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Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 68 (2014) 447–467

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Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology

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Toxic metals contained in cosmetics: A status report

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.02.0030273-2300/� 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

⇑ Corresponding author. Address: Italian National Institute for Health, Depart-ment of Environment and Primary Prevention, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome,Italy. Fax: +39 06 4990 2052.

E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Alimonti).

Beatrice Bocca, Anna Pino, Alessandro Alimonti ⇑, Giovanni ForteItalian National Institute for Health, Rome, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history:Received 16 December 2013Available online 12 February 2014

Keywords:MetalsCosmeticsDermal exposureSystemic effects

The persistence of metals in the environment and their natural occurrence in rocks, soil and water causethem to be present in the manufacture of pigments and other raw materials used in the cosmetic indus-try. Thus, people can be exposed to metals as trace contaminants in cosmetic products they daily use.Cosmetics may have multiple forms, uses and exposure scenarios, and metals contained in them cancause skin local problems but also systemic effects after their absorption via the skin or ingestion. Eventhis, cosmetics companies are not obliged to report on this kind of impurities and so consumers have noway of knowing about their own risk. This paper reviewed both the concentration of metals in differenttypes of cosmetics manufactured and sold worldwide and the data on metals’ dermal penetration andsystemic toxicology. The eight metals of concern for this review were antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), cad-mium (Cd), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni) and lead (Pb). This was because theyare banned as intentional ingredients in cosmetics, have draft limits as potential impurities in cosmeticsand are known as toxic.

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1. Introduction

Since the dawn of civilization cosmetics have constituted a partof routine body care not only by the upper strata of society but alsoby middle and low class people (Hall et al., 2007). Under theEuropean Council Directive 76/768/EEC, a cosmetic includes anysubstance or mixture of substances manufactured, sold or repre-sented for use in cleansing, improving or altering the skin, hair,lips, nails or teeth (EU, 1976). This definition includes a myriadof products used by men and women: skin-care creams, lotions,powders and sprays, perfumes, lipsticks, fingernail polishes, eyeand facial makeup, permanent waves, hair colors, deodorants, babyproducts, bath and shower oils and creams, toothpaste, sunscreens,etc. A personal care product use survey of more than 2300 people,performed in 2004, showed that the average adult uses nine per-sonal care products each day, with 126 unique chemical ingredi-ents (EWG, 2004). In 2006, the 27 EU countries consumed€ 63 billion of cosmetics, with the five major EU countries – France,Germany, Italy, Spain, and the UK – making up �70% of the totalmarket at retail sales prices. China is seen as the fastest growingmarket, with significant growth potential, partly because currentper capita spending on cosmetics is starting at a very low base

(COLIPA, 2005). As regards the importance of each product, toilet-ries, hair care, and skin care products each represent about 25% ofthe overall market in Europe, while fragrance perfumes are 15%and decorative cosmetics are 12%. Skin care has a decidedly moredominant market share in both Japan (40%) and China (39%), whilein the US, toiletries dominate the cosmetics market with a 32%share (COLIPA, 2005).

Up to the 1960s it was generally believed that cosmetics will al-ways remain on the surface of the body, and local effects were theprimary safety concern. Additional tools for cosmetic safety evalu-ation, as sensitization, phototoxicity, photosensitization and clini-cal safety tests, were developed in the 1960s and 1970s. Duringthe past decades it was recognized that some topically applied sub-stances may penetrate into or through human skin and producehuman systemic exposure; this prompted the development of testson the percutaneous penetration potential of cosmetic ingredientsas well as investigation of their potential systemic toxicity (Nohy-nek et al., 2010).

Cosmetics may have multiple exposure scenarios (Loretz et al.,2006, 2005). In some cases, cosmetics are rinsed-off shortly afterapplication (e.g., shampoos and toothpaste), but in other casesthe products are ‘‘leave-on’’ (e.g., body lotion, deodorant, lipsticks)and may remain in contact with the skin over several hours. Cos-metics as body emulsions may be applied over a large surface ofthe body with potential for much greater exposure. Some cosmeticproducts are applied via spray, presenting the possibility of inhala-tion. Products used around the eyes and genital regions may come

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448 B. Bocca et al. / Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 68 (2014) 447–467

into contact with the conjunctiva or mucosa respectively, resultingin reactions due to the thin epithelial lining of these areas. Lipsticksalso have the higher risk of direct oral ingestion, aggravating thenegative effects of their ingredients. Also sunscreens, due to theirextensive skin contact, combined with direct exposure to UV radi-ation for prolonged periods, require a distinct type of safetyevaluation.

According to the Article 2 of the Directive 76/768/EEC, cosmet-ics and their ingredients have to be safe under conditions of normaluse and must be thoroughly evaluated for their safety prior to theirmarketing. The Directive states that a cosmetic product should notproduce damage to human health and the manufacturer is respon-sible for the safety of cosmetic products placed on the market. Asafety assessment should be performed on finished products takinginto consideration the toxicological profile of the ingredients, theirchemical structure, and their potential to produce human local andpotential systemic effects. Guidance on the safety assessment ofthe cosmetic ingredients has been published by the EU ScientificCommittee on Consumers Products (SCCS, 2012).

The Annex II (‘‘List of substances which must not form part ofthe composition of cosmetic products’’) of the Directive lists morethan 1000 chemical substances which may not be used in cosmeticproducts, due to their toxicological properties. According to thisAnnex, several metals as antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), cadmium(Cd), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni) and lead(Pb) are prohibited ingredients in cosmetics because they are con-sidered unsafe. In July 2013, the Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009 hasreplaced the Directive 76/768/EEC in order to become uniformacross all Member States of the EU. Among the major changes inthe new Regulation text is included, for the first time, the safetyassessment of nanomaterials, as the influence of new technologicaladvances is increasingly felt in the cosmetics industry (EU, 2009).In September 2001, the Scientific Committee on Cosmetic Productsand Non-Food Products intended for Consumers (SCCNFP) issuedits first opinion on substances officially classified as carcinogenic,mutagenic or toxic to reproduction (CMR) and proposed the prohi-bition of the intentional use in cosmetic products of CMR sub-stances category 1 or 2 and substances with similar potentials(except substances only carcinogenic by inhalation) (SCCNFP,2001). The same was proposed for CMR category 3 substances un-less it could be demonstrated that their levels did not pose a threatto the health of the consumer.

The US Food Drug & Cosmetic Act definition of cosmetics issomewhat narrower than that in the EU, but certain products re-garded in the EU as cosmetics have been classified by the US FDAas Over-the-Counter drugs, including sunscreen products, anticav-ity toothpastes, antiperspirants, antidandruff preparations, skinprotectants and hair restorers (FDA, 2006a). The FDA has onlybanned 9 chemicals including only 1 toxic metal, namely the Hg(with the exception for its use as preservative in the eye area).For cosmetic colour additives, a maximum Pb concentration of20 lg/g have been established by the FDA (FDA, 2013, 2000). InCanada, regulation of the cosmetics industry is more stringent.The Health Canada sets out a list (the Cosmetic Ingredient Hotlist)of banned or limited ingredients in cosmetics, where some metalsas As, Sb, Cd, Pb, Cr and Hg (and its compounds) are banned (HC-SC, 2011). A number of countries and/or regions have used theEU model in drafting their own cosmetic regulations. These includethe Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), El MercadoComún del Sur of South America (Mercosur) and the ComunidadAndina (Andean Pact) regions (ASEAN, 2003; CA, 2002; EC, 2004).Other countries, including China, Algeria, India, Israel, Moroccoand Saudi Arabia, have reproduced certain features of the EU mod-el, particularly the definition of cosmetics and/or the lists of regu-lated ingredients. Cosmetic products in New Zealand are regulatedunder the Hazardous Substances and New Organisms (HSNO) Act

via the Cosmetic Products Group Standard and all heavy metalsare prohibited ingredients for use in cosmetics (HSNO, 1996). TheJapan cosmetic industry approved only those cosmetic ingredientsincluded in an official positive list (CLS = comprehensive licensingstandards of cosmetics by category) and between prohibited ingre-dients there are metals as Cd (and its compounds) and Hg (and itscompounds) (MHLW, 2000). In Korea, the Korean Food and DrugAdministration (KFDA) specified a list of banned (including As,Cd and Hg) and restricted substances and this list was fairly similarto the EU legislation (KFDA, 2003).

Most cosmetic ingredients are used in formulations at 1% orgreater, however, many ingredients are used in cosmetic productsat lower levels for various reasons or are carried into a product be-cause they are contaminants, byproducts of the manufacturingprocess, residual starting materials, processing aids or others. Gov-ernment and industry sources reveal 24 industrial chemicals orgroups of chemicals identified as potential impurities in a widerange of cosmetic products, with health concerns spanning cancer,neurotoxicity, and reproductive problems (CIR, 2003; FDA, 2000).

Undesired constituents that might enter the cosmetic processchain at same stage can be metals. For example, several ingredientsderived from plant sources, such as cottonseed oils and rice deriv-atives, may contain metals as Pb and Hg (EWG, 2007). Some metalsserve as colorants. For instance, Cr is used as a colorant in eye shad-ows and blushes. In addition, some color additives may be contam-inated by metals, such as D&C Red 6 which can be contaminated byAs, Pb and Hg (EWG, 2007). In order to provide a level of protectionfor consumers, some countries provided limits above which metalscan be considered ‘‘technically avoidable’’ in the manufacture of acosmetic. The German Federal Government conducted tests todetermine background levels of metal contents in various cosmeticproducts, and metal impurities were limited to anything abovenormal background levels. Based on their studies, it was deter-mined that metal levels as impurity in cosmetic products were5 lg/g for As and Cd, 1 lg/g for Hg, 20 lg/g for Pb and 10 lg/gfor Sb (BfR, 2006) In Canada, the Health Canada determined appro-priate limits for As, Cd and Hg (3 lg/g), for Pb (10 lg/g), and for Sb(5 lg/g) as impurities in cosmetic products. To determine thesevalues, the analysis of heavy metals on a number of cosmetics soldin Canada was performed in the Health Canada Product Safety Lab-oratory (HC-SC, 2012). With the reference to the USA, all coloradditives used in cosmetics must be approved by FDA. In additionto approval, a number of color additives must be batch certified byFDA if they are to be used in cosmetics marketed in the USA. Theregulations also specify for certain colors, the maximum permissi-ble concentration for constituents and contaminants in the fin-ished product (FDA, 2012). South Korea requires the analysis ofmetals in cosmetics and specified the following limitationsdepending on the product: Pb 620 lg/g in make-up products,eye make-up, shampoos, rinses and hair spray; As 65 lg/g forshampoos, rinses, hair sprays and 610 lg/g for make-up; Hg61 lg/g in basic skin care products and in baby care products(KFDA, 2003).

Nonetheless, there are scientific debates as to what constitute a‘‘safe’’ level. This is because some metals can build up in the bodyover time and are known to cause varied long-term health effectswhich can include cancer, reproductive and developmental andneurological disorders, cardiovascular, kidney and renal problems,lung damage, contact dermatitis, and brittle hair and hair loss.Many are suspected hormone disruptors and respiratory toxins.In particular, Co Cr and Ni, are potent skin sensitizers, while As,Cd, Hg, Pb and Sb are highly toxic with many long-term effects(Forte et al., 2008; Thyssen and Menné, 2010). So, there is differ-ence between what is ‘‘safe’’ and what is ‘‘technically avoidable’’.Because testing is voluntary and controlled by the manufacturers,many ingredients in cosmetics products are not safety tested at

B. Bocca et al. / Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 68 (2014) 447–467 449

all. The Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) panel, a self-policingindustry safety committee, reported that the 89% of 10,500 ingre-dients used in personal care products have not been evaluatedfor safety by the CIR or anyone else (CIR, 2003).

The safety assessment of metals in cosmetics should start fromthe knowledge of the type and concentration of ingredients con-tained in the product in order to evaluate their potential intrinsichazard. The present review was undertaken to assemble the liter-ature data on concentration levels of metals as As, Cd, Cr, Co, Hg,Ni, Pb and Sb in different cosmetics (body creams and lotions, faceand eye make-up products, products for lip, emulsions for shower,shampoos, nail polish, products for hair care, etc.) manufacturedand sold worldwide and to collect the information about both der-mal and systemic toxic effects of metals on humans. The eight met-als were selected because they are banned as intentionalingredients in cosmetics, have draft limits as potential impuritiesand are designed as of toxic and/or allergological concern.

This review collected publications over the period 1989–2013.Reviewing the literature, a total number of 46 papers regardingthe concentration of metals in cosmetic products were found.The majority of them (65.2%) analyzed more than one metal inmore than one kind of cosmetic. From 1989 till 2008 papers aboutmetals in cosmetics were rarely published (Fig. 1), while from 2009to 2013 the number of papers raised significantly with the largestamount of literature available in 2011. The category of productsanalyzed in the selected papers is also illustrated in Fig. 1. Cos-metic is a challenge matrix for metal analysis because it is consti-tuted by several ingredients including waxes, oils, dyes andpigments. The pigments also may include refractory minerals asalumina, silica, titanium dioxide and mica. The majority of paperspretreated the cosmetic matrix by digestion or calcination usingconcentrated acids (i.e., HNO3, HClO4, H2SO4 or HF) and high tem-peratures and pressures. Recurrently, the mineralization of sam-ples was obtained by the microwave digestion in Teflon bombs,but some studies also used the hot plate mineralization. As regardthe determination technique, authors used in prevalence theInductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry(ICP-OES), the Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry(ICP-MS) and the Flame and Electrothermal Atomic AbsorptionSpectrometry (F-AAS and ETA-AAS). The analysis of Hg was oftenperformed by the Cold Vapour (CV)-AAS while As is analyzed bythe Hydride Generation (HG)-AAS. Also the Instrumental NeutronActivation Analysis (INAA) or the Laser Induced Breakdown

Fig. 1. Papers over the years a

Spectroscopy (LIBS) were sometimes applied directly on solid cos-metics in order to avoid the laborious sample preparation proce-dures. The separation of Cr ion based on the Ion Chromatography(IC) or the High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) meth-ods is also popular.

