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Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development

in the Greater Horn of Africain the Greater Horn of Africain the Greater Horn of Africain the Greater Horn of Africa

VOLUME 1: MAIN VOLUME 1: MAIN VOLUME 1: MAIN VOLUME 1: MAIN SYNTHESIS SYNTHESIS SYNTHESIS SYNTHESIS REPORTREPORTREPORTREPORT

Nicholson Court, Nicholson Drive

Off Ngong Road

P.O. Box 10677

00100 – Nairobi, Kenya.

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Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010

P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi i

TABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTTABLE OF CONTTABLE OF CONTTABLE OF CONTENTSENTSENTSENTS i

LIST OF TABLESLIST OF TABLESLIST OF TABLESLIST OF TABLES vi

LIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURES vii

LIST OF ANNEXESLIST OF ANNEXESLIST OF ANNEXESLIST OF ANNEXES viii

LIST OF ACRONYMSLIST OF ACRONYMSLIST OF ACRONYMSLIST OF ACRONYMS ix

EXECUTIVE SUMMARYEXECUTIVE SUMMARYEXECUTIVE SUMMARYEXECUTIVE SUMMARY xiii

1.0 INTRODUCTION1.0 INTRODUCTION1.0 INTRODUCTION1.0 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Purpose 1

1.2 Background 1

1.3 Objectives 3

1.4 Scope of Work 4

1.5 Output 4

2.0 CONCEPT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY2.0 CONCEPT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY2.0 CONCEPT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY2.0 CONCEPT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 5

2.1 Conceptual Framework 5

2.2 Methodology 6

3.0 ASAL REGION OF THE 3.0 ASAL REGION OF THE 3.0 ASAL REGION OF THE 3.0 ASAL REGION OF THE GREATER HORN OF AFRICAGREATER HORN OF AFRICAGREATER HORN OF AFRICAGREATER HORN OF AFRICA 8

3.1 Ecology, Climate and Environment 8

3.2 Pastoralism and Climate Change 9

3.3 Pastoralism and the Environment 9

3.4 Pastoral Livelihood systems 10

3.4.1 Pastoral Identity 10

3.4.2 Adaptive Strategies for Sustainable Livelihoods in ASALs 11

3.4.3 Wealth and Income Distribution in Pastoral Households 13

3.4.4 Social and Policy Development Challenges 13

3.4.5 Community Perspectives 14

3.5 Human Population and Consumption Trends 15

3.5.1 Population Trends 15

3.5.2 Consumption Trends 17

3.6 Key Institutions/Organizations 18

3.6.1 UN Protocol on Desertification 18


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3.6.2 Intergovernmental Authority on Development 20

3.6.3 Nile Basin Initiative 21

3.6.4 Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa 23

3.6.5 East African Community (EAC) 24

4.0 WATER RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGIONS4.0 WATER RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGIONS4.0 WATER RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGIONS4.0 WATER RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGIONS 25

4.1 Water Resources Endowment 25

4.1.1 Djibouti 25

4.1.2 Eritrea 26

4.1.3 Ethiopia 28

4.1.4 Kenya 32

4.1.5 Somalia 34

4.1.6 Sudan 36

4.1.7 Uganda 37

4.2 Water Harvesting and Storage Systems 39

4.2.1 Surface and Rainwater Harvesting 40

4.2.2 Water Storage Systems 42

4.3 Water Supply 46

4.3.1 Main Water Sources 46

4.3.2 Access to Water 47

4.3.3 Emergency Water Tankering 48

4.4 Water Demand 49

4.4.1 Multiple users 49

4.4.2 Livestock Water Demand 49

4.5 Safeguarding Scarce Water Resources 50

4.5.1 Country Cases 50

4.6 Institutional Framework for the Water Sector 57

4.6.1 Regional Level 57

4.6.2 National Level 57

4.6.3 Country Cases 58

4.7 Proposed Interventions 66

5.0 PASTURE RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGION5.0 PASTURE RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGION5.0 PASTURE RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGION5.0 PASTURE RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGION 68

5.1 Pasture Resources in Djibouti 68

5.2 Pasture Resources in Eritrea 70

5.2.1 The Natural Pastures 70

5.2.2 Other Feed Resources 72

5.2.3 Pasture Conservation in Reference to the Eco-Zones 73

5.2.4 Opportunities for Improvement of Fodder Resources 74

5.3 Pasture Resources in Ethiopia 78

5.3.1 Natural Pastures 78

5.3.2 Conditions and Trends of Grazing-lands 81


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5.4 Pasture Resources in Kenya 83

5.4.1 Pasture Seed Production 87

5.4.2 Pasture Research 87

5.4.3 Pasture Quality 87

5.5 Pasture Resources in Somalia 89

5.6 Pasture Resources in Sudan 89

5.6.1 Seed Pasture 91

5.6.2 Livestock Carrying Capacity 91

5.7 Pasture Resources in Uganda 91

5.7.1 Forage Quality 95

5.8 Opportunities for Improvement of Pasture Resources 95

5.8.1 Policy and Institutional Level 95

5.8.2 Private Sector Involvement 95

5.8.3 Research 96

5.8.4 Effective Co-ordination 96

5.8.5 Legislations and Regulations 96

5.8.6 Institutional Capacity Building 96

5.8.7 Integration of the Formal and Informal Seed Systems 97

5.9 Regional Level 97

5.9.1 Networking 97

5.9.2 Regional Pasture and Forage Improvement Activities 97

5.10 Constraints to Pasture Development within the GHA 97

5.10.1 Water 98

5.10.2 Lack of Specific Government Strategies for Rangeland Rehabilitation 98

5.10.3 Seed Sector Constraints 99

5.10.4 Research Deficiency 99

5.10.5 Inherent Constraints to the Development of Range Improvement Activities 100

6. SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK 6. SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK 6. SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK 6. SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT IN THE ASAL REGIONDEVELOPMENT IN THE ASAL REGIONDEVELOPMENT IN THE ASAL REGIONDEVELOPMENT IN THE ASAL REGION 102

6.1 Livestock Production System 102

6.1.1 Grassland Based Systems (LG) 104

6.1.2 Mixed Irrigated Husbandry (MI) Production Systems 105

6.1.3 Mixed Rainfed Systems (MR) 106

6.1.4 Production Trends 107

6.1.5 Livestock Breeds and Performance 109

6.1.6 Conservation of Indigenous Livestock Breeds 110

6.2 Livestock Management Practices 111

6.2.1 Livestock Management Systems 111

6.2.2 Livestock Information Management 111

6.3 Emerging Livestock 112

6.3.1 Developing Emerging Livestock Sub-Sector 112

6.4 Livestock Composition and Distribution 113


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6.5 Pastoral Farming Systems 114

6.6 Livestock Marketing, Trade and Infratructure 116

6.6.1 External Market 117

6.6.2 Regional Market 120

6.6.3 Internal Markets 122

6.6.4 Infrastructure 124

6.6.5 Value Addition 126

6.7 Financing of the Livestock Sector 128

6.7.1 Need for Financing 128

6.7.2 Public Sector Financing 128

6.7.3 Private Sector Financing 129

6.7.4 Cooperative Societies 129

6.7.5 Financing of Livestock-related Sectors 129

6.7.6 Donor Financing through Livestock Development Programmes 130

6.7.7 Recent and Ongoing Interventions 132

6.7.8 Opportunities for Intervention 133

6.7.9 A Case for High-input High-output Breeds 134

6.7.10 Opportunities for Intervention 134

6.8 Animal-Human Health Impact 135

6.8.1 Animal Health 135

6.9 Human-Livestock Interaction 142

6.9.1 Zoonotic Diseases 142

6.9.2 Strategies for Management of Zoonotic Diseases 143

7 POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL 7 POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL 7 POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL 7 POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKFRAMEWORKFRAMEWORKFRAMEWORK 147

7.1 Policy and Regulatory Framework in Water Sector 147

7.1.1 Djibouti 147

7.1.2 Eritrea 148

7.1.3 Ethiopia 148

7.1.4 Kenya 149

7.1.5 Somalia 150

7.1.6 Sudan 151

7.1.7 Uganda 151

7.2 Policy and Regulatory Framework in Pasture 152

7.2.1 Djibouti 152

7.2.2 Eritrea 153

7.2.3 Ethiopia 153

7.2.4 Kenya 154

7.2.5 Somalia 154

7.2.6 Sudan 154

7.2.7 Uganda 155

7.2.8 Summary of Policy Interventions 155

7.3 Livestock Policy and Regulatory Framework 158


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7.3.1 Regulatory Framework 158

7.3.2 Institutional Framework 162

7.3.3 Proposed Interventions in Livestock Policy and Regulatory Framework 163

8. CROSSCUTTING ISSUES8. CROSSCUTTING ISSUES8. CROSSCUTTING ISSUES8. CROSSCUTTING ISSUES 166

8.1 Peace Building, Disaster Management and Security 166

8.1.1 Pervasive Conflict in the GHA 166

8.1.2 Framework for Conflict Management 167

8.1.3 Way Forward 173

8.2 Gender Dimensions in ASAL Livelihoods 174

8.2.1 Access and Ownership of Resources 174

8.2.2 Migration and Employment 175

8.2.3 Education 175

8.3 HIV/AIDS in GHA Pastoral Communities 175

8.3.1 Manifestation of the HIV/AIDS Problem 175

8.3.2 Awareness Levels 176

8.4 Climate Change 177

8.4.1 Climate Change Phenomenon 177

8.4.2 Pastoralism and Climate Change 178

8.4.3 Pastoral Adaptation 178

9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 181

9.1 Summary 181

9.2 Conclusion 182

9.3 Recommendation 183

APPENDICESAPPENDICESAPPENDICESAPPENDICES 184


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LIST OF TABLESLIST OF TABLESLIST OF TABLESLIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Problem Ranking Results in Three Villages in Ethiopia ..................................... 14

Table 4.1: Water Basins of Ethiopia and their Area Coverage ............................................. 29

Table 4.3: Estimated Costs for Water Harvesting Structures (per M3) ................................ 41

Table 4.4: International Treaties Governing the Water Sector in Sudan ............................ 55

Table: 4.5: Long Term Strategies for the Uganda Water Sector ........................................... 57

Table 4.6: Institutional Arrangement of the Ethiopian Water Sector ................................. 60

Table 4.7: Institutional Arrangement of the Sudan Water Sector ....................................... 63

Table 4.8: Institutional Arrangement of the Uganda Water Sector ..................................... 64

Table 4.9: Interventions in the Water Sector ........................................................................ 66

Table 5.1: Fodder species in Djibouti ..................................................................................... 69

Table 5.2: Dominant Pastures in Djibouti ............................................................................. 69

Table 5.3: Estimated DM Production and Carrying Capacity .............................................. 70

Table 5.4: Estimated Feed Availability to Livestock in Ethiopia ......................................... 81

Table 5.5: Livestock Feed Quality in Kenya .......................................................................... 88

Table 5.6: Comparative Growth of Pasture Land and Crop Land in Sudan ........................ 90

Table 5.7: Current and Potential Grazing Areas of Uganda ................................................. 91

Table 5.8: Cattle Feed Sources, Quality and Carrying Capacity ........................................... 93

Table 5.9: Major Pasture Varieties in Uganda. ...................................................................... 94

Table 5.10: Natural Grasses of Uganda, TDN ........................................................................ 95

Table 6.1: Pastoral/agro Pastoral Production Systems - Animal Numbers (2000) ............ 102

Table 6.2: Mixed Crop – Livestock Production Systems - Animal Numbers (2000) ......... 102

Table 6.3: Production Systems within the GHA ................................................................. 104

Table 6.4: Merits of Indigenous and Exotic Cattle and their Crosses ................................ 109

Table 6.5: Livestock Population ........................................................................................... 113

Table 6.6: Livestock Exports at the Djibouti Quarantine Station ...................................... 117

Table 6.7: Main Livestock Products Imported by GHA Countries (2007) ........................ 120

Table 6.8: Financing of Livestock-related Activities .......................................................... 130

Table 6.9: AU-AIBAR and Donor Supported Interventions .............................................. 132

Table 6.10 Major Diseases/Pathogens in the GHA ............................................................. 136

Table 6.11: Numbers of Cattle Exposed to Trypanosomiasis in GHA ................................ 138

Table 6.12 Some Aspects of Disease Control Initiatives across the GHA .......................... 141

Table 6.13: Ranking of Zoonotic diseases in GHA .............................................................. 143

Table 6.14: Transboundary Diseases Transmitted between Wildlife and Livestock ........ 146

Table 7.2: Policy Interventions in Water and Pasture ....................................................... 155

Table 7.3: GHA Membership in the WTO, Codex and OIE............................................... 159

Table 7.5: Policy Interventions ............................................................................................ 163

Table 8.1: Somalia Development Indicators, 2001–02 ........................................................ 169

Table 8.2: HIV/AIDS prevalence in GHA ........................................................................... 176


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LIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................... 5

Figure 2.2: Thematic Overview of the Study .......................................................................... 6

Figure 3.1: Population Growth and Urbanisation Trends in GHA 1980-2015 ................... 16

Figure 3.2: Annual Meat Consumption Kg/Capita ................................................................ 17

Figure 3.3: Annual Milk Consumption Kg/capita ................................................................. 17

Figure 4.1: Strategy of Rain Water Harvesting ..................................................................... 40

Figure 4.2: Overview of the Institutional Arrangement of the Water Sector in GHA ....... 58

Figure 4.3: Water Sector Financing in Uganda. .................................................................... 64

Figure 5.1: Livestock Feeds in Ethiopia ................................................................................. 82

Figure 5.2: Typical pasture in ASALs of Kenya. .................................................................... 86

Figure 5.3: Trends in pasture land development in the Sudan (km2) ................................. 90

Figure 5.4: Livestock Feed Supply and Demand in Turkana District in 2000. .................... 98

Figure 6.1: Livestock production systems in the Horn of Africa ....................................... 103

Figure 6.2: Meat Production Trends, Tonnes ...................................................................... 108

Figure 6.3: Milk Production Trends, Tonnes ...................................................................... 108

Figure 6.4: Livestock Distribution Across the GHA ........................................................... 114

Figure 6.5: Pastoral settlement in Mandera District ........................................................... 115

Figure 6.6a: Cattle inside the station ................................................................................... 116

Figure 6.6b: Camels housed at the station ........................................................................... 117

Figure 6.7: Live Animals Exports from the Regional Quarantine Centre, Djibouti ......... 118

Figure 6.8: Regional Quarantine Station Marketing Model ............................................... 119

Figure 6.9: Cross Border Livestock Trade in the IGAD ...................................................... 121

Figure 6.10a: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Djibouti ................................................ 123

Figure 6.10b: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Kenya ................................................... 123

Figure 6.10c: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Sudan .................................................... 124

Figure 6.10d: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Uganda ................................................. 124

Figure 6.11: Impact of Livestock Diseases ........................................................................... 135

Figure 6.12: Tse tse fly Distribution within GHA Region .................................................. 137

Figure 7.1 Major Economic Blocks across Africa ................................................................ 160

Figure 8.1: Inter and Intra Pastoral Conflicts within the GHA ......................................... 166

Figure 8.2: Coverage of the Karamoja Conflict ................................................................... 172


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LIST OF LIST OF LIST OF LIST OF ANNEXESANNEXESANNEXESANNEXES

Annex 1: Terms of Reference ............................................................................................... 185

Annex 2: Fisheries ................................................................................................................. 192

Annex 3: Forestry ................................................................................................................. 198

Annex 4: Apiculture ............................................................................................................. 200

Annex 5: Livestock Trade and Marketing Infrastructure ................................................... 204

Annex 6: Strengths and Weaknesses of Sector Institutions ............................................... 218

Annex 7: Prosopis ................................................................................................................. 223

Annex 8: Payment for Environmental Services .................................................................. 226

Annex 9: Effects of Drought and Floods to Pastoralists ...................................................... 230

Annex 10:Cross Border Issues .............................................................................................. 234

Annex 11:AfDB Supported Projects across the Region ...................................................... 241

Annex 12:Statistical Abstracts .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.Error! Bookmark not defined.Error! Bookmark not defined.Error! Bookmark not defined.

Annex 13:List of Persons Consulted .................................................................................... 248

Annex 14:List of Key References ......................................................................................... 274


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LIST OF ACRONYMSLIST OF ACRONYMSLIST OF ACRONYMSLIST OF ACRONYMS

A.I Artificial Insemination

ACP Action Against Poverty

AFC Agricultural Finance Corporation

AfDB African Development Bank

AgGDP agricultural Gross Domestic Product

AGR Animal Genetic Resources

ALLPRO ASAL Based Livestock and Rural Livelihoods Support Project

AMCOW African Ministers’ Council on Water

APSK Animal Production Society of Kenya

ASAL Arid and Semi Arid Lands

ATVET Agricultural Technique and Vocational Education Training

AU African Union

AU-AIBAR African Union Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources

BCM Billion Cubic Metres

BZ Buffer Zones

C3 Crop Crisis Control

CAAC Cathment Area Advisory Committee

CAADP Comphrehensive Africa Agricultural Development Pragramme

CBAHWs Community Based Animal Health Workers

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

CBO Community-Based Organization

CBPP Contagious Bovine Pleuro-Pneumonia

CCAA Competitive Commercial Agriculture in Sub Saharan Africa

CCPP Contagious Caprine Pleuro-Pneumonia

CDC Community Development Centers

CHZ Central Highlands Zone

COMESA Common Market for East and Southern Africa

CSO Civil Society Organisation

DANIDA Danish International Development Agency

DFD Director Fisheries Development

DFID Department for International Development

DFZ Disease Free Zone

DLP Director of Livestock Production

DST Decision Support Tool of the Nile Basin Intiative

DUS Distinctiveness, Uniformity and Stability (of seed)

DVOs District Veterinary Officers

DVS Director Veterinary Services

EAC East African Community

ECA Eastern and Central African Region

EDF European Development Fund


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ELATA Ethiopian Live Animal Traders Association

EMASAR Ecological Management of Arid and Semi Arid Rangelands

EMCA Environmental Management and Coordination Act

ENNDA Ewaso-Ng'iro North Development Authority

ENSDA Ewaso-Ng'iro South Development Authority

EPA Environmental Protection Authority

ESAP Ethiopian Society of Animal Production

EU European Union

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FEW Frontline Extension Workers

FEW Frontline Extention Workers

FGDs Focused Group Discussions

FINNIDA Finnish International Development Agency

FMD Foot and Mouth Disease

FSA Financial Services Associations

FTCs Farmer Training Centres

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GEMS Global Environmental Monitoring Programme of UNEP

GHA Greater Horn of Africa

GoK Government of Kenya

GTZ Germany Agency for Technical Cooperation

HACCP Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point

HIHO High Input High Output

HMPL High and Medium Potential Lands

HPC/LZ High Potential Cereal/Livestock Zone

HPI Heifers Project International

HPP/LZ High Potential Perenial/Livestock Zone

IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

ICRAF International Centre for Research in Agro-forestry

IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development

IKS Indigenous Knowledge Systems

ILRI International Livestock Research Institute

KARI Kenya Agricultural Research Institute

KBA Kenya Beekeepers Association

KCA Kenya Camel Association

KENFAP Kenya national Federation of Animal Producers

KENPAWAE Kenya Professional Association of Women in Agriculture and Environment

KEPHIS Kenya Plant health Inspectorate Services

KETRI Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute

KEWI Kenya Water Institute

KLDP Kenya Livestock Development Programme

KMC Kenya Meat Commission

K-REP Kenya Rural Enterprises Programme

KSB Kenya Studbook


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KSC Kenya Seed Company

KVA Kenya Veterinary Association

KVDA Kerio Valley Development Authority

KWFT Kenya Women Finance Trust

LEWS Livestock Early Warning Systems

LMD Livestock Marketing Division

LPC/LZ Low Potential Cereal/Livestock Zone

LPF Livestock processing Facilities

LRC Livestock Recording Centre

LSD Lumpy Skin Disease

LVDP Lake Victoria Development Programme

MAAIF Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries

MAEM Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and the Sea

MARF Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries

MCM Million Cubic Meters

MDG Millenium Development Goals

MoA Ministry of Agriculture

MoLD Ministry of Livestock Development

MWE Ministry of Water and Environment

MWI Ministry of Water and Irrigation

NAADS National Agricultural Advisory Services

NAEP National Agricultural Extension Policy

NALEP National Agriculture and Livestock Extension Programme

NAP National Action Programmes

NBI Nile Basin Initiative

NDF National Desertification Fund

NELSAP Nile Equitorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Programme

NEMA National Environment Management Authority

NEPAD New Partnership for Africa Development

NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations

NIB National Irrigation Board

NLDP National Livestock Development Project

NSQS National Seed Quality and Control Services

NWCPC National Water Conservation and Pipeline Cooperation

NZD Neglected Zoonotic Diseases

OIE World Organization for Animal Health

OVD Djibouti Highways Authority

PACD Plan of Action to Combat Desertification

PATTEC Pan African Tsetse Fly and Trypanosomiacis Eradication Campaign

PCDP Pastoral Communities Development Project

PES Payment for Environmental Services

PMA Plan for Modernization of Agriculture

PPLPI Pro-Poor Livestock Policy Intiative

PPR Peste des Petits Ruminants


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PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal

RAP Regional Action Programme

RDA Regional Development Authority

REC Regional Economic Communities

RMD Range Management Division

SACCO Savings and Credit Co-operatives

SARDEP Semi-Arid Development Programme

SDARF State Directorate of Animal Resources and Fisheries of Sudan

SEARNET Sourthen and Eastern Africa Rainwater Network

SNAP Sudan National Action Program

SRAP sub-Regional Action Programme

SVP Shared Vision Programme

TAD Transboundary Animal Diseases

TLU Tropical Livestock Unit

TZD Transboundary Zoonotic Diseases

UCL Uganda Crocs Limited

UNCCD United Nations Conference on Combating Desertification

UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Desertification

UNEP United Nations Environmental Program

UNFCCC United Nations Framework ConveNtion on Climate Change

UNFD National Union of Djibouti Women

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

UNCCD United Nations Covention to Combart Desertification

UNSO United Nations Service Organization

USAID United States Agency for International Development

WAB Water Appeals Board

WASIP Water for Production Strategy and Investment Plan

WEDCO Women Enterprise Development Company

WRMA Water Resources Management Authority

WRUA Water Resources User Association

WSB Water Service Board

WSDP Water Sector Development Programme in Ethiopia

WSP Water Service Provider

WSRB Water Services Regulatory Board

WSS Water Supply and Sanitation

WSTF Water Services Trust Fund


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EXECUTIVE SUMMARYEXECUTIVE SUMMARYEXECUTIVE SUMMARYEXECUTIVE SUMMARY

GeneralGeneralGeneralGeneral

The Regional Study on Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa (GHA) was commissioned by the African Development Bank in October 2008. The

purpose of the study was to assess the status and improvements in water and pasture in

support of livestock development in the arid and semiarid lands (ASAL) of the GHA.

ASAL areas have typically rainfall range of 50mm and 500mm per annum, with wide

variability in location incidences. ASALs constitute at least 76% of the GHA land area of

5.2 million square kilometers. The population of GHA countries, estimated at 205 million

people in 2009 and growing rapidly at 3.2% per annum, is also one of the poorest on the

continent. The GHA is also beset with civil strife on a scale larger than any other

conflicts on the continent. Livelihoods in ASAL area revolve around livestock. The main

drivers in the livelihood systems are water and pasture as the key determinants of pastoral

livestock systems and hence livelihoods.

Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of the GHA countries. It contributes a major

share of the overall GDP which varies from 3.7% (Djibouti) to 52.3% (Somalia), while

employing over three quarters of the population of the region. Since crop production is

limited by inadequate rainfall, livestock contributes between 19.8% and 88.2% of the

agriculture sector contribution to the GDP. Since most livestock is owned under nomadic

pastoralism in the ASAL areas of the GHA, ASALs therefore are a major part of the

economies and ecosystems of the countries of the GHA. It is however, expected that the

easing of factor constraints in water and pasture could increase the livestock sector

potential to contribute to food security, environmental protection, conflict prevention

and general economic well being in the GHA.

All countries in the Greater Horn of Africa are members of the Intergovernmental

Authority on Development (IGAD), except Eritrea which temporarily suspended

membership of IGAD. To ensure food security and environmental protection IGAD

launched the Livestock Policy Initiative (IGAD-LPI) in October 2003. The initiative aims

at enhancing the contribution of the livestock sector to sustainable food security and

poverty reduction in the GHA region by strengthening the capacity among its member

states, other regional organizations and other stakeholders to formulate and implement

livestock sector and related policies that sustainably increase food security and poverty.

The success of the LPI is crucially dependent on progress in water and pasture supply.

This study is meant to feed into the knowledge base required to make informed choices.

The GHA region suffers from severe effects of climate change. The recurring and severe

droughts and floods have caused widespread famine, ecological degradation, poverty and


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economic hardships in the region. The impacts of climate change have been more severe

because of inadequate water management facilities and practices, erratic and

unpredictable rainfall patterns, and high ambient temperatures. Their consequences

include shortage in water and food for both animals and humans, resulting in high

incidence of famine and losses in both human and animal lives in the region. In order to

overcome this shortfall in food supply, the countries of the region have resorted to food

aid, receiving the highest per capita quantity of food aid in the continent. Such a level of

food aid dependency is not sustainable and puts the region under constant threat of

famine which threatens not only peace but also affects conservation of unique

environments and biodiversity and the ability of the region to play an effective role in the

community of nations.

Water and pastures are critical for pastoral livelihoods which are characterized by

frequent movements in search of water and feed during the long periods of scarcity.

Water availability, coupled with its quality, is also important for human consumption.

The problem of scarce natural resources, especially water and pasture has led to violent

conflicts in the Greater Horn of Africa and has thus contributed to the problems of cattle

rustling, food insecurity and poverty. These problems have affected women

disproportionately.

Pastoralists and agro-pastoralists live in extreme poverty with limited alternative sources

of income and constant mobility in search of water and feed for their livestock and for

sustaining their livelihoods. This lifestyle implies that the goal of reducing poverty by half

and achieving an environmentally sustainable development as envisaged in the United

Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) may not be attained in the region.

Furthermore, the efforts of the international community to contribute to poverty

alleviation and, therefore, to the attainment of the MDGs will be in vain unless drastic

measures are carried out to reverse the trend.

It has been argued that pastoralism is the most suitable livelihood and land-use system in

ASALs: extensive production system with low emission of methane, no accumulation of

dung and gases, which would pollute land and water resources; use of resources which are

otherwise wasted (saltish, bitter and thorny vegetation of the rangeland, brackish and

muddy water). Pastoralism is therefore an appropriate land-use system which enables

people to adapt by moving livestock according to the shifting availability of water and

pasture.

However, pastoral livelihoods are not static. Better-off households have larger herd sizes

with livestock and livestock products making up a higher proportion of food and income.

Better-off households will sell livestock both to meet immediate needs and enable the

purchase of consumables. Reduced herd sizes of poorer households mean they are usually

reliant on a wider range of income sources, with non livestock income sources making up


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi xv

more than half of the incomes of the poor. But livestock remains critical to their

livelihood strategy: preserving and building up herds is such a priority that households

will reduce consumption in order to avoid selling livestock. The poorest households tend

to drop out of pastoralism as herd sizes become small and unviable.

In recent decades most pastoralists have significantly diversified both food and income

sources. Whereas milk often made the greatest contribution to the diet in the past, cereals

now make up the bulk of pastoral diets. In order to finance these purchases, pastoralists

exchange livestock and livestock products for grain. Furthermore, trading, sale of wood

and charcoal as well as non-timber forest products (honey, leaf products, gums, resins)

and, in many cases, daily wage labor have all become important income sources.

In addition to the changes at household level, the social and institutional milieu of

pastoral livelihoods has a number of challenges. The main ones being:

(i) The rapid population growth averaging about 3.2% per annum;

(ii) Increasing sedentarization around water points, along highways and around

social services such as education and health facilities; and

(iii) Introduction of crop farming which interferes with migratory patterns of the

pastoralists/nomads.

(iv) Consequently pastoralists have to deal with issues of increasing demand for

land and grazing rights thus effectively altering land tenure arrangements.

(v) These exogenous factors are reinforced by endogenous ones such as the

breakdown in traditional governance structures and the absence of public

sector institutions in pastoral regions to help fill the void. Where there may be

a public sector present, its effectiveness is reduced by the straight jacket

approach used in interventions in pastoral areas.

Stiff Competition for Limited ResourcesStiff Competition for Limited ResourcesStiff Competition for Limited ResourcesStiff Competition for Limited Resources

WaterWaterWaterWater

The competition for limited resources is a direct consequence of the pressure within

pastoral communities. Easing the water and pasture constraints would greatly reduce the

often vicious competition for access to natural resources. Inadequate access to water is

arguably the most binding of the constraints that pastoralists face. The GHA region has

scarce water resources. The mean annual rainfall is low for more 76% of the area,


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi xvi

sometimes as low as below 50mm per annum. The per capita water availability also varies

from about 1,666 m3 in Uganda to 460 m3 in Djibouti. Water infrastructure is generally

poorly developed with per capita water storage being one of the lowest in the world.

There is, therefore, strong competition for water among multiple users: domestic,

industrial, agricultural (including irrigation and livestock), and the need for a residual for

the environment. The main thrust of development programmes is to meet the needs of

multiple users. Sustainable approaches to water sector development in general and for

pastoral areas in particular, require a comprehensive approach. Key elements in such an

approach include:

1. Recognizing the needs of all users, within and across countries

2. Building the capacity of water sector institutions to serve of all users

3. Increasing water saving through recycling of waste water

4. Exploiting underground water resources to supplement surface flows

5. Improving water storage capacity

6. Increasing rainwater harvesting, and,

7. Increasing water use efficiency especially in irrigation

GHA member states have individually drawn up policy documents meant at ensuring that

the scarce water resources are adequately managed and properly utilized. The key

characteristic of the various water resources policies is the recognition that water

resources in the region are shared between countries.

Djibouti:Djibouti:Djibouti:Djibouti: In 2006, the Government of Djibouti adopted an integrated national water and

sanitation policy based on the establishment of a single operator to coordinate and

streamline the activities in the water and sanitation sectors. This led to the establishment

of the National Water and Sanitation Authority (ONEAD). However, the implementation

of the water sector strategies has been slow mainly due to resource and institutional

constraints. It is expected that the establishment of the ONEAD, which is a grouping of

all water and sanitation services, will rationalize sector management and hasten

implementation.

Eritrea: Eritrea: Eritrea: Eritrea: The water needs of Eritrea are almost entirely met from groundwater resources.

Except the reservoirs of the cities of Asmara and Mendefera, there are no surface water

resources in the country. The Setit is the only perennial river traversing a small

southwestern tract of the country. The available water resources hardly cater for around

15% of the requirement of the people.

In the present situation only groundwater development and management is a viable

solution. The geology of the area, including the basement rocks is suitable as receptacles


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi xvii

of groundwater. Besides, the country is crisscrossed by many shears, fractures, normal

faults, extension joints and dykes which act as conduits. As a part of groundwater

management, aforestation, social forestry, horticulture and grasslands are being promoted

extensively, initially in the central high land zone and the green belt zone that receive

more than 800 mm rainfall. The same programmes are to be extended to the western

escarpment, southern lowland, northwestern low land and the coastal zone, which is

mostly ASAL. Both surface and subsurface water development and management are

essential in meeting the water requirements of the country and to avoid soil erosion and

associated problems that negatively impact the pastoral community.

Ethiopia: Ethiopia: Ethiopia: Ethiopia: The overall policy framework for the water sector in Ethiopia is provided by the

integrated Water Resources Management Policy. The policy has the following objectives:

i. Development of water resources of the country for economic and social benefits of

the people on equitable and sustainable basis

ii. Allocation and apportionment of water, based on comprehensive and integrated

plans and optimum allocation principles that incorporate efficiency of use, equity

of access and sustainability of resource

iii. Managing and combating drought as well as other associated slow onset disasters

through efficient allocation, redistribution, transfer, storage and efficient use of

water resources

iv. Combating and regulating floods through sustainable mitigation, prevention,

rehabilitation and other practical measures

v. Conserving, protecting and enhancing water resources and the overall aquatic

environment on sustainable basis

The Ministry of Water Resources is the federal body that is responsible for the

constitutional and organizational function of the water sector. The state Governments

have jurisdiction of the water resources within their territory but when water passes the

boundary of the state it becomes the mandate and jurisdiction of the federal state.

Kenya: Kenya: Kenya: Kenya: The main Government documents that define the policy and regulatory

environment for the water sector in Kenya are the Vision 2030, Water Resources Policy,

1999 and the Water Act, 2002. There are also the Strategy for Revitalization of

Agriculture 2004-2014, the Irrigation and Drainage Policy among other sectoral policies.

The water Storage Policy is currently under development.

Under Vision 2030, the Kenyan government targets to conserve the scarce water

resources in the country and at the same time harvest rain and ground water resources to


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi xviii

meet the country’s development needs. Investment in capacity building for institutions

involved in water sector has been prioritized. The country intends to, among other efforts

rehabilitate hydro-meteorological data gathering network, construct multipurpose dams

and also construct water and sanitation facilities to support industries and growing urban

population.

Kenya’s water sector however, still faces several socio-economic, political and technical

challenges that require stronger policy and institutional interventions. These, include,

among other issues, the serious environmental degradation within the country’s few

‘water towers’, inadequate resource allocations for sector growth and low institutional

capacity to effectively manage sector activities.

