreal nor not empty of duality, which is object and subject. This is so because the conceptual construction of the unreal exists; because duality does not exist; and because emptiness exists in the conceptual construction of the unreal and the conceptual construction of the unreal exists in emptiness. And that is the middle way, such that things are neither entirely empty nor entirely not empty. This

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interpretation agrees with the Såtra on the Perfection of Wisdom and so on. That is, in those såtras it says, “All of this is not empty, nor is it not empty.”

Having thus explained the real and unreal characteristics of the conceptual construction of the unreal, he now states the intrinsic characteristic of emptiness.

Consciousness arises with the appearance of objects, beings, self, and cognitive representations. Its referent object does not exist; therefore, it does not exist. //3//

In this verse, the appearance of objects is that which appears to be form and so on. The appearances of beings is that which appears to be the five sense faculties of one’s own and others’ mental continua. The appearance of self is the afflicted mind because it is conjoined with confusion about the self, and so on. The appearance of conceptual representations are the six consciousnesses. “Its object does not exist” because the appearance of objects and beings has no cognitive form and because the appearances of self and cognitive representations are false appearances. “Its referent object does not exist; therefore, it does not exist” -- the four types of referent objects are form and so on, the five faculties, the afflicted mind, and the six consciousnesses. Those objects do not exist; therefore, the subject -- consciousness -- also does not exist.

Consciousness is thus proven to be the conceptual construction of the unreal. It thus does not exist in the way in which it appears; nor is it altogether non-existent. //4a-c//

It is proven to be the conceptual construction of the unreal since it does not exist in the way in which the appearance arises. Nor is it altogether non-existent because mere error does occur.

Someone asks, “But for what purpose is its utter non-existence not accepted?” It is not accepted, since we assert that liberation comes through its cessation. 4d Otherwise, neither bondage nor liberation would be established; hence, one would incur the fault of denying affliction and purification.

Having thus explained the intrinsic characteristic of the conceptual construction of the unreal, he explains its inclusive characteristic, which is the way in which the three svabhàvas are included when the conceptual construction of the unreal exists.

The constructed, the relative, and the perfect are taught to be objects, the conceptual construction of the unreal, and the non-existence of non-duality. //5//

Things are the constructed svabhàva; the conceptual construction of the unreal is the relative svabhàva; the non-existence of object and subject is the perfect svabhàva.

Now he elucidates the way to become familiar with the unreal characteristic of the conceptual construction of the unreal:

In dependence on perception, non-perception occurs; in dependence on non-perception, non-perception occurs. //6//

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In dependence on the perception that all things are merely cognitive representations, the non-perception of objects occurs. In dependence on the non-perception of objects, the non-perception of even the mere cognitive representations occurs. Thus, one becomes familiar with the unreal characteristic of object and subject.

Therefore, perception is proven to have the nature of non-perception. //7ab//

Because if there is no object to be perceived, perception is impossible.

Thus, one should know that perception and non-perception are equivalent. //7cd//

One should know this because perception is not proven to be perception. But since there is the appearance of the conceptual construction of the unreal, we say that there is perception, even though it has the nature of non-perception.

Now he states the characteristics of the distinct aspects of the conceptual construction of the unreal.

The conceptual construction of the unreal is mind and mental events occurring in the three realms. //8ab//

The mind and mental events are classified according to the different manifestations in the form and formless dimensions.

And he states the characteristic of its synonyms:

Concerning the above verse, consciousness is the perception of the mere object; mental events are perceptions of an object’s qualities.

Concerning this, the sight of the mere object is consciousness. Sight of a particular aspect of the object is a mental event, such as sensation and so on.

And he gives the active characteristic:

One is the causal condition consciousness; the second is the experiential; mental events are experience, discrimination, and impulses. //9//

The receptacular consciousness is the causal condition for the other consciousnesses; therefore, it is called the causal condition consciousness. The active consciousnesses which are casually conditioned by that are called the experiential. Experience means sensation; discrimination means determination; impulses means the conditioners of consciousness, such as volition, attitude and so on.

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He states the affliction-characteristic:

The world is afflicted through concealing, conceiving, leading, grasping, being filled, threefold determining, experiencing, inducing, fixating, orienting, and suffering. //10-11ab//

The world is afflicted in the following ways: “through concealing” — through ignorance preventing one from seeing reality as it is; “through conceiving” — through conditioners planting the imprints of karma in consciousness; through “leading” — through being led by consciousness to attain the place of birth; “through grasping” the body as name and form; “through being filled” by the six media; “through threefold determining” by touch; “through experiencing” by sensation; “through inducing” by thirst rebirth, which is projected by karma; “through fixating” consciousness by means of appropriations on desire and so on, which are conducive to rebirth; “through orienting” — though being oriented by existence to the fruition in re-birth of the karma that one has done; “through suffering” due to old age and death.