Below are reported the results of the 46 selected papers in orderto generate concentration data for Sb, As, Cd, Cr, Co, Hg, Ni and Pbin different cosmetic product types. A summary of the dermal andsystemic effects for each metal was also included in order to pro-vide a starting point to evaluate the safety assessment for a partic-ular metal in a cosmetic product. The data hereafter presented inthis paper will be of value to regulatory agencies concerned withthe safety of cosmetic ingredients.

2. Antimony (Sb)

2.1. General information

Antimony enters the environment during the mining and pro-cessing of its ores and in the production of Sb metal, alloys, Sb-oxide, and combinations of Sb with other substances. Most Sb willend up in the soil or sediment, where it attaches strongly to parti-cles that contain iron, manganese, or aluminum (ATSDR, 1992). Byinhalation or ingestion, Sb can cause respiratory disorders (pneu-moconiosis, alterations in pulmonary function, bronchitis, emphy-sema, etc.) and gastrointestinal effects (abdominal pain, vomiting,diarrhea and ulcers) (ATSDR, 1992). The overall evaluation fromthe International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) is that Sbtrioxide is probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B); while Sbtrisulfide is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity (Group 3)(IARC, 1989). Exposure to Sb fumes from melting in the workplacehave been reported to cause dermatoses and skin lesions (Iavicoliet al., 2002; White et al., 1993). Dermal absorption of Sb has notbeen well studied; it has been proposed a percentage of absorptionof 0.26% of Sb trioxide through human skin by an in vitro percuta-neous study (Roper and Stupart, 2006). Antimony in the form ofsulfide was used in cosmetics such as rouge and black paint foreyebrows, and when Sb sulfide became scarce it was replaced byPb sulfide and Pb oxide (van der Krogt, 2003). Other Sb-compoundsare used in vermilion, yellow or blue pigments. The Regulation (EC)1223/2009 and the Directive 76/768/EEC banned Sb and its salts asintentional ingredients in cosmetics, but not as a product impurity(EU, 1976, 2009). Some countries (Germany and Canada) adopted

nd for cosmetics category.


national limits to define the maximum allowable amount of Sb asimpurity in cosmetics (5–10 lg/g) (BfR, 2006; HC-SC, 2012).

2.2. Levels in cosmetic products

Literature on the amount of Sb in cosmetic products is reportedin Table 1. Low levels (below 1 lg/g) of Sb were found in eye shad-ows by Sneyers et al. (2009). Also El-Shazly et al. (2004) found lowquantities of Sb in 17 eye shadows, with four samples ranged 0.11–0.24 lg/g and the others below the Limit of Detection (LoD) of0.002 lg/g, and in one eye pencil (<0.002 lg/g). Traces of Sb werealso present in skin creams ranged from 0.002 to 0.26 lg/g (Sney-ers et al., 2009; Grosser et al., 2011). Lipsticks seemed to contain Sbmore than other product categories (Sneyers et al., 2009; CPHR,2011) even if the lipsticks investigated by Al-Saleh and Al-Enazi(2011) contained generally below 0.5 lg/g of Sb. In particular,the Center for Public Health Research (CPHR) examined 373 lowcost lipsticks bought in 175 discount stores in New Zealand andfound that 354 samples had Sb up to 1 lg/g, 17 products from 2to 10 lg/g and 2 lipsticks had 34 and 94 lg/g, respectively (CPHR,2011). The same study tested the leachable Sb fraction from lip-sticks, which represents the bioavailable amount of the total Sb,and it was always below 1 lg/g (CPHR, 2011). Samples producedin Egypt indicated in only one sample of compact facial powderan amount of Sb relatively high (5.36 lg/g) (El-Shazly et al.,2004). Low levels of Sb were contained in cosmetics produced inJapan as bronzing face powders (<0.46 lg/g) and soaps(<0.177 lg/g) (Sneyers et al., 2009). Kohl samples (branded and un-branded) collected in six regions of Saudi Arabia showed the high-est Sb concentrations ranging 0.012–0.21% and these levelssupported the evidence that earlier types of kohl contained Sb sul-fide (Al-Ashban et al., 2004).

3. Arsenic (As)


Arsenic is used in various products including textiles, preserva-tive and pigments and released into the environment throughweathering, coal burning, smelting, use of pesticides, etc. (ATSDR,2007a). Long-term exposure through inhalation includes some skineffects, circulatory and peripheral nervous disorders, an increasedrisk of lung cancer, and a possible increase in the risk of gastroin-testinal tract and the urinary system cancers (ATSDR, 2007a). The

Table 1Levels of Sb (lg/g) in cosmetic products.

Cosmetic Producer Samples Co

Eye pencil nr 1 <0Eye shadow Germany, The Netherlands, UK 3 0.1

nr 17 <0Kohl India, Iran, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia 107 12Lipstick nr 373 <1

China, France 3 0.1Canada, China, France, Italy, Korea, UK, USA, nr 28 0.0

Make-up powder Egypt 9 0.7Japan 2 0.1

Skin cream France, Japan, Monaco 4 0.0nr 3 0.0

Soap Japan 2 0.0

nr = not reported.MW = microwave.INAA = Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis.DRC-ICP-MS = Dynamic Reaction Cell Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.EDX-FS = Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry.Z-ETA-AAS = Zeeman Electrothermal Atomization Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.HG-AAS = Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.

majority of As enters the body in the As(III) form; while only asmall amount of As(V) crossed cell membranes via an energy-dependent transport system, and then it is immediately reducedto As(III) (Jomova et al., 2011). The IARC has classified inorganicAs as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1); dimethylarsinic acidand monomethylarsonic acid as possibly carcinogenic to humans(Group 2B); arsenobetaine and other organic As-compounds asnot classifiable respect to their carcinogenicity to humans (Group3) (IARC, 2012). Arsenic has a pronounced affinity for skin and ker-atinizing structures as hair and nails, and adverse effects can in-clude a variety of skin eruptions, alopecia and striation of thenails but also skin cancer (Guy et al., 1999). Dermal uptake is ex-pected to be very limited as showed in one study where dermalexposure to As may contribute less than 1% of the exposure fromingestion (EARAE, 2003). The research in estimating the magnitudeof As skin absorption started in 1990s. Several studies on percuta-neous absorption in vivo and in vitro were carried out using Ascompounds and the absorption percentages went from <2% to6.4% for As in water and from <1% to 4.5% for As in soil (Hugheset al., 1995; Lowney et al., 2005; Rahman et al., 1994; Westeret al., 2004; Wester et al., 1993). Current guidance from US EPArecommends the use of an absorption percentage of 3% for dermalabsorption of As from soil (EPA, 2004a). Anyway, another paperestimated the bioavailability of soluble As for dermal absorptionby the sweat extraction technique and it resulted to be the 1.8%suggesting that the actual relative bioavailability may be well be-low the value used by US EPA (Nico et al., 2006). The presence ofAs and its salts in cosmetics is banned by the EU legislations asintentional cosmetic ingredient, and Canada and Germany set thevalues of 3 and 5 lg/g, respectively, for As impurity in cosmetics(BfR, 2006; HC-SC, 2012).


Arsenic concentrations contained in various beauty productsare summarized in Table 2. In eye make-up products, low As levelswere observed and concentrations never exceeded the limits sug-gested for impurities (El-Shazly et al., 2004; Sainio et al., 2000;Sneyers et al., 2009). In particular, El-Shazly et al. (2004) found thismetal in eye shadows from different origins (imported or made inEgypt) below 0.0015 lg/g in 13 eye shadows and from 0.37 to0.46 lg/g in four samples. Sainio et al. (2000) analyzed 88 eye sha-dow colours and found 10 samples containing As between 0.3 and1 lg/g and five products more than 1 lg/g of As (with a maximumpeak of 2.3 lg/g). Also in products for hair (shampoo, hair condi-

ncentration Treatment Technique References

.002 Solid INAA El-Shazly et al. (2004)57–0.76 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)

.002–0.24 Solid INAA El-Shazly et al. (2004)0–2100 nr EDX-FS/Z-ETA-AAS Al-Ashban et al. (2004)–94 nr nr CPHR (2011)7–3.28 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)08–0.39 Wet HG-AAS Al-Saleh and Al-Enazi (2011)6–5.36 Solid INAA El-Shazly et al. (2004)79; 0.46 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)134–0.265 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)0187–0.012 MW DRC-ICP-MS Grosser et al. (2011)58; 0.177 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)


tioner and hair gel) and for shower (oil and milk) As was found attrace level (Lavilla et al., 2009). Arsenic in lipsticks showed verylow levels in three different studies, minimizing the possible expo-sure scenario (Grosser et al., 2011; Sneyers et al., 2009). Similarlow values were found by Al-Saleh and Al-Enazi (2011) withthe exception of one chocolate colored product (6.52 lg/g). Onthe contrary, higher values were reported in lipsticks tested bythe CPHR in New Zealand, 68 of them containing As from 1.1 to5 lg/g and 18 products between 5.1 and 9.0 lg/g, but all the lip-sticks did not have detectable leachable As (CPHR, 2011). In facialmake-up powders, only occasional samples exceeded the limits forimpurities, namely one powder produced in Egypt (3.40 lg/g) andone coming from the Asian market (10 lg/g) (El-Shazly et al., 2004;Sneyers et al., 2009). Grosser et al. (2011) analyzing six nail pol-ishes of different brands (from blue to pink and red colors) foundsmall amounts of As (<2 lg/g). A very low level of As (<0.5 lg/g)was observed in skin creams by some authors (Grosser et al.,2011; Sneyers et al., 2009), while As was higher in 34 skin-whiten-ing creams acquired on the local market of Saudi Arabia. In fact, 19skin-lightening creams ranged 3.09–15.36 lg/g and these sampleswere over the permissible limits. (Alqadami et al., 2013). The Envi-ronmental Defence of Canada performed the analysis of heavymetals, including As, in 49 different make-up products (foundation,concealer, blush, mascara, eye liners, eye shadows, lip glosses).Twenty of them were manufactured in the US, 10 in Europe, 4 inCanada, and 1 in Korea. None of the metals were listed on the prod-uct label. Results indicated that the 20% of cosmetics contained Asin a range of 1.2–70 lg/g with a mean of 1.8 lg/g. The highest con-centrations of 70 and 12 lg/g were found in a lip gloss and in a redlip tint, respectively, and these samples were above the nationalpermissible limit (ED, 2011). All of the different cosmetics (lip-sticks, lip glosses, skin whitening creams) sold in Nigeria containedAs but concentrations were below 0.031 lg/g (Adepoju-Bello et al.,2012).

4. Cadmium (Cd)


Cadmium is refined and consumed for use in batteries, pig-ments, coatings and platings, stabilizers for plastics, and nonfer-rous alloys, photovoltaic devices and other (ATSDR, 2012). Eatinglower levels of Cd over a long period of time can lead to a build-up of the metal in the kidneys, with possible damages. Chronicexposure to low levels of Cd can also cause bones to become fragileand break easily. The IARC classified Cd and its compounds as car-cinogenic to humans (Group 1) (IARC, 1993.). This evaluation wasbased on the carcinogenic effects in the lungs after inhalation,but tumors have also been observed in other organs (prostateand kidney). The use of Cd in cosmetics products is due to its colorproperty and it has been used as a color pigment in many indus-tries (Godt et al., 2006). The Cd sulfide is used for the yellow color,while, by adding increasing amounts of selenium, colors rangingfrom orange to practically black (the color of Cd selenide) can beproduced. Cadmium yellow is sometimes mixed with viridian(Cr(III)oxide) to give a light green mixture called cadmium green.Though the presence of Cd in cosmetic samples can be in traceamount (Lavilla et al., 2009) and the absorption through the skinis not a significant route of Cd entry, the slow release of Cd maycause harmful effects to the human body. Wester et al. (1992)determined the in vitro percutaneous absorption of Cd as the chlo-ride salt from soil and water, using human skin, and found a plas-ma uptake of 0.01% from soil and of 0.07% from water. After thedaily administration of a Cd chloride solution to the shaved skinof rats and mice for 10 days, the skin showed hyperkeratosis and

acanthosis with occasional ulcerative changes and the percutane-ous absorption was proved by the Cd increased concentration inblood, liver and kidney (Lansdown and Sampson, 1996). Lesionson the skin and tumors in the scrotum in the rats following dermalapplication of Cd were observed; two possible mechanisms facili-tating Cd absorption through the skin were suggested: binding offree Cd ions to sulfhydryl radicals of cysteine in epidermal keratinsor induction and complexing with metallothionein (Fasanya-Odewumi et al., 1998). The EU banned Cd and its compounds asintentional ingredients in cosmetics. Canada set the maximumamount allowable for Cd as impurity in cosmetics at 3 lg/g, whileGermany at 5 lg/g (BfR, 2006; HC-SC, 2012).