Somalia: Somalia: Somalia: Somalia: Somalia has had no functional Government since 1991. USAID reports that

before the civil war, urban WSS was managed by the public sector, but the systems were

financially stressed and water supply systems in many cities were inadequate even before

the breakout of conflict. Currently, most WSS infrastructure either is damaged or has

been poorly maintained during and after the conflict, rendering it inoperable. UNICEF

provided support to the Ministry of Water and Mineral Resources in Somaliland in the

development of a Water Policy, National Water Strategy and a Water Act. The

Somaliland government has endorsed the Water Act of 2004. It remains to be seen how

effective the policy and legislations will be and whether the sector can be shielded from

the overall uncertainty facing the country.

Sudan: Sudan: Sudan: Sudan: The Sudan National Action Programme (SNAP) developed in 2006 seeks to

provide a comprehensive framework for combating desertification in the Sudan. The

action plan was developed in the framework of the UN convention on combating

desertification, UNCCD. Sudan Water Policy 2007 provides the general guidance for the

water sector in the country. The policy seeks to ensure that water resources are properly

managed, protected and efficiently utilized for the benefit of the Sudanese population.

UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda: The country has developed the National Water Policy expected to promote a

new integrated approach to manage the water resources in ways that are sustainable and

most beneficial to the people of Uganda. These policies put strength on the supply of

water for production as a primary objective.

PasturesPasturesPasturesPastures

The GHA region has about 1.6 million square kilometers of pasture and forage land. The

distribution of pastures and forage across the region is determined by climatic conditions.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi xix

Rangelands form an immense natural resource and the major source of feed for livestock

across the region. The various types of grazing land vary from open grasslands to seasonal

water courses, flood plains, river banks and associated islands, woodlands, hills and

mountain slopes

The sparse rainfall combined with population pressure remains the main challenge to

sustainable pasture development in ASAL areas. Governments have not had any

consistent policy for pasture development in the ASAL areas. Attempts are few and ad

hoc.

Due to the above challenges, pasture availability and quality has been greatly undermined

across the region. Pastoralists have depended on limited natural pastures and crop

residues for livestock feed.

Although there are many techniques for rehabilitation of degraded rangeland (seeding

methods, soil moisture conservation techniques, water harvesting, water spreading etc.)

most are rather costly compared to the likely economic returns. The more fundamental

approach would therefore be that which involves pastoralists in sound environmental

management and conservation techniques. To achieve this, an integrated multi-sectoral

approaches need to be adopted across issues of policy, institutional arrangements,

technical approaches and investment interventions within the rangelands. Particularly

important also are clear land tenure arrangements that will motivate the beneficiaries to

utilize rehabilitated sites in a sustainable manner.

Country StatusCountry StatusCountry StatusCountry Status

Djibouti:Djibouti:Djibouti:Djibouti: Since 2001, Djibouti has suffered a series of droughts, which have devastated

pasturelands that rural herdsmen have traditionally relied on to feed their livestock. The

World Food Programme (2007) reports that in the northern part of the country most

pastoralists will probably not remember when it last rained in the region. Rangeland

biodiversity forms an extremely important part of livestock feed. Fodder plants include

trees, shrubs, grasses and forbs which provide forage for both domesticated and wild

animals. Seventy to eighty percent of all woody rangeland plants and most of herb species

are palatable to either browsing or grazing livestock.

ErErErEritrea:itrea:itrea:itrea: The bulk of livestock feed (estimated to be about 90 percent) comes from grazing

on pastures and stubble, conserved crop residues (straw and stover from sorghum, millet,

wheat, barley, teff, maize, industrial crops) and agro-industrial by-products that include

linseed and sesame cake, cotton seed and cotton seed cake and wheat bran. In general,

forage supply shortages are amplified by their poor quality. In addition agro-industrial

by-products are often inefficiently used and likewise crop residues are fed without

treatment or supplementation. The limited locally grown forages for livestock production

is not the only main problem, but management practices of forage production and its


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi xx

inefficient utilization is the one that causes under nutrition as a major factor in low

productivity of livestock. The overall feed balance in Eritrea indicates that feed is in short

supply by 20 percent in terms of energy and 30 percent in terms of protein requirements.

Ethiopia: Ethiopia: Ethiopia: Ethiopia: Livestock feed resources in Ethiopia are mainly natural grazing and browse,

crop residues, improved pasture, forage crops and agro-industrial by-products. Feeding

systems include communal or private natural grazing and browsing, cut-and-carry

feeding, hay and crop residues. Livestock are fed almost entirely on natural pasture and

crop residues. Grazing is on permanent grazing areas, fallow land and cropland after

harvest. Forage availability and quality are not favourable year round and hence gains

made in the wet season are totally or partially lost in the dry season.

Kenya: The range in the ASAL is the main source of nutrients for both livestock and

wildlife. However, it is either extensively degraded or heavily encroached by bush or

weed, resulting in low herbage dry matter yields. The recurrent droughts in this region,

the existence of ‘pockets’ of pests, poor rangeland husbandry practices, insecurity-related

problems, high cost of livestock inputs, land scarcity due to subdivision of land holdings

as a result of rapid population growth, encroachment of the ASAL grazing areas due to

increased crop agriculture activities, and effects of el nino and la nina have worsened the

situation over the years.

The pastures are thus characterized by poor yields especially in the dry season and limited

in biomass production. Unfortunately, socio-economic changes and frequent droughts

and floods have weakened the traditional mitigation strategies of the local communities

in the ASAL. The increasing human and livestock populations have instilled a lot of

pressure in these areas. These pressures reduce the available grazing areas. Farmers in

high potential areas are also experiencing acute shortages of feed in the market as well as

other farm processed feeds.

Somalia:Somalia:Somalia:Somalia: In Somalia, rangelands are estimated to be about 80 per cent of the nation’s land

area. It is a relatively harsh semi-arid environment with serious limits on carrying

capacity of the land. Pastureland includes the Haud region in the high plateau of

northwest Somalia and grasslands of southern Somalia.

Sudan:Sudan:Sudan:Sudan: The major source of livestock feed in the Sudan is the rangelands which forms an

immense natural resource, covering about 116 million hectares. . . . Various types of grazing

land vary from open grasslands to seasonal water courses, flood plains, river banks and

associated islands, woodlands, hills and mountain slopes. The pasture types and quality

are influenced by the geographical location. The development of pastures has been

lagging in the Sudan. To increase pasture availability for livestock, the Sudan National

Action Plan-Framework for combating desertification has adopted several strategies to


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi xxi

increase livestock feed. One such is the establishment of seed collection and improvement

centers with many species with specific attention on the indigenous grass species.

The Sudan National Seed Administration has been involved in the production of seed of

the major fodder crops alfalfa and ‘Abu Sabeen’ as well as Sudan grass, clitoria, lablab,

pillipesara and maize. The Arab Sudanese Seed Company manages the pasture seeds on

behalf of the government of Sudan.

Uganda:Uganda:Uganda:Uganda: Uganda’s grazing potential is largely underutilized. Only 20% of Uganda

grassland suitable for livestock production is utilised suggesting very huge potential for

expansion. However, even with the above potential, the country has lately began

experiencing livestock feed shortages due mainly to the effects of global warming, fuelled

by deforestation and charcoal production. These have resulted into a reduction in rainfall

amounts and reliability in many parts of the country. Uganda’s Cattle Corridor, which

stretches from western and central Uganda to mid northern and eastern regions, has seen

a dramatic shift from semi-arid to arid conditions

Animal GAnimal GAnimal GAnimal Genetic Resources (AGR)enetic Resources (AGR)enetic Resources (AGR)enetic Resources (AGR)

The GHA region has a large and diverse reservoir of animal genetic resources, the

majority of which are indigenous and are classified according to the communities and

regions where they are found. The pastoral communities in the region predominantly

own indigenous breeds of livestock whose contribution to livelihood can still be

enhanced if the genetic pool was improved. However, a part from providing basic

livestock products, one other important contribution of the livestock to the pastoral

livelihood systems is draft power. Table 1 summarises the merits of indigenous and exotic

cattle breeds within the pastoral ecosystems.

Table 1Table 1Table 1Table 1:::: Merits of Indigenous and Exotic Cattle and their Crosses

Relative potentialRelative potentialRelative potentialRelative potential Adaptation and survivalAdaptation and survivalAdaptation and survivalAdaptation and survival

Cattle typeCattle typeCattle typeCattle type Milk Meat Draft power Disease and drought

resistance

LocalsLocalsLocalsLocals Poor Excellent Excellent Excellent

CrossesCrossesCrossesCrosses V. Good V. Good Good Good

ExoticExoticExoticExotic Excellent Medium Medium Poor

Source:Source:Source:Source: Addis Ababa chamber of commerce, 2008

Findings1 in Ethiopia revealed that the country is dominated by the indigenous blood

groups of cattle. Crossbred and exotic animals account for less than 1% of the total herd.

As in the cattle herd, almost all the Ethiopian sheep and goats are of indigenous blood.

1 Focus Group Discussions held in Ethiopia in May, 2009


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi xxii

Exotic and crosses contribute to a negligible portion, more so in the case of sheep than

goats. Research2 shows that these negligible numbers of improved genotypes in the

Ethiopian national herd composition have a profound impact on the productivity of the

herd.

In Uganda, it is estimated that 95% of the cattle population is composed of indigenous

breeds and only 3% are improved or exotic. Small numbers of exotic breeds exist on

commercial ranches, most notably Boran, and to a lesser extent, the Bonsmara.

In Kenya, however, exotic and cross breeds are present in larger numbers than in any

other GHA state. The Ministry of Livestock Development (MoLD) estimates that 3

million dairy and dairy crosses cattle are kept. Friesian cattle are the dominant breed but

Ayrshire and Channel Island breeds are also found in Kenya. In some areas, improved

Boran and Sahiwal bulls have been introduced. About 10% of the adult animals are

breeding males. Zebus are kept by pastoralists in mixed herds with indigenous breeds of

sheep, goats, and camels in the northern rangelands.

Cattle in Somalia3 are mainly indigenous species that descended from Bostaurus, or Zebu.

Productivity is low but can be improved with good management in more favourable

conditions. The Low levels of production characterize most of these species which are

slowly being replaced. Indigenous breeds especially dairy cattle (Kenana and Butana) are

currently under severe pressure due to the introduction of foreign breeds like Friesian

Value AdditionValue AdditionValue AdditionValue Addition

Value addition in the livestock sector is crucial to enhanced incomes to producers and the

growth of the sector. Value addition consists of animal control and housing, slaughter,

packaging, conditioned transport, production of cheese, butter, yoghurt and other

products. Production of leather products, dried milk, buttons, dressed poultry, glue,

cooking fat, gun powder are also important to the value addition chain.

Policy and Regulatory FrameworkPolicy and Regulatory FrameworkPolicy and Regulatory FrameworkPolicy and Regulatory Framework

Water and PastureWater and PastureWater and PastureWater and Pasture: : : : There is a wide range of reforms that are required to help develop a

sustainable and vibrant watervibrant watervibrant watervibrant water----pastpastpastpastureureureure----livestock development nexus. The water and livestock development nexus. The water and livestock development nexus. The water and livestock development nexus. The water and

pasture reforms are outlinedpasture reforms are outlinedpasture reforms are outlinedpasture reforms are outlined in Table 2 and the livestock ones in the Table 3. Many of

the reforms overlap because of the integrated nature of the subsectors.

2 Addis Ababa Chamber of Commerce, 2008 3 Final Report “Towards a Livestock Sector Strategy” in Somalia, 2004


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi xxiii

Table Table Table Table 2:2:2:2: Policy Interventions in Water and Pasture

Country Resource Policy reform and

objective

Country status Priority

S-T M-T L-T

DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti Pasture Harmonization of

sector laws

• Legislative reforms needed

National land policy • Need for national livestock

policy

√ √

Early warning system

droughts

Land use policy

mapping

• Link country to the √ √

√ √ √

Water Legislation on water • No clear strategies and policy

on water

Decentralized water

management bodies

• Centralized water

management for the rural

areas

√

Coordination of

institutions in water

management

• Fragmented functions √ √

Increase capacity to

implement water

projects

• Costly to tap underground

water

√ √ √

Form a overall body to

operate water resources

• ONEAD not able to

streamlines operations in the

sector

√ √ √

EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea Pasture Land use mapping • Non existent √ √

Early warning system • Country developing a pilot

that could serve as a useful

model

√ √

Pasture and rangelands • Pasture and Rangelands not

mapped

√

Animal feeds • Strategy for feed

improvement needed

√ √

Water Coordination of water

management

institutions

• Functions are fragmented

Amendments on

national water policy to

allow for decentralized

water boards

• The ministry Ministry of

Land, Water and

Environment (MoLWE)

centrally operated.

√

Strengthen capacity to

access underground

water

• Limited number of sunk

boreholes

√ √

•

EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia Pasture Harmonization of

sector laws

• Proposals for legal reforms

underway

• Need for enhanced regional

√ √ √


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi xxiv


objective


cooperation on livestock

health


mapped

√

Animal genetic

resource and breeding

• Law required √ √

Extension services • Implement the commodity-

based development strategy

√ √

Water •

Strengthen

Decentralized systems

• √

√

Improve Efficiency in

Community water

management bodies

• Exist but access people access

water points

√

√

√

Strengthen capacity on

operation and

maintenance

• Maintenance of existing

projects

√

√

√

KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya Pasture Harmonization of

sector laws

• On going √ √

Early warning system • Need to strengthen the

country’s EWS and link it

to the GHA EWS

√ √ √

Land tenure rights and

security

• Implementation of the

National land policy

√ √ √

Pasture and rangelands • Pasture and rangelands

improvement policy needed

√ √

Water National water storage

policy to be enacted

• to be enacted √

Strengthen

decentralized water

management bodies

• Regional water boards exist

and require

√ √ √


implement water

projects

• Costly to tap

underground/rain water in

ASALs

√ √

•

SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia Pasture Conflict resolution • Resolve conflict in the

country to open it up for

policy, legislative and

institutional development

√ √ √

Early warning system • Put in place an EWS for the

country

√ √ √

Water National water policy • No clear strategies on water

policy water policy and

strategy endorsed in 2004

Decentralized water

management bodies at

community level


management by UN in

partnership with others

√ √ √


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi xxv


objective


donors


implement water

projects


water

√ √ √

Technical support • No government/Ministry of

water is non functional

√ √ √

SudanSudanSudanSudan Harmonization of

sector laws

• Proposals for reform

harmonization already

made at country level

√ √

Early warning system • No action yet √ √ √


security

• Proposed law to establish

land commission

• Modification of law on

settlement and registration

of land of 1925

√ √

Pasture and rangelands • Proposed law on the

protection of the

environment

√ √

Animal alternative

feeds

• Proposed law on forage and

animal feeds

√ √


policy

√

National policy on

water storage

• Formulation on going √

Strengthen capacity of

decentralized water

management bodies



areas

√ √


implement water

projects

• Nile basin projects not

enough to meet water needs

√ √

UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda Harmonization of

sector laws

• Significant progress made in

enacting new laws in line

with regional needs

√



security

• Policy exists. Pastoral

tenure rights not clearly

articulated

√ √

Pasture and rangelands • Proposed pasture and

rangelands policy

√ √


policy

Decentralized water

management bodies

• One body manages water

resources

√


implement water

projects

• Costly to tap

underground/rain water


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi xxvi


objective


National water storage

policy

• Non existent √ √

Legend Legend Legend Legend

S-T, Short Term (< 5 years)

M-T, medium Term (5-10 years)

L-T, long Term (Over 10 years)

There are also extensive reforms proposed for the livestock sector. These are summarized

in Table 3.

Table 3Table 3Table 3Table 3:::: Proposed Policy Interventions in the Livestock Sector

CountryCountryCountryCountry Policy reform anPolicy reform anPolicy reform anPolicy reform andddd

objectiveobjectiveobjectiveobjective

Country statusCountry statusCountry statusCountry status Priority Priority Priority Priority

DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti Harmonization of sector

laws

• Legislative reforms needed S-T M-T L-T

National livestock

policy

• Need for national livestock policy √ √

Early warning system • Link country to the GHA EWS √ √

Livestock census • Livestock census last carried out in 1980 √ √

Animal genetic resource

and breeding

• Need for collaboration at regional level to collect and

preserve genetic resources

√ √ √

Veterinary services • Country needs veterinary personnel √ √ √

Hides, skins, leather and

trade

• Country needs to enhance its position as regional

livestock trading centre

√ √ √

EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia Harmonization of sector

laws

• Proposals for legal reforms underway

• Need for enhanced regional cooperation on livestock

health

√ √ √

National livestock

policy

• No national livestock policy √ √

Early warning system • Country developing a pilot that could serve as a useful

model

√ √

Livestock census • Required √ √


security

• Land laws exist and constitution recognizes pastoral

lifestyles. Enforcement of constitutional provisions

still lagging

√ √

Pasture and rangelands • Pasture and Rangelands not mapped √


and breeding


Dairy development • Comprehensive policy required √ √

National meat policy • Required √ √

Animal feeds • Strategy for feed improvement needed √ √

Hides, skins and leather • Enhance operational capacity of existing tanneries

from 45% to 90%

• Improve quality of hides and skins

√ √

Marketing, trade and

infrastructure

• Development of livestock holding areas as an

alternative to DFZs

• Improvement of market centres, roads,

telecommunications and electricity supply

• Enhancement of the cooperative movement

• Regulation of live animal transportation

√ √ √

Honey and beeswax

production

• Need to formulate policy to deal with product

adulteration

√ √

Extension services • Implement the commodity-based development

strategy

√ √

KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya Harmonization of sector

laws



P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi xxvii




Early warning system • Need to strengthen the country’s EWS and link it to

the GHA EWS

√ √ √

Livestock census • Required √


security

• Implementation of the National land policy √ √ √

Pasture and rangelands • Pasture and rangelands improvement policy needed √ √


and breeding


Dairy development • Dairy development policy in place -

National meat policy • Required. The meat control bill under discussions √ √

Veterinary services • Veterinary Disease Control Bill drafted. Need for

inclusion of emerging diseases in the bill

√


infrastructure

• Opening up of northern Kenya through establishment

of road network

• Improvement of livestock marketing infrastructure

such as market centres, holding yards, etc

√ √ √

SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia Conflict resolution • Resolve conflict in the country to open it up for

policy, legislative and institutional development

√ √ √

Veterinary services • Boos country’s capacity to manage livestock diseases √ √ √

Early warning system • Put in place an EWS for the country √ √ √

SudanSudanSudanSudan Harmonization of sector

laws

• Proposals for reform harmonization already made at

country level

√ √

National livestock

policy

• Part of Agriculture Revival Programme, 2008 √ √


Livestock census • Last census in 1976 √ √


security

• Proposed law to establish land commission

• Modification of law on settlement and registration of

land of 1925

√ √

Pasture and rangelands • Proposed law on the protection of the environment √ √


and breeding

• Law on Livestock genetic resources proposed √ √

Dairy development • Proposed law on dairy development products √ √

National meat policy • Proposed law on production of meat and meat

products

• Revision of the law on meat health and inspection of

1974

√ √

Animal feeds • Proposed law on forage and animal feeds √ √

Veterinary services Modification of laws onModification of laws onModification of laws onModification of laws on : : : :

• Veterinary quarantines, 2004

• Cattle routes surveillance, 1974

• Contagious livestock diseases, 2001

• Disease free zones, 1973

√ √ √

Hides, skins and leather • Modification of law on Sudanese Hides and skins, 1954 √ √


infrastructure

Proposed laws on:Proposed laws on:Proposed laws on:Proposed laws on:

• Organisation of livestock markets

• Competition and dumping

• Organisation of international trade in livestock and its

products

√ √

UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda Harmonization of sector

laws

• Significant progress made in enacting new laws in line

with regional needs

√

National livestock

policy

• Required √ √


Livestock census • Done, 2008 -


security

• Policy exists. Pastoral tenure rights not clearly

articulated

√ √

Pasture and rangelands • Proposed pasture and rangelands policy √ √


and breeding

• Policy in place -

Dairy development • Act in place -

National meat policy • Policy and masterplan in place -

Animal feeds • Policy in place -


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi xxvii

i




Veterinary services • NAADs requires additional resources to ensure better

extension and veterinary service delivery

√ √

Hides, skins and leather • Animal hides and Leather Development Policy in

place

-


infrastructure

• Country is net importer of most livestock products.

Interventions to boost production of various livestock

products

√ √ √





CrossCrossCrossCross----Cutting IssuesCutting IssuesCutting IssuesCutting Issues

Four main categories of cross cutting issues are discussed in the report:

(i) Peace Building, Disaster Management and Security

(ii) Gender and Youth

(iii) HIV/AIDS

(iv) Climate Change

Table 4 summarizes the situation within the GHA in relation to the issues identified

above:

Table 4:Table 4:Table 4:Table 4: Cross Cutting Issues

CrossCrossCrossCross----cutting isscutting isscutting isscutting issuesuesuesues Situation Situation Situation Situation and impact on livelihoods and impact on livelihoods and impact on livelihoods and impact on livelihoods

Peace building,

disaster management

and security

• Disaster preparedness across the region generally low

• Regional protocol, CEWARN, yet to be fully implemented by the member states. Efforts

on-going especially in Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya and Uganda.

• Region still vulnerable to internal and cross border conflicts related to competition for

resources

• Pastoralists across the region lack basic social systems

• Fragility of states and the low capacity of the states to deal with conflicts. Somalia

remains the greatest threat to regional peace and security

Gender and Youth • Women account for between 60-80% of labour force

• Women and youths have little access to ownership of resources

• Still inadequately represented in policy-making structures

• Men and youths migrate to urban centers in search of alternative livelihoods causing

socio-economic challenges to the women left behind

• Access to education for the girl-child in pastoral communities is still a mirage. The lack

of access to education is both due to cultural reasons and limited access to education

institutions

HIV/AIDS • Pastoralists’ cultural and behavioral patterns are major predisposing factors

• Wide information gap exists in awareness creation

• Most pastoral communities not yet seriously affected by the scourge though indications

are that the situation is fast changing

• Regional and national instruments have been put in place in Uganda, Kenya and are


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CrossCrossCrossCross----cutting isscutting isscutting isscutting issuesuesuesues Situation Situation Situation Situation and impact on livelihoods and impact on livelihoods and impact on livelihoods and impact on livelihoods

being put in place in the Sudan, Ethiopia and Djibouti

Climate Change • Magnitude and frequency of extreme events will exacerbate a fragile situation

• Magnitude and frequency of droughts and floods will increase

• Abnormal rise in temperatures will affect crop and livestock productivity

• Countries need to identify and support pastoralist climate adaptation strategies


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION1.0 INTRODUCTION1.0 INTRODUCTION1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Purpose1.1 Purpose1.1 Purpose1.1 Purpose

This Final Synthesis Report on the Study on Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa has been prepared by Log Associates having been commissioned

by the African Development Bank Group (AfDB) to carry out the study. The study is

funded through grants provided by the African Development Bank Group (AfDB) and the

Governments of Netherlands, Canada and Denmark to the Water Partnership

Programme. 4 The purpose of the regional study is to assess the status and improvements

in water and pasture in support of livestock development in the arid and semiarid lands of

the GHA. The results presented herein are an outcome from field visits and data

collection (primary and secondary) from the GHA countries comprising of Djibouti,

Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Somalia and Uganda.

1.2 Background1.2 Background1.2 Background1.2 Background

The communities of the GHA countries are all members of the IGAD whose headquarters

is in Djibouti. The GHA has a total population of 205 million people and occupies a land

area of about 5.2 million square kilometres, with a highly variable country Gross

Domestic Product (GDP) of between USD 0.8 billion (Djibouti) and USD 59.0 billion

(Sudan) at current prices (2008). Over 75% of the land is classified as arid and semiarid.

The availability of water is a major determinant of livelihoods in the ASAL areas of the

GHA communities. This is one of the poorest regions in the world with high population

growth rates, and chronic food insecurity.

Agriculture is the mainstay of the economies of the GHA countries. The contribution of

agriculture to the overall GDP varies from 3.7% (Djibouti) to 52.3% (Somalia), and

employs an average of three quarters of the population in the region. The agricultural

sector performance is, thus, the main determinant of the yearly variations in aggregate

performance of these economies. Livestock sector contribution to GDP varies between

19.8% (Uganda) and 88.2% (Somalia). In the agro-ecological zones where crop

production is feasible, it is mostly practiced in mixed farming systems with livestock

providing important inputs into the farming system and vice versa. In line with global

experience, demand for all livestock products in the GHA countries is expected to grow in

tandem with population growth but growth by way of increased per capita consumption

will depend on economic performance.

The total livestock population in the region is varied and comprises 114 million cattle,

202 million sheep and goats, about 12 million camels and 151 million birds. They


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 2

represent not only a major source of wealth and income and therefore a pathway out of

poverty but also a source of animal proteins for meeting the food security needs of the

people of the region. The numbers notwithstanding, livestock productivity is low - beef:

10.4 kg per animal per year, milk: 395.8 kg per animal per year, sheep and goat meat: 3.5

kg per animal per year, pig meat 47.1 kg per animal per year and poultry and eggs: 1.4 and

2.6 kg per bird per year, respectively. The reasons for the low performance are multiple

and varied, ranging from poor quality genetics, inadequate and poor quality feeds and

feeding, scarcity in water for production, to poor husbandry practices. This explains in

part the low economic growth and wealth creation in most GHA member countries. This

poverty situation in the region is a reflection of the increasingly deteriorating livelihoods

and food insecurity coupled with degraded natural resources (deforestation, overgrazing,

over mining) and frequent droughts and floods.

Moreover, the region suffers from the severe effects of climate change. The recurring and

severe droughts and other natural disasters have caused widespread famine, ecological

degradation, poverty and economic hardships in the region. The impacts of climate

change have been more severe because of inadequate water management facilities and

practices, inefficient water harvesting facilities, erratic and unpredictable rainfall

patterns, and high ambient temperatures. Their consequences include shortage in water

and food for both animals and humans, resulting in high incidence of famine and losses in

both human and animal lives in the region. In order to overcome this shortfall in food

supply, the countries of the region have resorted to food aid, receiving the highest per

capita quantity of food aid in the continent. Such a level of food aid dependency is not

sustainable and makes the region a humanitarian tragedy which threatens not only peace

but also affects conservation of unique environments and biodiversity and the ability of

the region to play an effective role in an increasingly globalized environment.

Water and pastures are critical for improved animal production and productivity.

Unfortunately, the region as already indicated above suffers from severe scarcity of both

of these factors. Pastoral lifestyles are characterized by frequent movements in search of

water and feed during the long periods of scarcity. Water availability, coupled with its

quality, is also important for human consumption. The problem of scarce natural

resources, especially water and pasture has led to violent conflicts in the Horn of Africa

and has thus contributed to the problems of cattle rustling, food insecurity and poverty.

These problems have affected women disproportionately.

Pastoralists and agro-pastoralists live in extreme poverty with limited alternative sources

of income and constant mobility in search of water and feed for their livestock and for

sustaining their livelihoods. This lifestyle implies that the goal of reducing poverty by half

and achieving an environmentally sustainable development as envisaged in the United

Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) may not be attained in the region.

Furthermore, the efforts of the international community to contribute to poverty

alleviation and, therefore, to the attainment of the goals of the MDG will be in vain

unless drastic measures are carried out to reverse the trend. Similarly, meeting the goals


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set by the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) and its affiliated

Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), are less likely to

be achieved for the region.

There is evidence that considerable information is available throughout the region and

beyond on the different strategies to intervene in such fragile environments in order to

improve rural livelihood, increase food security and enhance natural resource

management and that many partners are supporting various activities aimed at reversing

the trend in the region. This report borrows from several secondary sources of

information and from various ongoing interventions in the region and proposes further

opportunities that could be exploited by future interventions to reverse the above trend.

1.3 Objectives1.3 Objectives1.3 Objectives1.3 Objectives

The detailed terms of reference for the study is shown in appendix 1. The general

objective of the study was to collect, compile, analyze and synthesize available

information and data on different aspects of sustainable livelihood strategies in the

Greater Horn of Africa with a view to identifying strategic interventions for alleviating

the major constraints in water and pasture for the sustainable development of livestock

and livelihoods. The specific objectives of the study are to:

• Identify and analyze the water and pasture needs of the communities as well as

available water and pasture resources in the region

• Identify and analyze the availability of technologies and markets for water and

pasture development and exploitation in the region and elsewhere

• Review and analyze the challenges and opportunities facing the water, pasture and

the livestock sectors of the Horn of Africa

• Review and analyze current interventions by the member countries and its

development partners in water, pasture and livestock development in the region

• Identify and analyze existing institutions in terms of strengths and weaknesses

involved in water, pasture and livestock management both at the national and

regional levels

• Identify and analyze the policy environment (legal, regulatory, institutional) for

the development and exploitation of water, pasture and livestock

• Investigate potential linkages between water, pastures and livestock development

in the region, and

• Provide full details of the short-, medium-, and long-term strategic interventions,

including costing and identification of social and environmental impacts of the

interventions.


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1.4 Scope of Work1.4 Scope of Work1.4 Scope of Work1.4 Scope of Work

There are four major activities of the study:

a) Comprehensive literature review

b) All-inclusive consultations with experts and stakeholders

c) Validation of concept notes and recommendations, and

d) Report writing and dissemination of findings of the study

1.5 Output 1.5 Output 1.5 Output 1.5 Output

The final output of the study comprises the following documents: (i) Final Synthesis

Report outlining the main findings; (ii) Concept Notes on: Water Resourses Development;

Pasture, Land and Environment; Livestock Production Health and Management; Finance,

Marketing and Infrastructure; Policy, Institutional and Regulatory Framework; Peace and

Conflict Management and (iii) Kenya Country Case Study. The Report proposes short-,

medium-, and long-term strategic interventions for addressing the challenges facing

water, pasture and livestock development in the region and for enabling the countries of

the region to enhance the contribution of livestock to their national economies and to

livelihoods of their pastoralists and agro-pastoralists.


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2.0 CONCEPT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY2.0 CONCEPT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY2.0 CONCEPT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY2.0 CONCEPT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

2.1 Conceptual Framework2.1 Conceptual Framework2.1 Conceptual Framework2.1 Conceptual Framework

This study looks at two main factors that have affected the performance of the livestock

sector, namely water and pasture in the countries Greater Horn of Africa. The outcomes

expected from the interaction of the various inputs need to ensure improved livelihood

for the communities, food security, sustainable natural resource management and peace.

(Figure 2.1)

Figure 2.1: Figure 2.1: Figure 2.1: Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework


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The study further discusses the interventions that are necessary to revamp the sector

following various thematic issues at each level along the value chain. The study also

provides a summary of interventions and some insights into the levels of investments that

may be required to achieve the expected outcomes. Figure 2.2 is a presentation of this

concept.

Figure 2.2Figure 2.2Figure 2.2Figure 2.2:::: Thematic Overview of the Study

2.2 Methodology2.2 Methodology2.2 Methodology2.2 Methodology

The consultant adopted a participatory methodology in carrying out the study. Among

the key persons and institutions consulted were the Ministries in charge of Water and

Irrigation, Agriculture, Livestock, Arid Lands, Land Management, Forestry and Fisheries

Reserch Institutions and Universities, IGAD headquarters, AfDB field offices within the

region, Regional Quarantine facility in Djibouti, NGOs, Project Offices, among others.

Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were held in each of the countries Ethiopia, Kenya,

Sudan and Uganda.

In effecting the assignment, the consultant carried out the following:

a) Visits to selected GHA countries, namely; Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and

Uganda


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b) The consultant also visited IGAD regional headquarters in Djibouti and

International bodies operating within the region including the International

Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)

c) Borrowed from experiences of other countries around the globe with similar

conditions

d) Consulted with stakeholders, including experts, farmers, Government Authorities,

Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) and

Development Partners across the region.

Apart from the above collection of primary information, the consultants reviewed a wide

range of documents. References have been given throughout the document and in the list

of references (Annex 14). In addition a comprehensive list of persons and institutions

consulted is provided (annex 13).


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3.0 ASAL REGION OF THE GREATER HORN OF AF3.0 ASAL REGION OF THE GREATER HORN OF AF3.0 ASAL REGION OF THE GREATER HORN OF AF3.0 ASAL REGION OF THE GREATER HORN OF AFRICARICARICARICA

3.1 Ecology, Climate and Environment 3.1 Ecology, Climate and Environment 3.1 Ecology, Climate and Environment 3.1 Ecology, Climate and Environment

Arid and semi-arid zones are characterized by low erratic rainfall of up to 500mm per

annum, periodic droughts and different associations of vegetative cover and soils. Inter-

annual rainfall varies widely but averages about 350 mm per annum. The majority of the

population of arid and semi-arid lands depend on pastoralism for subsistence. These zones

exhibit ecological constraints which set limits to nomadic pastoralism and settled

agriculture. These constraints include:

• Rainfall patterns that are inherently erratic

• Rains which fall mostly as heavy showers and are lost as run-off

• High rate of potential evapotranspiration further reducing available water and

moisture.

• Weeds growing more vigorously than cultivated crops and competing for scarce

reserves of moisture

• Low organic matter levels, except for short periods after harvesting or manure

applications

In order to assist the process of efficient resource management in these fragile

environments, UNEP's Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) and FAO's

Ecological Management of Arid and Semi-Arid Rangelands (EMASAR) programmes have

developed a methodology for ecological monitoring which has been applied to rangelands

and planning for national parks in some of the countries of the GHA. This encompasses

the collection of biological and physical data at ground, air and space levels providing

information on domestic and wild animal populations, human habitations and

populations, vegetation production and cover, soils, land forms, climatic data and crop

production. Ground level ecological monitoring also provides information on socio-

economic practices of human populations which affect the ecosystem and its productivity

(UNSO, 1990). Work on adaptive strategies has to focus on how this contemporary

knowledge is used to reinforce or inform traditional knowledge around resource

management issues.