And

Threefold, twofold and sevenfold affliction comes from the conceptual construction of the unreal. //11cd//

The threefold affliction means the affliction of affliction, the affliction of karma, and the affliction of birth. Concerning these, the affliction of affliction means ignorance, thirst and appropriation; the affliction of karma means conditioning and existence; the affliction of birth means the remaining members of the twelve links of interdependent origination. The twofold affliction means the causal affliction and the resultant affliction. Concerning these, the causal affliction is the affliction members and those members which are by nature karma. The resultant affliction is the rest. The sevenfold affliction means the seven kinds of causes. They are the cause of error, the projecting cause, the leading cause, the cause of grasping, the cause of experience, the inducing cause, and the agitating cause. Concerning these, the cause of error is ignorance; the projecting cause is the conditioners; the leading cause is consciousness; the cause of grasping is name and form and the six media; the cause of experience is contact and sensation; the inducing cause is thirst, appropriation and existence. The agitating cause is birth, old age and death. And all of these afflictions proceed from the conceptual construction of the unreal.

Thus, the ninefold characteristics of the conceptual construction of the unreal have been briefly elucidated. They are the real characteristic, the unreal characteristic, the intrinsic characteristic, the inclusive characteristic, the characteristic which is the method to become familiar with the unreal characteristic, the characteristics of its distinct aspects, the characteristics of its synonyms, the action-characteristic, and the affliction-characteristic.

Having explained the conceptual construction of the unreal, he now teaches how one should know emptiness.

Definition, synonyms, their meaning, classification and proof; this is in short what

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is to be known about emptiness. //12//

How should one conceive of the characteristic?

The definition of emptiness is that it is the non-existence of duality and the existence of that non-existence. //13ab//

The definition of emptiness is that it is the non-existence of the duality of object and subject and the existence of that non-existence. This shows that emptiness is defined as the presence (svabhàva) of absence.

And that which is this presence of absence is neither existence nor non-existence. 13c Why is it not existence? Because it is the non-existence of duality. Why is it not non-existence? Because it is the existence of that non-existence. This is the definition of emptiness.

Therefore, it is neither the same nor different than the conceptual construction of the unreal. 14d If it were distinct from the conceptual construction of the unreal then the thing’s nature (dharmatà) would be other than the thing, and this would not make sense. It should be like having the nature of suffering and impermanence which qualities are not other than the things that they qualify. If it were the same, then emptiness1 would not be purification’s meditative object, and it would not be a universal.2 This shows that one of its characteristics is to be devoid of either sameness or difference.

How should one conceive of the synonyms?

1 MVT (000) and MV-D (000): excl. jñàna.

2 MVT (38/213a) offers the following comments:

‘Purification’ is that by which one is purified; it is a meditative state (màrga). Since emptiness would not be different than the thing as a particular, emptiness would not be the meditative object (àlambana) of that meditative state, just as the thing as a particular is not the meditative object of that meditative state. Hence, emptiness could not be a universal because it would not be different than the particular. And like the unique essence (svaråpa) of the thing, the emptinesses of various things would be different from each other; thus, emptiness would lose its universality. Or, since the particular would not be different from the universal, emptiness, things’ unique essences would not be different.a Therefore, the universal also would not exist because a universal depends on difference. Or else, ‘purification’s meditative object’ means ‘a meditative object that is conducive to purification.’ But then one would taking a real thing in its particularity as the object of one’s meditation; a particular taken as an object of meditation is not conducive to purification because one would be forced to conclude that all beings would already be purified just by seeing the ordinary objects of their perceptions, which are particulars.

Someone objects, ‘If one cannot say that emptiness is either the same or different, then how is one not resorting to the theories of the Jains?’ The Jains supported a logic according to which contradiction and an excluded middle were considered reasonable under certain circumstances.

A person resorts to Jain philosophy when s/he does not determine an existent real thing to be either identical or different. But emptiness is not a real thing, so this critique does not apply. a no MV-D (000) excl -vad: dngos po’i rang gi ngo bo tha dad pa med do.

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In brief, the synonyms of emptiness are suchness, reality-limit, the signless, the ultimate and the reality-element (dharmadhàtu). //14//

How should one conceive of the meaning of the synonyms?

The respective meanings of the synonyms are the unchanging, the non-erroneous, the cessation of the signs, the object of the âryas, and the cause of the âryas’ qualities. //15//

“Suchness” means “the unchanging,” in the sense, “It is always only like that;” “the reality limit” means “the non-erroneous” because conceptual error is unreal. “The Signless” means “the cessation of signs” because all signs do not exist. Since it is the object of the âryas’ awareness, it is “the ultimate” because it is the object of the ultimate awareness. Since it causes the âryas qualities, it is “the reality element” because the âryas’ qualities occur on the basis of it. Here, “element” (dhàtu) means cause.

How should one understand the classifications of emptiness? As afflicted and pure— these are the classifications of emptiness.

In what state is it afflicted, and in what state is it pure? When it is defiled and undefiled. When it occurs with defilements, it is afflicted; when the defilements are eliminated, it is pure.

Someone objects, “But if it were defiled and then became pure, why would it not be impermanent? It should be impermanent because it is qualified by change?”

It is not thereby impermanent, since it is asserted to be pure just as the water-element, gold and space are pure. //16// Since only adventitious defilements are removed, there is no change in its nature.