Table 3 summarizes the literature on Cd levels in cosmeticproducts. In eye shadows Cd levels were variable, from traces(0.0006 lg/g) (Volpe et al., 2012) to high concentrations (8.89lg/g) (Omolaoye et al., 2010). In products available in Nigeria,locally produced or imported, as eye liners and eye pencils Cdwas at maximum equal to 1.8 lg/g (Nnorom et al., 2005). High lev-els of Cd were found in 48 hair pomades used by Ghanaian femalesand the measured mean concentrations (mean, 5.697 lg/g) ex-poses consumers to health risks (Amartey et al., 2011). Petrolatum,the main ingredient of hair creams could be responsible for thehigh concentration of Cd in this kind of cosmetic (Stigter et al.,2000). Anyway, for hair creams purchased in Nigeria Ayenimoet al. (2010) found a lower quantity of Cd (mean, 0.553 lg/g). Lip-sticks or lip gloss tested in some manuscripts did not contain rele-vant levels of Cd (Adepoju-Bello et al., 2012; Al-Saleh and Al-Enazi,2011; Grosser et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2013; Nnorom et al., 2005),while in other studies these products can significantly contributeto the consumers’ exposure to the metal (CPHR, 2011; Gondalet al., 2010). In fact, Gondal et al. (2010) found high concentrations(from ca. 5 lg/g to ca. 10 lg/g) in both unbranded (low cost sam-ples from China and India) and branded lipsticks. The CPHR ofNew Zealand found 50 lipsticks in the range 0.1–1.0 lg/g, 36 from1.1 to 110.0 lg/g and 8 in the range 400–3390 lg/g. Moreover,some lipsticks showed a leachable Cd concentration from 0.1 to4.0 lg/g (CPHR, 2011). Low levels of Cd (maximum, 1.33 lg/g)were found in skin creams analyzed by several authors (Adepoju-Bello et al., 2012; Ayenimo et al., 2010; Bocca et al., 2007; Chauhanet al., 2010; Grosser et al., 2011; Onwordi et al., 2011). Also, all the34 whitening creams sold in Saudi Arabia were found of no con-cern, except for 1 sample contained Cd (5.22 lg/g) higher thanthe permissible limits fixed in Germany or in Canada (Alqadamiet al., 2013). Cadmium displayed very low concentrations or alsobelow the LoD of 0.002 lg/g in other cosmetics as shampoo, soaps,hair conditioner, hair gel, shower body emulsions, nail polish andtalcum (Ayenimo et al., 2010; Lavilla et al., 2009; Chauhan et al.,2010; Grosser et al., 2011). In 49 types of make-up products(including foundation, concealers, powders, blushes or bronzes,mascara, eye liners, eye shadows and lipstick or glosses), Cd wascontained in the 51% of samples and it was in the range <LoD-3 lg/g with a mean of 0.3 lg/g; one lip gloss had 3.0 lg/g andone eye liner contained 2.9 lg/g but they did not exceed the Can-ada’s draft impurity limit for Cd (ED, 2011).

5. Chromium (Cr)


Chromium exists in two valence states Cr(III) and Cr(VI). Theformer is an essential nutrient required for normal energy metab-olism while Cr(VI) is not naturally occurring in the environment


and it is highly toxic for human health. Both Cr(VI) and Cr(III) havebeen found in dyes and paint pigments, leather tanning and textileindustries, cement and wood preserving (ATDSR, 2008). The IARCclassified Cr(VI) compounds as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1)while metallic Cr and Cr(III) compounds were not classifiable ashuman carcinogens due to inadequate evidence in humans (Group3) (IARC, 1990). Both Cr(III) and Cr(VI) oxidation states can act aspotential haptens in the development of contact allergy (Iyeret al., 2002; Thyssen et al., 2007). The potassium dichromate wasshown to be one of the strongest sensitizer in different studies(Machovcova et al., 2005; Sharma and Chakrabarti, 1998). In Eur-ope, the 5.1% of cases of Cr contact allergy has been reported withan increasing prevalence with age and in males respect to females(Aguilar-Bernier et al., 2012; Uter et al., 2012). Regarding the der-mal absorption, more than one author demonstrated that Cr(VI)permeated the skin to a larger extent than Cr(III) because of thehigher solubility (Gammelgaard et al., 1992; Larese et al., 2007;Van Lierde et al., 2006). Other variables as time of contact, syn-thetic sweat at low pH and the use of a cleanser might induce ahigher Cr permeation through the skin (Larese Filon et al., 2008).Another study suggested that, independently of the contact time,the chromium oxide might dissolve into ions in less than 4 h(Contado and Pagnoni, 2012). A study showed that the exposureof consumer’s skin to cosmetics containing Cr from 0.1 to 3.2 lg/g (and assuming that all the Cr quantified was the hexavalentform) was between 0.0002 lg/cm2 and 0.003 lg/cm2, much lower

Table 2Levels of As (lg/g) in cosmetic products.

Cosmetic Producer Samples

Eye pencil nr 1

Eye shadow Germany, TheNetherlands, UK

3

nr 17

nr 88

Hair conditioner nr 1Hair gel nr 1Lipstick nr 373

China, France 3nr 12Canada, China, France,Italy, Korea, UK, USA, nr

28

Make-up powder Egypt 9

Japan 2Nail polish nr 6Shampoo nr 2Shower body milk nr 1Shower body oil nr 1Skin cream France, Japan, Monaco 4

nr 34

nr 3Soap Japan 2VariousFoundation/concealer/powder/blushes or

bronzes/mascara/eye liner/eye shadow/lipstick or gloss

Canada, Europe, Korea,USA

49

Lipgloss/lipstick/skin cream nr 50

nr = not reported.LoD = Limit of Detection not reported by the authors.MW = microwave.INAA = Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis.DRC-ICP-MS = Dynamic Reaction Cell Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.Z-ETA-AAS = Zeeman Electrothermal Atomization Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.ICP-MS = Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.ICP-OES = Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry.HG-AAS = Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.

than the Cr(VI) value of human No Observed Effect Level (NOEL),namely 1 lg/cm2 (Hwang et al., 2009). A detergent bar containing40–50 lg/g of Cr(III) did not elicit any allergic contact dermatitis(ACD) even in individuals known to be Cr-sensitive, while Cr(VI)(as potassium dichromate) did elicit ACD in these subjects (Iyeret al., 2002). Allenby and Goodwin (1983) found that the minimaleliciting threshold (MET, minimal concentration of Cr(VI) thatgives a positive patch test in an individual) for Cr(VI) ranged from1770 to 9 lg/g. The same authors reported that 36% of the patientsreacted to a Cr(III) concentration equal to or below of 8850 lg/gand 64% of the patients did not react to Cr(III) at a concentrationof 17,700 lg/g. In another dose–response study performed byKosann et al. (1998), the MET concentrations ranged from885 lg/g Cr(VI) to 28 lg/g Cr(VI), whereas the highest concentra-tion of 1770 lg/g of Cr(III) did not give reactions.

A review including six Cr(VI) dose–response studies concludedthat the 10% of chromium-allergic patients will react to 7–44 lg/g Cr(VI) (corresponding to 0.35–0.9 lg/cm2/48 h) when patchtested (Hansen et al., 2002).

The Cr(III)oxide green and Cr(III)hydroxide green are allowed(Annex IV of the EU Directive) for use as colorants in cosmeticproducts. However, these coloring agents may contain Cr(VI) thatis strictly prohibited in cosmetics sold in EU (Annex II) (EU, 1976,2009). Moreover, differently from other metals, Cr is not limitedas a cosmetic’s impurity. It is, however, widely accepted that whenconsumer products contained a concentration equal or less than

Concentration Treatment Technique References

<0.0015 Solid INAA El-Shazly et al.(2004)

0.181–1.58 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)

<0.0015–0.46 Solid INAA El-Shazly et al.(2004)

<0.3–2.3 Wet Z-ETA-AAS Sainio et al. (2000)

<0.01 MW ICP-MS/ICP-OES Lavilla et al. (2009)<0.01 MW ICP-MS/ICP-OES Lavilla et al. (2009)<0.5–9.0 nr nr CPHR (2011)0.02–0.0215 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)0.0571–0.828 MW DRC-ICP-MS Grosser et al. (2011)0.17–6.52 Wet HG-AAS Al-Saleh and Al-Enazi

(2011)1.86–3.40 Solid INAA El-Shazly et al.

(2004)2.52; 10.0 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)<0.014–1.91 MW DRC-ICP-MS Grosser et al. (2011)0.087; 0.252 MW ICP-MS/ICP-OES Lavilla et al. (2009)0.014 MW ICP-MS/ICP-OES Lavilla et al. (2009)<0.01 MW ICP-MS/ICP-OES Lavilla et al. (2009)0.027–0.444 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)<2.4 ng/ml-15.36 MW ICP-OES Alqadami et al.

(2013)<0.014–0.0128 MW DRC-ICP-MS Grosser et al. (2011)<0.5; < 4 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)

<LoD-70 MW ICP-OES/ICP-MS ED (2011)

0.006–0.031 MW HG-AAS Adepoju-Bello et al.(2012)


1 lg/g of Cr, the elicitation of ACD was highly improbable and therisk of the induction of sensitization was even lower (Basketteret al., 2003).


Table 4 shows values referring to total Cr found in different cos-metic products. With reference to eye shadows, Sainio et al. (2000)found very high concentration (from 2370 to 5470 lg/g) of Cr insome samples, and, in others, quantities varied from a minimum

Table 3Levels of Cd (lg/g) in cosmetic products.

Cosmetic Producer Samples Co

Eye liner nr nr 0.Eye pencil nr nr 0.Eye shadow China, Italy, USA 20 0.

China 20 <L

Hair conditioner nr 1 <0Hair cream nr 48 4.

nr 13 0.

Hair gel nr 1 <0Lip gloss nr 24 <0Lipstick nr nr 0.

China, India, nr 4 4.nr 12 0.nr 373 <Lnr 8 <0Canada, China,France, Italy, Korea,USA, UK

28 0.

Nail polish nr 6 0.Shampoo nr 2 <0

nr 15 0.

Shower body milk nr 1 <0Shower body oil nr 1 <0Skin cream France, Italy,

Switzerland, USA11 0.

nr 34 <0

nr 15 <L

nr 3 0.nr 23 0.

nr 15 0.

Soap nr 38 <L

nr 15 0.

Talcum powder nr 15 0.

VariousFoundation/concealer/powder/blushes or


Canada, Europe,Korea, USA

49 <L

Lipgloss/lipstick/skin cream nr 50 0.

nr = not reported.LoD = Limit of Detection not reported by the authors.MW = microwave.SF-ICP-MS = Sector Field Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.FAAS = Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.ETA-AAS = Electrothermal Atomization Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.DRC-ICP-MS = Dynamic Reaction Cell Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.AAS = Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.Q-ICP-MS = Quadrupole Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.ICP-MS = Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.LIBS = Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy.ICP-OES = Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry.Z-ETA-AAS = Zeeman Electrothermal Atomization Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.

of 0.3 lg/g to a maximum of 238 lg/g. Almost all the eye shadows(26 out of 29 tested) present in toy make-up kits contained Cr atlevels above 10 lg/g with a maximum of 3620 lg/g (Corazzaet al., 2009). These items are applied on the thin skin of children’sfaces and stay on for variable periods often as long as real cosmetics.Similarly, eye shadows imported in the Egyptian market containedvery high amounts of Cr (16.05–29,800 lg/g); the same authorsfound elevated Cr also in Egyptian locally-made products as facepowders (2.94–22.65 lg/g) (El-Shazly et al., 2004). Again, high Crconcentrations with values up to 150 lg/g were found in 20

ncentration Treatment Technique References

3–1.8 Wet FAAS Nnorom et al. (2005)5–1.1 Wet FAAS Nnorom et al. (2005)0006–0.033 MW Q-ICP-MS Volpe et al. (2012)oD-8.89 Wet FAAS Omolaoye et al.

(2010).002 MW ETA-AAS/ICP-MS Lavilla et al. (2009)

200–6.800 MW FAAS Amartey et al.(2011)

279–0.781 Wet FAAS Ayenimo et al.(2010)

.002 MW ETA-AAS/ICP-MS Lavilla et al. (2009)

.002–3.48 Wet ICP-OES Liu et al. (2013)5–2.4 Wet FAAS Nnorom et al. (2005)9–10.6 Solid/wet LIBS/ICP-OES Gondal et al. (2010)00595–0.139 MW DRC-ICP-MS Grosser et al. (2011)oD-3390 nr nr CPHR (2011).002–2.16 Wet ICP-OES Liu et al. (2013)

004–0.08 Wet Z-ETA-AAS Al-Saleh andAl-Enazi (2011)

0110–0.0832 MW DRC-ICP-MS Grosser et al. (2011).002 MW ETA-AAS/ICP-MS Lavilla et al. (2009)

033–0.042 Wet AAS Chauhan et al.(2010)

.002 MW ETA-AAS/ICP-MS Lavilla et al. (2009)

.002 MW ETA-AAS/ICP-MS Lavilla et al. (2009)00012–0.00511 MW SF-ICP-MS Bocca et al. (2007)

.3 ng/ml-5.22 MW ICP-OES Alqadami et al.(2013)

oD-1.33 Wet FAAS Onwordi et al.(2011)

00194–0.00318 MW DRC-ICP-MS Grosser et al. (2011)016–0.361 Wet FAAS Ayenimo et al.