In summary, environmental concerns as a result of livestock production brings with it

several opportunities for the sector in the GHA region. Improvement of livestock

husbandry practices and research on livestock feeding systems have enormous potential


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to contribute to sound environmental management. The proposed investments in

Payment for Environmental Services PES (Appendix 8) as an incentive for good livestock

husbandry practice have a potential for the livestock sector to tap into the carbon credit

facility.

3.23.23.23.2 Pastoralism and Climate ChangePastoralism and Climate ChangePastoralism and Climate ChangePastoralism and Climate Change

Pastoralists are some of the main casualties of climate change. However, research also

indicates that livestock contribute to an increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions

through land use in three main ways.

i. CO2 releases linked to deforestation

ii. Methane (CH4) releases from enteric fermentation in cattle

iii. Nitrous oxide (N2O) releases from fertilizer application

Livestock and livestock-related activities such as deforestation and increasingly fuel-

intensive farming practices are responsible for over 18% of human-made greenhouse gas

emissions (Owen, 2008 and Kedar, 2008), including:

i. 9% of global carbon dioxide emissions

ii. 35-40% of global methane emissions chiefly due to enteric fermentation and

manure

iii. 64% of global nitrous oxide emissions mostly due to fertilizer use

The overall effect of climate change on global weather patterns is all too clear. The

occurrence of frequent floods, droughts and other extreme weather conditions affect

pastures and crop both in yield quantity and quality as already discussed. Increased

efficiency in livestock production systems, proper management of livestock manure and

proper selection livestock feeds should help reduce the GHGs produced from a livestock

production system.

3.3.3.3.3333 Pastoralism and the EnvironmentPastoralism and the EnvironmentPastoralism and the EnvironmentPastoralism and the Environment

Pastoralism has been argued to be the most suitable livelihood and land-use system in

ASALs: an extensive production system with low emission of methane, no accumulation

of dung and gases, which would pollute land and water resources; use of resources which

are otherwise wasted (saltish, bitter and thorny vegetation of the rangeland, brackish and


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muddy water). Pastoralism is therefore a land-use system which enables people to adapt

by moving livestock according to the shifting availability of water and pasture.

A major issue facing pastoralists in the GHA is the environmental conservation approach

used by public agencies. Historically, impetus for environmental conservation arose from

the observation that pastoralist activity was having ever increasing, negative

consequences on the irreplaceable natural ecosystems and processes that pastoralists

relied upon for their very survival. Therefore these initial efforts were to identify and

protect those areas that were judged to be important for species survival. Pastoral

communities therefore lost their land to two main activities:

a. Wildlife and game reserves

b. Biodiversity conservation

As a result of the above, constant conflicts between various interests have continued to

dominate pastoral systems across the GHA. Areas that used to provide refuge to pastoral

communities during droughts and floods have suddenly turned into ‘no go zones’ for

conservation purposes. In effect, pastoralists have become ‘shareholders without benefits

(Mutharia, 2008).

To reverse this, there is a need to adopt conservation programmes within the pastoral

communities that advocates for a review of the wildlife conservation policies in their

respective countries. Such conservation programmes need to be negotiated through

collective approaches that set out the modalities of interaction between pastoralists and

wildlife reserves, and access and use of the animal and plant resources that exist in them.

However, some progress has been made mainly to educate both the pastoral communities

and policy makers on the environment and its role in the survival of pastoral

communities, and to involve it in conserving that environment. What has changed little,

however, is the underlying concept of conservation as conservation approaches are still

mainly informed and driven by need to restrict pastoral communities from access and use

of certain resources.

3.4 3.4 3.4 3.4 Pastoral Pastoral Pastoral Pastoral Livelihood systems Livelihood systems Livelihood systems Livelihood systems

3.4.1 Pastoral Identity3.4.1 Pastoral Identity3.4.1 Pastoral Identity3.4.1 Pastoral Identity

With temperature and rainfall so significantly influencing the potential for production

systems, the major efforts in categorising livestock-related livelihoods have been agro-

ecological. If policies are to support the livelihoods of the poor then policy makers need


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to understand the strategies people are pursuing, and base policies on this understanding.

Pastoralism can be considered to be both an economic and a social system, highly

dependent on the raising and herding (including migration) of livestock. Pastoral

livelihoods include those with set seasonal patterns of migration (transhumance)

alongside those whose search for pasture and water is less fixed (and often more

extensive). Pastoralism differs from ranching both through its separate identity, and

because of its dependence on communal land.

Livestock are core to pastoral livelihoods and pastoral identity. Livestock and livestock

products contribute significantly as a food source and are usually the main source of

income in pastoral livelihoods. Sheep, goats, cattle, camels and donkeys are the

predominant holdings; poultry are not common in pastoral areas. In recent decades most

pastoralists have significantly diversified both food and income sources. Whereas in the

past milk often constituted the bulk of the diet, purchase of cereals, now make up the

bulk of diets. In order to finance these purchases, pastoralists exchange livestock and

livestock products for grain. Furthermore, trading, sale of honey, wood and charcoal as

well as non-timber forest products (leaf products, gums, resins) and, in many cases, daily

labour have all become important income sources.

Livestock are also the key buffer to withstand shocks, particularly the frequent droughts

which occur in areas where pastoralists live. Large herd sizes prior to a drought ensure

viable herd sizes after a drought despite mortality. Livestock are integral to the identity of

the population and are key in developing and maintaining social networks. Camels and

donkeys often play a key role as pack animals supporting trade, carrying water and

allowing migration of all or parts of the household as they move with their herds in

search of pasture.

3.4.2 Adaptive Strategies for Sustainable Liveli3.4.2 Adaptive Strategies for Sustainable Liveli3.4.2 Adaptive Strategies for Sustainable Liveli3.4.2 Adaptive Strategies for Sustainable Livelihoods in ASALshoods in ASALshoods in ASALshoods in ASALs

Pastoralists have developed specific livelihood strategies to cope with the high risk nature

(low rainfall, significant variation in rainfall) of the vast majority of pastoral areas. The

following two strategies are amongst the most critical:

Mobility:Mobility:Mobility:Mobility: There is strong evidence that more mobile pastoralists are better able to

withstand droughts than those who have become partially or completely sedentarized.

Travelling long distances to find grazing land and water for livestock is a key strategy to

adapt to droughts. In years of poor rainfall, localized showers can result in available

pasture and water which pastoralists can make use of; or they can travel to areas where

there is permanent water and grazing for example near rivers.


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Herd acHerd acHerd acHerd accumulation:cumulation:cumulation:cumulation: Large herd sizes perform two critical functions for pastoralists. Firstly

they allow pastoralists to meet needs while maintaining productive assets (through a

mixture of milk sale and consumption and animal sales). Secondly large herds act as

insurance in times of drought. Livestock mortality rates are similar regardless of herd size,

but those with smaller herds are at greater risk of their herd size becoming unsustainable

post drought than those with larger herds (Fratkin et al., 2006).

ShariShariShariSharing of Livestockng of Livestockng of Livestockng of Livestock: A wide range of livestock tenure arrangements exist in pastoral

societies; including outright ownership as well as a number of loaning and sharing

arrangements. In the Maikona area of Marsabit district in Kenya nearly 42% of camel

and cattle herds were under some form of livestock sharing arragement in 1998

(including loans). Livestock sharing enables both post drought restocking (which might

be reciprocated in a future crisis) and reduces risk concentration during a crisis and have

therefore access to a wider geographic spread of pasture and water.

It is important that a comprehensive drought contingency plan be developedcomprehensive drought contingency plan be developedcomprehensive drought contingency plan be developedcomprehensive drought contingency plan be developed to reduce

vulnerability in the dry lands, particularly among the pastoralists. The plan would

coordinate the use of natural resources among all potential users and minimize the

conflicts that have become so common between pastoralists and crop farmers in the

region. There should also be a droughtdroughtdroughtdrought----coordinating agencycoordinating agencycoordinating agencycoordinating agency to ensure consistency,

communication, coordination and responsibility within government and between other

agencies and reduce the number of inappropriate piecemeal initiatives.

Strengthen early warning systems and make them userStrengthen early warning systems and make them userStrengthen early warning systems and make them userStrengthen early warning systems and make them user----friendlyfriendlyfriendlyfriendly and useful by

incorporating indigenous knowledge systems. Many of the early warning systems are not

useable by the intended beneficiaries and there is therefore the need to research into

ways in which local forecasting systems can be incorporated into the early warning

systems so the local pastoralists can understand and use them. This will call for capacity

strengthening at the lower levels of government and at the community level for increased

competencies to make sense of early warning systems. It must be remembered however

that early warnings on their own may not achieve much unless matched with the

required resources. Help to communities affected by drought has often come very late

even where warnings have been issued as governments and development partners wait

for evidence. And this often turns out to be very costly in terms of losses. The early

warnings should give adequate lead-time and be clear on how potential beneficiaries

should respond to them.

Good infrastructure and connection to marketGood infrastructure and connection to marketGood infrastructure and connection to marketGood infrastructure and connection to market is important for those who want to sell

their animals but it must be remembered that pastoralists especially those having small

herds do not necessarily keep animals for sale and may only be willing to do so as a last

resort, when the drought is severe. Post drought recovery mechanisms are essential

including particularly strategies for restocking. Credit is one way pastoralists can use to


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restock after drought. But more broadly greater financial intermediation including

banking and insurance are important to enable pastoralists minize drought related losses.

3.4.3.4.3.4.3.4.3 Wealth and Income 3 Wealth and Income 3 Wealth and Income 3 Wealth and Income Distribution in Distribution in Distribution in Distribution in Pastoral Households Pastoral Households Pastoral Households Pastoral Households

Better-off households have larger herd sizes with livestock and livestock products making

up a higher proportion of food and income. Better-off households will sell livestock both

to meet immediate needs and enable the purchase of consumables. Reduced herd sizes of

poorer households mean they are usually reliant on a wider range of income sources, with

non livestock income sources making up more than half of the incomes of the poor. But

livestock remain critical to their livelihood strategy: preserving and building up herds is

such a priority that households will reduce consumption in order to avoid selling animals.

The poorest households tend to drop-out of pastoralism as herd sizes become unviable.

• Hawd and Sool Pastoral Livelihood Zone in Somalia is made of the Hawd plateau which

borders (and merges with the wider Hawd zone of) Ethiopia and the higher Sool Plateaux

located in Somalia. Pastoralism is still the main source of livelihood in this area.

• Central Lowland Pastoral Livelihood Zone (CLP Djibouti) which is the largest livelihood

zone in Djibouti. With the size of the non-rural economy in Djibouti combined with the

pressures face in rural areas, many pastoralists have become absorbed into a temporary

labour economy.

• Mandera West Agro-Pastoral zone (MWAP Kenya) which covers more than half of the

Mandera district in the North East Province Kenya. The role of drought induced livestock

losses has been significant in increasing the extent of agro-pastoralism in this area.

• And the Cheno Agro-Pastoral Zone (CAP Ethiopia) on the border between the Afar and

Amhara regions in Ethiopia. A combination of crop-production and herding has long

formed components of the Argoba ethnic group who inhabit this area.

3.4.4 3.4.4 3.4.4 3.4.4 Social Social Social Social and Policy Development Challengesand Policy Development Challengesand Policy Development Challengesand Policy Development Challenges

The social and institutional milieu of pastoral livelihoods has a number of challenges. The

main ones being: the rapid population growth averaging about 3.2% per annum;

increasing sedentarisation around water points, along highways and around other social

services such as education and health facilities; and introduction of crop farming which

interferes with migratory patterns of the pastoralists/nomads. Consequently pastoralists

have to deal with issues of increasing demand for land and changing land tenure system,

land rights in addition to grazing rights. These exogenous factors are reinforced by

endogenous ones such as the breakdown in traditional governance structures and the

absence of public sector institutions in pastoral regions to help fill the void. Where there

may be a public sector present, its effectiveness is reduced by the straight jacket approach

used in interventions in pastoral areas. In addition to the above there other significant

challenges in policy formulation including:


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i) Fragmented legal instruments governing natural resource management; for instance,

in Kenya, over 15 different statutes deal with land alone.

ii) Inadequate understanding of the pastoralist livelihood system and its specific

concerns. For instance, whereas in Ethiopia significant efforts have been made to

recognise the holistic nature of pastoralism by giving it legal and policy backing,

the Kenya ASAL policy misses out completely on the holistic view of pastoral

existence, the specific measures needed to accommodate the system, and

identifying specific pieces of legislation and the changes required to these laws.

iii) The role of communities as equal stakeholders in NRM policy formulation and

implementation on a continuous basis, and the structures that not only recognize

but provide for and demand this role are missing. There is also little community

education and discussion not only about their role, but of the existing laws and

their requirements. Indeed, much of the credit for the education so far goes to civil

society.

iv) The indigenous knowledge of pastoral communities with regards to local ecosystem

is generally ignored. Indigenouse knowledge systems can be tapped by policy

makers to help deepen understanding and in decision making affecting pastoral

livelihoods. Effective engagement of these communities can help to reduce

conservation cost in ASAL region.

3.4.5 Community Perspectives3.4.5 Community Perspectives3.4.5 Community Perspectives3.4.5 Community Perspectives

Many of the factors which constrain the livelihoods of poor pastoralists have little to do

with livestock. In participatory rural appraisal in (3) villages in Ethiopia, the problem

ranking exercises indicated a wide range of constraints faced. In none of them did

livestock focused constraints feature as the highest ranked problem. The results showed

an array of problems reflecting, perhaps, the diversity of situation faced by pastoralists.

High on the list was insecurity in one of the viallages while another was concerned about

human health, and the third was mostly concerned with lack of rain.

Table 3.1Table 3.1Table 3.1Table 3.1:::: Problem Ranking Results in Three Villages in Ethiopia

Adwari Corner VillageAdwari Corner VillageAdwari Corner VillageAdwari Corner Village

Balahamo (pastoral), Afar Balahamo (pastoral), Afar Balahamo (pastoral), Afar Balahamo (pastoral), Afar Gemeto GaleGemeto GaleGemeto GaleGemeto Gale

Problem Problem Problem Problem RankingRankingRankingRanking Problem Problem Problem Problem RankingRankingRankingRanking Problem Problem Problem Problem RankingRankingRankingRanking

Insecurity 1 Human health 1 Shortage of rain 1

Poor soils 2 Floods 2 Land fragmentation 2


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Adwari Corner VillageAdwari Corner VillageAdwari Corner VillageAdwari Corner Village

Balahamo (pastoral), Afar Balahamo (pastoral), Afar Balahamo (pastoral), Afar Balahamo (pastoral), Afar Gemeto GaleGemeto GaleGemeto GaleGemeto Gale

Famine 3 Animal diseases 3 Lack of seed 3

Diseases 4 Lack of skills on

crop production

4 Asset depletion (cattle

sold for food)

4

Poor education 5 Lack of safe water 5 Malaria 5

Lack of safe water 6 Poor pasture 6 Lack of alternate

income sources

6

Lack of money 7 Poor communication

to access services

7

Drought 8

Pests 9

Poor Housing 10

Sources: (Onweng Angura et al. 2004 - Afar Adwari Corner Village; Goal – Ethiopia, 2003 –

Balahamo/pastoral and Gemeto Gale,)

Constraints to pastoral livelihoods should be kept in this broader context if the needs of

pastoralists are to be met in a way that accords to their priorities. It will be unrealistic to

expect high levels of expenditure on animal health services, for example, if meeting

immediate food needs has become a priority and income is limited.

There is however a commonality between many of the problems above and problems

associated with pastoralism. Amongst the devastating effects of drought are the impacts

on livestock production, the reduced terms of trade for livestock, and the loss of livestock

savings through high mortality. Insecurity and conflict, with its immediate threat to

human life and well-being, also has significant implications on pastoralism. Livestock are

subject to raiding and access to grazing areas can be severely constrained during periods

of unrest.

3.3.3.3.5555 Human Human Human Human Population and Consumption Population and Consumption Population and Consumption Population and Consumption TrendsTrendsTrendsTrends

3.3.3.3.5555.1.1.1.1 Population TrendsPopulation TrendsPopulation TrendsPopulation Trends

The population in GHA was at 205 million people in 2009. It is estimated to be growing at

3.2% per annum. At that growth rate, the population would double in less than 3 decades.

This rate of population growth could spike if peace and normality were to return to the

countries of the GHA. As the population has grown fast, so has urbanization. It is

estimated the urban population would be close to 40% by 2020 and longer term

projections put the urban-rural population ratio at parity (Figure 3.1).


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 16

Figure 3.1: Figure 3.1: Figure 3.1: Figure 3.1: Population Growth and Urbanisation Trends in GHA 1980-2015

(Source.: FAO, 2004)


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 17

3.3.3.3.5555.2.2.2.2 ConsumptioConsumptioConsumptioConsumption Trendsn Trendsn Trendsn Trends

With the rapidly growing populatiion, a low case senario is that consumption is expected

to move intandem with population growth, about 3.2% per annum. If however, the

region were to experience a peace dividend (all countries have conflicts) the consumption

growth rate would accelerate. The main drivers for the consumption growth would be

milk and meat. Both of those commodities are known to have high income elasticities of

demand. Figures 3.2 and 3.3 provide illustrations. South Africa is shown as a comparator.

Figure 3.2: Figure 3.2: Figure 3.2: Figure 3.2: Annual Meat Consumption kg/capita

(Source: FAOSTAT, 2009)

Milk Milk Milk Milk ConsumptionConsumptionConsumptionConsumption

Figure 3.3Figure 3.3Figure 3.3Figure 3.3: : : : Annual Milk Consumption kg/capita

(Source: FAOSTAT 2008)


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 18

3.3.3.3.6666 Key Key Key Key Institutions/Institutions/Institutions/Institutions/Organizations Organizations Organizations Organizations

3.3.3.3.6666.1 UN Protocol on Desertification.1 UN Protocol on Desertification.1 UN Protocol on Desertification.1 UN Protocol on Desertification

The international community has long recognized that desertification is a major

economic, social and environmental problem of concern to many countries in all regions

of the world. In 1977, the United Nations Conference on Desertification (UNCOD)

adopted a Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (PACD). Unfortunately, despite this

and other efforts, the United Nations Environment Programme concluded in 1991 that

the problem of land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas had

intensified.

As a result, the question of how to tackle desertification was still a major concern for the

1992 United Nations Conference on Environmental and Development (UNCED), which

was held in Rio de Janeiro. The Conference supported a new, integrated approach to the

problem emphasizing action to promote sustainable development at the community level.

It also called on the United Nations General Assembly to establish an Intergovernmental

Negotiating Committee (INCD) to prepare, by June 1994, a Convention to Combat

Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification,

Particularly in Africa.

According to Article No. 2 of the Convention the following objectives are outlined:

i. The objective of the Convention is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects

of drought in countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification,

particularly in Africa, through effective action at all levels, supported by international

cooperation and partnership arrangements, in the framework of an integrated

approach which is consistent with Agenda 21, with a view to contributing to the

achievement of sustainable development in affected areas.

ii. Achieving this objective will involve long-term integrated strategies that focus

simultaneously, in affected areas, on improved productivity of land, and the

rehabilitation, conservation and sustainable management of land and water resources,

leading to improved living conditions, in particular at the community level.

The guiding principles to achieve the obThe guiding principles to achieve the obThe guiding principles to achieve the obThe guiding principles to achieve the objective of the convention (Article 3 of the CCD) jective of the convention (Article 3 of the CCD) jective of the convention (Article 3 of the CCD) jective of the convention (Article 3 of the CCD)

In order to achieve the objective of the Convention and to implement its provisions, the

Parties shall be guided, inter alia, by the following:

i. the Parties should ensure that decisions on the design and implementation of

programmes to combat desertification and/or mitigate the effects of drought are

taken with the participation of populations and local communities and that an

enabling environment is created at higher levels to facilitate action at national and

local levels;

ii. the Parties should, in a spirit of international solidarity and partnership, improve

cooperation and coordination at subregional, regional and international levels, and


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 19

better focus financial, human, organizational and technical resources where they

are needed;

iii. the Parties should develop, in a spirit of partnership, cooperation among all levels

of government, communities, non-governmental organizations and landholders to

establish a better understanding of the nature and value of land and scarce water

resources in affected areas and to work towards their sustainable use; and

iv. The Parties should take into full consideration the special needs and circumstances

of affected developing country Parties, particularly the least developed among

them.

It was agreed in Article 7 of the convention that priority for Africa in implementing this

Convention was paramount, hence the Parties were to give priority to affected African

country Parties, in the light of the particular situation prevailing in that region, while not

neglecting affected developing country Parties in other

Guiding Principles/Obligations for Desertification Control Strategies Guiding Principles/Obligations for Desertification Control Strategies Guiding Principles/Obligations for Desertification Control Strategies Guiding Principles/Obligations for Desertification Control Strategies

The strategy for combating desertification (FAO, 1998) should satisfy the following

principles:

i. Must take into account certain aspects directly related to desertification,

particularly the loss of biodiversity and genetic erosion, and the important role

played by dry land degradation in global climate change;

ii. Should be based on a model of sustainable development that considers the limits

imposed by the prevailing environment; and

iii. Should aim at slowing down or stopping desertification. Such strategies should, if

possible, reverse the damage already done and provide decision-making tools for

the diverse situations a country faces.

All African countries are contracting parties to the convention and implement various

activities in implementing the convention. Development and implementation of National

Action Programmes (NAPs) with the support of development partners to combat

desertification. Some of the countries have formed NAP processes contributing

significantly to the strengthening of capacity of various stakeholders to deal with drought

and desertification. NAP processes are highly participatory hence powerful in awareness

raising, educating and mobilizing various stakeholders and therefore empowering them

on drought and desertification issues. Countries in the GHA that have developed a NAP

framework include: Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Uganda. Noticeably

Somalia lacks a published NAP framework.

Some other countries have set up National Desertification Funds (NDF) to serve serve as a

local and easily accessible sources of funding for implementation of NAP priorities. The

Fund has benefited from a significant contribution by the private sector and has assisted

in the implementation of priority activities.Under the UNCCD member countries have


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 20

formed National Coordinating Bodies (NCBs). The NCBs are charged with the role of

coordination, guidance and leadership in order to ensure cross-sectoral and integrated

planning for desertification control activities.

Implementation of the UNCCD in African countries includes regional institutions such as

IGAD, COMESA through a Subregional Action Programmes (SRAP) and Regional Action

Programme (RAP). These programs complement the NAPs particularly with respect to

trans-boundary resources such as lakes, rivers forests; and crosscutting issues including

information collection and dissemination, capacity building and technology transfer. In

the GHA (SRAP) are being implemented under the auspices of (IGAD). Among the

projects being implemented within the IGAD are propoor livestock intiative and water

harvesting in dry lands.

3.3.3.3.6666.2 .2 .2 .2 Intergovernmental AuthoritIntergovernmental AuthoritIntergovernmental AuthoritIntergovernmental Authority on Development y on Development y on Development y on Development

The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) was initially created in 1986

as the Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD) to

coordinate the efforts of the Member States in combating desertification and promoting

efforts to mitigate the effects of drought. Since then, the organization has carried out

several strategic reforms to position itself among the world’s leading socio-political and

economic blocs. Consequently, the Authority was renamed the Intergovernmental

Authority on Development (IGAD) in 1996 and the Agreement establishing IGAD was

amended accordingly. The revised Agreement gave IGAD an expanded mandate that

defines inter alia, the following areas of cooperation among the Member States:

i. Enhancing cooperation and coordinating their macro-economic policies

ii. Promoting sustainable agriculture development and food security.

iii. Conserving, protecting and improving the quality of the environment.

iv. Ensuring the prudent and rational utilization of natural resources Promoting

conflict prevention, management and resolution

v. Respect of the fundamental and basic rights of the peoples of the region to benefit

from emergency and other forms of humanitarian assistance.

vi. Promoting trade and the gradual harmonization of trade policies and practices.

vii. Gradual harmonization of transport and communication policies and development

of infrastructure.

IGAD strategies are designed along the following three priority areas:

i. Food security and environmental protection;

ii. Conflict prevention, management and resolution

iii. Economic cooperation and integration

Livestock production is a key economic activity within the contributing substantially to

food security, conflict prevention, socio-economic stability and environmental


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 21

conservation. It is with this background that the IGAD Livestock Policy Initiative (LPI)

was conceived and formulated.

IGAD Livestock Policy Initiative (IGAD LPI); a regional extension of the Pro- Poor

Livestock Policy Initiative (PPLPI), through which IGAD and FAO have formed a

partnership to enhance the contribution of livestock to sustainable food security and

poverty reduction in the region. This will be achieved by facilitating processes and

mechanisms to formulate and promote livestock policy and institutional reforms that

increase efficiency and competitiveness, and reduce vulnerability of the livestock-

dependent poor in the Horn of Africa.

The IGAD Livestock Policy Initiative (IGAD-LPI) is a capacity building project,

implemented by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations in

cooperation with the Intergovernmental Authority on Development. The initiative was

adopted after the IGAD summit of October 2003.

The overall objective of IGAD-LPI is enhanced contribution of the livestock sector to

sustainable food security and poverty reduction in the IGAD region. The purpose is

strengthened capacity in IGAD, its member states, other regional organizations and other

stakeholders to formulate and implement livestock sector and related policies that

sustainably reduce food insecurity and poverty. This study on sustainable livestock

production within the greater horn of Africa contributes towards the above objective.

3.3.3.3.6666.3 Nile Basin .3 Nile Basin .3 Nile Basin .3 Nile Basin InitiativeInitiativeInitiativeInitiative

This Intiative was founded in 1999 and the project rationale was to ensure the waters of

the Nile Basin offer a greater potential as a lever for development across a large part of the

African continent. The Nile Basin covers an area of about 3.1 million km2, which

represents 10 percent of the African continent. The ten countries sharing the Nile Basin

are: Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda,

Sudan, Uganda and Tanzania. Five of the ten countries of the GHA share the Nile basin.

In order to realize the economic potential of the Nile basin these countries require

targeted technical support to overcome barriers to joint management of the land and

water resources of the basin. The NBI programme consists of two complementary sub-

programmes: the Shared Vision Program, and the Subsidiary Action Program. The former

focuses on fostering an enabling environment for cooperative development, while the

latter addresses physical investments at sub-basin level. The project GCP/INT/752/ITA

"Capacity Building for Nile-Basin Water Resources Management" which followed the

previous GCP/RAF/286/ITA was again funded by the Government of Italy, and was


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 22

implemented as part of the NBI Shared Vision Program. All ten Nile Basin states

participated in this project, which was executed by FAO.

The main focus of this project is to build capacity and train people on Nile Basin water

resources management. Capacity building events included national and regional

workshops, as well as dedicated training at qualified local information technology

training centres. At an experimental level, the project used Internet training facilities,

with promising results. A recent development has been to link into the international

geographical information community for new data acquisition, training and solutions. All

the basin states now have a relevant operational data unit, well equipped and well

trained, that can provide essential information to decision-makers and policymakers at

short notice. With a view to reducing the costs of information, the project is assessing the

value and possible application of third-party data sources available through the Internet.

One of the initiatives of this project was to develop a Nile decision-support tool (Nile

DST) that models the entire Nile system and assesses the trade-offs and consequences of

various development scenarios. Nile DST incorporates modules for river simulation and

reservoir operation, agricultural planning, and watershed hydrology. The system also

includes a comprehensive data-querying and visualization tool. This Initiative has

achieved among other things Water development and management options that were

explored through the use of decision-support tools that were custom-made for the

project.

The Nile Basin Initiative has been created and a Strategic Action Programme prepared

which consists of two sub-programmes: the Shared Vision Programme (SVP) and the

Subsidiary Action Programme (SAP). SVP is to help create an enabling environment for

action on the ground through building trust and skill, while SAP is aimed at the delivery

of actual development projects involving two or more countries. Nile Equatorial Lakes

Subsidiary Action Program’s (NELSAP) which oversees implementation of the jointly

identified SAPs and promotes cooperative inter-country and in country investment

projects related to the common use of the Nile Basin water resources for

NELSAP includes programs such as the Lake Victoria Development Program (LVDP)

and the Lake Victoria Visioning Exercise of the East African Community (EAC), the

Lake Victoria Environment Management Program (LVEMP), and the Lake Victoria

Fisheries Development Program. Twelve NELSAP projects have been identified by the

Nile Equatorial Lakes riparians in a highly consultative manner, targeting investments in

Water Resources Management of shared sub-basins, Hydropower Development and

Transmission Interconnection, Fisheries Development and Lakes Management, Water

Resources Management, Agriculture Development, and Water Hyacinth Control.

The Eastern Nile Subsidiary Action Program (ENSAP) is an investment program by the

Governments of Egypt, Ethiopia and the Sudan under the umbrella of the Nile Basin

Initiative (NBI). ENSAP objective is to achieve joint action on the ground to promote


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 23

poverty alleviation, economic growth and reversal of environmental degradation.

Projects are selected by individual riparian countries for implementation and submitted

to the Council of Ministers of the Nile Basin Initiative for approval.

The Nile Basin Initiative regulation is based Cooperative Framework Agreement of

mutual regional cooperation on common water resource shared by the riparian

countries.

3.3.3.3.6666.4 .4 .4 .4 Common Market for Eastern and Southern AfricaCommon Market for Eastern and Southern AfricaCommon Market for Eastern and Southern AfricaCommon Market for Eastern and Southern Africa

The Treaty establishing COMESA was signed on 5th November 1993. COMESA replaced

the former Preferential Trade Area (PTA). It was established as an organization of free

independent sovereign states which have agreed to co-operate in developing their natural

and human resources for the good of all their people. Its membership covers nineteen

countries.These countries include: Burundi, Comoros, Democratic Republic of Congo,

Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Rwanda,

Seychelles, Sudan, Swaziland, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

The objectives of the COMESA Treaty and the COMESA Agricultural Policy (CAP) are in

line with the broader Comprehensive African Agricultural Development Programme

(CAADP) of the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) under the African

Union (AU). The CAADP has been endorsed by African Heads of State and Governments

as a framework for the restoration of agricultural growth, food security and rural

development in Africa within an integrated and coordinated approach. CAADP defines

four Pillars for improving Africa's agriculture:

i. Extending the area under sustainable land management and reliable water control

systems;

ii. Improving rural infrastructure and trade related capacities for market access;

iii. Increasing food supply, reducing hunger and improving responses to food

emergency crises; and

iv. Improving agricultural research, technology dissemination and adoption.

COMESA has endorsed the principle of moving from a national to a regional approach in

dealing with regional food security issues. The main objective is to open up the region to

free flow of agricultural trade by removing all barriers to such trade to ensure that as

needed, commodities move from surplus to deficit areas in the region driven primarily by

demand and market forces. The COMESA Secretariat's on-going agricultural sector

programs aimed at attaining sustainable food security are as follows:


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 24

i. Agricultural Market Promotion and Regional Integration Project (supported by

the AfDB)

ii. Irrigation Development in the COMESA Region (with the assistance of the Indian

Government)

iii. Regional Food Security/Food Reserve Initiative among member states

The Food Security Policy and Vulnerability Reduction Program (to be supported

by the 9th EDF)

iv. Coordinated Agricultural Research and Technology Interventions (supported by

USAID)

A Regional Approach Towards Biotechnology (supported by USAID)

v. The Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Campaign (PATTEC) in

collaboration with the AU

vi. Livestock Sector Development in collaboration with the AU and USAID

vii. Fisheries Sector Development in partnership with the Common Fund for

Commodities

viii. Implementation of NEPAD's Comprehensive African Agricultural Development

Programme (CAADP) in the Eastern and Central African (ECA) region

ix. Crop Crisis Control (C3) Project with the support of USAID

x. The Action Plan for the Environment among member states

3.63.63.63.6.5 Ea.5 Ea.5 Ea.5 East African Community (EAC)st African Community (EAC)st African Community (EAC)st African Community (EAC)

The Treaty to establish EAC was signed in 1999. The EAC is made up of five states:

Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, and Burundi. It covers a surface area of 1.82 million

square Kilometers. One of the objectives of the treaty as outlined in article 105 is

agriculture and food security. The partner states undertake to adopt a scheme for the

rationalization of agriculture production with a view to promoting complementarity and

specialization in and the sustainability of national agricultural programmes.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 25

4.0 WATER RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGIONS4.0 WATER RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGIONS4.0 WATER RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGIONS4.0 WATER RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGIONS

4.1 Water Resources Endowment 4.1 Water Resources Endowment 4.1 Water Resources Endowment 4.1 Water Resources Endowment

4.1.1 Djibouti4.1.1 Djibouti4.1.1 Djibouti4.1.1 Djibouti

Djibouti has survived harsh drought conditions for the past 5 years. Groundwater is the

primary source of water for drinking and irrigation, but has been difficult to exploit and is

often contaminated. Almost 50 percent of people in rural Djibouti do not have ready

access to properly developed source of drinking water. And, due to the ongoing drought,

water availability for livestock is limited. Livestock have shown signs of distress and,

subsequently, production of milk and meat has been down substantially.

Erratic rainfall patterns have adversely affected the replenishment of water catchments

and the regeneration of pastures. Delayed rains have resulted in abnormal pastoral

migration patterns and a further depletion of already exhausted pasture and browse in all

grazing areas. The rain has also been insufficient to replenish much-needed water

sources throughout the country and it is below the threshold for pasture regeneration.

All water catchments in the south are practically dry.