There are other classifications of emptiness; they are the sixteen emptinesses. In brief, one should know them to be the following: inner emptiness, outer emptiness, inner-outer emptiness, great emptiness, emptiness of emptiness, ultimate emptiness, compounded emptiness, uncompounded emptiness, total emptiness, emptiness of the beginningless and endless, emptiness of the indestructible, emptiness of nature, emptiness of characteristic, emptiness of all things, non-existence emptiness, non-existence-presence emptiness.

There is emptiness of the experiencer, the experienced, their body, and the thing that is the location; there is also the emptiness of the purpose for which a Bodhisattva practices and the emptiness of that which sees the above to be empty and of the way in which they are seen. //17//

In this verse, emptiness of the experiencer means emptiness of the inner media; emptiness of the experienced means emptiness of the outer media. Their body means the body that is the locus of the experiencer and the experienced; its emptiness is called the inner-outer emptiness. The thing that is the location means the vessel-like world. Since it is vast, its emptiness is called the great emptiness. The emptiness of that knowledge of emptiness by means of which the inner media and so on are seen to be empty is the emptiness of emptiness. “The way in which it is seen to be empty” means

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that is seen to be empty in the form or image of an ultimate object; its emptiness is ultimate emptiness.3 There is also the emptiness of the purpose for which the Bodhisattva practices.

For what purpose does the Bodhisattva practice? In order to attain the two kinds of virtue—the compounded and uncompounded virtue—and

in order to aid beings always. That is, ‘utterly for the sake of helping beings.’ The Bodhisattva practices also so as not abandon saüsàra. In other words, not knowing that

saüsàra, which has neither beginning nor end, is empty, the Bodhisattva might become discouraged and abandon saüsàra.

And the Bodhisattva practices so that virtue might be indestructible. Here, the emptiness of that which is not destroyed, not eliminated, even in remainderless nirvàõa is called the emptiness of indestructible. And s/he practices for the purification of the gotra,4 which is one’s nature because it is innate. And she also practices to attain the marks and signs, i.e., the signs and marks of a great being. S/he also practices so as to purify the Buddha-qualities, which are the powers, skills, unique qualities, and so on. //19// One should know the above to be the definitions of the fourteen kinds of emptiness.

But what is emptiness?

Here, emptiness means the non-existence of the person and of things. The presence of that absence there is another emptiness. //20//

Emptiness is the non-existence of persons and things. The presence of that non-existence there, in the aforementioned experiencer and so on, is another emptiness. In order to present the characteristics of emptiness in this way, two kinds of emptiness are defined -- non-existence-emptiness and non-existence-presence emptiness. They are respectively for the sake of eliminating the reification of persons and things and the repudiation of their emptiness. One should know that 3 MVT (000) gives the following two interpretations of the emptiness of emptiness and ultimate emptiness:

When the yogi, a bodhisattva, conceptually considers with a proper outlook the above emptinesses of the four kinds of knowable real things, another apprehension of a sign occurs to her. Such a yogi has a awareness of emptiness by means of which the inner and outer media and so on are seen to be empty; the compulsive supposition of object and subject within that awareness of emptiness is conceptual (vikalpa). The image of an ultimate object which is that as which the awareness of emptiness sees the media and so on is also conceptual. In order to eliminate these two kinds of conceptuality which cause error at the yogic stage, the author, considering awareness and image to be inexpressible, (Tib. ma smros byas nas) speaks respectively of the emptiness of emptiness and ultimate emptiness. Or one may give the following interpretation. Since it has emptiness as its object, the awareness of emptiness is called ‘emptiness.’ Its emptiness of object and subject is the ‘emptiness of emptiness.’ The ultimate object is that as which the awareness of emptiness sees the internal and external media and so on. Its emptiness of an image of the ultimate object is the ultimate emptiness. Why? Because the ultimate is empty of the constructed nature.

4 Sometimes translated as “spiritual lineage” or “spiritual gene,” a persons gotra is that person’s innate capacity to realize (or not practice) one of the various effects of Buddhist practice.

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the above are the classifications of emptiness. How should one conceive of the proof?

If it were not afflicted, all beings would be free; if it did not become pure, effort would be fruitless. //21//

If the emptiness of things were not afflicted by temporary negative mental states when one did not yet have an antidote for them, then all beings would be effortlessly free because affliction would not exist. If it did not become pure when one applied the antidote, attempting to attain liberation would be fruitless.

That being the case, it is neither afflicted nor unafflicted; it is neither pure, nor impure. Why is it not afflicted nor impure? Because by nature the mind is luminous. Why is it neither unafflicted nor pure? Because one is temporarily afflicted by negative mental states. //22// The aforementioned classifications of emptiness are thus proven.

At this point, one should know the summary of emptiness to be its characteristics and definitions. “Its characteristics,” means its non-existence-characteristic and existence-characteristic. In addition, the existence-characteristic means its characteristic of being free of existence and non-existence and its characteristic of being free of identity and difference. One should know that its definitions means its synonyms, definitions and so on.

This fourfold discussion has presented the intrinsic characteristic, object-characteristic, afflicted and pure characteristic, and rational characteristic of emptiness. They are respectively for the purpose of eliminating conceptuality, fear, indolence and doubt.