(2010)012–0.032 Wet AAS Chauhan et al.,

(2010)oD-0.440 Dry FAAS Ayenimo et al.

(2010)03–0.04 Wet AAS Chauhan et al.

(2010)01–0.02 Wet AAS Chauhan et al.

(2010)

oD-3 MW ICP-OES/ICP-MS ED (2011)

023–0.203 Wet AAS Adepoju-Bello et al.(2012)

Table 4Levels of total Cr (lg/g) in cosmetic products.

Cosmetic Producer Samples Concentration Treatment Technique References

Eye liner nr nr 33.5–43.1 Wet FAAS Nnorom et al. (2005)Eye pencil nr nr 25.8–64.3 Wet FAAS Nnorom et al. (2005)

nr 1 <0.45 Solid INAA El-Shazly et al. (2004)Eye shadow China, Italy, USA 20 0.015–0.287 MW Q-ICP-MS Volpe et al. (2012)

nr 29 1.61–3620 MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009)China 20 <LoD-150 Wet FAAS Omolaoye et al. (2010)China, Italy 14 2.9–149,500 MW ICP/OES/Z-ETA-AAS Contado and Pagnoni

(2012)nr 88 0.3–5470 Wet Z-ETA-AAS Sainio et al. (2000)Germany, The Netherlands, UK 3 3.24–15.3 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)nr 17 16.05–29,800 Solid INAA El-Shazly et al. (2004)

Face paint China, Spain, UK, USA 10 1.6–120 Wet ICP-OES CSF (2009)Hair conditioner nr 1 0.058 MW ETA-AAS/ICP/OES/

ICP-MSLavilla et al. (2009)

Hair cream nr 48 <0.001 MW FAAS Amartey et al. (2011)nr 13 0.013–0.426 Wet FAAS Ayenimo et al. (2010)

Hair gel nr 1 0.042 MW ETA-AAS/ICP/OES/ICP-MS

Lavilla et al. (2009)

Lip balm nr 1 0.6 MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009)Lip gloss nr 15 <0.1–5.48 MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009)

nr 24 <0.005–7.84 Wet ICP-OES Liu et al. (2013)Lip pencil nr 1 1.69 MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009)Lipstick nr 5 1.1–5.05 MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009)

nr nr 20.5–58.8 Wet FAAS Nnorom et al. (2005)China, India, nr 4 9.3–40.8 Solid/wet LIBS/ICP-OES Gondal et al. (2010)nr 12 0.226–93.3 MW DRC-ICP-MS Grosser et al. (2011)nr 373 0.2–230 nr nr CPHR (2011)China, France 3 0.52–3.07 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)nr 8 <0.005–9.72 Wet ICP-OES Liu et al. (2013)Canada, China, France, Italy, Korea,USA, UK

28 0.17–16.54 Wet Z-ETA-AAS Al-Saleh and Al-Enazi(2011)

Make-up powder Egypt 9 2.94–22.65 Solid INAA El-Shazly et al. (2004)Japan 2 <3; 46.1 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)

Nail polish nr 6 0.800–10.9 MW DRC-ICP-MS Grosser et al. (2011)nr 1 <1 MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009)

Shampoo nr 2 0.17; 0.389 MW ETA-AAS/ICP/OES/ICP-MS


Shower body milk nr 1 0.088 MW ETA-AAS/ICP/OES/ICP-MS


Shower body oil nr 1 0.069 MW ETA-AAS/ICP/OES/ICP-MS


Skin cream France, Italy, Switzerland, USA 11 0.0168–0.303 MW SF-ICP-MS Bocca et al. (2007)nr 3 <0.00867–0.08 MW DRC-ICP-MS Grosser et al. (2011)nr 23 0.027–0.474 Wet FAAS Ayenimo et al. (2010)France, Japan, Monaco 4 0.72–2.16 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)

Skin emulsions (creams, lotion,jelly)

Africa, Asia, Europe, Nigeria, USA 80 <LoD-0.097 mg/L

Wet FAAS Oyedeji et al. (2011)

Soap nr 38 0.01–0.392 Dry FAAS Ayenimo et al. (2010)Japan 2 <0.15;< 5 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)

nr = not reported.LoD = Limit of Detection not reported by the authors.MW = microwave.SF-ICP-MS = Sector Field Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.DRC-ICP-MS = Dynamic Reaction Cell Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.FAAS = Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.INAA = Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis.AAS = Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.Q-ICP-MS = Quadrupole Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.Z-ETA-AAS = Zeeman Electrothermal Atomization Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.ICP-OES = Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry.ICP-MS = Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.LIBS = Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy.


Chinese eye shadows imported in Nigeria (Omolaoye et al., 2010).In the work of Contado and Pagnoni (2012) Cr concentrations in14 eye shadows were higher than 5 lg/g up to extreme case (agreen color) of 150 mg/g, roughly 1000 times higher than the othervalues. The color of this eye shadow was a vivid green very close toCr2O3 powder, a pigment (CI 77288) listed among the ingredients inthe label. The same study indicated that the Italian samples (5 eyeshadows above 250 lg/g) were generally much higher in Cr respectto the Chinese items (7 products below 40 lg/g) (Contado andPagnoni, 2012). Relevant Cr levels (3.24–15.3 lg/g) were also found

in eye shadows of European origin (Sneyers et al., 2009). These highvalues of Cr encountered in eye shadows indicated thatCr-compounds have been intentionally added to the raw materialsto mainly obtain shades of green; this fact could be considered as apossible hazard for human health. Only one paper for productsmade in Italy and US reported safe levels of Cr in eye shadows(<0.3 lg/g) (Volpe et al., 2012). High levels of Cr were found in otherproducts for eyes as eye liners (geometric mean, 37.6 lg/g) and eyepencils (geometric mean, 39.9 lg/g) available on the Nigerian mar-ket (Nnorom et al., 2005). Chromium was quantified in 5 face paints


used by children and adults for theatre, fairs and/or carnivals, sam-pled in US, China and Spain, and 2 of them had Cr at level of 2 lg/g, 2at level of 15 lg/g and 1 contained 120 lg/g rising problem to thehealth by both dermal absorption and ingestion (CSF, 2009). Asregard cosmetics for lips, Gondal et al. (2010) quantified Cr in 4lipsticks of different quality (2 low cost samples made in Chinaand India and 2 branded samples) and found the highest concentra-tion (40 lg/g) in one Chinese sample that was the cheapest pricedlipstick. This high concentration of Cr in lipstick can be due to theuse of lead chromate as pigment in the lipstick production process.Grosser et al. (2011) on a total of 12 lipsticks tested, found Cr from1–10 lg/g in 6 samples and at 18.7 and 93.3 lg/g in other 2 sam-ples. Nnorom et al. (2005) found a geometric mean of 30.4 lg/g inlipsticks purchased in Nigeria. A New Zealand survey on lipsticksreported that 201 (out of 373 sampled) contained Cr between LoD(0.2 lg/g) and 5 lg/g, while 133 samples exceeded 5 lg/g and 8of them were in the range of 100–230 lg/g. Despite these high Crcontents, only a small quantity of lipsticks (3 samples) had leach-able Cr fraction that was considered as the most important for pub-lic health significance because it represents the bioavailable part ofthe total Cr (CPHR, 2011). The lip samples (lipsticks and glosses)investigated by Liu et al. (2013) contained relatively high contentof Cr. In fact, the 69% of the products contained the metal at levelsabove the 1 ppm dermatological safe limit. In addition, the sameauthors estimated that the Cr intake from 10 (31%) and 22 (68%)out of 32 samples exceeded the acceptable daily intake based onthe average (24 mg/day) and high use (87 mg/day) daily rate,respectively. Low levels of Cr were found by Al-Saleh and Al-Enazi(2011) in lipsticks; the median resulted to be 0.33 lg/g althoughone sample contained 16.5 lg/g of Cr. This high value was foundin a sample of color chocolate and of unknown origin. In toy lip-sticks or lip gloss used by children, Corazza et al. (2009) found 8products containing Cr in the range 1–10 lg/g. In other lipsticksproduced both in China and in France, Cr values were a little bitlower (63 lg/g) (Sneyers et al., 2009). In other cosmetics as sham-poo, hair conditioner, hair cream/gel, shower emulsions and soapslevels of Cr were very low (60.4 lg/g) (Amartey et al., 2011;Ayenimo et al., 2010; Lavilla et al., 2009). Also in the case of skincreams and skin emulsions most of the published studies reportedlow level of Cr (<0.5 lg/g) (Ayenimo et al., 2010; Bocca et al., 2007;Grosser et al., 2011; Oyedeji et al., 2011), with the exception of onestudy that found slightly higher levels (0.72–2.16 lg/g) (Sneyerset al., 2009). Results on 6 colored nail polishes of different brandsshowed that 4 samples had Cr below 3 lg/g, the other two con-tained 6.58 and 10.9 lg/g (Grosser et al., 2011) and these valuesmight be of concern when nails are bitten or chewed and the polishingested. Also Corazza et al. (2009) investigated one nail polish forchildren, but in this case the level was below 1 lg/g.

Being Cr(VI) salts possible contaminants of the Cr(III) pigmentsused as colorants in eye shadow preparations, some authors hadcarried out the quantification of Cr(VI) (Table 5). In fact, althoughthe amount of Cr(VI) represents a small part of the total Cr, it isresponsible of skin allergies and is highly toxic for human health.

Table 5Levels of Cr (VI) (mg/L) in cosmetic products.

Cosmetic Producer Samples Concentration Extraction

Colouring agent nr 6 0.165–97.6 Water solution ofEye shadow nr 22 <0.0001–1.278 Water solution of

nr 34 <0.25–318 lg/g Water

Henna dye nr 15 <0.1 nr

nr = not reported.IC = Ion Chromatography.Z-ETA-AAS = Zeeman Electrothermal Atomization Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.HPLC = High-performance Liquid Chromatography.

After water extraction, 21 eye shadows contained Cr(VI) underthe LoD (0.25 lg/g), 9 samples <5 lg/g, 3 had approximately10 lg/g of the metal and in one product the amount of Cr(VI)was 318 lg/g (Sainio et al., 2000). Moreover, Kang et al. (2006)determined the level of Cr(VI) in 22 eye shadows and 6 colouringagents. Results showed that the concentration of Cr(VI) in the col-ouring agent was much more higher than in the eye shadows ofabout one order of magnitude. Finally, in samples of henna dyeCr(VI) resulted to be below the LoD of 0.1 mg/L (Kang and Lee,2006).

6. Cobalt (Co)


Cobalt is used in different fields such as alloys, magnets, pros-thetics, paints, pigments and jewelry (ATSDR, 2004). Oxides of Comixed and calcinated with other oxides are used to provide blue–green and yellow colors to ceramic, glass, paints and also tattoos.Cobalt salts as napthenate, oleate and linoleate, are used as dry-ers in oil-based paints, lacquers, varnishes, printing inks, enamels.These salts are also used as pigments in light-brown hair dyesand make-up (Fischer, 2003). The IARC has classified metallicCo, Co compounds, Co sulfate and other soluble salts of Co(II)as possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B) (IARC, 1991). Co-balt is widely assumed to be a skin allergen causing ACD as con-firmed by the positive responses obtained in the 7.9% of cases on25,000 European subjects patch tested in 2008 (Uter et al., 2012).In the 1970–1980s the content of household products was dis-cussed as a significant cause of consumer’s Co allergy (Vilaplanaet al., 1987). Simultaneous allergies to Ni and Co have been re-ported frequently, and Co allergy had also an association withchromate (Bajaj et al., 2007). There are few data regarding thepermeation of Co through human skin. The in vitro Franz cell sys-tem showed that it was possible to measure a flux of Co ionsthrough the skin and the permeation was closely related to thecapacity of the sweat to oxidise the metallic Co (Larese Filonet al., 2004; Larese et al., 2007). Moreover, Co powders appearedto penetrate the damaged skin more easily than intact skin (Lar-ese Filon et al., 2009). It has been shown that volunteers whowere cutaneously exposed to Co had higher concentrations of uri-nary Co (Scansetti et al., 1994). A study on animals revealed thatthe slow elimination of Co in urine following dermal applicationof Co salts and the prolonged skin retention of Co posed the basisfor consequential immune responses in the dermal tissue (Lacyet al., 1996). Few cases of Co-induced allergic reactions from cos-metic products have been described. A therapist presented severehand eczema due to the presence of Co in a facial massage creamused for iontophoresis (Chave and Warin, 1991). Moreover, a wo-men who undergone a nail-art procedure by a professional beau-tician presented multiple, intensely itchy, eczematous periungualand palmar lesions on both hands. The patient had also repeatedthe procedure at home using a Co-contained nail gel bought on

Technique References

PDCA, Na2HPO4, NaI, CH3CO2NH4, LiOH IC Kang et al. (2006)PDCA, Na2HPO4, NaI, CH3CO2NH4, LiOH IC Kang et al. (2006)

Z-ETA-AAS Sainio et al. (2000)

HPLC Kang and Lee (2006)


the Internet (Guarneri et al., 2010). The presence of Co and Cosalts in cosmetic products is forbidden by the EU regulation oncosmetics as intentional ingredients, but their presence is allowedas impurities if it is technically necessary (EU, 1976, 2009). None-theless the permissible level of Co impurity has not been regu-lated, so far. A dose–response study with 72 Co-allergic patientsidentified an elicitation concentration at 50 lg/g (Piela andKiec-Swierczynska, 1998), whereas Fischer and Rystedt (1983)found that Co-allergic patients could react to Co test concentra-tions at 19 lg/g. Allenby and Basketter (1989) showed that whenthe site of patch testing in Co-allergic dermatitis patients waspretreated for 24 h with a surfactant, 3 of 6 patients reacted to10 lg/g Co. In 2003, Basketter et al. (2003) found the minimumelicitation dose at ca. 1 lg/g for Co in sensitized patients aftercontact with consumers products and, as a consequence, theauthors suggested that consumer products should not containmore than 1 lg/g of Co.