The livelihoods and food security of pastoral communities have been severely

compromised by limited water and pasture. Significant over-grazing of pasture and the

depletion of water sources have contributed to widespread livestock deaths and a

considerable decline in milk productivity. The remaining animals are in poor health due

mainly to opportunistic parasites and diseases.

Djibouti’s coastal pastures and water sources have also been overburdened by pastoralists

from the neighbouring, drought-affected countries of Somalia, Ethiopia and Eritrea. The

border areas of both Eritrea and Ethiopia are prone to drought hence affects pasture

regeneration and water source replenishment, resulting in poor food security situation for

pastoralists in the region. Frequent pastoral migrations from Shinile in Somalia have also

caused water stress and overgrazing in the Djibouti coastal grazing areas.

Irregular movements of livestock and people have been observed in most rural areas and

significant numbers of livestock deaths have been reported. Many households have lost

their entire herds and thousands of people are moving from rural areas to urban centers

in search of assistance.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 26

Nearly half of all families in Djibouti's northwest were forced to migrate to find pasture

for their livestock. As the droughts continue, the importance of properly maintained

wells has become apparent.

4.1.2 Eritrea4.1.2 Eritrea4.1.2 Eritrea4.1.2 Eritrea

Surface Water Resources Surface Water Resources Surface Water Resources Surface Water Resources

Surface water resources in Eritrea mainly consist of rivers and streams. The three main

river basins in Eritrea can be categorized as follows:

• The Mereb-Gash and Tekeze-Setit River systems, draining into the Nile River;

• The eastern escarpment and the Barka-Anseba River systems, draining into the

Red Sea;

• The river systems of a narrow strip of land along the south-eastern border with

Ethiopia, draining into the closed Danakil Basin.

Although no measurements of runoff are available, the internally produced renewable

water resources are estimated at 2.8 BCM/yr. Most of the water resources are located in

the western part of the country.

There is only one perennial river in Eritrea, the Setit River, which also forms the border

with Ethiopia. All other rivers are seasonal and contain water only after rainfall and are

dry for the rest of the year. There are no natural fresh surface water bodies in the

country. Artificially dammed water bodies are found scattered in the highland parts of

the country.

Ground Water ResourcesGround Water ResourcesGround Water ResourcesGround Water Resources

All parts of the country have the potential to tap groundwater. However, the quantity of

water for pastoral, domestic, industrial and agricultural use is inadequate. There are four

major hydro-geological units, recharge conditions and hydraulic characteristics found in

Eritrea. These are:

• Granular aquifers, which cover large areas in the western and eastern lowlands

and along river valleys and flood plains. Unconsolidated aquifers consisting of the

alluvial and colluvial sediments are also found in the Asmara area, Red Sea coastal

plains and at the foot of fault scraps and mountains;

• Fissured and jointed volcanic aquifers, which are found in the central highland

plateau southeast of Asmara and west of Assab and in the southern part of the

country and the Alid hot spring;

• Fissured and karstic aquifers of consolidated sedimentary rocks, limestone, coral

reefs, evaporate deposits and the marbles of metamorphic assemblages;


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 27

• Fissured aquifers of the basement rocks of crystalline metamorphic rocks and

associated intrusive rocks, which are localized along weathered and fractured

zones, with limited groundwater resources,

Technology for Water AbstractionTechnology for Water AbstractionTechnology for Water AbstractionTechnology for Water Abstraction

The water point inventory counted 5365 water points. About 3374 are unprotected dug

wells and 1233 are contaminated surface water points. Typical boreholes depths are in the

range of 20 to 70 m. Deep aquifers are not common.

Problems of groundwater depletion have been reported in various parts of the country.

Apparently there are a few natural springs, but an inventory is not available.

Currently there are about 187 dams with the total capacity estimated at 94 million m3.

(Average of 50000 m3 each). About 42 percent of these dams are for municipal use and

irrigation, 40 percent for municipalities only, 13 percent for irrigation only, and 5 percent

are not used. Livestock and pastoral communities have not been adequately supplied,

hence have to travel long distances in search of water resources.

Water useWater useWater useWater use

Groundwater is the basis of municipal water supply in Eritrea. Total water withdrawal

was estimated at 582 million m3 in 2004, of which 550 million m3 for agriculture and

livestock (94.5 percent), 31 million m3 for municipal consumption (5.3 percent) and 1

million m3 for industry (0.2 percent)

International water issuesInternational water issuesInternational water issuesInternational water issues

Eritrea is part of the Council of Ministers of Water Affairs of the Nile Basin States (Nile-

COM) as an observer, together with Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo,

Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, the United Republic of Tanzania and Uganda. It

is a prospective member of the Nile Basin Initiative. The Setit and Mereb-Gash rivers are

shared with Ethiopia.

Water for Irrigation DevelopmentWater for Irrigation DevelopmentWater for Irrigation DevelopmentWater for Irrigation Development

Estimates of irrigation potential vary from 107000 ha to 567000 ha, the latter not taking

into account the water availability. Based on water availability, it can be estimated at

187500 ha.

In 1993, an estimated 4100 ha was under perennial irrigation from dams, springs and

wells:


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 28

• Approximately 1300 ha were irrigated through the pumping of shallow

groundwater along the Gash and Barka rivers;

• Some 140 ha comprised the Elaberet and Mai Aini citrus/horticultural plantations

presently under government management;

• About 2590 ha were cropped by small farmers in the highland provinces mainly

through the pumping of groundwater from open wells;

• The balance of 70 ha was irrigated from springs.

The area equipped for spate irrigation covers 17490 ha, of which 15650 in the eastern

lowlands and 1840 ha at Alighider on the lower Gash and a small area along the Barka.

4.1.3 Ethiopia4.1.3 Ethiopia4.1.3 Ethiopia4.1.3 Ethiopia

SSSSururururface Water Resourcesface Water Resourcesface Water Resourcesface Water Resources

Ethiopia is a country with diverse water resources that remain untapped. Livestock

holds an important social and economic role in the country irrespective of the low

production level under the traditional highland mixed crop/livestock and lowland

pastoral/agro-pastoral productions systems.

Ethiopia’s 11 river basins that are currently at varying development stages offer

tremendous opportunities that are yet to be fully exploited with due considerations

to the welfare of downstream riparian countries. Much of the water from these

basins drains into neighboring countries. Initiatives like Nile Basin are steps towards

establishing fair-share mechanisms among countries connected through trans-

boundary water bodies. Similar initiatives expanded to other river basins may assist

in avoiding disputes that could emerge over water use issues.

Major Water Basins of the Country Major Water Basins of the Country Major Water Basins of the Country Major Water Basins of the Country

Ethiopia has 11 drainage basins with substantial amount of surface water. Most of

the country’s rivers cross international boundaries and form a drainage system

flowing into the Mediterranean Sea or the Indian Ocean. The drainage system

includes Blue Nile, Baro-Akobo and Tekeze, which drain into the western part of

the country and join the main Nile River, the Wabi- Shebelle and Genale- Dawa

rivers, which drain into the southern part of the Indian Ocean through Somalia.

Awash does not cross the boundary and drains within the country while Omo/Gibe

runs into Lake Turkana in Kenya. Danakil and Ogaden drainage basins are found in

the lowlands. In general, Ethiopia is a country with all the major rivers flowing out

into the neighboring countries, thus constraining total development of the water

resources of the country to the fullest. The three Ethiopian sub-basins that drain to

the main Nile River constitute 68% of the available water resources of the country


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 29

(Arsano and Tamrat, 2005). Thus far, the country has only been able to utilize 5% of

its total surface water, or 0.6% of the water resources of the Nile basin. (Table 4.1)

Table 4.1Table 4.1Table 4.1Table 4.1: Water Basins of Ethiopia and their Area Coverage

BasinBasinBasinBasin Area (kmArea (kmArea (kmArea (km2222)))) Average annual Average annual Average annual Average annual

flow (BM3)flow (BM3)flow (BM3)flow (BM3)

Area (km2)Area (km2)Area (km2)Area (km2) Drainage towardsDrainage towardsDrainage towardsDrainage towards

Mount Flat Arid

Awash 112,695 4.6 36,610 73,718 3,377 Internal

Baro-Akobo 74,102 23.2 24,566 49,586 - Sudan-Egypt

Blue Nile 201,340 52.6 143,400 60,800 - Sudan-Egypt

Danakil 77,41 27,808 38,460 Internal

Genale-Dawa 171,042 5.8 39,230 105,412 26,400 Somalia

Mereb-Gash 23,932 0.7 12,643 11,289 - Eritrea-Sudan

Ogaden 77,121 - - - 77,121 Internal

Omo-Ghibe 78,213 17.9 43,917 34,296 - L.Turkana/ Kenya

R.Valley

Lakes

52,730 5.6 39,009 13,730 - Internal

Tekeze 82,350 8.2 54,821 35,180 - Sudan-Egypt

Wabi-

Shebelle

202,697 3.2 33,605 152,682 16,400 Somalia

Sources: Belachew (2000)

Technologies for Supplying Water to Livestock Technologies for Supplying Water to Livestock Technologies for Supplying Water to Livestock Technologies for Supplying Water to Livestock

Rivers springs, and ponds form the main sources of water for livestock in the Nile

Basin areas of the country. In many districts of the area shortage of drinking water

in the dry season compels livestock to travel over long distance to permanent water

source that do not dry out and when such opportunity is not within the reach

farmers to commute from their residential areas, they would be forced to employ

transhumance production system. According to results from a recent survey work

(Amhara Regional State Socio-economic Survey, 2005) more than a third of farmers

residing in highland, mid-altitude and lowland climatic zones; respectively of

moisture-deficient districts reported they constantly face critical water shortage for

livestock during dry seasons. A slightly higher proportion ranging from a third to

half of farmers living in these climatic zones in the studied districts receiving better

moisture indicated to face similar constraint in the same period of the year. Reasons

why higher proportion of farmers in a comparatively better rainfall conditions

facing this problem is not clear and requires further investigation


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 30

Water Resource Development Efforts in Ethiopia Water Resource Development Efforts in Ethiopia Water Resource Development Efforts in Ethiopia Water Resource Development Efforts in Ethiopia

Ethiopia has 11 major river basins, 11 lakes, 9 saline lakes, 4 crater lakes and over 12

major swamps and wetlands. The country is also endowed with many rivers, lakes

and plenty of rainfall. Although there are enough surface water supplies in rivers

and lakes, the development of water supply schemes in Ethiopia has lagged behind

demand and only about 500 million cubic meters have so far been utilized out of the

total mean annual supplies of over 110 billion cubic meters (Degefu, 2003). This is a

good indication of the fact that the abundant water resources have played a

minimum role in the economic development of the country so far. So, currently

there is a major priority emphasis put on the development strategy of the water

resources to enable them to make essential contribution to the economic and social

development of the nation.

Traditional Water Resource Management Traditional Water Resource Management Traditional Water Resource Management Traditional Water Resource Management

In the lowland moisture stressed pastoral production systems, the country has over

the years developed strong culture of traditional water management systems ruled

and regulated by social values. Here herders commonly depend on deep water wells

that are governed by social rules for both animal and human water uses. The age-old

traditional water and rangeland management systems that have been ecologically

friendly were disrupted by many recent development schemes and now made

unsustainable to support sound development programs.

In the mixed crop/livestock production systems as well traditionally farmers have

built small-scale schemes on their own initiatives, sometimes with government

technical and material support. They manage the schemes through their own users’

association or committees. Water user associations have long existed to mange

traditional schemes (Awlachew et al., 2004). It is also mentioned that they are

generally well organized and effectively operated by farmers who know each other

and are committed to cooperating closely to achieve common goals. Typical

associations comprise up to 200 users who share a main canal or a branch canal.

They may be grouped into several teams of 20 or 30 farmers each in managing the

irrigation practice. Such traditional arrangement handles different tasks of

construction, water allocation, operation and maintenance. A total of about 138,000

hectares of land are put under traditional irrigation activities.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 31

Table Table Table Table 4.24.24.24.2: Distribution of Water Structures in Ethiopia

Type of water supply schemes Type of water supply schemes Type of water supply schemes Type of water supply schemes

Borehole Borehole Borehole Borehole Hand dug Hand dug Hand dug Hand dug

wells wells wells wells

Spring Spring Spring Spring Others Others Others Others Total Total Total Total

WSSA 873 2507 435 2 3817

NGOs 608 797 982 15 2402

Total 1418 3304 1417 17 6219

Source: Water Supply and Sanitation Authority (WSSA)

Groundwater Resources Groundwater Resources Groundwater Resources Groundwater Resources

Many parts of Ethiopia have limited supplies of groundwater because of the poor

permeability of the crystalline rocks and variable water-table depths. Success with

obtaining groundwater in these areas depends upon locating water-bearing fractures. The

permeability of the ancient (Precambrian) rocks is generally poor and wells normally give

poor yields as a result (UN, 1989). However the groundwater potential of Ethiopia is

estimated to be 2.6-13.5BM3/year while little is explored and developed. It is occurring in

different parts of the country within different hydro geologic environment and aquifer

settings that is being partly developed, among others, for water supply purposes.

(Ministry of Water Resources-Ethiopia)

The recurrent drought has negatively affected the existence of surface water resources

and resulted in the decline of groundwater tables to the extent of drying of wells and

springs. In highly drought-affected areas, groundwater from deep underground sources

has been the sole source of water supply.

The sedimentary rocks of eastern, central and northern Ethiopia also have variable

groundwater potential. The sandstones are normally permeable and porous and have good

groundwater yields, although water levels are in places deep and hence difficult to access

(e.g. 280 m below surface in the Jessoma Sandstone; UN, 1989). Permeability is however,

hindered by the occurrence of interbedded silty or clay horizons with poor permeability.

In eastern Ethiopia, limited groundwater resources also relate strongly to low rainfall.

The best aquifers with the largest exploitable resources of groundwater occur in the

young (Quaternary) lake and alluvial sediments. Unconsolidated alluvial sediments occur

in the main floodplains of the Rivers Wabi, Shebali, Genale-Dawa, Omo, Baro, Angereb,

Tekeze, Gash and Barka (UN, 1989). Lake sediments also occur within the Rift and are

exploited for drinking water and irrigation. The water table in these unconsolidated

sediments is also typically shallower than in other rock formations (typically around 15 m

below surface; UN, 1989).

Communities use groundwater from a combination of springs, dug wells and tubewells. In

the highlands, springs predominate. In the hard-rock areas, groundwater abstraction


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 32

sources are mainly for domestic use as a result of small yields. Groundwater use for

irrigation is mainly limited to the more permeable areas of alluvial sediment.

In areas using traditional dug wells where water is scarce, such as the low-lying plains of

eastern Ethiopia, clusters of wells are sometimes used to increase the access to water.

Tubewell drilling programmes have been instigated over the last few decades, but

groundwater provision is often unsuccessful because of poor groundwater yields, adverse

drilling conditions or poor water quality. UN (1989) estimated that more than 20% of

tubewells drilled in Ethiopia had been abandoned as a result of a combination of these

reasons. Tubewell depths vary considerably across the country. Many in the Rift and

highlands are in the range 50–100 m. Depths in the sediments of eastern Ethiopia

(Ogaden) are often in excess of 200 m because of deep water tables.

4.1.4 Kenya4.1.4 Kenya4.1.4 Kenya4.1.4 Kenya

Water Resources and UseWater Resources and UseWater Resources and UseWater Resources and Use

The National Development Plan 2002-2008 recognizes Kenya as a water scarce country

whereby the water demand exceeds renewable freshwater sources. It was predicted in the

National Water Master Plan of 1992 that out of 164 sub-basins with perennial river flows,

90 would suffer from surface water deficit by 2010 while already 33 sub-basins without

perennial river flow have an apparent water shortage.

Surface Water ResourcesSurface Water ResourcesSurface Water ResourcesSurface Water Resources

There are five main drainage basins in the country:

• Lake Victoria, covering 8.0 percent of the country;

• Rift valley and inland lakes, covering 22.5 percent of the country;

• Athi River and coast, covering 11.5 percent of the country;

• Tana River, covering 21.7 percent of the country;

• Ewaso Ng’iro, covering 36.3 percent of the country.

The water distribution in the drainage basins is both skewed and uneven with, for

example, 282,600 m3/ km2 in Lake Victoria basin and 21,300 m3/km2 in the Athi and Coast

catchments.

There are six hydro-geological formations, which influence the distribution and

availability of the groundwater resources: Eastern quaternary sediment areas; Bed rock

areas; Western quaternary areas; Volcanic rock areas in the Rift valley; Volcanic areas

outside the Rift valley; Older sedimentary areas.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 33

The internal renewable surface water resources are estimated at 20 billion m3/year, while

about 3.5 BM3 of groundwater is produced annually, of which the main part (3 BM³/year)

is considered to overlap with the surface water resources. It is estimated that 10 BM3/year

of water enters the country via transboundary rivers. The volcanic and quaternary

geological formations are rich in groundwater. The annual safe abstraction yield of

groundwater is estimated at 0.6 BM3, out of which 0.4 BM3 is the estimated yield from

shallow wells while the remaining balance of 0.2 BM3 is estimated to come from

boreholes.

The total capacity of large and medium dams (> 15 m) is about 4.1 BM3. In order to

augment water supply, 1782 small dams and 669 water pans have been constructed. There

are 9 lakes with a surface area of 10 747 BM2. Most of the lakes are saline with the

exception of Victoria, Naivasha and Baringo. The lakes Nakuru and Naivasha have been

declared Ramsar sites as wetlands of international importance for conservation of

biodiversity.

There is limited seawater desalinization mainly for the hotels along the coast.

Water UseWater UseWater UseWater Use

The total water withdrawal is estimated to be over 2.7 BCM. The water demand is

projected to increase to 5.8 BCM by the year 2010. Agriculture is the main user of water

and currently consumes about 80 percent, while municipal and commercial use accounts

for the rest. There are a total of 1,800 municipal water supply schemes, out of which 700

are managed by the Ministry of Water Resource Management and Development while

the communities manage the rest. There are 9,000 boreholes, most of which require

rehabilitation.

As a result of the skewed water distribution between the basins and within the basins,

water use conflicts among irrigation, livestock, wildlife and environmental conservation

is quite common in the Ewaso Ng’iro north, in the upper catchments of the Tana basin

and the Athi basins.

Irrigation and Drainage DevelopmentIrrigation and Drainage DevelopmentIrrigation and Drainage DevelopmentIrrigation and Drainage Development

The irrigation potential of Kenya has been estimated at 353,060 ha and is distributed over

the basins as follows:

• 180,000 ha in the Nile (Lake Victoria) basin;

• 52500 ha in the Kerio Valley (Rift Valley) basin;

• 111,100 ha in the East Coast basin (including the Tana and Athi basins);

• 9,460 ha in the Ewaso Ngiro (Shebelle-Juba) basin.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 34

Irrigation development in Kenya has a long history since there are records indicating that

there were irrigation systems in the 16th century along the coast and the Kerio valley

(Marakwet escarpment). The system was so elaborate that a traditional water

management system had evolved that maintained canals exceeding 15 kilometers, and

water transfers from basin to basin along rugged terrains with technologies that puzzle

the present-day engineer. The traditional water management system also allocated water

between different clans and the water rotation among the different users could vary from

year to year.

International Water IssuesInternational Water IssuesInternational Water IssuesInternational Water Issues

Kenya shares a number of rivers with other countries:

• The Umba, Mara and Pangani basins are shared with the United Republic of

Tanzania;

• The Sio, Malaba and Malakisi basins are shared with Uganda;

• The Omo and Daua basins are shared with Ethiopia;

• The Nile basin is shared with nine other countries.

Currently, there is no existing framework between the countries for the utilization and

management of the shared water resources.

Water Management, Policies and Legislation Related to Water Use in AgricultureWater Management, Policies and Legislation Related to Water Use in AgricultureWater Management, Policies and Legislation Related to Water Use in AgricultureWater Management, Policies and Legislation Related to Water Use in Agriculture

Overall responsibility for water management lies with the Ministry of Water Resources

Management and Development (MWRMD), granted through the Water Act 2002. The

ministry’s current policy (1999) focuses on decentralization, privatization,

commercialization and stakeholder participation. The Water Act 2002 has provided the

formation of a Water Resources Management Authority, responsible for water pollution,

and the management of lakes, aquifers and rivers, and the establishment of a Water

Services Regulatory Board, responsible for water supply through licensed water services

providers. (Section 4.6)

4.1.5 Somalia4.1.5 Somalia4.1.5 Somalia4.1.5 Somalia

Surface WaterSurface WaterSurface WaterSurface Water

Somalia is an extreme water scarce country where most of the water sources available

exist rivers shared with other countries. Water resources in Somalia are dominated by

surface water. The two perennial rivers in Somalia are the Juba and Shabelle rivers. The

Juba-Shabelle basin, with a total area of 810 427 billion square metres, covers about one-

third of Ethiopia, one-third of Kenya and one-third of Somalia. Over 90 percent of the

flow originates in the Ethiopian highlands. The mean annual runoff at the border


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 35

between Ethiopia and Somalia is 5.9 BCM for the Juba River at Luuq and 2.3 BCM for the

Shabelle river at Belet Weyne. Usually the flooding occurs following heavy rains in the

upper basin in Ethiopia, with the Lower Juba floodplain being the worst affected area. As

the Shabelle River is embanked at the lower part it is very difficult to predict the location

of the floods. Sedimentation in the riverbed and siltation of the irrigation canals are also

contributing to in-channel floods (FAO 2005).

In the north, along the Gulf of Aden, there is a mountainous zone with rugged relief

which is subject to torrential flows, causing considerable erosion. The land slopes down

towards the south and the south-flowing watercourses dissipate in the Haud plateau.

Groundwater potential is limited because of the limited potential for recharge. Internally

produced water resources are 6 BCM/year, of which 5.7 BCM and 3.3 BCM are surface

water and groundwater respectively, with an overlap between the two estimated at 3

BCM (FAO Water Report, 2005)

Water HaWater HaWater HaWater Harvestingrvestingrvestingrvesting

Not all the Water resources can be captured due to floods. There are no dams constructed

on the Juba and Shabelle rivers within Somalia, and pre-war flood-control measures off-

stream reservoirs, flood relief canals are recorded state is in disrepair.

Agricultural water abstractions are mainly limited to partially controlled irrigation

schemes in the river basins. Of the abstractions for agriculture, livestock accounts for

about 0.03 BCM/year. Under the present conditions, surface water withdrawal amounts

to around 96 percent and groundwater withdrawal to 4 percent of the total water

withdrawal. In the dry season, as the water resources become scarce, competition

between the resources is high and groundwater supplies are often severely stressed.

WateWateWateWater Storager Storager Storager Storage

Water storage is mainly on off-stream storage at Jowhar (0.2 BCM), upstream of the

greater part of the irrigated lands and downstream of the Jowhar sugar estate, which

collapsed in the mid 1990s. A second off-stream storage reservoir in the Shabelle at

Duduble, upstream of Jowhar, which would store 0.13-0.2 BM3, was proposed in the late

1980s, but was never built. At Baarhere on the Juba river a major water development

project was proposed in the 1980s for hydropower, water control and irrigation for about

175000 ha of land (FAO 2005).


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 36

4.1.6 Sudan4.1.6 Sudan4.1.6 Sudan4.1.6 Sudan


Sudan is characterized by desert climate in the north with average annual rainfall ranging

416 mm and 25 mm. On the north-east, Sudan is bordered by the Red Sea. Internal water

resources in Sudan are limited. The erratic nature of the rainfall and its concentration in a

short season places Sudan in a vulnerable situation, especially in rainfed areas. Surface

water in Sudan comprises the Nile river system (Nilotic water) and other, non-nilotic

streams. Rainfall is the main source of the non-nilotic streams and of the Bahr El Ghazal

basin. Similalry, rainfall over the Central African Plateau (Equatorial Lakes) and over the

Ethiopian-Eritrean highlands is the main source of the Nile River system and other

transboundary seasonal streams Gash and Baraka (FAO 2005). Apart from the Nile Basin

Sudan shares other basins shared between and her neighbours which include:

i. The Northern Interior Basins, covering 313 365 billion square metres in the

northwest part of the country (12.5 percent);

ii. The Lake Chad Basin, in the west of the country along the border with Chad and

the Central African Republic, covering 101 048 billion square metres (4.0 percent);

iii. The Northeast Coast Basins, representing a strip along the Red Sea coast of the

country, covering 96 450 billion square metres (3.8 percent);

iv. The Rift Valley Basin, in the southeast part of the country at the border with

Ethiopia and Kenya, covering 16 441 billion square metres (0.7 percent).

v. The Bahr El Ghazal Basin, an internal basin in southwest Sudan

Groundwater is used only in very limited areas, and is mainly used for municipal water

supply. The major groundwater formations and basins are the Nubian Sandstone Basin

and the Umm Rwaba Basins. There are expansive swamps in Sudan, namely Chazal, Sudd

and Sobat swamps in the south of the country represent major wetlands, from which

evaporation is exceptionally high. Recently There Fossil groundwater resources are

estimated to be 16 000 BCM.

Water TechnologWater TechnologWater TechnologWater Technologiesiesiesies

Water harvesting has been achieved through water abstractions to construct dams such as

Sennar dam (Aswan High Dam). There are small barrage constructed on the Rahad River

to divert floodwater to the Rahad Agricultural Scheme and to siphon underneath the

Dinder River to augment the water supply during the dry season from the Meina Pump

Station on the Blue Nile. The Jonglei Canal, between Bahr el Jebel and the White Nile,

was planned to divert water from upstream of the Sudd to a point farther down the White

Nile, bypassing the swamps, to make more water available for use downstream. Works on


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 37

it were discontinued in 1983 after two thirds were completed..The desalination of

seawater was introduced recently in Port Sudan town.

The Omdurman water treatment and optimization contract uses the River Nile as its

source of water. The Nile at the point of extraction has been known to have turbidity of

some 23,000NTU in the flood season, while the dry season sees a more usual 130NTU.

In North Darfur, where the rainfall is concentrated over short periods of time, rainwater

harvesting techniques have been developed for various types of water collection schemes

by implementing domestic rain water harvesting. North Darfur and South Kordofan

States rely on groundwater supply (wells) or water storage methods called hafir or earth

dams for their water supply. Hafir are small lakes constructed in low lying areas to allow

water to be stored during rainfall events. Improved water supply methods, to provide

adequate water quality and water supply, are acutely needed for this region as the present

ones are not adequate.

Water StorageWater StorageWater StorageWater Storage

The high variability of river flows necessitates storage facilities which are mainly dams.

The total storage capacity of the following four main dams is estimated at 8.73 BCM, have

a reduced capacity of to about 6.90 BCM owing to sedimentation and debris (FAO 2005).

• The Sennar Dam on the Blue Nile ( design capacity of o.93 BCM, resent capacity

0.60 BCM)

• The Roseires Dam on the Blue Nile( design capacity of 3.5 BCM, resent capacity

3.5 BCM)

• The Jobel Aulia on the White Nile ( design capacity of o.93 BCM, resent capacity

0.60 BCM)

• The El Girba Dam on Arbara Rive ( design capacity of 1.3 BCM, resent capacity

0.60 BCM)

4.1.7 Uganda4.1.7 Uganda4.1.7 Uganda4.1.7 Uganda


Uganda has an equatorial climate with small regional variations in annual temperature

and humidity. Precipitation varies from 750 mm/yr in the Karamajong pastoral areas.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 38

Surface water consists of the Nile Basin which is 98 percent of the total area of the

country, while a fringe of about 4 500 billion square metres along the country’s border

with Kenya belongs to the Rift Valley Basin. The Basin is subdivided in to eight sub-

basins: Lake Victoria Basin, Lake Kyoga Basin, Victoria Nile Basin, Lake Edward Basin,

Lake Albert Basin, Albert Nile Basin, Achwa Basin and Kidepo Basin.

Internal surface water resources are estimated to be 39 BCM/yr, while groundwater is

believed to be around 29 BCM/yr, but all of this is considered to be overlap between

surface water and groundwater, keeping the total IRWR at 39 BCM/yr and external

resources of 27 BCM/yr comprise inflow from Lake Victoria (25 BCM/yr) as well as

inflow via Lake Edward and Lake Albert from the Democratic Republic of Congo Water

Harvesting (FAO Report 2005).

Groundwater represents the main source of municipal water supply for the rural

population of Uganda. It is also important for livestock use particularly in the drier

regions.

Water Harvesting TechnologiesWater Harvesting TechnologiesWater Harvesting TechnologiesWater Harvesting Technologies

In dry areas, water for livestock and domestic use is majorly from ground water sources.

Ground water extraction takes place from springs, boreholes and to a lesser extent from

hand dug wells. Surveys have identified some 12,000 springs in Uganda, of which more

than 4 500 have been developed and protected for safe use. About 9,000 boreholes,

typically drilled to a depth of 60 to 90 meters, are equipped with hand pumps. Rates of

actual extraction are low and most boreholes are fitted with handpumps with capacities

between 0.6 and 1.2 m3/hr depending on the pumping head (FAO Report 2005).

Along the borders of Uganda and Kenya, simple but highly effective technology of sand

dams are shared by communities in Moroto county and West pocket water problems both

in Ugand and Kenya respectively.

Water StorageWater StorageWater StorageWater Storage

There are also over 1,000 dams and valley tanks for both aquaculture and livestock

watering in Uganda. The Government has carried out a programme to construct valley

tanks, and by the beginning of 2004, 30 out of the planned 50 of these surface water

reservoirs in 6 districts had been completed.

In Uganda urban areas water from the treatment works is pumped into elevated tanks

that supply the distribution systems. Raw water pumping stations, boreholes,


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 39

transmission mains, water treatment works, clear water pumping stations, elevated tanks,

distribution systems and customer connections were all constructed by the project

4.2 Water Harvesting and Storage Systems4.2 Water Harvesting and Storage Systems4.2 Water Harvesting and Storage Systems4.2 Water Harvesting and Storage Systems

4.2.1 Ground Water Abstraction4.2.1 Ground Water Abstraction4.2.1 Ground Water Abstraction4.2.1 Ground Water Abstraction

Boreholes:Boreholes:Boreholes:Boreholes: Boreholes are among the most commonly used source of water in the ASALs

of the GHA countries. There have been many attempts to expand the number boreholes.

However many of these boreholes are seasonal. This may be due to the fact that most of

the boreholes are quite shallow and, hence, subject to seasonal hydrological fluctuations,

or that there is over-pumping of the aquifers. The boreholes classified as “range

boreholes,” are kept locked under normal conditions and only opened for livestock use

during severe drought periods. On average, the poor state of many boreholes can be

attributed to lack of community management. Many boreholes do not operate because of

lack of a system to organize purchase of fuel for pumping, or make repairs when

necessary. In addition, only one third of the boreholes have fresh water (low salinity).

Available data shows that borehole depths range from 50-100 m, with the deepest being

at 250 m in most parts of the ASALs. Water yields range from 1 to 18 liter/s, with a

median yield of about 9 l/s (MoWRD 2002).

Studies in other parts of the world have shown that unstable groundwater overdraft

occurs when pumping exceeds the source’s rate of natural recharge (Rosegrant et al.

2000). Overdrafting leads to a lowered water table, which in turn increases the depth of

pumping, thereby raising pumping costs. Additional environmental problems may also

occur from groundwater overdrafting including decreased water quality, subsiding land,

and saline intrusion into aquifers. Further investigations are necessary to identify the

causes of the high fluctuations in the water yields from most of the boreholes in ASAL

areas.

Shallow WellsShallow WellsShallow WellsShallow Wells:::: Most wells in the ASALs of GHA are traditional hand-scooped holes. Most

of the wells are used for human water supplies due to their low yields. Another feature is

that most of the shallow wells are: (1) not capped; (2) have no pumps; (3) have low yields;

and (4) exceed 6 m in depth. In traditional Boran systems, which are practiced to date,

steps are made into the well and women line up to reach down and fetch the water

manually, through a “hand-me-up” system using containers. This is a slow and laborious

activity, and also leads to contamination of the water. Improvements in well design and

management are necessary. Prospects to improve infiltration in sand rivers, e.g., through


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 40

sand/subsurface dams so as to boost the storage capacity of shallow wells, should also be

explored.

4.2.1 4.2.1 4.2.1 4.2.1 Surface and Surface and Surface and Surface and Rainwater HarvestingRainwater HarvestingRainwater HarvestingRainwater Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is the gathering, or accumulating and storing, of rainwater.

Rainwater harvesting has been used to provide drinking water, water for livestock, water

for irrigation or to refill aquifers in a process called groundwater recharge. Rainwater

collected from the roofs of houses, tents and local institutions, or from specially prepared

areas of ground, can make an important contribution to drinking water. In some cases,

rainwater may be the only available, or economical, water source in greater part of the

GHA. Rainwater systems are simple to construct from inexpensive local materials, and are

potentially successful in most habitable locations. Roof rainwater is usually of good

quality and may only require simple treatment before consumption. Household rainfall

catchment systems are appropriate in areas with an average rainfall greater than 200mm

per year, and no other accessible water sources (Skinner and Cotton, 1992).

Figure 4.1: Figure 4.1: Figure 4.1: Figure 4.1: Strategy of Rain Water Harvesting

Two important considerations affecting the adoption of RWH technologies are: i) cost,

especially for water storages such as tanks and reservoirs; and, ii) incomes of most pastoral

communities. Even though the costs vary across countries and regions, with the

availability of local materials and local operating conditions the basic costs per cubic

meter are generally comparable for specified RWH technologies. Examples from


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 41

rainwater harvesting projects in GHA countries as obtained from published sources (Desta

et al. 2005; Nissen-Petersen 2000), expert consultations and experiences of the Southern

and Eastern Africa Rainwater Network (SEARNET) are given in the Table 4.3.