In Table 6 are summarized results for Co in different kinds ofcosmetics. In general, products for lips, body creams, soaps and nailpolish contained low or even undetectable levels of Co (Bocca et al.,2007; Corazza et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2013; Onwordi et al., 2011;Sneyers et al., 2009). On the other hand, considerable levels of Cowere found in eye shadows, face paints, hair creams and hennadyes. With reference to eye shadows, the highest levels of Co, rang-ing from ca. 100 to ca. 250 lg/g, were found in Chinese productsand Co that may be present in the coloring agents can be consid-ered as a cause of ACD of the eyelids (Omolaoye et al., 2010). Sainioet al. (2000) investigated 88 eye shadows of the most importantcosmetic brands, and found 21 colors containing more than

Table 6Levels of Co (lg/g) in cosmetic products.

Cosmetic Producer Samples Concen

Eye pencil nr 1 <0.27Eye shadow China, Italy, USA 20 0.0001

nr 88 <0.5–4China 20 122.78nr 29 0.47–1Germany, The Netherlands, UK 3 1.05–2China, Italy 14 0.71–1nr 17 0.88–1

Face paint China, Spain, UK, USA 10 4.8–5.5Hair cream nr 48 10.667Henna dye nr 15 <1.25–Lip balm nr 1 <0.2Lip gloss nr 15 <0.2

nr 24 <0.005–Lip pencil nr 1 0.48Lipstick nr 5 <0.2

China, France 3 0.055–nr 8 <0.005–

Nail polish nr 1 <1Make-up powder Egypt 9 0.04–0

Japan 2 3.21; 5Nail polish nr 1 <1Skin cream France, Italy, Switzerland, USA 11 0.0001

nr 15 <LoD-1France, Japan, Monaco 4 0.589–

Soap Japan 2 0.02; 0

nr = not reported.MW = microwave.SF-ICP-MS = Sector Field Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.INAA = Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis.Q-ICP-MS = Quadrupole Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.Z-ETA-AAS = Zeeman Electrothermal Atomization Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.FAAS = Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.ICP-OES = Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry.

10 lg/g of Co mainly in dark colors as brown, grey and black, 43samples with Co ranging 1–10 lg/g and 24 products containingCo between <0.5 and 1 lg/g. Sneyers et al. (2009) showed thatCo concentrations were higher in Asian cosmetics than in Europeansamples; for example in 2 face powders from Japan Co was 3.21and 5.64 lg/g, respectively, while in European eye shadows theCo maximum value was 2.42 lg/g. On the contrary, 9 cheap eyeshadows (targeted to children and adults) were analyzed for Coand data showed that the metal was more concentrated in prod-ucts manufactured in Italy (2.09–17.3 lg/g) then in the Chineseones (0.71–4.9 lg/g) (Contado and Pagnoni, 2012). Another studyreported lower levels of Co in eye shadows manufactured in differ-ent countries (Italy, China, USA) (Volpe et al., 2012). In toy make-up kits used by children, Co was higher than 10 lg/g in 4 eye shad-ows, and ranging from 1–10 lg/g in 15 eye shadows (Corazza et al.,2009). In face paints for adults and children, 2 products had Co atlevel of 4.8 lg/g and 5.5 lg/g (CSF, 2009). The high levels of Co(10–25 lg/g) found in hair cream collected in Ghana might bemainly due to the domestic production of these products. Thesevalues could expose the population to health risks also consideringthe number of times the pomade are applied and the lack of anappropriate limit for the Ghanian market (Amartey et al., 2011).With reference to henna dyes, Co was less than of 4 lg/g (Kangand Lee, 2006).

7. Lead (Pb)


Lead-based paint and gasoline and lead-contaminated dust arehistorically the main sources of exposure to Pb. There are, how-ever, numerous other sources of Pb exposure including cosmetics,

tration Treatment Technique References

Solid INAA El-Shazly et al. (2004)5–0.3037 MW Q-ICP-MS Volpe et al. (2012)1.2 Wet Z-ETA-AAS Sainio et al. (2000)–253.33 Wet FAAS Omoloaye et al. (2010)2.5 MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009).42 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)7.3 MW Z-ETA-AAS Contado and Pagnoni (2012).98 Solid INAA El-Shazly et al. (2004)

Wet ICP-OES CSF (2009)–25.350 MW FAAS Amartey et al. (2011)3.54 Extraction FAAS Kang and Lee (2006)

MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009)MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009)

0.961 Wet ICP-OES Liu et al. (2013)MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009)MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009)

0.105 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)1.30 Wet ICP-OES Liu et al. (2013)

MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009).13 Solid INAA El-Shazly et al. (2004).64 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)

MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009)3–0.222 MW SF-ICP-MS Bocca et al. (2007).00 Wet FAAS Onwordi et al. (2011)2.2 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009).36 Solid INAA Sneyers et al. (2009)


toys, jewellery, food and drinking water (ATSDR, 2007b). The evi-dence of Pb potential to cause harm, especially in children, is wellknown (ATSDR, 2007b). Current studies suggested that Pb mayhave no identifiable safe exposure level, with even the lowestlevels having shown to affect the fetus and the central nervoussystem in children (Bellinger, 2008; Sanders et al., 2009). TheUS Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) stated thatno safe level in blood can be established (CDC, 2013). The IARChas classified inorganic Pb compounds in the Group 2A (probablycarcinogenic) (EPA, 2004b; IARC, 2006). Lead as cosmetic isknown from centuries; in fact, the lead carbonate, known as leadwhite, was usually adopted to have a white color; nowadays, thetoxic Pb has been replaced and the white pigments are nowderived from titanium dioxide naturally present in the environ-ment as anatase or rutile. This replacement is not synonymousof complete elimination of Pb from cosmetics. In fact, Pb wasfound in 61% of the 33 brands of lipsticks tested by the Campaignfor Safe Cosmetics (CSC) (CSC, 2009), in the 100% of lipstickstested by the US FDA (FDA, 2009) and in 81% of lipsticks testedby the Health Canada (CNS, 2008.).

Lead mainly enter the body via oral ingestion or inhalation, butthe absorption through the skin has also been reported. Based onurinary Pb measurements made on rats exposed to inorganic Pb-salts, the rank order of skin penetration was the following: Pbnaphthalene > Pb nitrate > Pb stearate > Pb sulfate > Pb oxide > -metal Pb powder (Bress and Bidanset, 1991). In a study of nineadult males who applied hair dye containing Pb acetate for90 days, it was found that seven out of nine of them had elevatedPb levels in hair (Marzulli et al., 1978). One study provided evi-dence of skin absorption of soluble Pb (acetate and nitrate) in vol-unteer people, with increased levels in sweat, blood and urinewithin 6 h of skin application (Stauber et al., 1994). In a more re-cent study, the skin penetration of Pb was measured in lead-bat-tery workers by skin stripping and the amount of Pb on the dorsalhand positively correlated with the metal content in workers’blood (Sun et al., 2002). Larese Filon et al. (2006) quantified thehuman skin absorption of Pb oxide powder and found a medianpenetration of 2.9 ng/cm2. In addition, the penetration of Pbthrough damaged skin was nine times higher than through intactskin and the skin decontamination with a liquid soap did not de-crease the Pb skin absorption. The use of leaded eye powder (e.g.surma, kohl) has been associated with elevated blood Pb levels inchildren and women, but this was most likely through the rub-bing of the eyes and then licking of the fingers or via the tear duct(Sprinkle, 1995). Also the blood analyses of regular kohl users re-vealed a high Pb concentration and relatively low haemoglobinlevels (Al-Ashban et al., 2004). The US FDA defined the kohl as acolor additive and there is no regulation permitting its use in acosmetic or in any other FDA-regulated products (FDA, 2006b).Lead and Pb-compounds are prohibited ingredients in cosmeticsin Europe (EC, 2004, EU, 1976) but impurities of Pb can be foundin the raw materials or can be acquired during the manufacturingprocess of the cosmetic. Materials as ozokerite and petrolatum-based ingredients can be other sources of Pb. Colour additives,which are sometimes used to colour lipstick, also contain Pband the FDA had set Pb limits in color additives at 20 lg/g (FDA,2013). Brazil provided a national limit of 20 lg/g of Pb in eyeproducts, lipsticks and lip pencils, and Germany set the same limitin all type of cosmetics (ANVISA, 1977; BfR, 2006).

Canada uses a lower Pb level (10 lg/g) as its safety threshold,and considered this value conservative and protective for consum-ers, including youngers (HC-SC, 2012). A part from these limits, theCDC has even gone so far as to recommend that parents avoid usingcosmetics on their children that could be contaminated with Pb(CDC, 2005).


Table 7 reports the quantity of Pb in various cosmetics. Thehigh Pb levels in make-up for eyes appear to contribute to a sig-nificant Pb exposure. Samples purchased in Nigeria contained ageometric average of 130 lg/g in eye liners and 120 lg/g ineye pencils, indicating the use of similar materials in the produc-tion of these cosmetics (Nnorom et al., 2005). A wide concentra-tion range of Pb (up to 81.5 lg/g) was found in eye shadowsproduced in different countries (China, Italy, France, USA) andsome studies observed that products coming from China werethe most contaminated (Al-Saleh et al., 2009; Omolaoye et al.,2010; Sainio et al., 2000; Volpe et al., 2012). For example, Volpeet al. (2012) found a range of 9.53–81.50 lg/g in Chinese samplesvs. a range of 0.25–7.64 lg/g in Italian and US samples. AlsoAl-Saleh et al. (2009) found the highest Pb levels in one Chineseeye shadow, namely 58.7 lg/g. Very high levels of Pb wereobserved in kohl that is ordinary composed of galena (PbS) andsilver galena (Pb2SO4) (Al-Ashban et al., 2004; Lekouch et al.,2001). Branded kohl samples obtained from different regions ofSaudi Arabia were classified in two different groups, those con-taining low Pb level (<1%) and those with high level (more than24.7%), so, this last group samples seemed to be prepared mainlyfrom a lead ore (Al-Ashban et al., 2004). In unbranded kohl sam-ples contained even more Pb (up to 63%) (Al-Ashban et al., 2004).Similarly, in 10 kohl samples sold in Morocco and manufacturedin Algeria, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and Yemen, the Pbcomposition was up to 89% of Pb (Lekouch et al., 2001). Theway in which the women use kohl (coating the ‘‘miroued’’, a tra-dition instrument for kohl application, with saliva by licking it)and the frequency of kohl application (3–4 times a week) mayalso increase the risk for Pb toxicity (Lekouch et al., 2001). Theconcentration of Pb in henna samples was generally lower thanin all types of kohl (Kang and Lee, 2006; Lekouch et al., 2001).Nonetheless, henna preparations have been recently fortifiedwith various herbs or materials to give a stronger color to thefinal product and to shorten the time of application. The addedmaterial can include various mineral products which can be veryrich in metals as Pb(II) sulfate, Pb(II) carbonate and Pb(II) acetate(Lekouch et al., 2001). In the study of Jallad and Espada Jallad(2008), the authors found 2 black henna samples (paste) fortifiedwith chemical products containing Pb at levels of 44.0 lg/g and65.98 lg/g whereas in non-elaborate samples of screened hennaPb was lower (2.29–9.94 lg/g). Because the henna is extensivelyused for hair treatment, as a substitute for chemical hair dyesand also for temporary tattoos, these quantities of Pb that remainon the skin or hair for a long time cannot be safe. In 2007, theCSC raised a concern about the presence of Pb in lipsticks fromthe US market (CSC, 2007). They found more than half of thetested 33 brand-name red lipsticks (61%) contained Pb from0.03 to 0.65 lg/g. However, these concentrations were well be-low the US FDA limit for Pb in color additives. The data also indi-cated that the presence of Pb was independent from the priceand the brand of lipsticks, and that some lipsticks contained nodetectable levels of Pb so manufacturers could have the abilityto make Pb-free lipsticks (CSC, 2007). In 12 lipsticks the FDAfound Pb less <1 lg/g and in 8 Pb ranged 1.04–3.06 lg/g andconcluded that samples were within the limit established for col-or additives (Hepp et al., 2009). In 2010, the FDA repeated thesurvey on a larger number of lipsticks (400) sold in the US thatincluded a variety of shades and manufacturers, at varying prices.Thirteen lipsticks of the 400 were found to contain levels greaterthan 3.06 lg/g the highest amount found on the previous survey,but the average Pb concentration (1.11 lg/g) overlapped that ofthe previous study (Hepp, 2012). In 2012, a EU survey was

Table 7Levels of Pb (lg/g) in cosmetic products.


Eye liner nr nr 66.4–213.6 Wet FAAS Nnorom et al. (2005)Eye pencil nr nr 66.0–187.1 Wet FAAS Nnorom et al. (2005)Eye shadow China, Italy, USA 20 0.25–81.50 MW Q-ICP-MS Volpe et al. (2012)

China, France, USA, nr 22 0.42–58.7 Wet Z-ETA-AAS Al-Saleh et al. (2009)China 20 <LoD-55 Wet FAAS Omolaoye et al. (2010)nr 88 <0.5–16.8 Wet Z-ETA-AAS Sainio et al. (2000)

Face paint China, Spain, UK, USA 10 0.074–0.65 Dry Z-ETA-AAS CSF (2009)Hair cream nr 48 1.30–17.7 MW FAAS Amartey et al. (2011)Henna dye nr 15 <0.1 mg/L Extraction ICP-OES Kang and Lee (2006)

India, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Sudan,Yemen

20 2.2–19.9 MW Z-ETA-AAS Lekouch et al. (2001)

Emirates, Egypt, India, Pakistan, Sudan 12 2.29–65.98 Wet ICP-OES Jallad and Espada-Jallad(2008)

Kohl Algeria, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Sudan,Yemen

10 54%-89% MW Z-ETA-AAS Lekouch et al. (2001)

India, Iran, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia 107 0.006%-52.4% nr EDX-FS/Z-ETA-AAS

Al-Ashban et al. (2004)

Lip gloss Canada, Japan, EU countries, USA nr 74 0.04–2.12 MW ICP-MS Piccinini et al. (2013)nr 24 <0.025–1.32 Wet ICP-OES Liu et al. (2013)

Lipstick China, France, Germany, Italy, Thailand,Taiwan, USA

81 0.27–3760 Wet Z-ETA-AAS Al-Saleh et al. (2009)

nr nr 28.7–252.4 Wet FAAS Nnorom et al. (2005)China, India, nr 4 6.4–9.9 Solid/wet LIBS/ICP-OES Gondal et al. (2010)nr 81 0.11–2229 Wet FAAS Ruengsitagoon et al. (2011)nr 12 0.0407–1.38 MW DRC-ICP-MS Grosser et al. (2011)nr 373 <LoD-890 nr nr CPHR (2011)nr 20 0.09–3.06 MW ICP-MS Hepp et al. (2009)nr 400 mean 1.11; max

7.19MW ICP-MS Hepp (2012)

Canada, Japan, EU countries, USA, nr 149 0.04–3.75 MW ICP-MS Piccinini et al. (2013)France, USA 33 <0.02–0.65 MW ICP-MS CSC (2007)nr 25 0.11–4.48 Solid/MW SS-HR-CS–

ETAASGunduz and Akman (2013)

Brasil, China, France, USA, Taiwan 22 0.27–4.54 MW D-ETA-AAS Rodrigues Soares andNascentes (2013)

nr 8 <0.025–1.25 Wet ICP-OES Liu et al. (2013)Canada, China, France, Italy, UK, USA, nr 28 0.30–2.44 Wet Z-ETA-AAS Al-Saleh and Al-Enazi (2011)

Nail polish nr 6 0.204–6.03 MW DRC-ICP-MS Grosser et al. (2011)Shampoo nr 15 0.98–1.59 Wet AAS Chauhan et al. (2010)Skin cream France, Italy, Switzerland, USA 11 <0.0002–

0.00867MW SF-ICP-MS Bocca et al. (2007)

nr 15 <LoD Wet FAAS Onwordi et al. (2011)nr 3 <0.0096–0.168 MW DRC-ICP-MS Grosser et al. (2011)nr 34 <1.8 ng/ml-

794.25MW ICP-OES Alqadami et al. (2013)

nr 15 0.03–0.72 Wet AAS Chauhan et al. (2010)Skin emulsions (creams,

lotion, jelly)Africa, Asia, Europe, Nigeria, USA 80 <LoD-0.39 l mg/

LWet FAAS Oyedeji et al. (2011)

Soap nr 15 3.8–4.63 Wet AAS Chauhan et al. (2010)Talcum powder nr 15 0.24–0.38 Wet AAS Chauhan et al. (2010)VariousFoundation/concealer/

powder/blushesor bronzes/mascara/eyeliner/eyeshadow/lipstick or gloss

Canada, Europe, Korea, USA 49 <LoD-110 MW ICP-OES/ICP-MS

ED (2011)

Lipgloss/lipstick/skin cream nr 50 0.017–0.09 Wet AAS Adepoju-Bello et al. (2012)

nr = not reported.LoD = Limit of Detection not reported by the authors.MW = microwave.SF-ICP-MS = Sector Field Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.FAAS = Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.DRC-ICP-MS = Dynamic Reaction Cell Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.AAS = Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.Q-ICP-MS = Quadrupole Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.Z-ETA-AAS = Zeeman Electrothermal Atomization Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.ICP-OES = Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry.EDX-FS = Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry.LIBS = Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy.ICP-MS = Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.SS-HR-CS-ETAAS = Solid Sampling High Resolution Continuum Source Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.D-ETA-AAS = Deuterium Electrothermal Atomization Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.



performed on 223 lip articles, representing 55 brands, purchasedin 15 EU Member States. Various lip products (lip glosses and lip-sticks), shades (red, brown, purple and pink) and price rangeswere investigated. Results showed that 49 samples (31% of thetested lipsticks and 4% of the lip glosses) contained Pb > 1 lg/g.The average Pb content in lipsticks (0.75 lg/g) was nearly doublethat that found in lip glosses (0.38 lg/g). The authors also sug-gested a tendency of purple lipsticks to contain Pb more thanother shades and that the more expensive items contained a sig-nificantly lower quantity of Pb in comparison to the cheapestarticles. In all cases the Pb concentrations were far below therecommended limits (Piccinini et al., 2013). In lipsticks sold inThailand, no statistical difference according to price of productsand amount of Pb contamination was observed. Even if themajority of samples contained Pb < 7 lg/g, two lipsticks con-tained very high Pb (90.69 lg/g and 2229 lg/g) and these sam-ples belong to the cheapest group of items (Ruengsitagoonet al., 2011). In lipsticks sold in Brazil, the highest levels of Pbwere found in Chinese and Taiwanese products (2.07–4.54 lg/g), followed by the Brazilian ones (0.49–1.96 lg/g) and the USproducts (0.27–0.51 lg/g), while in French samples were belowthe LoD (1.01 lg/L) (Rodrigues Soares and Nascentes, 2013). Inlipsticks sold in Turkey the levels of the metal were generallylow (from fraction of lg/g to some units of lg/g) (Gunduz andAkman, 2013). In lipsticks purchased in Saudi Arabia, 7 expensiveitems contained Pb < 1 lg/g, while 6 low-priced samples manu-factured in China contained Pb > 10 lg/g and 3 of them had ex-tremely high levels (above 2000 lg/g) (Al-Saleh et al., 2009). Inaddition, the authors found that, in general, the dark coloredwere the most polluted samples. Lipsticks available in Nigeriashowed a high content of Pb (geometric mean of 87.3 lg/g),probably related to the locally sourced formulations (Nnoromet al., 2005). Another study on lipsticks from Saudi Arabia foundthat lipsticks enriched in Pb were those of poor quality (Chinaand India) (Gondal et al., 2010). In the New Zealand, 198 lipstickshad up to 2 lg/g of Pb and 35 contained more than 10 lg/g;while the leachable Pb was <0.1 lg/g in 340 lipsticks and ranged0.1–3 lg/g in 19 samples (CPHR, 2011). The study of Al-Saleh andAl-Enazi (2011) on 28 lipsticks sold in Saudi Arabia indicated lowlevel of Pb (not more than 2.44 lg/g with a median of 0.57 lg/g).The Pb levels were independent from the country of origin of theproducts. Also the US study of Liu et al. (2013) on lipsticks andlip glosses reported very low Pb concentrations (median of0.151 lg/g). In Canada, one lip gloss contained Pb at 110 lg/gand one red lipstick at 28 lg/g, both samples above the 10 lg/glimit set in the country (ED, 2011). Levels of Pb were detectedin other kind of cosmetics as face paints, nail polish, soap, sham-poo and talcum powder. Face paints samples contained Pb below0.65 lg/g and nail polish samples below 6 lg/g (CSF, 2009; Gros-ser et al., 2011). Chauhan et al. (2010) found the highest levels ofthe metal in soaps (ca. 4 lg/g), followed by shampoos (ca. 1 lg/g)and the lowest levels in talcum powder. The majority of studiesabout skin creams reported low amounts of Pb (at maximum0.72 lg/g) in this kind of product (Bocca et al., 2007; Chauhanet al., 2010; Grosser et al., 2011; Onwordi et al., 2011). Oyedejiet al. (2011) analyzed skin emulsions manufactured in variouscountries and the following Pb ranges were detected: 0.01–0.39 mg/L in Nigerian samples; 0.030–0.220 mg/L in Africanemulsions; 0.250 mg/L in Asian emulsions; 0.040–0.240 mg/L inEuropean samples; and 0.04–0.280 mg/L in products from US.These low values were within acceptable limits and have beenconsidered a residue of the production process, for example theuse of water obtained by Pb pipes. Conversely, in skin-whiteningcreams, Alqadami et al. (2013) found elevated level of Pb with 7products contained up to 10 lg/g of Pb, 5 samples ranged 20–80 lg/g and 20 creams between 100 and 800 lg/g; ca. the 76%

of the skin whitening creams were found to contain Pb higherthan 10 lg/g.

8. Mercury (Hg)


Mercury in cosmetics exists in two forms: inorganic and organ-ic. Inorganic mercury (e.g. ammoniated mercury) is used in skinlightening soaps and creams (ATSDR, 1999), while organic Hg (thi-omersal and phenyl mercuric salts) is used as cosmetic preserva-tives in eye make-up cleansing products and mascara (WHO,2011). Notwithstanding metallic Hg and inorganic Hg compoundsare not classifiable as to their carcinogenicity to humans (Group3) by the IARC (1993), acute or chronic exposure to topical Hg saltscan result in renal, neurologic, and dermal toxicity (Graeme andPollack, 1998). Cutaneous changes reported include burning ofthe face, contact dermatitis, grey or blue-black facial discoloration,flushing, erythroderma, purpura, and gingivostomatitis. In addi-tion, inorganic Hg salts are readily absorbed through the skin andexcreted primarily via the kidneys, and elevated urinary Hg con-centrations (>20 lg/L) have been associated with signs and symp-toms of Hg poisoning (Engler, 2005). In this context, US subjectswho used a Mexican Hg-contained beauty cream had the meanHg urine concentration of 146.7 lg/L and several subjects reportedalso neurological disorders associated with Hg poisoning (Weldonet al., 2000). Another study reported a urinary Hg mean concentra-tion of 45.2 lg/L in cream users, but the 78% of them had notsymptoms (Sin and Tsang, 2003). In addition, a woman presentederythema and itchy papulovesicular lesions on her face, neck, sidesof the trunk, and antecubital fossae after 5–6 h from the applica-tion of a skin lightening cream on her cheek and upper lip. The pa-tient resulted patch test positive to ammoniated mercury,thimerosal and metallic Hg (Özkaya et al., 2009). With referenceto the percutaneous absotption of Hg, an in vitro study demon-strated that an aqueous solution of this metal accumulated in hu-man skin and it was slowly absorbed by the body (28.5% initialdose in the skin; 0.07% initial dose in the receptor fluid) (Westeret al., 1992; Wester et al., 1993). Another in vitro study testedthe dermal absorption of Hg applying on the skin layer both thebody cream containing 6–8% of mercurous chloride as is and anaqueous solution of the same cream. Results indicated that the per-centage of the absorbed doses (skin content + receptor fluid) were0.8% for the cream and 3.7% for the aqueous solution of the cream(Palmer et al., 2000). In consideration of the Hg effects on humanhealth, the distribution of Hg-containing creams and soaps is reg-ulated in many countries. The Regulation (EC) 1223/2009 and theDirective 76/768/EEC specify that Hg and its compounds are not al-lowed as ingredients in cosmetics (including soaps, lotions, sham-poos and skin bleaching products) except thiomersal and phenylmercuric salts for use as a preservative in eye make-up and eyemake-up removal products that are allowed at concentrationsequal to or less than 0.007% by weight (EU, 1976, 2009). The USFDA allowed Hg compounds in eye area cosmetics at concentra-tions at or below 65 lg/g expressed as Hg (�100 lg/g expressedas phenylmercuric acetate or nitrate); while all the other cosmeticsmust contain Hg at a concentration less than 1 lg/g (FDA, 2000).Health Canada’s draft guidance on heavy metal impurities in cos-metics specifies a limit of 3 lg/g for Hg as an impurity in cosmeticproducts (HC-SC, 2012). In Germany, the Hg limit as impurity incosmetic products is 1 lg/g (BfR, 2006).


Data reported in Table 8 show the levels of Hg in different cos-metics. The presence of Hg was mainly revealed in skin-lightening

Table 8Levels of Hg (lg/g) in cosmetic products.