Table 4.3Table 4.3Table 4.3Table 4.3:::: Estimated Costs for Water Harvesting Structures (per M3)

TechnologyTechnologyTechnologyTechnology Typical examTypical examTypical examTypical exampleplepleple Cost (US$/Cost (US$/Cost (US$/Cost (US$/mmmm3333))))

Underground tanks • Concrete dome-shaped tank 7

• Brick dome-shaped tank 9 to 14

• Bottle-shaped tank 4

• Ferrocement tank 12 to 15

• Ball-shaped plastic tank 160

Aboveground tanks • Brick tank 93

• Ferrocement tank 30 to 70

Plastic tank 130

Runoff open

reservoirs • Plastic lined 3

• Cement lined 5

• Unlined 100

• Lined oval tank 8

Runoff closed

reservoirs

• Concrete dome-shaped underground

tank 7

• Brick dome-shaped underground tank 9 to 14

• Bottle-shaped underground tank 4

• Ferrocement underground tank 13

• Hemi spherical underground tank 23

• Sausage-shaped tank with cement

lining 16

Ground catchments systemsGround catchments systemsGround catchments systemsGround catchments systems channel water from a prepared catchment area into storage.

Generally they are only considered in areas where rainwater is very scarce and other

sources of water are not available. They are more suited to small communities than

individual families. If properly designed, ground catchments can collect large quantities

of rainwater.

Subsurface dyke:Subsurface dyke:Subsurface dyke:Subsurface dyke: A subsurface dyke is built in an aquifer to obstruct the natural flow of

groundwater, thereby raising the groundwater level and increasing the amount of water

stored in the aquifer. Rainwater may also be used for groundwater recharge, where the

runoff on the ground is collected and allowed to be absorbed, adding to the groundwater

Sand/Subsurface Dams and Infiltration GalleriesSand/Subsurface Dams and Infiltration GalleriesSand/Subsurface Dams and Infiltration GalleriesSand/Subsurface Dams and Infiltration Galleries: Many ASAL regions are crisscrossed by

several sand rivers, whose potential for floodwater harvesting and storage has not been

fully tapped. Sand rivers are ephemeral watercourses, which remain dry most of the year,

with the valley bottom being covered by sand (Nissen-Peterssen 2000). However, sand


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 42

rivers flood during the rainy season, and the flows may last from a few hours to several

weeks. This flood flow can be stored in the voids within the sand, if a barrier such as a

dam embankment or sand dam is constructed across the river. There are site conditions

that favor a good sand/subsurface dam, including a good valley profile. However, in the

flatter lower reaches of the river, sand dams may not be feasible due to unstable

geological formations and the flat terrain. In such conditions however, infiltration

galleries offer better scope.

Expanded utilization of sand/subsurface dams in ASALs needs to be explored, especially

since when they are well designed, they suffer little siltation, provide cleaner water and

are less prone to pollution and evaporation losses. Moreover, sand/subsurface dams can be

quite cost-effective. There are possibilities for sand/sub-surface dams to positively benefit

human and livestock water provision in the ASALs, given the many sand river valleys in

GHA region.

4.2.2 Water Storage Systems 4.2.2 Water Storage Systems 4.2.2 Water Storage Systems 4.2.2 Water Storage Systems

Water harvesting systems with a storage component provide “blue water,” which serves

many purposes on a farm, ranging from domestic use, watering livestock and

supplemental irrigation. Even though it is common to find micro-dams and farm ponds

for storing water in semi-arid areas, they are generally located downstream in watersheds,

and the water is predominantly used for livestock and to meet household needs.

Storage systems cover a broad spectrum of techniques, from open surface water storage in

micro-dams to retention dams recharging soil water and shallow water tables to sand

dams and subsurface dams in sand rivers.

Water storage systems operate at a larger scale than within-field systems, often on a

watershed scale, and thereby necessitate addressing issues like ownership, local

institutions and land tenure. They require relatively high capital and labor investments

(often too high for individual households) and are relatively complicated systems to

design. Service-giving institutions, generally, have very little capacity to disseminate and

assist in design of storage water harvesting systems (SIWI 2001).

Roof Catchment with Aboveground Tank: Roof Catchment with Aboveground Tank: Roof Catchment with Aboveground Tank: Roof Catchment with Aboveground Tank: Rainwater harvesting from impervious roofs

(clay tiles and galvanized iron roofs) is a popular method adopted to secure water for

domestic use, because it provides water at home, is affordable, easy to practice regardless

of physical or climatic conditions and can be designed to suit different conditions

(available finances, roof area, family size etc.,). Since the structure is family owned,

maintenance is usually very good and no water conflicts occur. Surface tanks may vary in

size from 1m3 to more than 40m

3 for households and up to 100m

3 or more for schools and


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 43

hospitals. The tank size is dependent on the rainfall regime and the demand. Areas with

seasonal rainfall will require larger tanks (25m3 to 35m

3) and a roof probably exceeding

100m2 would be required if total household demand is to be met throughout the dry

period. Another benefit of surface tanks (compared to sub-surface tanks) is that water can

be extracted easily through a tap just above the base of the tank. If placing it on a stand or

base elevates the tank, water can be piped by gravity to where it is required.

Using estimates (Mati 2002), the cost of tank construction per capita is about US$150

(equivalent to about US$0.07 per liter) — as a tank can last up to 30 years or more, the

investment is considered cost-effective. Another problem has been structural failure,

especially of concrete built tanks. Though reasons for this vary, ranging from use of low

cement, aggregate mixes, poor quality sand, bad workmanship, poor curing process during

construction and generally poor management (e.g., some families drain the tank

completely dry).

Underground Tanks: Underground Tanks: Underground Tanks: Underground Tanks: Underground tanks offer a cheaper alternative due to its lower

construction costs compared to those of surface tanks. They are, especially suited for

homesteads having thatched roofs, traditional structures (e.g., Maasai Manyattas) and

other surfaces, including collection of runoff from paved areas and roads. However, it is

necessary to pump (lift) water, except where the ground gradient permits and where

gravity outlets are constructed (Cherogony 2000). Another problem is higher possibility

of contamination and sedimentation, although the latter can be reduced by providing

adequate siltation basins. Perhaps the main problem is the lack of adequate expertise at

village level to design and construct underground tanks that do not pose a security risk

and are functional. The underground tanks are preferred in home compounds and are

designed as spherical or cylindrical and constructed using bricks.

In Machakos District in Kenya, the cost of constructing a cylindrical tank (sausage tank)

of 15m3 capacity was found to be about US$190 (Ngigi 2003). Rectangular and semi-

circular plastic lined tanks are also gaining popularity due to the ease of construction, and

also the fact that they are more affordable.

Birkas: Birkas: Birkas: Birkas: In the Somali speaking region of Ethiopia, underground cisterns, locally known as

“birkas,” are used for water harvesting (Guleid 2002). Birkas are an indigenous technology

and usually family-owned. They are rectangular underground tanks, lined with concrete

on impermeable clay tile, mostly for domestic water supplies. In recent years, the

Ministry of Water Resources in Ethiopia has been promoting water harvesting through

the excavation of underground tanks and pans (Nega and Kimeu 2002). The tanks permit

irrigation of small kitchen vegetable gardens (100 to 200 m) and animal watering. The


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 44

main problem is the heavy labor demand for excavating the pans and making tank

foundations. Also, there is the need to pump (lift) water except where the ground

gradient permits gravity outlets. There is also the higher possibility of contamination and

sedimentation, although the latter can be reduced by providing adequate siltation basins.

Pans and PondsPans and PondsPans and PondsPans and Ponds:::: Where the site conditions are suitable, floodwater harvesting for

communities in the ASALs can be achieved by excavating shallow pans or ponds. The

main difference is that ponds have some groundwater contribution while pans rely solely

on surface runoff. Pans are more commonly used and range in size from about 10,000 to

50,000 m3 (Bake 1993).

The cost of excavation of small earth pans and ponds is much lower than that of

construction of dams as they (pans/ponds) utilize community labor through such

programs as food for work, thereby reducing the costs even further (Natea 2002). The

main problems with pans and ponds are siltation, contamination and high evaporation

losses. In some instances, seepage can be a problem, while ownership and community

management has been a recurrent problem. Due to the relatively flat land terrain and the

high erodibility of the soils, off-stream dugout pans on well-selected sites offer

opportunities to supply water up to the early part of the dry season, thus reducing the

time of livestock water stress by a few months in most parts of the district (Mati 2002).

Also, sedimentation can be reduced in off-stream storages if effective silt trap systems are

provided.

Pans have been used for rainwater harvesting in many parts of GHA countries, especially

for livestock watering. The pans can be used to collect runoff from the home compound,

where houses are grass-thatched or made of cow dung (manyatta). When properly

designed and with good sedimentation basins, the water collected can be used for

livestock watering or to supplement the irrigation of crops.

Problems associated with water pans are: 1) the relatively small capacities; 2) high

siltation rates; 3) loss of water through seepage and, 4) high evaporation losses. In

addition, there were high levels of water contamination as most of the pans had not been

fenced, which allowed livestock and humans to have direct access to the water in the

pans. To control seepage losses, plastic lining of underground tanks and pans has been

gaining popularity (Cherogony 2000). However, the high cost of good-quality (dam-

plastic) material and the necessity to make-to-measure in large factories in the capital,

Nairobi, are major constraints for poor smallholder farmers. Cheaper methods such as

clay grouting need to be encouraged, but the problem is usually finding good quality clay

material.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 45

Charco Dams: Charco Dams: Charco Dams: Charco Dams: “Charco” dams are small excavated pits or ponds, which are constructed at

well-selected sites on a relatively flat topography for livestock watering (Hatibu et al.

2000). The design is simple and can be implemented at village level with minimum of

engineering requirements. For high efficiency in water collection, the pond is situated at

the lowest point of the topography. The excavation, achieving depths of 3 m, can be done

by machinery or by hand. The right site may be selected using contour maps of the area

or by observing where water collects naturally. Charco dams are commonly found in

Shinyanga, Dodoma, Arusha, Tabora, Singida and Mwanza regions of Tanzania.

Small Earthen Dams: Small Earthen Dams: Small Earthen Dams: Small Earthen Dams: When larger quantities of water are desired, earthen dams are

preferred. An earthen dam is constructed either on-stream or off-stream, where there is a

source of large quantities of channel flow. The dam wall is normally 2 m to 5 m high and

has a clay core and stone aprons and spillways to discharge excess runoff. Volume of

water ranges from hundreds to tens of thousands of cubic meters. Reservoirs with a water

volume less than 5,000 m3 are usually called ponds. Due to the high costs of construction,

earthen dams are usually constructed through donor-funded projects. For instance, in the

Laikipia District of Kenya, the excavation of an earth dam 15,000 m3 cost about US$5,000

(Mati 2002). However, there have been cases of smallholder farmers digging earthen dams

manually in Mwingi District (Mburu 2000). Earth dams can provide adequate water for

irrigation projects as well as for livestock watering. It involves dam construction to collect

water from less than 20 billion square metres for a steep catchment to 70 billion square

metres for flat catchment. Some of these are medium-scale reservoirs used for urban or

irrigation water supply. Sediment traps and delivery wells may help to improve water

quality but, as with water from earthen dams, it is usually not suitable for drinking

without being subject to treatment.

Hafir Dams: Hafir Dams: Hafir Dams: Hafir Dams: “Hafir” dams are found in East Ethiopia (Guleid 2002). They are either

natural or man-made depressions, where runoff water collects, and is used by humans and

livestock. Hafirs are, generally, excavated reservoirs with a water volume ranging from

500-10,000 m3. Hafirs are located in natural depressions and the excavated soil is used to

form banks around the reservoir to increase its capacity. Bunds and improvements to the

catchment apron may help to increase runoff into the reservoir, but seepage and

evaporation are often high in the dry season. Hafirs differ from other earthen dams as

they are generally bigger in size, and also have good sedimentation basins. Although

livestock and people drink directly from earthen dams, in hafirs, watering areas are well

allocated, the site is securely fenced and the reservoir is de-silted every season. High

water turbidity and sedimentation problems are major drawbacks in eathen dams. And in


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 46

the case of hafirs the major drawback is the requirement of periodic cleaning to remove

silt, which is not an easy task.

Sand and Subsurface Dams: Sand and Subsurface Dams: Sand and Subsurface Dams: Sand and Subsurface Dams: Within seasonal rivers in semi-arid areas of GHA countries,

river profiles usually comprise sand, hence the term “Sand River.” Sand rivers (“lugga”,

“wadi”, and “khor”) are ephemeral water courses, which tend to be dry most of the year.

However, they are subject to flooding during the rainy season. And during such times if a

barrier is constructed across the river the water can be stored in the voids within the

sand. The most convenient way to harvest water in a sand river is by either sand or

subsurface dams. Local materials for construction are usually available and the only extra

cost is that of cement and labor. Local people are usually trained on how to identify a

suitable site and in the construction techniques. A case study in Machakos District,

Kenya, showed that a sand dam has been successfully used to supply the annual water

requirements of a community of 3,000. For instance, subsurface dams in Machakos

District cost the community about US$0.20-0.30 per m3 of water (Nissen-Peterssen 2000),

but these costs are easily recoverable in the long run. The advantage with sand river

storage is that it normally represents an upgrading of a traditional and, hence, socially

acceptable water source. Because the water is stored under the sand it is protected from

significant evaporation losses and is also less liable to be contaminated. The construction

of river intakes and hand-dug wells with hand pumps in the river bank can further help

to improve the quality of water.

Nissen-Peterssen (1996) distinguished between three types of subsurface dams: (i) sand

dam built of masonry, (ii) subsurface dams built of stone masonry, and (iii) subsurface

dams built of clay. Therefore, where deep sand can be found, it is cost- effective to

consider the possibility of subsurface sand dams for the storage of the harvested water.

4.3 Water Supply4.3 Water Supply4.3 Water Supply4.3 Water Supply

4.3.1 Main Water Sources4.3.1 Main Water Sources4.3.1 Main Water Sources4.3.1 Main Water Sources

Water supply and its availability in the ASAL areas are dependent on seasons, with big

variations between wet and dry seasons. Severe shortages are usually reported when there

is a drought, which is a common occurrence in the ASAL areas. There is no piped water

in the most rural areas, meaning few households have potable water at home. In general,

water supply in these areas can be divided into four majors groups: (i) direct use of natural

water sources such as rivers, streams and springs; (ii) developed surface water sources,


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 47

such as earth dams, sand/subsurface dams, tanks and pans, (iii) developed groundwater

such as wells, waterholes and boreholes; and (iv) emergency water tankering.

4.3.2 Access to Water4.3.2 Access to Water4.3.2 Access to Water4.3.2 Access to Water

Although 30 km is the distance livestock have to walk during water scarcity periods in

the ASALs, cattle and small stock will normally graze up to 10-15 km away from a water

source (MoA&LD 2002). This is assuming that animals are not lactating, the terrain is

relatively accessible (no steep slope) and water is available at the source for at least 10

hours a day. Livestock are not necessarily watered daily. Rather, cattle are normally on a

watering frequency of 2 to 3 days, small stock up to 5 days and camels up to 15 days

(Republic of Kenya 1994). Two other factors are: (1) land ownership; and (2) grazing

rights. The land is communally owned by clans which also control grazing rights for

members. Therefore, although animals may access water across clan boundaries, they may

not graze in the surrounding areas, thus requiring them to go back “home”, a journey that

may take three or more days, in which time they would be thirsty again. This vicious

cycle has an adverse affect on the weight and growth of the livestock. In terms of spatial

coverage, it was found that during the dry season, about 93 percent of the people living in

ASAL areas lack access to water to within 5 km reach including river flow.

For human consumption, water sources beyond 5 km are considered too far for realistic

access for domestic water, although in reality the ASAL dwellers travel much further

(MoWRD 2002). In some cases villages are about 75 km from the nearest stable water

source. It is quite common in such villages to find that domestic water is fetched once or

twice a week (using donkeys) and shortage of water can be very acute. The distance from

a water point should not exceed 10 km, which is the maximum distance for cattle without

stress. Through buffering operations, it is possible to show in spatial terms what it means

to have access to water for pastoral communities and their livestock in the dry areas with

scattered water sources.

Water accessibility is still a challenge by humans and livestock in ASALs, at a time when

the world is geared towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) on

water. This is not surprising because ASALs are where many of the most acute water

problems are found. Other than physical scarcity, ASAL areas also face economic water

scarcity. In general, water scarcity is a condition where demand exceeds supply. But

economic water scarcity occurs when financial, human or institutional resources

constrain the development of water resources and their availability.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 48

A condition of institutional scarcity exists when laws, traditions and organizations restrict

access or are inadequate to distribute water to all, leaving some people water scarce.

Physical or absolute scarcity exists when the demand for water outstrips the facilities to

tap into resources. It can be argued that the physical scarcity of water in most GHA is also

a function of economic scarcity, i.e. insufficient capacity to invest enough to make water

available. This has serious constraints on production, especially as livestock-based

economies. Water harvesting has remained largely unexploited. The provision of drinking

water through rainwater harvesting in ASALs has proved successful in many parts of

Africa as with construction of surface tanks for roof catchments (Gould and Peterssen

1999), flood flow harvesting into underground tanks, pans and ponds (Guleid 2002; Nega

and Kimeun 2002), as well as impoundment of flush floods in valleys and storage into

sand and subsurface dams, earth dams and infiltration galleries (Nissen-Peterssen 2000;

Mati 2003).

In contrast, there are few surface tanks for roof water harvesting in ASAL region. This

could be attributed to the nature of the traditional housing, which comprises igloo-like

grass-thatched huts, and the fact that settlements among the pastoral communities are

temporary. In addition, roof water harvesting entails relatively high initial investments

by local standards. Using experiences Laikipia District in Kenya, Mati (2002) calculated

the cost of tank construction per capita to be about $150 (equivalent to about $0.07 per

liter). Only a few modern houses have been constructed having a corrugated iron roof,

which can be used for water harvesting, at least to alleviate domestic water scarcity.

4.3.3 Emergency Water Tankering4.3.3 Emergency Water Tankering4.3.3 Emergency Water Tankering4.3.3 Emergency Water Tankering

Tankering is the provision of water to communities using water tankers from a source,

usually several kilometers from the needy community, in periods of severe drought since

it is quite expensive. Emergency water tankering is not common phenomenon in the

ASALs of GHA countries. Over the last 3 years, tankering has not been practiced on a

large scale because of the huge costs involved. Even the District Water offices do not plan

to use tankering in its future programs. Moreover, water tankering is unsustainable in the

longer term.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 49

4.4 Water Demand4.4 Water Demand4.4 Water Demand4.4 Water Demand

4.4.1 Multiple users 4.4.1 Multiple users 4.4.1 Multiple users 4.4.1 Multiple users

There are competing users for water including domestic, industry, agriculture (mainly

irrigation), livestock and the need for a residual for the environment. Generally, the scope

for increasing water supply is limited because ground water is finite and generally

expensive to abstract while surface flows are generally subject to international treaties

which may limit the quantity of water to be withdrawn. Generally the main options that

countries have are to improve infrastructure for storage, bulk transmission and

distribution in order to increase access to water and simultaneously to manage the

demand for water.

4.4.24.4.24.4.24.4.2 Livestock Water DemandLivestock Water DemandLivestock Water DemandLivestock Water Demand

Livestock get water basically from three sources, i.e. drinking water, water contained in

feed and metabolic water. Drinking water varies with the animal’s physiological status,

breed, individual difference, air temperature, temperature and nutrient composition of

water and the type of feed. The amount of water contained in feeds is highly variable and

is determined by the moisture content of the feed. This variation could range from as low

as 5% in dry feeds to as high as 90 % in succulent feeds (Sirohi et. al., 1997). According to Maynard et. al. (1981) metabolic water is an outcome of oxidation in the digestion

process at a rate of 0.12, 0.14 and 0.10 ml of water production from per kcal metabolisable

energy derived from oxidation of fat, carbohydrate and protein. So livestock water

productivity issues revolve around accounting for water going into the animal through

these means and the functional outputs obtained from the various animals in the form of

milk, meat, egg, draft, etc and identify interception points for improvements. Not much

experience exists in the quantification of the requirement of water per unit of functional

out under rain-fed agriculture in which the bulk of animal feed comes from grazing of

non-irrigated pasture and/or crop residues and byproducts. Closely connected is the issue

of water pollution and environmental degradation by livestock as they relate to human

health, food security and ecosystem safety.

Water supply for livestock production must be addressed hand in hand with water for

domestic consumption and for other uses. From Table 4.1 it is evident that rural coverage

for water and sanitation is extremely low throughout the GHA, yet it is in rural areas that

the livestock production and more specifically pastoralism are practiced.

Water requirement for livestock mainly depends on the nature of feed. Typically, one

Tropical Livestock Unit (250kg body weight) requires about 50 litres/day supplied from


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 50

drinking water and moisture in animal feeds. Water required for production of animal

feed is estimated to be up to 5,000 litres/TLU per day. Thus, livestock require about 100

times more water for production and supply of feeds than what is required for

drinking/feed consumption per se (Kiwuwa, 2006).

4.5 Safeguarding Scarce Water Resources4.5 Safeguarding Scarce Water Resources4.5 Safeguarding Scarce Water Resources4.5 Safeguarding Scarce Water Resources

GHA member states have individually drawn policy documents meant at ensuring that

the scarce water resources are adequately managed and properly utilized. The key

characteristic of the various water resources policies is the recognition that water

resources in the region are shared between countries.

As a result the member states also subscribe to various international conventions on water

resources management and conservation. These include: United Nations Convention to

Combat Desertification (UNCCD), UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) UN

Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Convention for the Protection of

World Cultural and Natural Heritage, The African Convention on Conservation of Nature

and Natural Resources and the Nile Basin Treaties. Donor policies are also applied, to

varying degrees, especially on the implementation of specific donor supported projects.

4.5.1 Country Cases4.5.1 Country Cases4.5.1 Country Cases4.5.1 Country Cases

DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti

The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper provides the overall government macroeconomic

policy framework under which the key sectors such as water and livestock are managed.

The PRSP focuses on for major components. These are:

i.i.i.i. Strengthening of national competitiveness and creStrengthening of national competitiveness and creStrengthening of national competitiveness and creStrengthening of national competitiveness and creation of conditions for robust ation of conditions for robust ation of conditions for robust ation of conditions for robust

and lasting economic growth and lasting economic growth and lasting economic growth and lasting economic growth through consolidation of macroeconomic

stabilization and structural reform policies.

ii.ii.ii.ii. Acceleration of human resource development, Acceleration of human resource development, Acceleration of human resource development, Acceleration of human resource development, by improving access to health and

education for the poorest; and implementing an employment policy through the

promotion of microfinance and the development of vocational training.

iii.iii.iii.iii. Promotion of integrated local development Promotion of integrated local development Promotion of integrated local development Promotion of integrated local development through actions specifically targeting

poor regions. This entails in particular increasing access to water, sanitation and

basic social infrastructure for the poor while promoting income-generating

activities.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 51

iv.iv.iv.iv. Promotion of political, local, judicial and economic good governance. Promotion of political, local, judicial and economic good governance. Promotion of political, local, judicial and economic good governance. Promotion of political, local, judicial and economic good governance. Besides

consolidating democratic gains, this pillar of the strategy focuses on the

implementation of decentralization, and justice that guarantees fair trials in order

to reassure investors and protect ownership.

In 2006, the Government of Djibouti adopted an integrated national water and sanitation

policy based on the establishment of a single operator to coordinate and streamline the

activities in the water and sanitation sectors. This led to the establishment of the National

Water and Sanitation Authority (ONEAD).

Djibouti’s sanitation sector management policy was reinforced in 2000 with the putting in

place of an operational institutional framework structured around a central operator,

namely the Department of Sanitation (DS) created in 2000. However, the implementation

of the strategies outlined in the PRSP, and the sanitation sector strategies have been slow

mainly due to resource and institutional constraints. It is expected that the establishment

of the ONEAD, which is a grouping of all water and sanitation services, will rationalise

sector management and hasten the implementation of the strategies outlined in the PRSP.

EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea

Policies and legislationPolicies and legislationPolicies and legislationPolicies and legislation

All land in Eritrea was brought under state ownership by the Land Proclamation of 1994.

This law provides farmers with a lifetime right of use over currently held land, removing

the previous risk of periodic redistribution. Land is not inheritable and cannot be sold,

but it can be leased. Lessees have to use the land leased to them if they are to maintain

their rights.

In 2003, the Draft National Water Policy Framework (1997) was still not officially

adopted. A recent effort to formulate water policies and strategic approaches is the report

titled "Planning, management & advocacy tools for rural water resources development",

which is the result of an interministerial workshop in Asmara. This framework defines

the following policy objectives:

• Provision of safe, adequate and accessible water for all;

• Improved coverage of appropriate sanitation in both urban and rural areas;

• Integrated management and fair allocation of the available water resources to meet

the needs of all sectors of the population;

• Assessment, conservation, regulated utilization and quality protection (that is,

maintenance or enhancement) of all water resources, and also the mitigation of

water-related hazards;

• Economically and environmentally sound and sustainable water resources

development, according to a prioritized schedule.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 52

The Draft Water Law, in preparation since 1996, was still to be finalized and adopted in

2003. No formal legislation and no formal system of permits or licences are in place and

local traditional customs prevail. For example, the communities affected by water

shortage have the right to benefit from an available supply in their nearest

neighbourhood. In principle, water is public property and controlled by the government.

However, national or regional plans do not exist and the ground rules for the actual water

allocation are not clearly defined. Because of the lack of a promulgated, effective water

law, activities in the water sector are still uncoordinated.

A draft strategy document on rural water supply and sanitation was drawn up between

1995 and 1997 and its final report was issued in December 2000. Unfortunately this

document has never been officially endorsed or adopted.

EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia

The overall policy framework for the water sector in Ethiopia is provided by the

integrated Water Resources Management Policy. The policy has the following objectives:

i. Development of water resources of the country for economic and social benefits of

the people on equitable and sustainable basis

ii. Allocation and apportionment of water, based on comprehensive and integrated

plans and optimum allocation principles that incorporate efficiency of use, equity

of access and sustainability of resource

iii. Managing and combating drought as well as other associated slow onset disasters

through efficient allocation, redistribution, transfer, storage and efficient use of

water resources

iv. Combating and regulating floods through sustainable mitigation, prevention,

rehabilitation and other practical measures

v. Conserving, protecting and enhancing water resources and the overall aquatic

environment on sustainable basis

Agricultural Policies, Programs and Targets for a Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable

Development to end Poverty (PASDEP) 2005/6-2009/10 developed by the Government of

Ethiopia provides sector strategies for agriculture and livestock development during the

planning period. PASDEP which was launched in July 2006 set out to commercialize

smallholder agriculture through increased productivity and increased share of marketed

production. Promotion of water supply for irrigation purposes forms a significant aspect

of the program.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 53

Other water resources sector strategies have been developed to cover the period 2002-

2016. They include: financing of water resources management and development, creation

of an enabling environment, trans-boundary rivers management, stakeholders

participation and gender mainstreaming, disaster prevention and public safety, and

environmental health standards.

Decentralization:Decentralization:Decentralization:Decentralization: The Government of Ethiopia has been implementing decentralization

policies since 1995. Under these policies, much more autonomy is devolved to the

woredas, towns and rural communities to plan and manage their water supply schemes.

The Government is currently institutionalizing a sector support system that involves local

private sector and other partners in providing the goods, works and services needed to

plan, construct and maintain water supply and sanitation facilities, by providing business

opportunities and increasing their capacity. However, the approach is new so the process

will take some time to internalize and institutionalize. Capacity therefore remains a major

challenge.

The water sector in Ethiopia is also guided by several international treaties signed

between Ethiopia and its neighbours. Some of these treaties go back a century or longer.

From a policy and regulatory perspective therefore, the Ethiopia water sector has very

strong policy and legislative backing.

KenyKenyKenyKenyaaaa

The main Government documents that define the policy and regulatory environment for

the water sector in Kenya are the Vision 2030, Water Resources Policy, 1999 and the

Water Act, 2002. There is also the Strategy for Revitalization of Agriculture 2004-2014,

the Irrigation and Drainage Policy among other sectoral policies. The water Storage

Policy is currently under development.

Under Vision 2030, the Kenyan government targets to conserve the scarce water

resources in the country and at the same time harvest rain and ground water resources to

meet the country’s development needs. Investment in capacity building for institutions

involved in water sector has been prioritized. The country intends to, among other efforts

rehabilitate hydro-meteorological data gathering network, construct multipurpose dams

and also construct water and sanitation facilities to support industries and growing urban

population.

The water resources policy recognizes the multisectoral nature of water resources

management. The policy set in motion several reforms in the water sector, including the


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 54

enactment of the Water Act, 2002 which is the main legal instrument through which the

sector is managed. These reforms have ensured the establishment of several institutions

within the water sector.

Kenya’s water sector however, still faces several socio-economic, political and technical

challenges that require stronger policy and institutional interventions. These, include,

among other issues, the serious environmental degradation within the country’s few

‘water towers’, inadequate resource allocations for sector growth and low institutional

capacity to effectively manage sector activities.

SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia

Somalia has had no functional Government since 1991. USAID reports that before the

civil war, urban WSS was managed by the public sector, but the systems were financially

stressed and water supply systems in many cities were inadequate even before the

breakout of conflict. Currently, most WSS infrastructure either is damaged or has been

poorly maintained during and after the conflict, rendering it inoperable. The continuing

conflict and lack of organized governance have resulted in a virtual absence of public

funding for the WSS sector except through limited allocations in Somaliland and

Puntland. In these areas, most funding for WSS is provided through the United Nations

and other humanitarian donors.

UNICEF provided support to the Ministry of Water and Mineral Resources in Somaliland

in the development of a Water Policy, National Water Strategy and a Water Act. The

Somaliland government has endorsed the Water Act of 2004. It remains to be seen how

effective the policy and legislations will be and whether the sector can be shielded from

the overall uncertainty facing the country.

SudanSudanSudanSudan

The Sudan National Action Programme (SNAP) developed in 2006 seeks to provide a

comprehensive framework for combating desertification in the Sudan. The action plan

was developed in the framework of the UN convention on the combating desertification,

UNCCD. Sudan Water Policy 2007 provides the general guidance for the water sector in

the country. The policy seeks to ensure that water resources are properly managed,

protected and efficiently utilized for the benefit of the Sudanese population.

The water sector in Sudan is further governed by several trans-boundary treaties in the

Nile Basin, some of which date back to as early as 1891. Table 4.4 shows a summary of the

treaties governing the water sector in Sudan.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 55

Table Table Table Table 4.44.44.44.4: : : : International Treaties Governing the Water Sector in Sudan

DateDateDateDate Treaty basinTreaty basinTreaty basinTreaty basin SignatoriesSignatoriesSignatoriesSignatories Treaty NameTreaty NameTreaty NameTreaty Name

5 August 19945 August 19945 August 19945 August 1994 Lake

Victoria

Kenya, Tanzania,

Uganda

Agreement to initiate program to strengthen regional

coordination in management of resources of Lake

Victoria

1 July 19931 July 19931 July 19931 July 1993 Nile Egypt, Ethiopia Framework for general co-operation between the Arab

republic of Egypt and Ethiopia

18 May 198118 May 198118 May 198118 May 1981 Kagera Burundi,

Rwanda,

Tanzania,

Uganda

Accession of Uganda to the agreement for pertaining

to the creation of the organization for the management

and

development of the Kagera river basin

24 August 197724 August 197724 August 197724 August 1977 Kagera Burundi,

Rwanda,

Tanzania,

Uganda

Agreement for the establishment of the organization

for the management and development of the Kagera

river basin

8 November 8 November 8 November 8 November

1965196519651965

Nile Sudan, Egypt Agreement between Egypt and Sudan the government

of the united Arab Republic and the government of

Sudan

16 July 195216 July 195216 July 195216 July 1952 Nile Egypt, Great

Britain, Northern

Ireland

Exchange of notes constituting an agreement between

the government of the United Kingdom of Great

Britain and Northern Ireland and the government of

Egypt regarding the construction of the Owen Falls

dam in Uganda

19 January 19 January 19 January 19 January

1950195019501950

Nile Egypt, Great

Britain on behalf

of Uganda


the government of the united Kingdom of Great

Britain and Northern Ireland on behalf of the

government of Uganda and the government Egypt

regarding cooperation in meteorological and

hydrological surveys in certain area of the Nile basin

5 December 5 December 5 December 5 December

1949194919491949

Nile Egypt, Great

Britain on behalf

of Uganda



Britain and Northern Ireland and government of Egypt

regarding the construction of the Owen Falls dam,

Uganda

31 May 194931 May 194931 May 194931 May 1949 Nile Egypt, Great

Britain



Britain and Northern Ireland and the government of

Egypt regarding the construction of the owner Falls

dam, Uganda


1946194619461946

Nile Egypt, Great

Britain


the government of the united Kingdom of Great

Britain and Northern Ireland and Egypt regarding the

utilization of profits from the 1940 British government

cotton buying commission to finance schemes for

village water supplies

22 November 22 November 22 November 22 November

1934193419341934

Belgium, Great

Britain

Agreement between the United Kingdom and Belgium

regarding water rights on the boundary between

Tanganyika and Ruanda –Urundi

7 May 19297 May 19297 May 19297 May 1929 Nile Egypt, Great

Britain

Exchange of notes between his Majesty's government

in the United Kingdom and the Egyptian government


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 56

DateDateDateDate Treaty basinTreaty basinTreaty basinTreaty basin SignatoriesSignatoriesSignatoriesSignatories Treaty NameTreaty NameTreaty NameTreaty Name

in regard to the use of the waters of the river Nile for

irrigation purposes


1925192519251925

Lake Tana Great Britain,

Italy

Exchange of notes between United Kingdom and Italy

respecting concessions for a barrage at Lake Tana and a

railway across Abyssinia from Eritrea to Italian

Somaliland


1906190619061906

Nile France, Great

Britain, Italy

Agreement between Great Britain, France and Italy

respecting Abyssinia

9 may 19069 may 19069 may 19069 may 1906 Nile DR Congo, Great

Britain

Agreement between Great Britain and the

independent state of the DR Congo, modifying the

agreement signed at Brussels 12 May 1894 , relating to

the spheres of influence of Great Britain and the

Independent State of the DR Congo in East and

Central Africa

15 May 190215 May 190215 May 190215 May 1902 Nile Ethiopia, Great

Britain

Treaties between Great Britain and Ethiopia, relative

to the frontiers between Anglo- Egyptian Sudan,

Ethiopia, and Eritrea

18 March 190218 March 190218 March 190218 March 1902 Nile Ethiopia, great

Britain

Exchange of notes between Great Britain and Ethiopia

15 April 189115 April 189115 April 189115 April 1891 Nile Great Britain,

Italy

Protocol between Great Britain and Italy for the

demarcation of their respective spheres of influence in

Eastern Africa

Source: UNEP (2002). Atlas of International Freshwater Agreements

It should be noted that Sudan’s policy on environment has not properly defined the roles

of the states vies’-a-vies the roles of the Federal State with respect to water resource

management. Also, there is still need for strengthening of the various institutions in the

sector and enhancing coordination and information sharing amongst the stakeholders.