Hair conditioner nr 1 <0.0055 MW CV-AAS Lavilla et al. (2009)Hair gel nr 1 <0.0055 MW CV-AAS Lavilla et al. (2009)Henna dye nr 15 <0.1 mg/L Extraction CV-AAS Kang and Lee (2006)Lipstick nr 12 <0.0037–

0.0125MW DRC-ICP-MS Grosser et al. (2011)

nr 373 <LoD-0.5 nr nr CPHR (2011)Canada, China, France, Italy, Korea,UK, USA, nr

28 0.0002–0.01 Wet CV-AAS Al-Saleh and Al-Enazi(2011)

Nail polish nr 6 <0.0037–0.00965

MW DRC-ICP-MS Grosser et al. (2011)

Shampoo nr 2 <0.0055 MW CV-AAS Lavilla et al. (2009)Shower body milk nr 1 <0.0055 MW CV-AAS Lavilla et al. (2009)Shower body oil nr 1 <0.0055 MW CV-AAS Lavilla et al. (2009)Skin cream France, Italy, Switzerland, USA 11 <0.00016 MW SF-ICP-MS Bocca et al. (2007)

Mexico 16 <0.005–35,824

MW CV-AAS/FAAS

Peregrino et al. (2011)

nr 3 <0.0037 MW DRC-ICP-MS Grosser et al. (2011)India, Arab countries, Far East 38 <LoD-5650 Wet ICP-OES Al-Saleh and Al-Doush

(1997)Asia, Africa, Europe, North and SouthAmerica

67 <0.07–1325 MW ICP-MS Uram et al. (2010)

Dominican Republic, Jamaica, nr 8 3.37–41,600 nr nr McKelvey et al. (2011)nr 34 <2.1 ng/ml-

2745Alqadami et al. (2013)

nr 1 250 Extraction HPLC, XRD,FTIR

Zhang et al. (2011)

China, Thailand, Vietnam 19 0.01–12,590 Wet CV-AAS Murphy et al. (2009)VariousLipgloss/lipstick/skin cream nr 50 0.009–0.207 Wet CV-AAS Adepoju-Bello et al.

(2012)Foundation/concealer/powder/blushes or


Canada, Europe, Korea, USA 49 <LoD MW ICP-OES/ICP-MS

ED (2011)

nr = not reported.LoD = Limit of Detection not reported by the authors.MW = microwave.SF-ICP-MS = Sector Field Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.CV-AAS = Cold Vapour Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.DRC-ICP-MS = Dynamic Reaction Cell Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.ICP-OES = Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry.ICP-MS = Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.HPLC = High-performance Liquid Chromatography.XRD = X-ray Diffraction.FTIR = Fourier Tranform Infrared.


creams where the inorganic forms of this metal inhibit the forma-tion of melanin by competing with copper in the action of the en-zyme tyrosinase resulting, thus, in lighter skin tone. In this context,Hg levels in 6 Mexican whitening creams ranged from 878 to35,824 lg/g, extremely high levels compared to the US FDA limit(namely 1 lg/g) and thus potentially dangerous for health (Pereg-rino et al., 2011). Due to the high demand for use of skin-lighteningcreams by Saudi Arabian women, Al-Saleh and Al-Doush (1997)tested Hg in 38 cream samples obtained from local markets andimported from India, Arab countries and the Far East. Twenty-eightof them contained Hg in the range 0.09–5650 lg/g with a mean of376.58 lg/g, and the authors concluded that the market should bestrictly controlled and legal actions are required. In the US Hg-con-taining skin-lightening creams have been identified as a source ofexposure in the city of New York, and some imported productswere found containing illegal levels of Hg. In fact, 8 skin lighteningcreams (mainly manufactured in Dominican Republic) containedHg from 3.37 to 41,600 lg/g. In addition, the same authors ana-lyzed germicidal balm, cream and soap, and Hg was very high(range, 204–4700 lg/g) (McKelvey et al., 2011). In addition, Zhanget al. (2011) found in a cream elevated amount of Hg–ammoniumchloride (250 lg/g), a very toxic substance even at much lower

concentrations. Murphy et al. (2009) found very different Hg levelsin 19 skin creams sold in Cambodia. In 10 samples the metal wasbelow 0.5 lg/g, while in the remaining 9 samples Hg ranged from19 to 12,590 lg/g. In addition, the same authors reported a signif-icant association between the Hg content and the creams labeled‘‘for export only’’.

Finally, Alqadami et al. (2013) found elevated level of Hg in 34skin whitening creams. In particular, 10 creams were below theLoD (2.8 ng/ml), 2 samples had Hg up to 1 lg/g and 22 creams con-tained the metal in concentration above the safe US limit of 1 lg/g.It should be mentioned that another work found, on 67 skin-light-ening creams sold in Brasil, China, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, India, Mex-ico, Russia and Senegal and produced both in these countries andalso in France, UK, South Africa, Dubai, Mali, Ivory Coast and Swit-zerland, very low and safe levels of Hg (all samples were under0.07 lg/g, with only one exception that was a Mexican cream with1325 lg/g) (Uram et al., 2010). Similarly, in other investigationsbody creams contained low amounts of Hg or even undetectable(Adepoju-Bello et al., 2012; Bocca et al., 2007; Grosser et al., 2011).

Other types of cosmetics, including hair gel, hair conditioners,henna dyes, shampoo, lipsticks, nail polishes, mascara, eye liners,eye shadows, etc., had values of Hg very low or under the analytical


methods limit (Adepoju-Bello et al., 2012; Al-Saleh and Al-Enazi,2011; CPHR, 2011; ED, 2011; Grosser et al., 2011; Kang and Lee,2006; Lavilla et al., 2009).

9. Nickel (Ni)


Nickel is widely used from metal coins and jewelry, to heatexchangers, batteries, and ceramic colouring, in addition to manyother applications (ATSDR, 2005). The persistence of Ni in the envi-ronment and its natural presence in rocks, soil and water causes itsoccurrence in pigments and other raw materials used in the cos-metic industry. Metallic Ni and Ni(II)-compounds are classifiedby the IARC as carcinogenic in the respiratory tract after inhalationbut no studies were located regarding cancer after dermal expo-sure (IARC, 1990). The critical effect of Ni in relation to cosmeticsis considered to be sensitization. Nickel is the most common aller-gen in patch tests all over Europe; in 11 EU countries the mean per-centage of cases of Ni contact allergy was 20.6% and Italy had thehighest rates (27.4%) of positivity (Uter et al., 2012). Importantvariables for the development of Ni allergy are the hapten concen-tration, the single vs. repeated application and the individual’simmunological response (Fischer et al., 2005). Women develop al-lergy to Ni to a greater extent than men and this is thought to be aresult of greater exposure of women to Ni through jewels, cosmet-ics and household cleaning products (Akyol et al., 2005; Dotterudand Smith-Sivertsen, 2007; Freireich-Astman et al., 2007). In addi-tion, studies indicate that Ni is the leading contact allergen in in-fancy and in early childhood (de Waard-van der Spek and Oranjeet al., 2009; Simonsen et al., 2011). Once in contact with the skin,metallic Ni can be oxidized to form soluble diffusible compoundsthat may penetrate the intact stratum corneum via the appenda-geal (hair follicles, sweat, and sebaceous glands), transcellular orintracellular route (Hostynek et al., 2001). The Ni diffusion acrossthe stratum corneum is slow and limited to less than 1% and varieswith many factors as the counter ion (nitrate, chloride, acetate, sul-fate), oxidizing capacity of sweat, anatomical site, gender of theskin and the dose and exposure time (Hostynek, 2003; Lareseet al., 2007; Tanojo et al., 2001). At epidermic level the haptenbinds to amino acid residues and the resulting Ni-complexed pro-tein may then cause contact allergy, as well as irritation (Mennèand Christopherson, 1989). In some studies, a clear association be-tween Ni dermatitis and Ni contained in cosmetic products hasbeen observed. In particular, eyelid dermatitis was observedamong Ni allergic patients following exposure to Ni-containingmascara and eye shadows (Karlberg et al., 1991; Goh et al.,1989). Clinical symptoms as itching, erythema, moderate infiltra-tion and scaling of both eyelids were found after the applicationof a Ni-containing green eye pencil in a patient previously sensi-tized by Ni in jewellery (Travassos et al., 2011). Additionally, a fa-cial eczema was developed by five Ni-sensitive women that usedfoundation products containing traces of Ni (Fou, 2006). As regardsthe laws on Ni exposure, the Regulation 1223/2009 and the Direc-tive 76/768/EEC banned Ni and its salts as intentional ingredientsin cosmetics but admitted traces of the metal as impurities (EU,1976, 2009). Anyway, there are currently no international stan-dards for Ni impurities in cosmetics. Nickel elicitation studies haverevealed that approximately 5% of a nickel-sensitized populationwill react to an occluded (e.g., wrist watch and buttons) dose of0.44 lg nickel/cm2/week and also that the allergy and elicitationthresholds for skin-penetrating exposure (e.g., earrings) are lower(Fischer et al., 2005). Basketter et al. (2003) reported that, in thepresence of irritants and/or following repeated exposures, sensi-tized individuals rarely react to levels of Ni below 10 lg/g. On

the basis of these findings, the authors recommended that house-hold (and other consumer) products should not contain more than5 lg/g of Ni and that, for an even greater degree of protection, theultimate target level should be 1 lg/g.


Table 9 reports the concentration of Ni in different categories ofcosmetic products as observed in various countries. Eye make-upsamples sold in Nigeria presented very high Ni levels with meanvalues in eye liners of 9.2 lg/g, in eye pencils of 13.4 lg/g and inlipstick of 14.6 lg/g (Nnorom et al., 2005). On the contrary, Ade-poju-Bello et al. (2012) for products (lipsticks, lip glosses and skinlightening creams) sold in Nigeria presented very low mean levelof Ni (i.e., 0.05 lg/g). In other cosmetics as eye pencil, lip balm,lip gloss, and lip liner, sold in some EU countries (Germany, Italy)levels of Ni were low or no detectable (Corazza et al., 2009; Jägerand Jappe, 2005). On the other hand, the study of Al-Saleh andAl-Enazi (2011) reported that the 36% of lipsticks had Ni abovethe dermatological safe limit of 1 ppm as well as the 75% of lip-sticks and lip glosses investigated by Liu et al. (2013). Volpeet al. (2012) investigated a total of 20 eye shadows manufacturedin China, Italy and USA reporting a concentration of Ni below0.06 lg/g in US cosmetics, a similar content in Italian products,whereas the highest concentrations (up to 4 lg/g) were observedin Chinese samples. Also the study of Omolaoye et al. (2010) founda high Ni concentration (77.2–359.4 lg/g) in eye shadows im-ported from China and the highest Ni content was measured inthe brown, yellow, grey and purple colors. A study on a large num-ber of eye shadows showed the 75% of products contained quantityover 5 lg/g and they all had a Ni level above 1 lg/g (Sainio et al.,2000). Corazza et al. (2009) on a total of 29 eye shadows tested,found that 21 eye shadows had Ni between 1 and 10 lg/g, 5 sam-ples from 10 to 100 lg/g and 3 from 100 to 1000 lg/g, and becausethese products were toy make-up applied for hours on the skin ofchildren’s faces, these items cannot be considered allergologicallysafe expecially for atopic children with a damaged skin barrier.Contado and Pagnoni (2012) analyzed 14 cheap eye shadows prod-ucts in green, purples and brown colors (targeted to children andadults) sold in small shops in Italy to quantify their Ni content.Nickel concentration levels were lower than 5 lg/g only in threesamples, the highest levels were found in one eye shadow madein Italy with a Ni range of 169–344 lg/g, in the other samples,six of which made in China, the Ni amounts went from 2.76 (pink)to 22.7 lg/g (yellow green). Finally, Goh et al. (1989) analyzed eyeshadows of different brands and colors and they found that in abrand Ni was <1.5 lg/g, in a second the metal was in the range13 (blue)-31 (grey) lg/g and a third it was contained between51 lg/g (violet) and 71 lg/g (green). In hair creams sampled inthe Ghanian market levels of Ni were above 10 lg/g implying longterm health risks also considering the incorporation of this metalinto the keratin structure of the hair (Amartey et al., 2011). In otheremulsions used for hair (hair gel and hair conditioner) and forshower (body milk and body oil) levels were under 0.025 lg/g(Lavilla et al., 2009). Quantification of Ni in 2 shampoos revealedconcentrations of 4.8 lg/g and 12 lg/g, levels that could be ableto create risk for the development of allergies in presensitized sub-jects (Lavilla et al., 2009). Henna dyes available in Korea, contained<2.5–3.96 of Ni, and also for this kind of product it has hard to com-pletely rule out the possibility of sensitization (Kang and Lee,2006). A Canadian project investigated 49 different types ofmake-up products (foundation, concealers, powders, blushes, mas-cara, eye liners, eye shadows, lipstick, glosses etc.) and the 100% ofitems contained Ni, with an average of 25.1 lg/g and a maximumof 230 lg/g (ED, 2011). In the USA, the CSF found Ni levels from2.1 to 5.9 lg/g in 10 face paints used both by both children and

Table 9Levels of Ni (lg/g) in cosmetic products.