The level of investments in the sector in some parts of the Sudan is still wanting. There is

therefore need for policy initiatives to promote investments in the water storage and

supply in the Southern and Western parts of the country.

UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda

The overall macroeconomic policy of Uganda has been the Poverty Eradication Action

Plan (PEAP) 2004/5-2007/8. The country has also developed the National Water Policy

expected to promote a new integrated approach to manage the water resources in ways

that are sustainable and most beneficial to the people of Uganda. These policies put

strength on the supply of water for production as a primary objective.

Strategies in the water sector in Uganda may be looked at in three levels: as presented in

Table 4.5.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 57

Table: Table: Table: Table: 4.54.54.54.5: : : : Long Term Strategies for the Uganda Water Sector

PeriodPeriodPeriodPeriod StrategiesStrategiesStrategiesStrategies ConstraintsConstraintsConstraintsConstraints

1950s and 1960s1950s and 1960s1950s and 1960s1950s and 1960s Construction of dams and tanks for

domestic and livestock

A total of 316 dams and 765 valley tanks

built

No maintenance mechanism leading to

the facilities getting into various states of

disrepair

1999199919991999----2006200620062006 Emergency interventions for

construction of dams, valley tanks and

windmill powered boreholes

Relatively smaller investments due to low

capital input

2007 to date2007 to date2007 to date2007 to date Water for production strategies as

outlined in the GoU Proposal for

Provision of Water for Production to water Stressed Areas in Uganda

• High capital requirements

• Institutional capacity constraints

and institutional coordination issues

• Conflict management in the

Karamoja region

4.6 Institutional Framework for the Water Sector4.6 Institutional Framework for the Water Sector4.6 Institutional Framework for the Water Sector4.6 Institutional Framework for the Water Sector

4.6.1 Regional Level4.6.1 Regional Level4.6.1 Regional Level4.6.1 Regional Level

The GHA region is dotted with transboundary water resources. The Nile water system

covers four of the GHA member countries namely Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Sudan.

The Turkana basin is shared between Kenya and Ethiopia while Ethiopia and Sudan share

several river basins between themselves including the Nile Basin. Djibouti’s surface water

resources, through Awash, come from Ethiopia while Somalia and Ethiopia share the

Juba-Shibeli basin, among others. Ground water aquifers within the region traverses

through the various national boundaries and is recharged from the Fey highlands found

in Sudan and the highlands of Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda.

However, with all the above shared water resources, regional institutional capacity to

manage the shared resources is extremely low. Cooperation between economic blocks

namely the IGAD, EAC, COMESA and SADC, among others in managing the shared

resources is necessary to ensure capacity enhancement.

4.6.2 National Level4.6.2 National Level4.6.2 National Level4.6.2 National Level

The water sector in most parts of the GHA has lately been undergoing reforms. These

reforms are however at different stages depending on country. The overall objectives of

the reforms have been:

• To improve the efficiency within which the sector is managed through creation of

well structured institutional arrangement

• Attract investments into the sector

• Promote citizen’s participation in sector activities


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 58

Throughout the region, institutional arrangements have been created at three main levels

as shown in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2Figure 4.2Figure 4.2Figure 4.2: Overview of the Institutional Arrangement of the Water Sector in GHA

4.6.34.6.34.6.34.6.3 Country CasesCountry CasesCountry CasesCountry Cases

DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti

Water management is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and the

Sea in charge of Water Resources (MAEM), which has delegated drinking water management and sanitation to the National Water and Sanitation Authority of Djibouti

(ONEAD). However, the Ministry retains the responsibility of providing water to rural

communities through its village water supply service. Other structures also intervene in

the sector. These are the Ministry of the Home Affaires which intervenes in urban

drainage and solid waste collection in the districts; the Ministries of Health and

Commerce which intervene in the bacteriological quality control of potable water; the

Ministry of Finance, Economy and Planning in charge of Privatization responsible for

investment programming and resource mobilization; and the Presidency of the Republic

through CERD, a research body with a laboratory for conducting physio-chemical tests

on water, AfDB (2007).

The civil society is also active in the water sector through several NGOs like the National

Union of Djibouti Women (UNFD), Action Against Poverty (ACP), Community

Development Centers (CDC), Bender Djedid (new land), Feminine Solidarity Association,


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 59

Djibouti Association for Family Balance and Promotion, and Association Oui à la Vie (for

AIDS control).

Institutional Coordination: Institutional Coordination: Institutional Coordination: Institutional Coordination: The above institutions work sectorally without any overall

vision and are subject to legislation that is incomplete and not applicable across the board.

There have been several efforts to streamline the institutional coordination in the sector.

These include:

a. The establishment of the single operator, the ONEAD, charged with the duty of

streamlining operations in the sector. The ONEAD is currently just settling down

and laying the groundwork for its activities.

b. The creation of Djibouti Highways Authority (OVD) in 2007 to provide technical

services especially related to solid waste management

EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea

Institutions Dealing with Water in EritreaInstitutions Dealing with Water in EritreaInstitutions Dealing with Water in EritreaInstitutions Dealing with Water in Eritrea

The institutions involved in water resources management are in Eritrea:

• The Ministry of Land, Water and Environment (MoLWE) with the Water

Resources Department (WRD), which has the followings functions according to

the Draft Water Law (1997):

o Assess and evaluate the water resources’ potential of the country;

o Function as a resource centre for water-related data/information;

o Manage and develop national water resources;

o Evaluate, monitor and supervise all water-related studies, development

projects and programmes of national interest;

o Grant, manage and inspect the implementation of water permits and waste

discharge permits.

The Ministry’s mandate further includes legislation, and establishing a system of

water rights and obligations. The WRD is divided into two divisions according to

these two different tasks: Water Resources Management and Use Division and the

Water Resources Assessment Division. As regards water supply, the WRD initially

served the entire country, even including maintenance and repair of equipment,

but services have been decentralized since 1996. The problem is that the regional

authorities, which are now responsible for the implementation and maintenance

of rural water supply projects, do not have the capacity to effectively take over this

responsibility and several units of the WRD are therefore still involved in local

project implementation.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 60

• The Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and its Soil Conservation and Irrigation

Development Unit, which is part of its Department of Land Resources and Crop

Development;

• The Ministry of Local Government (MoLG), responsible for the Regional

Administrations;

• The Ministry of Health (drinking water supply);

• The Ministry of Transport and Communication, through its mandate for

meteorological data collection.


The Ministry of Water Resources is the federal body that is responsible for the

constitutional and organizational function of the water sector. The state Governments

have jurisdiction of the water resources within their territory but when water passes the

boundary of the state it becomes the mandate and jurisdiction of the federal state. The

Ministry of Water Resources is composed of several technical departments that mainly

focus on governance and organization of the sector. Semi-autonomous bodies and the

regional water bureaus are mainly responsible for the operational functions.

Table Table Table Table 4.64.64.64.6:::: Institutional Arrangement of the Ethiopian Water Sector

InstitutionInstitutionInstitutionInstitution LevelLevelLevelLevel RolesRolesRolesRoles

Ministry of Water Resources

• National Council of water

Resources

• MWR Technical departments

• Water Resources Development

Fund

• State Bureau of Physical

planning and Water Resources

Development

National • Policy guidance for the sector

• Legislation

• Guidance to management boards of national

irrigation schemes

• Municipal water boards

• CBOs

• Studies and research coordination

• Data collection and management

• Water use and water infrastructure planning

• Resource allocation for water infrastructure

development

River Basin Authorities Regional Management of river basins

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural

development

National • Houses the state bureau of agriculture and rural

development

• State irrigation development authority

• Water harvesting

department

National • Water Users organizations

• Agricultural Corporations

Ministry of Energy and Mining

• Ethiopian Electricity

Agency

National Guidelines to Ethiopian Electricity and Power

Corporation

Ministry of Finance and Economic National Resource mobilization


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 61


Development Investment policies

Ministry of Environment and

Tourism

• Environmental protection

agency

National Ensuring environmental protection standards are

maintained

Ministry of Local Government

• Regional government

Authorities

National/Regi

onal

Implementation of water resource projects at local

authorities

Ministry of Foreign affairs International Trans-boundary water resources management

Eritrea:Eritrea:Eritrea:Eritrea:

The water needs of Eritrea are almost entirely met from groundwater resources. Except

the reservoirs of the cities of Asmara and Mendefera there are no surface water resources

in the country. The Setit is the only perennial river traversing a small southwestern tract

of the country. The available water resources hardly cater to around 15% of the

requirement of the people.

In the present situation only groundwater development and management is the viable

solution. The geology of the area, including the basement rocks is suitable as receptacles

of groundwater. Besides, the country is crisscrossed by many shears, fractures, normal

faults, extension joints and dykes which act as conduits. As a part of groundwater

management, aforestation, social forestry, horticulture and grasslands are to being

promoted extensively, initially in the central high land zone and the green belt zone that

receive more than 800 mm rainfall. The same programs are to be extended, progressively

to the western escarpment, southern lowland, northwestern lowland and the coastal

zone, which is mostly ASAL. Both surface and subsurface water development and

management are essential to meet the water requirements of the country and to avoid soil

erosion and associated problems that impact negatively on the pastoral community.

KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya

The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) is the ministry in charge of the water sector

and is therefore responsible for the overall management of water resources and general

government policy on the water sector in the country. It has its fundamental goal and

purpose as conserving, managing and protecting water resources for socio-economic

development. However, other ministries have direct impact on the water sector. These

are Ministries responsible for Agriculture, Livestock, Finance, Fisheries and Environment

and Mineral Resources and Forestry. Other Government Ministries whose functions,


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 62

rules and regulations affect the water sector include; Ministries responsible for Lands,

Planning and National Development, Housing, Education, Cooperatives, Trade and

Industry, Regional Development Authorities, Public Health and Sanitation, Local

Government, Public works, Gender, Youth Affairs and Children and the Office of the

President

Water Act 2002 provided for the separation of roles and responsibilities with clear

mandates given to each institution. In this context, water resources management was

separated from water services provision which led to the creation of various institutions.

With regard to water resources management, the Water Resources Management

Authority (WRMA) was created. The WRMA has six catchment based regional offices to

undertake the same exercise at regional level. Concerning water services, seven Water

Service Boards (WSBs) were created under the act to undertake the services related to

water supply and sanitation.

Overall supervision of water services is carried out by the Water Services Regulatory

Board (WSRB), an organ in charge of regulating the services supplied by the regional

Boards and their providers.

Details of the institutional structure of the reformed water sector are shown in Figure 4.3.

The roles of the various institutions are defined at National, Regional and Local levels.

The other institutions in the water sector with specific responsibilities and mandates

include the National Water Conservation and Pipeline Corporation (NWCPC), the

National Irrigation Board (NIB) and Kenya Water Training Institute (KEWI).

Sudan Sudan Sudan Sudan

The Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources is the federal body in Sudan responsible

for governance of the sector. The National Council for water resources is a high level

decision-making body for policies and legislation and has representatives of the water

related ministries, the state governments and stakeholders in the water sector. The

relevant Ministries for the sector include, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources,

Ministry of Energy and Mining, Ministry of Finance and National Economics, Ministry of

Environment and Tourism, Ministry of Local Government and Ministry of Foreign

Affairs. Table 4.7 shows a summary of the institutional arrangement of the water sector in

Sudan.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 63

Table Table Table Table 4.74.74.74.7:::: Institutional Arrangement of the Sudan Water Sector


Ministry of Irrigation and

Water Resources (MIWR)

National Governance

National Council for Water

Resources (NCWR)

National Policy formulation

Legislation

National Coordination

Committee for the Blue Nile

National Advisory

Nile Waters Directorate and

the Dams and Nile Control

Directorate

National Management of Nile water resources

Irrigation Services Directorate National Management of Gezira and Managil, New Halfa,

El Suki and Rahad Irrigation Schemes

National Water Corporation National Governance and organization of the drinking

water subsector

Operates through the Regional Drinking Water

Corporations

Sudan Electricity Regulatory

Authority

National Governance in the electricity sector

Higher Council for

Environment and Natural

Resources

National Policy and legislation

River Basin and water Users

Organizations

Regional Service providers

Farmers and individual water

users

Local Water consumers


Water sector in Uganda is largely funded by the public sector. The sector financing has

increasingly moved from the donors to the Government as shown in the sector financing

has increasingly moved from the donors to the Government as shown in Figure 4.3


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 64

Figure Figure Figure Figure 4.4.4.4.3333: Water : Water : Water : Water Sector Sector Sector Sector Financing iFinancing iFinancing iFinancing in n n n UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda....

(Source: Uganda national Water Development Report, 2005)

The constitutional function for managing the water resources and environment in

Uganda lies with the Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE). The Directorate of

Water Development is responsible for organizational function since it coordinates and

regulates all water sector activities. The Water Resources Management Department is

responsible for water flow and water quality monitoring, and manages water rights and

pumping permits4.

The Water Policy Committee is a multi-disciplinary and multi-stakeholders committee

that performs the constitutional function for the water sector. The committee advises the

Minister on national and trans-boundary water resources management issues and policies.

It is mandated to initiate revisions to legislations and regulations, and to coordinate sector

ministry plans and programs affecting water resources.Table 4.8 shows the key

institutions involved in the water sector in Uganda.

Table Table Table Table 4.84.84.84.8: : : : Institutional Arrangement of the Uganda Water Sector

InstitutionInstitutionInstitutionInstitution Organizational function Organizational function Organizational function Organizational function RolesRolesRolesRoles

Ministry of Water and

Environment (MWE)

Water policy committee

Directorate of water development

and water resources management

department

Develop policies for

implementation by Local

Government authorities (districts,

municipalities and local

communities

Directorate of Environmental

Affairs (DEA)

Policy formulation

4 http://www.wau.boku.ac.at/fileadmin/_/H81/H811/Skripten/811332/eder/uganda.pdf. 18

August 2009


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 65

InstitutionInstitutionInstitutionInstitution Organizational function Organizational function Organizational function Organizational function RolesRolesRolesRoles

National Environmental

Management Authority

Implementation of environmental

regulations

National Water and Sewerage

Corporation

Water and sewerage systems

implementation

Ministry of Agriculture, Animal

industry and Fisheries (MAAIF)

Department of farm development

(Irrigation and drainage, soil and

water conservation, water and

production sections)

Policy formulation

Ministry of Energy and Mineral

Development

Electricity Regulation Authority Hydro electricity generation

through electricity companies

Ministry of Finance Financing of state projects

Ministry of Local Government Local Government Authorities Water resources management

River basins and water users

organizations

Water consumers

Private sector and NGOs Support to public sector in

provision of water and sanitation

services

The existing institutional framework has some weaknesses. These include:

• Lack of strong river basin management boards that have the capacity to manage

water resources in an integrated manner

• Lack of institutional mechanisms for conflict resolution between various land

users (livestock, crop and fisheries)

• Low institutional capacity to implement large integrated project


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 66

4.7 Proposed Interventions4.7 Proposed Interventions4.7 Proposed Interventions4.7 Proposed Interventions

TTTTableableableable 4.94.94.94.9:::: Interventions in the Water Sector

CountryCountryCountryCountry Water Water Water Water Sector supportSector supportSector supportSector support Country statusCountry statusCountry statusCountry status Priority Priority Priority Priority

S-T M-T L-T

DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti Institutional strengthening • Country has young institutions that require technical backstopping √ √

Water supply infrastructure

development

• Water supply infrastructure poorly developed

• Country depends on ground water

√ √ √

Water storage • No meaningful water storage infrastructure in place √ √ √

Technical support for

capacity building

• Entire sector requires technical support in terms of research and management √ √

Support to regional policy

instruments

• Regional policy has been weak in promoting transboundary management of resources and

in the promotion of trade

√ √ √

EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea Improved technologies for

tapping ground water

• Country depends on ground water √ √ √

Strengthen the institutions in

Water management

• Local institutions in charge of water supply need strengthening √ √

• Water supply infrastructure poorly developed

•

EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia Eradication of prosopis • Country arid and semi arid rangelands currently threatened by prosopis √ √

Institutional strengthening • Regional and national institutions require technical and other support to perform their

mandates

√ √


development

• Dilapidated water supply infrastructure in urban areas

• An almost absent infrastructure in pastoral areas

√ √ √

Landuse mapping • Catchment areas need mapping and protection

• Land use mapping needed for planning purposes

√ √


instruments



√ √ √

KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya Water storage infrastructure • Storage infrastructure poorly developed √ √ √


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 67

CountryCountryCountryCountry Water Water Water Water Sector supportSector supportSector supportSector support Country statusCountry statusCountry statusCountry status Priority Priority Priority Priority

development • Country has one of the lowest percapita water storage in the world

Rainwater harvesting in

ASALS

• Rainwater continually causes floods in the ASALs over a short period of time,

together with adequate storage, rainwater expected to play critical role as source of water

for livestock

√ √ √

Environmental protection • Rehabilitation of Catchment areas of the country which are threatened by competing land

use

√ √

Waste water recycling • Waste water from cities provides potential for irrigation √ √ √


development

• Most towns across the country have no piped water supply systems

• Existing dams threatened with siltation

√ √ √


instruments

• Regional policy has been weak in promoting transboundary management of water

resources and in the promotion of trade

√ √ √

SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia Capacity building • Country needs to develop local human resource to improve water supply systems √ √

Support to community water

supply projects

• Community water supply systems have been assessed by the WB to be some of the viable

projects due to clan differences

√ √ √

SudanSudanSudanSudan Landuse planning and

mapping

• Need to demarcate conservation areas, rangelands, cropland √ √


development in Southern

Sudan

• Long periods of instability ensured no water supply system was developed over the years √ √ √

Capacity building • Development of adequate human and technical capacity still a challenge in the South and

North Sudan

√ √ √


instruments



√ √ √

UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda Institutional

strengthening/capacity

building

• Ministry of Water and Environment requires technical backstopping

• Local institutions in charge of water supply need strengthening

√ √

Policy support • Implementation of policy statements through the development of specific and consistent

remains low

√ √


instruments



√ √ √


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 68

5.0 PASTURE RESOURCE5.0 PASTURE RESOURCE5.0 PASTURE RESOURCE5.0 PASTURE RESOURCESSSS IN THE ASAL REGIONIN THE ASAL REGIONIN THE ASAL REGIONIN THE ASAL REGION

Pastures form an important part of a successful livestock production. Our study indicates

that most areas in the region are either not endowed or are fast depleting their pasture

resources. The livestock sector in the GHA is in urgent need of interventions in pasture

production.

The distribution of pastures and forage across the region is determined by climatic

conditions. Rangelands form an immense natural resource and the major source of feed

for livestock herds across the region. The various types of grazing land vary from open

grasslands to seasonal water courses, flood plains, river banks and associated islands,

woodlands, hills and mountain slopes. Table 5.1 shows the distribution of pasture and

crop land across the GHA between 1980 and 2002.

In the section that follows, we discuss pasture availability in each of the GHA countries.

5.1 Pasture Resources in Djibouti5.1 Pasture Resources in Djibouti5.1 Pasture Resources in Djibouti5.1 Pasture Resources in Djibouti

Since 2001, Djibouti has suffered a series of droughts, which have devastated pasturelands

that rural herdsmen have traditionally relied on to feed their livestock. The World Food

Programme (2007) reports that in the northern part of the country most pastoralists will

probably not remember when it last rained in the region. Records in the region show

average rainfall over the past five years as being less than what one would have expected

15 years ago.

Nature and Types of Pastures and Forage Regimes in DjiboutiNature and Types of Pastures and Forage Regimes in DjiboutiNature and Types of Pastures and Forage Regimes in DjiboutiNature and Types of Pastures and Forage Regimes in Djibouti

Approximately a quarter of Djibouti’s residents live in rural areas that depend on pastoral

livestock production for their livelihoods. Rangeland biodiversity forms an extremely

important part of these livelihoods, because it provides pasture and fodder for animals.

Fodder plants include trees, shrubs, grasses and forbs which provide forage for both

domesticated and wild animals. Seventy to eighty percent of all woody rangeland plants

and most of herb species are palatable to either browsing or grazing livestock. The

common types of fodder are Panicum species. (Exotic), Panicum turgidum (local) Lasiurus

scindicus, sorghum, Leucaena leucocephala, Zizyphus Mauritania, Hyphaene thebaica.


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These plants are grown in small quantities with sorghum only restricted to Ambouli area

in Djibouti.

Other fodder species found in Djibouti are shown in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1Table 5.1Table 5.1Table 5.1:::: Fodder species in Djibouti

Grasses:Grasses:Grasses:Grasses: Trees:Trees:Trees:Trees:

Chloris pyncnothrix Acacia asak Hyphaena thebaica

Chrysopogon plumulosus Acacia ehrenbergiama Maerua spp

Cymbopogon

schoenanthus

Acacia etbaica Olea africana

Cynodon dactylon Acacia mellifera Prosopis jubiflora

Dactyloctenium

scindicum

Acacia nilotica Rhigozum somalense

Lasiurus scindicus Acacia seyal Salvadora persica

Ochtochloa Acacia tortilis Tamarindus indica

Panicum turgidum Balanites spp Tarchonanthus camphoratus

Pennisetum ciliare Cadaba spp Terminalia brownii

Cyperus laevigatus

Source: Audru et al 1997

Dominant Pastures in DjiboutiDominant Pastures in DjiboutiDominant Pastures in DjiboutiDominant Pastures in Djibouti

The common grass species locally available in Djibouti are mainly the Goroita and Sakaita

in Afar language. Acacia tortillis, and seyal which are widely distributed make very

important fodder species. The pods are highly nutritious and can be stored over a long

period to provide fodder during dry spells. Audru et al, (1997) classified pastures

dominance in three zones. These are:

Table 5.Table 5.Table 5.Table 5.2222:::: Dominant Pastures in Djibouti

RegionRegionRegionRegion Dominant Dominant Dominant Dominant pasture typespasture typespasture typespasture types

Mountainous areas and include the Arat,

Ali Sabieh, Goda and Mabla massifs

Grass pastures and fodder tree species

Depressions and valleys in the western

parts

Irrigated grass pastures of both exotic and

local Panicum species, Leucaena

leucocephala and date palm leaves

Littoral zones especially around the Gulf of

Tadjoura

Halophyte flora


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5.2 Pasture Resources in Eritrea5.2 Pasture Resources in Eritrea5.2 Pasture Resources in Eritrea5.2 Pasture Resources in Eritrea

In terms of the forage and pasture resources, not much research has been done in Eritrea.

Most of the information that is therefore documented is not derived from research

activity, but is based on general descriptions from survey type work and some

development projects. However, it should be noted that that the initial potential for

increasing the total feed resource is by optimising the natural production of the specific

ecological zones.

The bulk of livestock feed (estimated to be about 90 percent) comes from grazing on

pastures and stubble, conserved crop residues (straw and stover from sorghum, millet,

wheat, barley, teff, maize, industrial crops) and agro-industrial by-products that include

linseed and sesame cake, cotton seed and cotton seed cake and wheat bran. In general,

forage supply shortages are amplified by their poor quality. In addition agro-industrial

by-products are often inefficiently used and likewise crop residues are fed without

treatment or supplementation. The limited locally grown forages for livestock production

is not the only main problem, but management practices of forage production and its

inefficient utilization is the one that causes under nutrition as a major factor in low

productivity of livestock. The overall feed balance in Eritrea indicates that feed is in short

supply by 20 percent in terms of energy and 30 percent in terms of protein requirements

(FAO, 1994). The main feed resources are the following:

5.2.1 The Natural Pastures 5.2.1 The Natural Pastures 5.2.1 The Natural Pastures 5.2.1 The Natural Pastures

Livestock are sustained by grazing the natural pasture comprising mostly fast maturing

species, and various shrubs and trees like Acacia albida, Acacia seyal, Balanites aegyptiaca,

Acacia senegal, Terminalia brownii, Acacia mellifera, Capparis decidua, Acacia tortilis,

Acacia asak, Diospyros abyssinica, Acacia nilotica, Ziziphus spina-christi and Albizia

lebbeck are also available during and shortly after the rainy season. Annual rainfall is the

main factor influencing the availability of feed on the pastures. According to FAO (1995)

the production of feed, in dry matter (DM) terms (kg/ha), under different rainfall regimes

(mm/year) and the relative animal carrying capacity (ha/Tropical Livestock Unit), have

been estimated as follows Table 5.3:

TaTaTaTable 5.3:ble 5.3:ble 5.3:ble 5.3: Estimated DM Production and Carrying Capacity

Rainfall (mm)Rainfall (mm)Rainfall (mm)Rainfall (mm) Total Above Ground DM Production (kg/ha)Total Above Ground DM Production (kg/ha)Total Above Ground DM Production (kg/ha)Total Above Ground DM Production (kg/ha) Carrying Capacity (ha/TLU)Carrying Capacity (ha/TLU)Carrying Capacity (ha/TLU)Carrying Capacity (ha/TLU)

100 n.a. over 20

200 450 17


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 71

Rainfall (mm)Rainfall (mm)Rainfall (mm)Rainfall (mm) Total Above Ground DM Production (kg/ha)Total Above Ground DM Production (kg/ha)Total Above Ground DM Production (kg/ha)Total Above Ground DM Production (kg/ha) Carrying Capacity (ha/TLU)Carrying Capacity (ha/TLU)Carrying Capacity (ha/TLU)Carrying Capacity (ha/TLU)

300 675 10

400 900 7

500 1,125 6

600 1,130 4

Source: FAO, 2005

The amount and quality of native pasture available to livestock varies with altitude,

rainfall, soil and cropping intensity. Depending on the climate, different types of pasture

grow in different agro-ecological zones of Eritrea. A close relationship exists between

pasture and climate as a consequent of plant evolvement and adaptation over long periods

of time. Because of this interaction dominant natural pasture groups have become

associated with a particular climate. The status of the different rangelands is discussed

below.

Central highlands:Central highlands:Central highlands:Central highlands: The pastures in the highlands are infertile and steep, hence fragile

under continuous uncontrolled grazing regimes. The grazing area has been shrinking over

the years because of over-grazing, extensive cultivation, improper utilization of water

resources and deforestation. The removal of forest cover and constant grazing has

depleted the resources of the browse layer. The pastures have no opportunity to recover

because hungry animals are continuously searching for any edible plant that sprouts.

Attempts to allow regeneration by closing land to grazing have shown promising results

and are becoming models for recovery. However, generally because of the above-

mentioned reasons the most palatable species of herbage and browse are decreasing in

quantity and leaving space for less palatable species. If the present trend of deterioration

persists, it may not only destroy the palatable species completely but it could also change

the land to bare soil and initiate the process of desertification. Natural grasses of the

central highlands include species of Pennisetum clandestinum , Chloris gayana, Digitaria

abyssinica, Digitaria scalarum, Setaria sphacelata, Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrus mitis,

Eragrostis cilianensis, Eragrostis superba, Andropogon spp., Bromus pectinatus,

Dactyloctenium aegypticum, Hyparrhenia hirta, Brachiaria semiundulata, Heteropogon

contortus, Melinis repens, Avena fatua, Eleusine indica, Cynodon dactylon, Denebra

retroflexa, Echinochloa colona, Themeda triandra and Sporobolus natalensis (GOSE,

1998a).

Western lowlands: Western lowlands: Western lowlands: Western lowlands: In the wetter southern part of the western lowlands, there appears to

be no damage to the rangelands, except in those areas adjacent to population centres. The

intensity of grazing increases in the drier northern part of the lowlands, where the grass


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 72

is waning. The extensive and migratory system of animal husbandry allows the

rangelands to recover, unlike in the highlands. However, if the present system of

uncontrolled grazing continues with a larger animal population, the fate of the rangelands

will be similar to that of the highlands. The vegetation of this agro-climatic zone presents

a picture of great complexity, comprising a wide variety of vegetation types, which may

be called semi-arid tropical. The dominant grasses observed are species such as

Andropogon dummeri, Digitaria diagonalis, Setaria sphacelata, Chloris virigata, Eragrostis

cylindriflora, Eragrostis cilianensis, Eragrostis superba, Cyndon nlemfuensis, Aristida

adscensionis, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Elytrophorus spicatus, Aristida funiculata,

Eragrostis macilenta, Eragrostis tremula, Cenchrus biflorus, Enteropogon macrostachyus

Cyperus rotundus and Aristida mutabilis.

EasterEasterEasterEastern lowlands: n lowlands: n lowlands: n lowlands: This region is arid, having annual temperatures varying from 28-38 0C

with little seasonal variation. Pastures are of low productivity and not in good condition

in terms of ground cover, as grasslands and browse are limited within a vast desert.

Grasses, which occur naturally, include species of Cynodon spp., Cenchrus prieuri,

Eragrostis cilianesis, Aristida mutabilis, Eragrostis cylindriflora, Eragrostis superba,

Elytrophorus spicatus, Panicum triticeum, Paspalidium gemminatum, Sporobolus

spicatus, Cyperus rotundus, and Aristida adscensionis

The pastures are overstocked mainly in the dry season. In many places the soils are

severely degraded and have lost much of their water-holding capacity. The pastures are

subject to sheet and gully erosion with the onset of and for the duration of the rains.

Erosion has resulted in several areas in a significant shallowing of the topsoil generally,

and poor seed set in the heavily grazed areas. This is a significant constraint to

productivity in pasturelands, which consist almost entirely of annuals.

5.2.2 Other Feed Resources 5.2.2 Other Feed Resources 5.2.2 Other Feed Resources 5.2.2 Other Feed Resources

After natural grazing, crop residues are the most important feed sources, particularly in

the highlands. Almost every farmer stores straw, mainly barley, wheat and teff straws (in

the highlands) and sorghum and pearl millet stover in the lowlands. The animals would

not survive until the next rainy season if they did not have straw. Even with this

supplement they barely survive and are weakened. Stubble grazing of harvested fields also

gives the animals a chance to supplement their browse, or to enable the grazing land to

rest for some weeks. The villagisation of former pastoralists in the lowlands and their

transfer from pure pastoralism to livestock raising and cropping has increased the demand

for crop residues, which are highly valued and commonly traded. However crops are

reported to fail five years in ten in the low rainfall belt and three years in ten in higher


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 73

rainfall areas in the lowlands. The supply of crop by-products, which might otherwise be

available for supplementation, is reduced or fails entirely in these years.

All these feed sources do not suffice to meet the requirements of the producers, and there

is a need to create conditions for the commercial farmers to produce their own fodder, as

in the past. At present, a few producers who have land and irrigation facilities grow green

fodder, mainly lucerne (Medicago sativa). Some farmers feed prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-

indica), it is de-thorned and chopped before feeding [for details of cactus pear as forage

and a recent FAO publication entitled Opuntia as forage]. However, cactus cladodes

should be used with other feeds to avoid the severe laxative effect which occurs when

used as the sole diet ingredient. During the dry season farmers usually run out of

conserved straw, which results in them feeding cactus in unlimited amount without

mixing with straws, which has resulted in considerable livestock deaths particularly in

the highlands.

5.2.3 Pasture Conservation i5.2.3 Pasture Conservation i5.2.3 Pasture Conservation i5.2.3 Pasture Conservation in Reference to the Econ Reference to the Econ Reference to the Econ Reference to the Eco----ZonesZonesZonesZones

Lack of feed is a major constraint to livestock production and productivity in Eritrea. This

is mainly due to continuous drought, overgrazing and acute shortage of grazing land in

the highlands which exacerbates the problem and limits livestock numbers. In order to

feed livestock all the year round, excess feed produced during the rainy season must be

conserved for the coming long dry season. The materials conserved for livestock feed in

each eco-zone differ in type and quality. However cereal straws are commonly conserved

in the highlands and stovers of sorghum and pearl millet are conserved in the western

lowlands.