Eye liner nr nr 4.4–14.5 Wet FAAS Nnorom et al. (2005)Eye pencil Italy 1 0.028 Wet Z-ETA-AAS Travassos et al. (2011)

nr nr 4.9–21.5 Wet FAAS Nnorom et al. (2005)Eye shadow China, Italy, USA 20 0.0218–4.148 MW Q-ICP-MS Volpe et al. (2012)

nr 88 0.5–49.7 Wet Z-ETA-AAS Sainio et al. (2000)China, Italy 14 7.9–344 MW Z-ETA-AAS Contado and Pagnoni

(2012)China 20 77.2–359.4 Wet FAAS Omolaoye et al.

(2010)nr 29 1.4–320 MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009)nr 11 <1.5–71 nr AAS Goh et al. (1989)

Face paint China, Spain, UK, USA 10 2.1–5.9 Wet ICP-OES CSF (2009)Hair conditioner nr 1 0.012 MW ETA-AAS/ICP-MS/

ICP-OESLavilla et al. (2009)

Hair cream nr 48 1.3–72 MW FAAS Amartey et al. (2011)Hair gel nr 1 <0.009 MW ETA-AAS/ICP-MS/


Henna dye nr 15 <2.5–3.96 Extraction FAAS Kang and Lee (2006)Lip balm nr 1 <0.1 MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009)Lip gloss nr 15 <0.1 MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009)

nr 24 0.013–9.73 Wet ICP-OES Liu et al. (2013)Lip pencil Germany 1 1.8 nr ICP-MS Jäger and Jappe

(2005)nr 1 1.41 MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009)

Lipstick nr nr 7.0–22.8 Wet FAAS Nnorom et al. (2005)nr 5 <0.1–2.35 MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009)nr 8 <0.012–3.61 Wet ICP-OES Liu et al. (2013)Canada, China, France, Italy,UK, USA, nr

28 0.12–4.24 Wet Z-ETA-AAS Al-Saleh and Al-Enazi(2011)

Nail polish nr 1 <1 MW Z-ETA-AAS Corazza et al. (2009)Shampoo nr 2 4.8; 12 MW ETA-AAS/ICP-MS/


Shower body milk nr 1 0.025 MW ETA-AAS/ICP-MS/ICP-OES


Shower body oil nr 1 0.01 MW ETA-AAS/ICP-MS/ICP-OES


Skin cream France, Italy, Switzerland, USA 11 0.0175–0.153 MW SF-ICP-MS Bocca et al. (2007)nr 15 1.82–7.35 Wet FAAS Onwordi et al. (2011)

VariousFoundation/concealer/powder/blushes or


Canada, Europe, Korea, USA 49 0.3–230 MW ICP-OES/ICP-MS ED (2011)

Lipgloss/lipstick/skin cream nr 50 0.032–0.105 Wet AAS Adepoju-Bello et al.(2012)

nr = not reported.MW = microwave.SF-ICP-MS = Sector Field Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.FAAS = Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.Z-ETA-AAS = Zeeman Electrothermal Atomization Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.Q-ICP-MS = Quadrupole Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.ICP-OES = Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry.ETA-AAS = Electrothermal Atomization Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.ICP-MS = Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.AAS = Atomic Absorption Spectrometry.


adults (CSF, 2009). With regard to the skin creams, Onwordi et al.(2011) investigated moisturing and bleaching body creams pur-chased from local stores in Nigeria and indicated the higher levelof Ni in bleaching creams with a value of 5.09 lg/g, and the lowerin moisturizers at 3.61 lg/g level. These concentrations were high-er than those found in moisturizing creams sampled in Italy(0.153 lg/g of Ni as maximum) that are declared as ‘‘Ni-tested’’(<0.00001% or <0.1 lg/g of Ni) by the manufacturers (Bocca et al.,2007).

10. Discussion and conclusions

The paper provided a summary of the current information ontoxic metals in cosmetics in terms of both their concentration lev-els and their dermal penetration and systemic toxicology. The

combination of these data will be useful to refine the exposureassessment to metals via cosmetics.

Till 2013 there are 46 papers reporting the quantification ofmetals in ca. 2300 cosmetic samples of various type. Products forlips (lipsticks, lip gloss and lip balm) represented the main prod-ucts analyzed, followed by skin creams and skin emulsions andeye shadows. Particular products as kohl and henna dyes were alsoanalyzed for the presence of metals. As a general trend, lipsticksare analyzed mainly for Pb, eye shadows mainly for Co, Cr, andNi, skin creams are studied to quantify Hg and kohl to detect Pband Sb. For only a minor part (32%) of the total number of cosmet-ics the country of origin was known, and the ca. 40% of them weremanufactured in Europe and the 30% in Asia. Concentrations ofmetals in cosmetics varied by up to several orders of magnitudedepending on the metal and the type of product analyzed. The con-centration of the metal varied significantly also inside the same


class of cosmetic depending on various factors as the state of pur-chase, the manufacturing process, the shade and brand, and theanalytical procedure used to detect the analyte. Moreover, findingmultiple metals in one cosmetic product was quite common.

Examining the published data, important warnings can be rec-ognized. One concern is the presence of Pb in lipsticks (seeTable 9). The high Pb values found in various studies can bedue to the use of the Pb chromate, which basically provides thepigment in colored lipsticks. Lead could be also found as Pb sul-fide or Pb lead acetate. The Pb contamination of lipsticks mayalso originate from Pb solder or leaded paint in production equip-ment or from Pb-contaminated dust and water. The Pb containedin products for lips which can be dermally absorbed but also in-gested can create the basis for aggregate risks; moreover, lipstickscan be used by pregnant women or women of child bearing age.Lead is highly toxic for the fetuses, babies and children whosenervous systems are still developing (ATSDR, 2007b; Sanderset al., 2009). Similarly, the high levels of Pb encountered by someauthors in face paints and toy make-up kits used by children de-serves a special attention because these products are applied onthe thin skin of children and stay on for variable periods oftenas long as real cosmetics (Corazza et al., 2009; CSF, 2009). Leadwas also found in henna preparations. Recently these preparationhave been fortified with various herbs or materials to give astronger color to the final product and to shorten the time ofapplication. The added material can include various mineralproducts which can be very rich in metals as Pb. Because thehenna is extensively used for hair treatment, as a substitute forchemical hair dyes and also for temporary tattoos, the quantitiesof Pb remain on the skin or hair for a very long time and couldnot be safe.

Another alarm is the highest percentage of occurrence of aller-genic metals as Co, Cr and Ni in cosmetics, especially in colored eyeshadows (see Tables 4, 6 and 9). In some cases the highest concen-trations were observed in eye shadows imported from China(Omolaoye et al., 2010; Volpe et al., 2012). This kind of productsneed particular attention because they are applied in the peri-ocu-lar area where the facial skin is thinnest, where the risk of percu-taneous absorption of the pigments is very high as is the risk ofdeveloping irritative and/or allergic skin reactions. Many of theproducts tested for these metals did not comply with the recom-mendation of 1 lg/g to minimize the risk of dermal sensitizationin sensitive subjects (Basketter et al., 2003); the 77.5% of 213 eyeshadows purchased on different markets had Cr levels well abovethe limit of 1 lg/g (see Table 4). The 47.3% of 182 eye shadowsand the 49% of 191 products showed concentrations of Ni and Corespectively higher than the recommended limit for skin sensitiza-tion (see Tables 6 and 9). It should also be considered that the con-comitant presence of more than one allergenic metal or minimalamount of other toxic metals could trigger a pre-existing allergyand reaction (Forte et al., 2008). In addition, the Directive 76/768/EEC banned the most toxic form of Cr namely the Cr(VI), butthe Cr(III)oxide and Cr(III)hydroxide are permitted as green colo-rants in cosmetics. The problem is that these Cr(III) pigments canbe contaminated by Cr(VI), as revealed the presence of Cr(VI) inhigh quantity in eye shadows but also in colorant agents and inhenna dyes (see Table 5).

Another alert can be issued for kohl samples which containedno safe levels of Pb (frequently more than 50% w/w) and Sb (upto 200 ppm). These findings provided evidence that types of kohlwere still made of Pb sulfide and Pb oxide and Sb sulfide. Kohl isnot an unapproved coloring agent in the USA and is a dangerousproduct because is applied to the women’s eyebrows and used alsoin skin treatment of children. This product is widely used in Asia,Africa and the Middle East, but can be also purchased in manyother countries, so exposing the global population to health risks.

Because there are examples of Pb poisoning due to the use of somekohl brands an effective campaign to produce Pb-free kohl isstrictly claimed (Al-Ashban et al.,2004; Lekouch et al., 2001).

Skin creams can raised concern about the presence of extremelyhigh concentrations of Hg; some studies found the 40% w/w of Hgin samples (see Table 8). As expected, in skin lightening creams Hgwas much more higher than in moisturizing creams. In fact, theammoniated Hg is used as skin whitener because it blocks produc-tion of melanin. It has been noted that although other chemicalscan achieve the same purpose, Hg is inexpensive and more effec-tive. Mercury is readily absorbed through the skin and can affectpeople neurologically; cases of Hg poisoning after the use of Hg-containing cream were also reported (Engler, 2005; Graeme andPollack, 1998; Weldon et al., 2000). Some authors observed thatthese creams are widely available in pharmacies, beauty aid, healthstores and also in local marketplaces and, in most cases, no labelwarning is present on the products, and so the consumer doesnot have any choice for selecting suitable products (Peregrinoet al., 2011). Even if these creams are commonly used in the MiddleEast, Asia and Latin America, due to the mass distribution of theseproducts in the rest of the world the exposure to Hg through skincreams can be considered a global health problem.

There is also reason to be concerned about As and Cd. Arsenicand its inorganic compounds, and Cd and its compounds are con-sidered human carcinogens and are also considered substances‘‘for which there is believed to be some chance of adverse healtheffects at any level of exposure’’ in Canada (HC-SC, 1994, 1993;IARC, 2012, 1993). Both the two metals were found in significantquantities in lipsticks (see Tables 2 and 3) and Cd in some kindsof hair creams probably due to the presence of petrolatum in thecomposition (Amartey et al., 2011). Considering the bioaccumula-tion of Cd and the incorporation of the metal in the keratin struc-ture of the hair a long-term exposure to this metal cannot be ruledout.

As regards regulatory aspects, the eight metals are all bannedfrom being intentionally added to cosmetics in EU, Canada, andUS but also in other countries that uses the EU or US legislations.Anyway they are permitted as impurities according to good manu-facturing practices and if they are safe for human health, but limitshave been established only for some metals, for others as Co, Crand Ni limits are still lacking. The data collected in this review re-vealed three key findings: (i) metals are present in cosmetics atconcentrations above what is considered ‘‘technically avoidable’’and so many cosmetics are not in compliance with legislation onimpurities; (ii) there is difference between what level of metal issafe and what is technically avoidable and so the limits suggestedfor impurities do not necessarily provide a sufficient level of pro-tection for humans and should be lowered; (iii) on the other hand,metals are also detected at concentrations many times lower thanthe ‘‘technically avoidable limit’’ and so it is feasible for manufac-turers to eliminate these impurities from cosmetics and to producesafer products.

Take Pb for example. According to the Canadian guidelines,manufacturers are only considered able to technically avoid Pb lev-els greater than 10 lg/g in cosmetics. On a total of 1300 lip prod-ucts (including lipsticks, lip gloss and lip balm) tested in 13different studies (see Table 9), the 3.5% of samples contained Pbabove 10 lg/g and so they resulted not in compliance with guide-lines on impurities. Instead, the 96.5% of lip products containedconcentration lower than 10 lg/g; moreover, the lowest level ofPb detected in lipsticks was ca. 0.1 lg/g and these results showthat Pb impurity much lower than 10 lg/g is feasible. Therefore,manufacturers should be able to reduce impurities during themanufacturing process. On the other hand, Pb levels lower thanthis value are not necessarily safe. In fact, the CDC stated that isno known safe blood Pb level and even the current ‘‘low’’ levels


of exposure in children are associated with neurodevelopmentaldeficits (Bellinger, 2008; CDC, 2013). It is noteworthy that the2009 draft Pb, As, Cd, and Sb impurity limits for Canada are morestringent than those of Germany’s limits, which were made in1985. This suggests that, with time, the ability of manufacturersto technically reduce impurities can and has changed. Another caseis the quantity of Hg in skin-weighting creams. On a total of 197samples investigated in 8 different studies (see Table 8), the27.9% of samples were well above the 1 lg/g that is the Germantechnically avoidable limit for Hg but the 72.1% of samples con-tained Hg less than 1 lg/g or even under the LoD, so these datasuggest that impurities of Hg may be avoidable. Some companiesare also moving towards plant-based colorants and away frompetroleum or coal tar-based colorants to avoid some raw materialcontaminants. Others are asking their suppliers to screen for con-taminants and source the least contaminated ingredients possible.In the USA, manufacturers may purchase ingredients certified byan independent organization called United States Pharmacopeiathat may contain lower levels of harmful impurities (EWG, 2007).

Regardless, it is clear that impurities still exist in our make-up.These impurities remain unlabeled on products and consumerstherefore unknowingly put them on eyes, face, and lips. Theamounts applied to the skin or lips each day might be small, butexposures via cosmetics and elsewhere can add up over time,something regulatory and standard-setting agencies often do notconsider. Because the number of cosmetics on the market is unlim-ited and many cosmetics are used in combination and can have dif-ferent exposure patterns and health effects, further research on thesafety of cosmetics is mandatory in order to reduce an unnecessaryexposure to toxic metals.

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