In most eco-climatic zones the community owned enclosures for grazing are taken to be a

conservation system in which grazing is mainly for oxen and the injured animals until

they are cured, or for newly calved cows for short periods. In the central highlands and

the western lowlands grazing in the community owned enclosed land is for all animals,

and community doesn’t specify any class of animal. These enclosed lands are operational

only for a maximum of two to three months. Unlike in the western lowlands, in the

highlands oxen are allowed to graze daily, whether they plough or not whereas for other

animals they are excluded until the onset of the main rain in June. The enclosures

become free for all types of animals from the end of June to early August, after which

they are enclosed again.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 74

5.2.4 Opportunities for Improvement of Fodder Resources 5.2.4 Opportunities for Improvement of Fodder Resources 5.2.4 Opportunities for Improvement of Fodder Resources 5.2.4 Opportunities for Improvement of Fodder Resources

As indicated earlier, Eritrea is a relatively young independent nation that is only now

organizing its incipient livestock research agenda. In terms of the forage and pasture

resources little research has been carried out; most of the information that is therefore

documented is really not derived from research activity, but is based on general

description from survey type work and some development projects. However, it should

be noted that that the initial potential for increasing the total feed resource is by

optimising the natural production of the specific ecological zones. Under the current

systems of constant and complete utilization of the ground layer of natural forage, the

total production of edible grasses and herbs does not reach the maximum yield potential

as determined by the specific rainfall regime.

Cultivation and use of high quality legumes and grassesCultivation and use of high quality legumes and grassesCultivation and use of high quality legumes and grassesCultivation and use of high quality legumes and grasses

Many farmers produce high value crops such as fruit and vegetables under small-scale

irrigation. There are opportunities to complement the cropping system with the

production of high quality, high value fodder. Production of legumes such as lucerne,

cowpeas and vetch would provide an extra source of income while maintaining soil

fertility. This has been carried out in the Ministry of Agriculture regional offices and

under the supervision of the Animal Resource Department. Spate irrigation which it is

often done in the Sheab areas in the eastern escarpment zone provides an opportunity for

large-scale production of high quality fodder of sorghum and pearl millet stover. This is a

cost-effective approach as the water and fertile, alluvial soil is delivered naturally.

Renovation and expansion of spate irrigation systems will increase their capacity to

supply fodder, for harvest and sale or use in animal production on site. Also, the

integration of forage with crops would optimise both its short-term financial returns and

long-term sustainability. Forage production fills a number of roles: strips of sown,

perennial pasture between crops prevents erosion and provides high quality feed to

supplement diets of crop straws; and leguminous forage contributes to the nitrogen

budget of the system, assisting in maintaining soil fertility.

A number of exotic annual and perennial high potential grasses such as oats (Avena

sativa) Sudan grass (Sorghum sudanese) Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) and elephant grass

(Pennisetum purpureum) as well as legumes have only been introduced quite recently to

Eritrea and are now being evaluated in adaptation studies. Preliminary trial results on

several of these forages at Halhale Research Station (Highlands) are very promising. As an

example, elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) yielded 2506 tons dry matter/ha/year in

ten cuttings....


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 75

Under Rainfed Conditions Under Rainfed Conditions Under Rainfed Conditions Under Rainfed Conditions

Cultivation of forages would increase the output from cut-and-carry feeding systems and

thus improve livestock performance, mainly in dairy and fattening operations. Action

should be taken on oat, vetch and sorghum-sudanese for the Central Highlands Zones.

Mixed cropping of vetch-oat should be tried to produce good energy-protein balanced

forage, from this mixture. Some highly productive, perennial grasses could be also tried

such as: Pennisetum purpureum (Elephant grass), and Chloris gayana (Rhodes grass).

Similarly, establishment of mixed grass legume pastures (Rhodes grass, Setaria and

Desmodium) could be tried on enclosed land On the other hand, feed crops for use in

integrated livestock/crop production system such as sorghum: Lablab and sorghum:

cowpea should be tested in the Highlands as well as in the Western Lowlands Zones.

Lablab purpureus is particularly interesting as a drought tolerant fodder.

Under Traditional IrriUnder Traditional IrriUnder Traditional IrriUnder Traditional Irrigation Systemgation Systemgation Systemgation System

Areas under irrigation, both in the Central Highlands Zone and the Western Lowlands,

would focus their efforts mainly on high production forage legumes, such as lucerne,

cultivated for intensive cut-and carry feeding of dairy animals. This would include peri-

urban dairy producers. Some experience is available in operating these systems but

improved management and feed utilization of irrigated pasture is still required. When the

supply of irrigation water is sufficient, trials could also include dryland species and

rainfed species; growing elephant grass on the boundary of irrigated plots could be

considered.

Under Under Under Under Spate/Flood IrrigationSpate/Flood IrrigationSpate/Flood IrrigationSpate/Flood Irrigation

Spate irrigation provides an opportunity for large-scale production of high quality fodder.

This is a cost-effective approach as the water and fertile, alluvial soils are delivered

naturally. Renovation and expansion of spate irrigation systems will increase their

capacity to supply fodder, either for harvest and sale or for use in animal production on

site.

PasPasPasPasture ture ture ture ReseedingReseedingReseedingReseeding

The natural grasses of Eritrea are the best-adapted ones for each ecological situation. This

is indicated by the fact that varieties of such genera as Andropogon, Cenchrus, Chloris

and Digitaria are now sown in many countries as improved pastures. However, some

reseeding may be desirable in areas where the grasses have been completely destroyed. A

higher priority is to introduce leguminous forage into natural grazing as there are few

high quality herbaceous legumes. Introduced forage species (both woody and herbaceous)

can be established by broadcasting them on untreated rangeland. However, cultivating

the site, creating micro-water pondage and removing animals during plant development

significantly increases their chances of success. The chances of success with over-sowing


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 76

programmes is high in areas receiving at least 500 mm of rainfall annually with species

selected for their productivity and tolerance to drought. Anticipated increases in dry

matter yields are a minimum of 50%. Avoidance of constant complete removal by

livestock is required in order to obtain significant benefit from such rangeland

reinforcement. It is necessary, of course, to correct the management faults which caused

the deterioration.

Establishment of fodder trees and the Establishment of fodder trees and the Establishment of fodder trees and the Establishment of fodder trees and the use of foliage to supplement animal dietsuse of foliage to supplement animal dietsuse of foliage to supplement animal dietsuse of foliage to supplement animal diets

Browsing and grazing provide about 90 percent of feed consumed by ruminants in

Eritrea; their supply declines rapidly in quality during the long dry season. Planting

fodder trees is gaining popularity in many tropical countries and particularly in the semi-

arid zone where they have been developed for multipurpose productive use. In Eritrea

legume fodder trees/shrubs have great potential as a source of protein and minor

nutriments, to supplement diets of large and small ruminants normally fed nutritionally

unbalanced and low digestibility roughage such as natural pasture, stubble and untreated

crop residues.

There are hundreds of fodder tree species in the world which belong to more than 40

botanical families and a wide range of productive features is also found within species. In

Eritrea development efforts on fodder trees would be carried out according to agro-

ecological zones.

Highlands Highlands Highlands Highlands

Tree legumes such as Leucaena leucocephala, Sesbania sesban and the shrub Cajanus cajan

have a very great potential for use in both the Central Highlands Zones (CHZ) and in

valley beds of the Western Lowlands, in areas with 600 mm and over of rainfall. Cactus

pear (Opuntia spp.) is forage found widespread in Eritrea particularly in the highlands;

which has not been suitably tested to date as a potentially valuable feed. Spiny cactus is

currently widely used for fruit in the Highlands. Opuntia spp. are well known as an

emergency drought feed for cattle when, although grasses have become dry and over-

grazed, the cactus remains succulent and green.

Lowlands Lowlands Lowlands Lowlands

Fodder tree research in Western and Eastern Lowland Zones must enjoy the highest

priority on account of the high density of the animal population and frequently recorded


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 77

feed shortages (drought, low rainfall) mainly with settled people. The fodder tree

development research programme for the lowlands should be stratified to address specific

features encountered in each sub-ecological zone met in those areas. Special emphasis

should be given to studies related to the best adapted shrubs to arid and semi-arid

conditions, to species which are tolerant to poor soil fertility and low rainfall and are

drought resistant (species with deep-root systems that have easier access to water and

nutrients). The main fodder trees to be examined would be the following:

Leucaena leucocephala and the shrub Cajanus cajan (Pigeon pea) would be the main ones

to be tested in zones where rainfall is in excess of 400 mm, especially in the Western

Escarpment Zone. Many natural shrubs are well adapted to marginal and dry areas found

in Lowland zones and species such as Acacia albida, Acacia tortilis and Prosopis juliflora

are very resistant to drought; their foliage and pods are often a valuable resource where

plant cover is very poor.

Extensive pastoralism is practised in many parts of the Coastal Plains Zones under hot

desert climate and a very low rainfall of less than 200 mm. It is recommended that

introduction trials of Atriplex nummularia be done in these areas; it is one of the best-

adapted shrubs in term of forage. It makes a very significant contribution to the diet of

camels and small ruminants, especially during the dry seasons and droughts that are

common in this region.

Improvement Improvement Improvement Improvement of Nutritive Valof Nutritive Valof Nutritive Valof Nutritive Value oue oue oue of Poor Qualf Poor Qualf Poor Qualf Poor Quality Forage aity Forage aity Forage aity Forage and Grazing Landnd Grazing Landnd Grazing Landnd Grazing Land

The grazing of poor quality pasture and crop residues are the traditional resources used in

ruminant feeding. Two appropriate feeding technologies based on better utilization of

locally available feed resources have been successfully tested and are now well established

at Halhale Research Station in the highlands: urea treated straw and the manufacture and

utilization of feed-blocks. Their effects on consumption and improvement of the

nutritional quality of the straws are substantial and their effects on animal growth have

also been positive. As a part of livestock research activities of the Project "Strengthening

the Agricultural Research and Extension Division" (FAO-GCP/ERI/001/ITA), a three-

month sheep trial cycle was carried out (April-May-June 2000) aiming to investigate the

effect of urea treated straw and feed blocks on intake and liveweight of sheep during the

critical dry season (Kayouli and Asssefaw, 2000). Straw intake was substantially increased

(15 percent) when animals were supplemented with feed blocks; urea treatment has

notably increased straw intake (35 percent) and urea treatment and/or feed blocks have

significantly improved sheep live weight during the critical dry season.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 78

5.3 Pasture Resources i5.3 Pasture Resources i5.3 Pasture Resources i5.3 Pasture Resources in Ethiopian Ethiopian Ethiopian Ethiopia

Livestock feed resources in Ethiopia are mainly natural grazing and browse, crop residues,

improved pasture, forage crops and agro-industrial by-products. Feeding systems include

communal or private natural grazing and browsing, cut-and-carry feeding, hay and crop

residues. Livestock are fed almost entirely on natural pasture and crop residues. Grazing is

on permanent grazing areas, fallow land and cropland after harvest. Forage availability

and quality are not favourable year round and hence gains made in the wet season are

totally or partially lost in the dry season.

5.3.1 Natural Pastures5.3.1 Natural Pastures5.3.1 Natural Pastures5.3.1 Natural Pastures

Many researchers and development workers agreed that natural pasture comprises the

largest feed resource: but estimates of the contribution of this feed resource vary greatly.

Alemayehu, 1998a, estimated that 80-85 percent of all feed comes from natural pasture

while some estimates indicate the natural pasture provides 88-90 percent. This is because

the quantity and quality of native pasture varies with altitude, rainfall, soil and cropping

intensity. Currently, with the rapid increase of human population and increasing demand

for food, grazing lands are steadily shrinking being converted to arable lands, and are

restricted to areas that have little value or farming potential such as hill tops, swampy

areas, roadsides and other marginal land. This is particularly evident in the mixed farming

highlands and mid altitudes.

Grasslands are generally in regions of moderate precipitation, between 250 and 750 mm.

Grasses in different parts of the country vary according to the altitude. Most grasses are

used as forage and grasslands are usually for grazing, but also provide tall and strong grass

for thatch.

The grassland region of Ethiopia accounts for some 30.5 percent of the area of the country

and is most extensive in the western, southern and south-eastern semi-arid lowlands. On

the more humid side, open grassland and grassland with some trees are common; grasses

may cover as much as 90 percent of the area. In the drier parts patches of bush are

common and the proportion of grass is reduced to about 70 percent. Incense and honey

harvesting are common. Natural pastures provide more than 90 percent of the livestock

feed in lowlands, with wide ranges of grasses, legumes, and other herbs.

Area and Productivity:Area and Productivity:Area and Productivity:Area and Productivity: Recent information on the area and productivity of natural

pasture is scarce because of the expensive (in terms of time and money) nature of data

collection. Previous estimates of areas and productivity are very variable. The total


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 79

grazing and browsing land was estimated to be 61-65 million hectares (Alemayehu,

1998a), but it is changing due to increasing population and cropping. Productivity

estimates also vary, probably due to variation in time and ecological change, rainfall, soil

type and cropping intensity.

The previous estimate of natural pasture yield for the lowlands was one ton DM/ha while

for the highland and mid altitude on freely drained soils it was 3 tons DM/ha, and, on

seasonally water-logged fertile areas yields were about 4-6 tons DM/ha (Alemayehu,

1998a). MoA (1984) estimate was 1.5 and 0.56 tons DM/ha for the highland and lowland

respectively.

Another yield estimate for different highland zones (MoA, 1989) was as follows:

For High Potential Cereal/Livestock Zones (HPC/LZ) of savannah grass land and humid

temperate pasture was 2 and 2.5 tons ha/year respectively.

For both Low Potential/Cereal Livestock Zone (LPC/LZ) and for high potential

Perennial/Livestock Zone (HPP/LZ) Pasture (Savannah grassland) was 1.5 and 2 tons

DM/ha/year respectively.

Species Composition:Species Composition:Species Composition:Species Composition: Natural grasslands constitute the main highland pastures. Besides

grasses, they contain 28 Trifolium species out of which 8 are endemic (Kahurananga,

1986). The highlands have been divided into different altitude zones for the description of

the grassland vegetation designated by the characteristics of the plants (Alemayehu,1985;

Kahurananga, 1986). The proportion of legumes tends to increase with increasing

altitude; particularly above 2,200 metres, there is a wide range of annual and perennial

Trifolium spp., and annual Medicago spp. At lower altitudes native legumes are less

abundant and commonly have a climbing or sprawling habit with a large variation in

their range and density in wet bottomlands. This appears to be only partly due to edaphic

differences. In the lowlands browse and shrubs are dominant plants.

Areas above 3,000 Areas above 3,000 Areas above 3,000 Areas above 3,000 MMMMetres etres etres etres

The commonest grasses are species of Poa, Festuca, Agrostis and, to a lesser extent,

Andropogon. In wetter areas sedges occur including the genera Carex, Eleocharis, and

Mariscus. Of perennial legumes, the most important are the deep-rooted Trifolium

burchellianum (var. oblongum and subsp. johnstonii) and Trifolium acaule which reach

to over 4,000 metres. Trifolium tembense is the most significant, but occurs only in the

lower range. The shrubs, Erica arborea and Hypericum revolutum are common.

Areas from 2,000 to 3,000 Areas from 2,000 to 3,000 Areas from 2,000 to 3,000 Areas from 2,000 to 3,000 MMMMetres etres etres etres

The commonest grasses are species of Andropogon, Cynodon and Pennisetum. Other

common ones are species of Setaria, Themeda, Eragrostis, Sporobolus, Brachiaria,


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 80

Paspalum, Phalaris, Chrysopogon and Festuca aurindinacea. Productivity may be

extremely high during the later part of the wet season, but there is little growth after

early October. Legumes are prolific in this zone; the commonest perennials are Trifolium

semipilosum, and other frequently occurring ones are: Trifolium burchellianum subsp.

johnstonii, Trifolium polystachyum, and Lotus spp.. Trifolium rueppellianum, Trifolium

decorum, Trifolium steudneri, Trifolium quartinianum and Vigna sp. are the most

widespread annuals. In very wet bottom lands sedges are common. Of the legumes,

Trifolium tembense is prolific. Arable land left fallow has a dense weed cover initially,

but with heavy grazing it is colonised by grasses, including Digitaria scalarum, Cynodon

dactylon and Phalaris paradoxa. With longer fallow Cynodon dactylon and Pennisetum

spp. become more common, Trifolium semipilosum and Trifolium burchellianum are also

found in such areas. Of the browse species Erythrina is common.

Areas from 1,500 to 2,000 Areas from 1,500 to 2,000 Areas from 1,500 to 2,000 Areas from 1,500 to 2,000 MMMMetresetresetresetres

This zone is characterised by tall grasses and a higher proportion of climbing-sprawling

legumes, especially in less intensively settled areas. The commonest grasses are Chloris

pychynothrix, Cenchrus ciliaris, Hyparrhenia spp., Setaria sphacelata, Paspalum spp.,

Cynodon dactylon, Pennisetum plicatulum, Eleusine floccifolia, Eragrostis spp.,

Cymbopogon and Andropogon spp.. Perennial legumes include Neonotonia wightii,

Indigofera spp., Desmodium spp., Rhynchosia spp., Vigna spp. that grow down to about

1,500 metres in the wetter western areas and commonly to 1,800 metres in central areas.

Stylosanthes fruticosa is found in scattered sites, mainly below 1,800 metres, and may be

common in degraded areas where few other species thrive. Of the annuals, Trifolium

steudneri, Trifolium rueppellianum and Medicago polymorpha are quite frequent above

1,700 metres. Of the browse species, Albizia is common and Sesbania is prolific on wet

lake margins.

Areas Between 1,500 to 500 Areas Between 1,500 to 500 Areas Between 1,500 to 500 Areas Between 1,500 to 500 MMMMetresetresetresetres

These areas, which include the Rift valley, are covered with Acacia woodland. Much of

the Acacia has been removed as the urban demand for charcoal has increased. Heavy

grazing and low-productivity farming have followed the cutting of trees. Common grasses

include Chloris pycnothrix, Hyparrhenia anthistiriodes, Setaria acromelaena, Aristida

kenyensis, Cynodon dactylon, Panicum atrosanguineum, Microchloa kunthii,

Hyparrhenia dregeana, Cenchrus ciliaris, Heteropogon sp., Pennisetum spp. and

Bothriochloa insculpata - Of the legumes Neonotonia wightii and the less valuable

Indigofera spicata are common. Browse species are dominated by Acacia etbaica, Acacia

nilotica subsp. leiocarpa, Acacia tortilis, Acacia seyal var. seyal, Euclea schimperi, Grewia

tembensis, G. bicolor, Balanites spp., Cadaba farinosa and Capparis tomentosa.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 81

5.3.2 Conditions and Trends of Grazing5.3.2 Conditions and Trends of Grazing5.3.2 Conditions and Trends of Grazing5.3.2 Conditions and Trends of Grazing----landslandslandslands

In the highlands plant growth is slow due to low temperature. The high stocking density

and intensity of cultivation is out of proportion to the carrying capacity In the lowlands,

short growing season suit only fast maturing plants; limited rainfall and recurrent

drought, shrub invasion and overgrazing are major features of lowland grasslands.

Overgrazing and seasonal feed shortage are evident in the country. Many studies have

indicated, the grazing lands (except protected areas) of the country are in poor to very

poor condition and will deteriorate further unless there is immediate action.

The table below shows the estimated feed availability for livestock by region in Ethiopia.

Table 5.4:Table 5.4:Table 5.4:Table 5.4: Estimated Feed Availability to Livestock in Ethiopia

Feed Feed Feed Feed

resourceresourceresourceresource

HighlandHighlandHighlandHighland LowlandLowlandLowlandLowland Total Total Total Total

Availability Availability Availability

Feed

resource

Area

(000

ha)

Ton

DM/Ha

Total

FU

Area Ton

DM/ha

Total

FU

Area

(‘000

ha)

DM

(000

tons)

FU

(‘000,000)

Native

pastures

22,300 1.5 25,087.5 43,200 0.56 8709 65500 57642 33,796

Crop

residues

5423 1.28 3,137 - - - 5423 6930 3137

Cereals 4688 1.4 2,953 - - - 4688 6563 2953

Pulses 735 0.5 184 - - - 735 368 184

Stubble

grazing

4688 0.4 938 - - - 4688 1875 938

Industrial

by-

products

- - 133 - - - - 198 133

Total 37834 - 32432 43200 - 8709 - 73577 41141

Source: Alemayehu, 2002

Figure 5.1 shows the contribution of the various sources of feeds to the overall livestock

feed in Ethiopia.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 82

Figure Figure Figure Figure 5.1:5.1:5.1:5.1: Livestock Feeds in Ethiopia

From Figure 5.1, the country derives it livestock/animal feeds from three main sources i.e.

natural pastures, crop residues and byproducts from Agro-processing. It is evident that

the native pasture contributes the largest percentage of livestock feed. For more

sustainable pasture production, more resources need to be invested in better technologies

that will improve the quality and quantity of pasture.

Crop residues and agroCrop residues and agroCrop residues and agroCrop residues and agro----industrial byindustrial byindustrial byindustrial by----products: products: products: products: This is common in areas where mixed

farming is practiced. The combination of livestock and crops is perceived to be the

panacea to the perennial pasture shortages. Commonly used are cereal straw from teff,

barley and wheat. Of significant utilization also are the pulse crop residues e.g. Lentils

and fava, chickpea, maize, sorghum and millet stovers at lower altitudes. Agricultural by-

products include filter press cake, sisal waste, sweet potato tops, banana waste and

mollases from sugar factories.

Cultivated pasture and forageCultivated pasture and forageCultivated pasture and forageCultivated pasture and forage----crop species: crop species: crop species: crop species: Among cultivated feeds, oats and vetch

mixtures usually for dairy feeding are the most common. Also used are fodder beet,

elephant grass mixed with siratro and desmodiums, rhodes/lucerne mixture,

phalaris/trifolium mixture and hedgerows of sesbania, leucaena and tree-lucerne being

common.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 83

5.4 Pasture Resources in Kenya5.4 Pasture Resources in Kenya5.4 Pasture Resources in Kenya5.4 Pasture Resources in Kenya

Kenya’s livestock feed distribution is determined by the agro ecological zones of the

country which are, for the purposes of pasture distribution, divided into six. The

following section describes the pasture resources in each of the agro ecological zones.

i.i.i.i. The The The The Cold aCold aCold aCold and Wet High Altitude Region nd Wet High Altitude Region nd Wet High Altitude Region nd Wet High Altitude Region

This is a relatively small area with an altitude range from 2400 to 2500 m. The annual

rainfall is over 1200 mm in 4 out of 5 years and occasional frosts are experienced. The

zone covers Mau Narok in the Rift Valley, the upper Cherangani hills and upper Mt.

Elgon in Western Kenya, and the upper Nyandarua, Nyeri, Kiambu, and Aberdare Range

in Central Kenya. Much of Mt. Kenya which falls under this zone is forested. Dairy other

exotic cattle, sheep, wheat and pyrethrum mixed farming are well established. Where

the forest was cleared, the ensuing grassland was predominantly kikuyu grass

(Pennisetum clandestinum) and themeda grass (Themeda triandra) in natural association

with legume clovers such as Kenya purple clover (Trifolium burchellianum), Kenya white

clover (T. semipilosum) and Louisiana white clover (T. repens). Grassland research for high altitude areas focused on exotic species from temperate countries. While cocksfoot

(Dactylis glomerata), rye grass (Lolium perenne), tall fescue (Festuca arundinaceae), and

clovers have been shown to be promising, they are all short-lived and kikuyu grass

usually supersedes them within two to three years after establishment. Furthermore,

they do not set much seed in Kenya and hence practically all seeds are imported. Other

fodder crops used include oats (Avena sativa), kales (Brassicas), fodder beets and turnips.

ii.ii.ii.ii. The The The The Cool aCool aCool aCool and Wet Medium Altitude Region nd Wet Medium Altitude Region nd Wet Medium Altitude Region nd Wet Medium Altitude Region

This region lies within an altitude range of 1800 to 2400 m and is characterized by high

rainfall of over 1000 mm p.a. in 4 out of 5 years. The region includes Trans Nzoia, Nandi,

Kericho, Kisii and Narok districts in Western Kenya, and Nyandarua, upper Kiambu,

Nyeri, Kirinyanga, Muranga, Embu and Meru districts in Central Kenya. The majority of

Kenya`s dairy cattle area is concentrated in this zone. Being a mixed farming area (dairy

cattle with maize, coffee, tea, pyrethrum), the zones could be self-sufficient in production

of pastures, fodder, and legumes and energy sources for supplementary feeds. The natural

flora contains a number of useful pasture species such as setaria (Setaria sphacelata),

kikuyu grass, themeda grass, Glycine javanica, Kenya white clover and Kenya purple

clover.

Two species already in commercial use in Kenya are Nandi setaria, introduced from

Baraton Nandi district, and Kenya white clover introduced from Kabete in Kiambu

district. These two species perform best above 2000 m, but below this, Rhodes grass

(Chloris gayana) varieties — Boma, Elmba, Masaba, Mbarara — and Desmodium spp.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 84

Grow well. Other recommended grasses include setaria varieties Nandi and Nasiwa;

coloured guinea (Panicum coloratum), star grass (Cynodon plectostachyus), molasses grass (Melinis minutiflora), kikuyu grass, and congo signal (Brachiaria brizantha).Louisiana

white clover has also been shown to grow well throughout this region. Useful fodder

species include napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) giant setaria, giant panicum

(Panicum maximum), Tripsacum laxum, Sudan grass (Sorghum Sudanese), Sorghum

almum, maize (Zea mays), oats (Avena sativa), sweet potato (Ipomea batatas), and edible

cana (Cana edulis). Useful legumes include (Medicago sativa), stylo (Stylosanthes

guianensis), dolichos lab-lab (Lablab purpureus), lupins (Lupinus albus), velvet or mucuna

beans (Stizolobium spp.) and vetch (Vicia spp.).

iii.iii.iii.iii. The The The The Warm aWarm aWarm aWarm and Wet Mnd Wet Mnd Wet Mnd Wet Medium Altitude Region edium Altitude Region edium Altitude Region edium Altitude Region

This region has the greatest potential for dairy development. It is characterized by annual

rainfall of over 1,000 mm in 4 out of every 5 years, and can be as high as 2500 mm. The

rainfall comes in 2 seasons in western, eastern and central Kenya, while in areas west of

the Rift valley, only one long rainy season is experienced per year. The region includes

the most densely populated Taita Hills, Meru, Embu, Kirinyanga, Muranga, Kiambu and

Nyeri districts in eastern and central Kenya. In western Kenya, the region covers

Bungoma, Kakamega, Busia, Siaya, Kisumu, Kisii and South Nyanza districts.

Despite high and reliable rains, good soils and high population density, animal

productivity in some areas in this zone is below its potential. Dairy production is

predominantly from zebu cattle whose production potential is very much less than that of

exotic high grade cattle. The challenge, therefore, is the simultaneous introduction of

high quality and productive pasture species, as well as a dairy breed with high milk yield

potential, in order to make full use of improved leys provided. Stringent measures against

bovine diseases must be enforced.

Of the indigenous flora, useful genera of pasture grasses and legumes include Setaria, Chloris, Cynodon, Paspalum, Brachiaria, Hyparrhenia, Themeda, Echnochloa, Entolasia,

Glycine, Lotononis and Alysicarpus. For planted leys, Rhodes grass varieties (Pokot,

Masaba, Mbarara, Boma Elmba); and setaria varieties (Nasiwa and Nandi) in mixtures

with green leaf desmodium (Desmodium intortum), silverleaf desmodium (Desmodium

uncinatum), Glycine javanica, Neonotonia wightii, Stylosanthes guianensis, and Lablab

purpureus, have been observed to form excellent mixtures under grazing. Other species such as molasses grass, coloured guinea, guinea grass, and star grass have also been

recommended for this zone. Recommended fodder crops include napier grass, giant

setaria, giant panicum, Sudan grass, sweet potato, and the tree legumes Leucaena spp.,

Calliandra calothyrsus, Sesbania sesban, and are used as cut-and-carry for zero or semi-

zero grazing.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 85

iv.iv.iv.iv. Warm Warm Warm Warm aaaand Dry Medium Altitude Region nd Dry Medium Altitude Region nd Dry Medium Altitude Region nd Dry Medium Altitude Region

This zone has the same rainfall probability (500 — 760 mm) as the hot and dry coastal

hinterland, but the climate is modified by distance from the sea and altitude which ranges

from 1000 to 1800 m. The region includes the arable parts of Kitui and Machakos

districts, the dry lower parts of Meru, Embu, Kirinyaga and Isiolo in central Kenya and

two small dry pockets of arable land in western Kenya (Homabay areas in South Nyanza

and Uyoma in Siaya District). Central Kenya areas experience two effective rainfall

seasons per year while the Western Kenya areas have only one effective rainy season each

year. Among the useful legumes of the region are Glycine javanica, Stylosanthes spp. and

Lotononis spp. Useful grasses are Panicum maximum, Rhodes grass, and Cenchrus

ciliaris. Suitable commercial varieties are the Makueni guinea grass introduced from

Makueni into Machakos district on the basis of drought tolerance and good seed yield,

and Glycine javanica.

v.v.v.v. The The The The Hot Dry Coastal Hinterland Hot Dry Coastal Hinterland Hot Dry Coastal Hinterland Hot Dry Coastal Hinterland

This region extends inland from the hot humid coastal strip on the southern half while

the northern half extends to cover the coastline. In the south-west, the region extends

further inland in a belt around Taita Taveta. This portion is slightly modified due to

distance from the sea. The region’s mean annual rainfall is between 500 — 750 mm. The

altitude ranges from sea level to 1000 m. Though some crop cultivation occurs, the area is

too dry for high yields to be obtained and the low quality grasses cannot sustain high

yielding grade cows. The region is suitable for beef rather than dairy production. Likoni

and Makueni guinea grasses, in combination with siratro on coastal land and Stylosanthes

guianensis for inland areas, are the best choices of forage. Rhodes grass ex-Tosi has been

introduced and is showing promise. Glycine javanica, Stylosanthes mucronata, Panicum

spp. and Eragrostis spp. are naturalized in the area.

vi.vi.vi.vi. The The The The Hot aHot aHot aHot and Humid Coastal Strip nd Humid Coastal Strip nd Humid Coastal Strip nd Humid Coastal Strip

The coastal strip is approximately ten miles (16 km) wide and runs parallel to the coast

from Vanga to Malindi. The region includes parts of Kilifi and Kwale districts of Coast

Province. Annual rainfall is between 760-1270 mm falling in two seasons a year. Further

to the north-east, the strip is slightly drier. The Shimba Hills in Kwale district is the only

high elevation land rising to 150 m. The main agricultural enterprises are based on tree

crops (coconut, cashewnuts and mango) and pasture development in this region is

integrated with tree crops. The dominant coconuts with their open shade is probably the

best tree crop under which grass/legume leys can thrive. Though hot and humid

throughout the year, productive grade dairy cows can thrive in the region if livestock

diseases can be controlled and the level of nutrition kept high. Species of Stylosanthes,

Vigna and Glycine occur naturally. One developed variety of Likoni guinea (Panicum

maximum) originated from the Likoni area in this region. Macroptilium atropurpureum

(cv. Siratro), originating from Central America and bred in Australia, seems to be


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 86

promising in this area. High yielding fodders such as napier grass, leucaena and calliandra

also grow here and are used by small-scale livestock farmers.

vii.vii.vii.vii. The The The The SemiSemiSemiSemi----Arid aArid aArid aArid and Arid Rangelands nd Arid Rangelands nd Arid Rangelands nd Arid Rangelands

These areas cover about 80% of the land surface and are occupied by about 20% of

Kenya’s population. They are in agro-climatic zones IV, V, VI and have an average

rainfall ranging from 300-800 mm per year. Rangelands are further characterized by poor

vegetation cover, fragile soils, high temperatures and frequent wind storms. Crop

production is very limited but the rangeland supports cattle, sheep, goats and camels.

Some of the naturalized herbage grass species commonly found in the Kenyan rangelands

include Themeda triandra, Sporobolus fimbriatus, Cenchrus ciliaris, Digitaria milanjiana,

Digitaria abyssinica, Eragrostis, Eragrostis cilianensis, Eustachyus paspaloides, Aristida

adscensionis, Aristida kenyansis, Panicum maximum, Cynodon spp., Bothriochloa

insculpta, Heteropogon contortus, and others. Some of the naturalized legumes include

Stylosanthes scabra, Macrotyloma axillare, Leucaena leucocephala, and Acacia spp. This

area includes the marginal areas of west Pokot, parts of Marakwet, Keiyo, Baringo, and

Kajiado.

As is the case in the rest of GHA, Kenya’s ASAL livestock depend almost entirely on

naturally occurring pastures. Figure 5.2 shows a typical pasture environment within the

ASAL.

Figure 5.2:Figure 5.2:Figure 5.2:Figure 5.2: Typical pasture in ASALs of Kenya.

(Source: Carnivores project Earthwatch Institute, 2008)


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 87

5.4.1 5.4.1 5.4.1 5.4.1 Pasture Pasture Pasture Pasture Seed ProductionSeed ProductionSeed ProductionSeed Production

The Kenya Seed Company (KSC) was set up to provide quality plant seed for pastures and

a range of other crops. It does this through contracting farmers and also importing

legume seeds, mainly from Australia, which are needed by Kenyan farmers. The

Company imports are mainly lucerne (Medicago sativa), stylo (Sylosanthes guianensis),

desmodium (Desmodium intortum and D. uncinatum). Further, the country has also

increased its capacity for the production of industrial livestock feeds. This production is

mostly facilitated by the private sector.

Pasture seeds are normally produced in areas where the pasture species are best adapted.

In such areas, higher seed yields are obtained and the varieties are less likely to undergo

genetic drift caused by different environmental stresses such as temperature, soil type,

rainfall regime and altitude. KSC produces pasture seeds that are widely adapted and

which can be sold widely in the country and exported. The company does not produce

species that are vegetatively propagated such as napier grass, guatemala, sweet potatoes,

edible cana, giant setaria, and giant panicum. These planting materials are normally

produced at Government research centres or in farmers’ training centres. Pasture seeds

which are zone or area specific and which are not widely used by farmers, are normally

supplied by research centres. Small-scale farmers are increasingly producing pasture seed

for their own use and for sale to their neighbours. Research centres carry out on-farm

research in various fields and train farmers in various technologies for producing and

marketing pasture grasses, legumes and fodder crops seed.

5.4.2 5.4.2 5.4.2 5.4.2 Pasture Pasture Pasture Pasture ResearchResearchResearchResearch

Other international organizations such as the International Centre for Research in

Agroforestry (ICRAF) also develop appropriate fodder/legumes and make seed available to

farmers. Several factors were responsible for the development of the seed industry in

Kenya. These include: (a) establishment of Government research centres responsible for

production of basic and breeders seed and maintenance of distinctness, uniformity and

stability (DUS) of seed; (b) increased number of varieties available from research centres;

(c) development of a seed certification and seed law enforcement programme by National

Seed Quality Control Services (NSQCS) — the predecessor of KEPHIS; (d) development

of seed cleaning, processing and packaging technology; (e) a better knowledge of seed

quality; and (f) the emergence of the seed grower as a specialist.

5.5.5.5.4.34.34.34.3 Pasture QualityPasture QualityPasture QualityPasture Quality

Table 5.5 shows the feed characteristics for the different types of livestock feed available

in Kenya.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 88

TabTabTabTable 5.5:le 5.5:le 5.5:le 5.5: Livestock Feed Quality in Kenya

DM yieldDM yieldDM yieldDM yield NutrientNutrientNutrientNutrient CompositionCompositionCompositionComposition In vitroIn vitroIn vitroIn vitro

Feed descriptionFeed descriptionFeed descriptionFeed description Tons/haTons/haTons/haTons/ha Ash (%)Ash (%)Ash (%)Ash (%) CP %CP %CP %CP % NDF %NDF %NDF %NDF % ADL %ADL %ADL %ADL % DM digestibilityDM digestibilityDM digestibilityDM digestibility

Natural pastureNatural pastureNatural pastureNatural pasture 2.15 8.32 7. 73 72.36 6.41 44.52

StoverStoverStoverStover

Maize 2.54 11.92 2.59 69.55 9.32 41.83

Sorghum 1.00 6.80 6.53 52.97 3.26 50.06

FoddersFoddersFoddersFodders

Bana 6.80 15.54 9.08 63.37 3.93 59.08

Bajra 7.30 14.89 11.79 58.12 5.15 62.36

Panicum 5.10 13.16 12.98 60.28 5.32 56.62

Pasture grassesPasture grassesPasture grassesPasture grasses

Rhodes 3.00 9.95 11.15 73.88 6.28 54.76

Guinea grass 4.00 12.12 10.41 66.32 5.88 50.88

Cenchrus 2.60 7.73 8.21 71.10 4.94 50.22

LegumesLegumesLegumesLegumes

Leucaena 4.00 7.93 27.28 38.13 9.80 64.78

Pigeon peas - 6.81 13.90 59.88 14.83 55.16

Dolichos - 6.87 15.54 43.90 6.46 63.17

Feed Feed Feed Feed AdequacyAdequacyAdequacyAdequacy in Kenya’s ASALsin Kenya’s ASALsin Kenya’s ASALsin Kenya’s ASALs

The range in the ASAL is the main source of nutrients for both livestock and wildlife.

However, it is either extensively degraded or heavily encroached by bush or weed,

resulting in low herbage dry matter yields. The recurrent droughts in this region, the

existence of ‘pockets’ of pests, poor rangeland husbandry practices, insecurity-related

problems, high cost of livestock inputs, land scarcity due to subdivision of land holdings

as a result of rapid population growth, encroachment of the ASAL grazing areas due to

increased crop agriculture activities, and effects of el nino and la nina have worsened the situation over the years.

The pastures are thus characterized by poor yields especially in the dry season and limited

in biomass production. Unfortunately, socio-economic changes and frequent droughts

and floods have weakened the traditional mitigation strategies of the local communities

in the ASAL. The increasing human and livestock populations have instilled a lot of

pressure in these areas. These pressures reduce the available grazing areas. Farmers in

high potential areas are also experiencing acute shortages of feed in the market as well as

other farm processed feeds.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 89

5.5 Pasture Resources5.5 Pasture Resources5.5 Pasture Resources5.5 Pasture Resources in Somaliain Somaliain Somaliain Somalia

In Somalia, rangelands are estimated to be about 80 per cent of the nation’s land area. It

is a relatively harsh semi-arid environment with serious limits on carrying capacity of the

land. Pastureland includes the Haud region in the high plateau of northwest Somalia and

grasslands of southern Somalia.

5.65.65.65.6 Pasture Resources inPasture Resources inPasture Resources inPasture Resources in SudSudSudSudanananan

The major source of livestock feed in the Sudan is the Rangelands which forms an

immense natural resource, covering about 116 million hectares. . . . Various types of grazing

land vary from open grasslands to seasonal water courses, flood plains, river banks and

associated islands, woodlands, hills and mountain slopes. The pasture types and quality

are influenced by the geographical location. Sudan rangelands may be categorized into

three main zones:

Desert Zone:Desert Zone:Desert Zone:Desert Zone: Pasture found is usually seasonal and confined to low lying areas where run

offs collect and in water course areas. Of importance is the succulent “Guzzi” type

especially during dry periods

The SemiThe SemiThe SemiThe Semi----Desert zones:Desert zones:Desert zones:Desert zones: These zones contain Shrubs and Trees valued most during the

long dry seasons. Important among these woody species are Acacia ehrenbergiana, A.

tortilis sub-species tortilis and sub-species raddiana, Capparis deciduas. Within Central

and Eastern Sudan in the low rainfall Savanna grazing lands, Acacia mellifear, A. Senegal, A. seyal, Balannites aegyptiaca, Cadaba rotundifolia are just but a few species dominant in

the area

Low Rainfall SavannaLow Rainfall SavannaLow Rainfall SavannaLow Rainfall Savanna: Occur in sandy soils of Western Sudan and the dark cracking clays

of central and eastern Sudan northern parts are wet season grazing while the southern

parts, where water is available, are dry season grazing lands Acacia mellifera, A. senegal,

A. seyal, Balanites aegyptiaca, Cadaba rotundifolia and Combretum . Within the high Rainfall areas, important grasses found in the region include Hyparrhenia spp,

Andropogon gayanus, Setaria, Brachiaria brizantha, Chloris gayana and Sporobolus

pyramidalis

Apart from the natural pastures, some fodder crops are also grown mostly under small

scale irrigation (< 1-5 ha) for dairy cattle, small ruminants and draught animals with the

bulk being sold as green fodder in the local market. In large scale scenarios between 80-

90% of the area allocated to fodder crops is devoted to annuals, mainly forage sorghum

cv. ‘Abu Sabeen’, with limited areas under maize and lablab; the remaining area is

occupied by alfalfa, the major perennial fodder.

Buffel grass, Rhodes grass, elephent grass, para grass, panicum and clitoria have been

utilized to establish irrigated pastures, especially in animal production schemes and on


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 90

livestock research stations. Growing fodder crops between rows of fruit trees is practised

on a limited scale; crops grown are mainly alfalfa, but clitoria, pillipesara and lablab have

also been tried with the aim of improving soil fertility, controlling weeds and producing

good quality fodder.

Crop residue and Agricultural byproducts as feed source also contribute significantly to

livestock feeding. Most common are the cereal residue of wheat, sorghum, millet maize,

cereal stubble ,legume haulms, sugar cane tops among others. Agro-processing by

products includes molasses, oil seed cake and grain and grain byproduct from processing.

Latest trends indicate a reduction in pasture availability. Figure 5.3 shows the trend in

land under pasture in Sudan from 1980 to 2002 (FAO, 2005).

Figure 5.3Figure 5.3Figure 5.3Figure 5.3:::: Trends in pasture land development in the Sudan (km2)

Table 5.6 shows the annual growth rate in area under pasture compared to crop land for

the same period.

Table 5.6:Table 5.6:Table 5.6:Table 5.6: Comparative Growth of Pasture Land and Crop Land in Sudan

PerPerPerPeriodiodiodiod Pasture (% per year)Pasture (% per year)Pasture (% per year)Pasture (% per year) Cropland (% per year)Cropland (% per year)Cropland (% per year)Cropland (% per year)

1980-1990 1.2 0.6

1990-2000 0.6 2.3

It is evident that more concentration has in the recent past gone into crop production at

the expense of pastures. The major challenge therefore is for the government to give

adequate attention to pasture production to enable increased livestock production

activities.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 91

5.6.1 Seed Pasture 5.6.1 Seed Pasture 5.6.1 Seed Pasture 5.6.1 Seed Pasture

The development of pastures has been lagging in the Sudan. To increase pasture

availability for livestock, the Sudan National Action Plan-Framework for combating

desertification has adopted several strategies to increase livestock feed. One such is the

establishment of seed collection and improvement centers with many species with

specific attention on the indigenous grass species.

The Sudan National Seed Administration has been involved in the production of seed of

the major fodder crops alfalfa and ‘Abu Sabeen’ as well as Sudan grass, clitoria, lablab,

pillipesara and maize. The Arab Sudanese Seed Company manages the pasture seeds on

behalf of the government of Sudan.

5.6.2 Livestock Carrying Capacity5.6.2 Livestock Carrying Capacity5.6.2 Livestock Carrying Capacity5.6.2 Livestock Carrying Capacity

According to the Sudan National Action Plan-Framework for combating desertification,

the carrying capacity of most of the rangeland areas like Kordofan, Darfur, Butana can

hardly support the livestock population in that area. The livestock population in the

region (mostly indigeneous cattle, sheep and goats) has significantly increased within the

last ten years.

5.7 Pasture Resources in Uganda5.7 Pasture Resources in Uganda5.7 Pasture Resources in Uganda5.7 Pasture Resources in Uganda

Uganda’s grazing potential is largely underutilized. Only 20% of Uganda grassland

suitable for livestock production is utilised suggesting very huge potential for expansion.

Table 5.7 shows the potential grazing areas of Uganda.

Table 5.7:Table 5.7:Table 5.7:Table 5.7: Current and Potential Grazing Areas of Uganda

Land ClassifiLand ClassifiLand ClassifiLand Classificationcationcationcation Square kilometresSquare kilometresSquare kilometresSquare kilometres PercentagePercentagePercentagePercentage

Grassland 51 118.6 21.16

Farmland 83 931.0 34.75

Woodland 40 277.7 16.67

Bush 14 198.6 5.88

Total potential grazing land 189 525.9 78.46

Total land areaTotal land areaTotal land areaTotal land area 241 548.0241 548.0241 548.0241 548.0 100100100100

Source: MAAIF, 2007

However, even with the above potential, the country has lately began experiencing

livestock feed shortages due mainly to the effects of global warming, fuelled by

deforestation and charcoal production. These have resulted into a reduction in rainfall

amounts and reliability in many parts of the country. Uganda’s Cattle Corridor, which


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 92

stretches from western and central Uganda to mid northern and eastern regions, has seen

a dramatic shift from semi-arid to arid conditions

A food assessment carried out by Uganda’s Ministry of Agriculture (2007), Animal

Industry and Fisheries showed that approximately 980,000 households from 19 districts in

the Cattle Corridor have been seriously affected by pasture shortage for their livestock.

Coping mechanisms adopted by livestock farmers include paddocking and planting

drought-resistant pastures such as Panicum maximum. Due to the deteriorating condition

in terms of feed availability, the Livestock population in Uganda which has been

increasing steadily over the last few years is faced with the likelihood of pasture shortage.

This warrants urgent interventions to keep the sector on track. Table 5.8 shows the

livestock feed sources in Uganda.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 93

Table 5.8:Table 5.8:Table 5.8:Table 5.8: Cattle Feed Sources, Quality and Carrying Capacity

Uganda has six natural grassland zones. The natural pastures are fairly productive and

contain many desirable grasses and browse plants. The natural grasslands have little or no

legume component leading to low dry matter yields and poor nutritive value for the

greater part of the year. At present, there is poor utilization and low productivity of

available grasses. This is largely attributed to lack of well articulated management

guidelines for these grasslands.

Indigenous grasses are, of course, well adapted to the prevailing growing conditions; they

include: Panicum maximum, Brachiaria ruziziensis, Chloris gayana, Hyparrhenia rufa, Pennisetum clandestinum, Setaria anceps, with Pennisetum purpureum as the only

indigenous fodder grass. New superior varieties of P. purpureum have been developed at

Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute and others introduced from neighbouring Kenya

and ILRI, Ethiopia. Introduced fodder grasses which have been tested, evaluated and

adopted in various agroecological zones are Tripsacum laxum and Setaria splendida.

The only major indigenous legume which has been evaluated in detail and showed great

potential is Neonotonia wightii. Introduced legumes that have performed best and are in

use include Centrosema pubescens, Macroptilium atropurpureum, Desmodium intortum,

D. uncinatum for areas receiving over 1 000 mm of annual rain; while Stylosanthes guianensis, S. hamata, S. scabra, Aeschynomene americana and Cassia rotundifolia are

suitable for areas receiving under 1 000 mm and have poor soils.

Nutritive value, estimated average productNutritive value, estimated average productNutritive value, estimated average productNutritive value, estimated average productivity and carrying capacity by agroivity and carrying capacity by agroivity and carrying capacity by agroivity and carrying capacity by agro----ecological zones inecological zones inecological zones inecological zones in UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda

Yield componentYield componentYield componentYield component Banana-

Coffee

Banana-

Cotton

West

Nile

Northern Teso Montane Mbarara Buganada Karamoja

TDN%TDN%TDN%TDN% 51 54 53 54 54 52 51 51 51

CP%CP%CP%CP% 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.5 1.9 7.6 2.8 2.7 2.8

Available graAvailable graAvailable graAvailable grazing landzing landzing landzing land

(ha)(ha)(ha)(ha)

27,995 18,289 10,439 26,947 7,930 16,365 4,398 4,553 25,566

Dry matter(t/ha)Dry matter(t/ha)Dry matter(t/ha)Dry matter(t/ha) 5.3 4.25 4.68 4.5 4.25 4.5 3.9 1.68 4.0

Potential (DMX 10 t)Potential (DMX 10 t)Potential (DMX 10 t)Potential (DMX 10 t) 14.8 7.8 4.6 12.1 3.4 7.4 1.7 1.8 4.3

Potential (TDN x 10 t)Potential (TDN x 10 t)Potential (TDN x 10 t)Potential (TDN x 10 t) 6.2 4.2 2.6 6.5 1.8 3.6 0.9 4 2.2

CarCarCarCarrying capacity rying capacity rying capacity rying capacity

TLU/haTLU/haTLU/haTLU/ha

2.91 2.47 2.67 2.62 2.47 2.52 2.14 2.14 0.92


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 94

Table 5.9:Table 5.9:Table 5.9:Table 5.9: Major Pasture Varieties in Uganda.

Grassland communityGrassland communityGrassland communityGrassland community CharacteristicsCharacteristicsCharacteristicsCharacteristics

Pennisetum purpureumPennisetum purpureumPennisetum purpureumPennisetum purpureum grasslandgrasslandgrasslandgrassland

Majorly P. purpureum (Elephant grass); occurring in regions between 1 000 - 2 000 metres above sea level with fertile soils. P. purpureum is an important fodder.

Other grasses of grazing value associated with P. purpureum are Brachiaria spp, Cynodon

nlemfuensis, Panicum maximum and Hyparrhenia rufa.; the only legume is Neonotonia wightii. Useful introduced legumes include Centrosema pubescens, Macroptilium

atropurpureum, Desmodium intortum, D. uncinatum. Fodder grasses used are P.

purpureum, Tripsacum laxum, Setaria splendida; herbaceous legumes are Lablab

purpureus and Stizolobium spp. Tree legumes in use include Leucaena leucocephala, Calliandra calothyrusus and Sesbania sesban.

Moist Moist Moist Moist HyparrheniaHyparrheniaHyparrheniaHyparrhenia

grasslandgrasslandgrasslandgrassland

Grass dominated by H. rufa and P maximum which occur on fertile soils with annual

rainfall of 1 000 - 1 500 mm. Other common grasses important for grazing are Chloris

gayana, Brachiaria spp., H. variabilis and Imperata cylindrica var. africana. Most of the

grasses and legumes suitable for this system are those mentioned in the grassland

community above. Crop residues are a source of livestock feed in this system

Dry Dry Dry Dry HyparrheniaHyparrheniaHyparrheniaHyparrhenia


The dominant species are H. filipendula and H. dissoluta in the dry Combetrum savannas.

Other grasses are Setaria sphacelata, Themeda triandra, Cenchrus ciliaris, Cynodon

nlemfuensis and grasses of minor feed value like Andropogon gayanus, A. schriensis, and

Heteropogon contortus. The quality of the herbage is rather low, especially in the dry season because they grow in dry, poor places

Themeda triandraThemeda triandraThemeda triandraThemeda triandra


Found along the southern cattle corridor stretching from the shores of Lake Kyoga to the

Tanzanian border. Very nutritious when young. It occurs in savanna communities

associated with Acacia spp., on light texture soils at altitudes of 1 200 metres. Some of the

Acacia trees are important as fodder. Shade loving grasses like Brachiaria brizantha and Panicum maximum thrive amongst Acacia, provided that the trees are scattered. Other

important grasses are C. gayana, Cynodon nlemfuensis, and Setaria sphacelata. The

grazing value of the grasses is being reduced by weeds such as Cymbopogon afronadus and

Imperata cylindrica. Some of the adapted forages include Leucaena leucocephala, Stylosanthes spp. and Calliandra calothyrusus.

SetariaSetariaSetariaSetaria----ChrysopogonChrysopogonChrysopogonChrysopogon


Covers substantial areas of the north-eastern part of the country; it is dominated by

Setaria incrassata which is characteristic of the clay plains of Karamoja. Other common

grasses are Themeda triandra, Sorghum spp., Eriochloa nubica and Dichanthium

papillosum. The annual rainfall is 750 - 1 000 mm. Further east, under rainfalls of 350 - 500 mm, are the Chrysopogon clay steppes of Karamoja which provide moderate grazing.

Bush and thickets occur at altitudes of 1 200 - 2 000 metres on shallow soils with 300 -

850 mm rainfall. These communities, which contain a great variety of species, provide a

lot of browse, but the grass cover is sparse.

Montane grasslandMontane grasslandMontane grasslandMontane grassland Grass savannahs with abundant Andropogon distachyus, Cenchrus validus, Exotheca abyssinica and Hyparrhenia cymbaria have developed at altitudes of 2 000 - 3 000 metres.

The most productive grasses are Pennisetum clandestinum and P. purpureum followed by

Setaria sphacelata found on Mt. Elgon, in the East and Southern Kigezi and on the

foothills of the Ruwenzori Mountain. The P. clandestinum grasslands have a natural clover Trifolium semipilosum (Kenya white clover) which is very compatible with the

grass


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 95

5.7.1 5.7.1 5.7.1 5.7.1 Forage Forage Forage Forage QualityQualityQualityQuality

The TDN of the natural grasses of Uganda is summarized in Table 5.10.

Table 5.10:Table 5.10:Table 5.10:Table 5.10: Natural Grasses of Uganda, TDN

Grass SpeciesGrass SpeciesGrass SpeciesGrass Species TDN%TDN%TDN%TDN% CP%CP%CP%CP%

Hyparrhenia filipendura 54 1.8

Panicum maximum 50 3

Brachiaria brizantha 50 3.4

Andropogon gayanus 55 3.4

Themeda triandra 54 2.5

Setaria sphacelata 52 2.7

Chrysopogon aucher 48 3.5

Cynadon dactylon 47 4

Pennisetum clandestinum 60 16

5.8 Opportunities for Improvement of Pasture Resources5.8 Opportunities for Improvement of Pasture Resources5.8 Opportunities for Improvement of Pasture Resources5.8 Opportunities for Improvement of Pasture Resources

5.8.15.8.15.8.15.8.1 Policy Policy Policy Policy and and and and Institutional Institutional Institutional Institutional LevelLevelLevelLevel

Promotions of the development of forage and pasture crops:Promotions of the development of forage and pasture crops:Promotions of the development of forage and pasture crops:Promotions of the development of forage and pasture crops: National policies across the

region continue to give second place to issues of forage production and rangeland

management. It is important that governments are sensitised on the contribution forage

and pasture production can have in improving livelihoods of pastoral communities and

ensuring economic development.

5.8.2 Private S5.8.2 Private S5.8.2 Private S5.8.2 Private Sector Involvementector Involvementector Involvementector Involvement

The GHA region is becoming more and more conscious of the important role the private

sector can play to accelerate development. In the plant sector, it should be noted that

private companies are becoming increasingly involved in plant breeding and seed

production in some countries. However, their involvement is still restricted to a limited

number of major crops. These seed companies can contribute to strengthening national

capacities for seed supply. The private sector can, among other areas:

i. Invest in variety research development

ii. Assist in establishing modern seed multiplication systems through

the selection and training of farmers

iii. Assist in establishing quality control procedures;

iv. Assist in securing optimum seed storage

v. Help transfer new technologies


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 96

5.8.3 Research5.8.3 Research5.8.3 Research5.8.3 Research

Intensifying research in the seed production area, especially forage and pasture crop seed

can be undertaken through promotion of livestock production, enhanced forage seed

production adaptation of appropriate seeding techniques in different ecological

conditions, eliminate some constraints that hinder the extension of rangeland

improvement in semi-arid and arid zones, collection and evaluation of plant genetic

resources of the main forage and pastoral native species and promote their conservation

in gene banks for ulterior utilisation and study the pastoral potentialities of local drought

resistant species and their conservation in situ for future use in the development of

marginal zones; and

Pastoral research in the long-term should be involved in seed selection and variety

adaptation (from promising ecotypes and foreign variety introductions) to improve the

utilisation of plant genetic resources.

5.8.4 Effective Co5.8.4 Effective Co5.8.4 Effective Co5.8.4 Effective Co----ordinationordinationordinationordination

Considering the limitation of human and financial resources, it is essential to co-ordinate

efforts with seed production organisms and centres and different research institutions in

aimed at:

1. Promoting local production in the existing seed multiplication centres, of

foundation seeds of forage and pasture species

2. Increasing the rate of adoption by farmers of improved forage and pasture

varieties;

3. Assisting farmers to master production techniques and other issues related to

forage crop production; and

4. Avoid resource wastages by ensuring efficiency through the exchange of expertise

and information to the development of range improvement techniques and seed

production in the Near East and North Africa.

5.8.5 Legislations and 5.8.5 Legislations and 5.8.5 Legislations and 5.8.5 Legislations and RegulationsRegulationsRegulationsRegulations

One of the constraints to certified seed production of forage and pasture species in most

countries in the region is the absence of technical rules for these species. It would be

useful to set-up rules for at least species being multiplied in a given country. These rules

have to be adapted to farmer’s conditions relating to standards for multiplication, number

of generations, and production techniques.

5.8.6 Institutional 5.8.6 Institutional 5.8.6 Institutional 5.8.6 Institutional Capacity BuildingCapacity BuildingCapacity BuildingCapacity Building

Institutions within the region will need capacity building to ensure that they are able to

enforce and implement various policies and legislations regarding rangeland forage and


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 97

pasture management. Such capacity building should also aim at expanding the reach of

these institutions to effectively support production systems in the ASALs.

5.8.7 Integration of the 5.8.7 Integration of the 5.8.7 Integration of the 5.8.7 Integration of the FormalFormalFormalFormal and and and and Informal Seed SystemsInformal Seed SystemsInformal Seed SystemsInformal Seed Systems

This is a prerequisite to the preservation of landraces and traditional varieties and

conservation of plant genetic resources, which must be promoted by the formal seed

sector. The role of NGOs in implementing projects that support on-farm seed production

should not be neglected, and efforts should be made to strengthen these activities.

5.9 Regional Level5.9 Regional Level5.9 Regional Level5.9 Regional Level

5.9.1 Networking5.9.1 Networking5.9.1 Networking5.9.1 Networking

Strengthening of the existing networks dealing with forage and pasture seed production

in the region should be a priority. The exchange of plant materials, expertise and

information linked to research on forage and pasture species should be promoted. The

FAO, for example, may assist with the development and management of an information

sharing instrument on pasture and forage across the region.

5.9.2 5.9.2 5.9.2 5.9.2 Regional Pasture Regional Pasture Regional Pasture Regional Pasture and Forage Improvement Activitiesand Forage Improvement Activitiesand Forage Improvement Activitiesand Forage Improvement Activities

Cross boundary projects on the improvement and promotion of pasture and forage

development can go a long way in ensuring disparities are minimised. Such interventions

are likely to reduce the incidences of pasture-related conflict across the region.

5.10 Constraints to Pasture Development within the GHA5.10 Constraints to Pasture Development within the GHA5.10 Constraints to Pasture Development within the GHA5.10 Constraints to Pasture Development within the GHA

Pasture development within GHA has been one of the key limiting factors to livestock

production. For instance a study carried out in the arid region of Turkana District in

Kenya established that livestock within the region experience feed deficits for most of the

year except for the wet month of April as shown by the feed balance presented in Figure

5.4.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 98

Figure 5.4Figure 5.4Figure 5.4Figure 5.4:::: Livestock Feed Supply and Demand in Turkana District in 2000.

(Source: Notenbeat, 2007)

The above scenario is due to several constraints within the pastoral ecosystems across the

region. These constraints include:

5.10.1 Water5.10.1 Water5.10.1 Water5.10.1 Water

The single most important constraint to pasture development in the rangelands of the

GHA is water resource. The scarcity of water within the GHA rangelands is a

fundamental constraint of pasture development that must be addressed to improve these

ecosystems. These issues are discussed in Chapter Four of this report.

5.10.2 Lack 5.10.2 Lack 5.10.2 Lack 5.10.2 Lack of Specific Government Strategies for of Specific Government Strategies for of Specific Government Strategies for of Specific Government Strategies for Rangeland RehabilitationRangeland RehabilitationRangeland RehabilitationRangeland Rehabilitation

Although there are many techniques for rehabilitation of degraded rangeland (seeding

methods, soil moisture conservation techniques, water harvesting, water spreading etc.)

most are rather costly compared to the likely economic returns. The more fundamental

approach would therefore be that which involves pastoralists in sound environmental

management and conservation techniques. To achieve this, an integrated multi-sectoral

approaches need to be adopted across issues of policy, institutional arrangements,

technical approaches and investment interventions within the rangelands. Particularly

important also are clear land tenure arrangements that will motivate the beneficiaries to

utilize rehabilitated sites in a sustainable manner.

On seeding, two specific constraints have been identified (FAO, 2006):

1. Seed sector constraints


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 99

2. Inherent constraints to the development of range improvement activities

5.10.3 Seed Sector Constrain5.10.3 Seed Sector Constrain5.10.3 Seed Sector Constrain5.10.3 Seed Sector Constraintstststs

Production of forage seeds for pastoral communities faces several challenges. These are:

a)a)a)a) Lack Lack Lack Lack of Adapted Species and Varietiesof Adapted Species and Varietiesof Adapted Species and Varietiesof Adapted Species and Varieties

Introduced forage and pasture species and varieties in the region have appeared, on many

occasions, to not be adapted to the local environment. Several countries are lacking

organized programmes for breeding and releasing forage varieties. Even in countries

where some forage crop improvement programmes have been undertaken, initial seed

multiplication remains one of the bottlenecks for improved variety development.

b)b)b)b) Constraints to the evaluation of seed requirementConstraints to the evaluation of seed requirementConstraints to the evaluation of seed requirementConstraints to the evaluation of seed requirement

Forage seed supply is impaired by the lack of a realistic seed demand forecast system and

late distribution. In fact, seed production in the region is highly dependent on the

amount and the distribution of rains within the year. Therefore, seed requirements

fluctuate from year to year. In addition, the use of farmer's own seed and farmer-to-

farmer exchange reduces the actual demand of certified seed.

c)c)c)c) Absence of legislatAbsence of legislatAbsence of legislatAbsence of legislation for pasture seedion for pasture seedion for pasture seedion for pasture seed

Up until now, in many countries of the GHA no certification legislation has been

instituted for forage and pasture species. This hinders the development of varieties for

these species. However, even where such legislation occurs, they have not been

adequately implemented

5.10.4 5.10.4 5.10.4 5.10.4 Research Research Research Research DeficiencyDeficiencyDeficiencyDeficiency

Despite efforts by different researchers and scientists in the fields of forage crops in

general and range improvement in particular during the last few years, research in the

area of forage and pastoral seed production is almost lacking in the region. Furthermore,

due to insufficient funds allocated to research and the limited number of specialists

working in this area the development of the seed sector as a whole in the region is

constrained.

Data deficiencyData deficiencyData deficiencyData deficiency

Due to the low research mentioned above, there has been inadequate date for planning on

areas and types of range, seasonal changes, grazing potential and capacities of the

different range types is a serious constraint to planning at national and regional levels


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 100

Lack Lack Lack Lack of Farmer Interest and Private Sector Involvementof Farmer Interest and Private Sector Involvementof Farmer Interest and Private Sector Involvementof Farmer Interest and Private Sector Involvement

The seed production of pasture and range species by farmers and private companies is

non-existent. A lack of farmer’s interest is observed even for the certified seed production

of other forage species for which the demand is important. This can be explained by the

fact that prices that are paid to forage seed producers are not competitive compared to

some other remunerative crops. Moreover, it is necessary to underline the lack of specific

equipment for seed production and the lack of efficiency of technical support of these

farmers, which translates into low yield levels.

Inefficiency of extension and promotionInefficiency of extension and promotionInefficiency of extension and promotionInefficiency of extension and promotion

Extension efforts currently deployed by some countries in the region for the promotion of

forage and pastoral crops remains insufficient. Due to financial constraints and lack of

incentives to motivate extension agents, extension services are almost ineffective, which

is illustrated by the limited adoption of improved varieties by farmers. Extension efforts

in the field of seed production in general have to be improved to help farmers master

production techniques. A weakness in the seed marketing system in general is the lack of

extension efforts by seed companies and co-operatives to increase seed sales

Burning Burning Burning Burning of Pasture Landof Pasture Landof Pasture Landof Pasture Land

In most countries in the GHA vegetation cover is burnt for many reasons which include:

to clear the land for cultivation, for regrowth of perennial grasses for grazing animals, to

bring wild game into the open and to drive away bees so that honey can be collected from

wild hives. Fires may also be caused accidently and by natural phenomena. Uncontrolled

burning is a serious threat to rangelands.

Expansion of croplandExpansion of croplandExpansion of croplandExpansion of cropland

Expansion of both dry land and irrigated farming has occurred at the expense of range

and woodlands, giving insufficient consideration to the importance of these resources to

pastoralists and their herds, and without attempting integration of livestock into the

developed cropping system, or creating alternative feed sources to compensate for the loss

of natural grazing and browse. FAO has estimated that the annual rate of deforestation in

the Sudan is approaching five hundred thousand hectares, one of the highest in Africa.

5.10.5 Inher5.10.5 Inher5.10.5 Inher5.10.5 Inherent Constraints to the Development of Range Improvement Activitiesent Constraints to the Development of Range Improvement Activitiesent Constraints to the Development of Range Improvement Activitiesent Constraints to the Development of Range Improvement Activities

Population pressures:Population pressures:Population pressures:Population pressures: Demographic pressures occurring in different countries in the

region has caused an increase in demand for agricultural and livestock products. This has

pushed farmers to overexploit pastoral resources and has led to overgrazing, causing

productive rangelands to convert into marginal croplands.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 101

Other natural and human factors:Other natural and human factors:Other natural and human factors:Other natural and human factors: Recurrent droughts, weak legislations to the range

management activities, insufficient technical support to livestock holders in pastoral

regions and low level of research to support rangeland production continue to hamper

rangeland development in the region. As a result, private investments in these regions

have remained low.

These constraints have a direct or indirect effect on the development of pastoral seed

demand. Although it is noted that rangeland seeding practices have given positive results

in the past, their use has remained very limited mainly due to inadequate investment by

Governments in rangeland improvement activities.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 102

6. SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT IN THE 6. SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT IN THE 6. SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT IN THE 6. SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT IN THE

ASAL REGIONASAL REGIONASAL REGIONASAL REGION

6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 Livestock Livestock Livestock Livestock Production SystemProduction SystemProduction SystemProduction System

An understanding of the various livestock farming and production systems is important in

developing a suitable development strategy. Livestock production systems have a direct

relationship to livestock disease risks and vulnerability.

There are two main production systems practiced within the GHA accounting for over

80% of the total livestock numbers. These are pastoral or agro-pastoral production

systems and the mixed crop-livestock production system. Tables 6.1 and 6.2 show the

number of livestock within each of the production systems.

Table Table Table Table 6.16.16.16.1:::: Pastoral/agro Pastoral Production Systems - Animal Numbers (2000)

Pastoral / AgPastoral / AgPastoral / AgPastoral / Agropastoral Production (‘000)ropastoral Production (‘000)ropastoral Production (‘000)ropastoral Production (‘000)

Cattle Sheep Goats

Country Numbers % Numbers % Numbers %

Djibouti 297 100 464 100 511 100

Eritrea 1,415 63 1,435 65 906 52

Ethiopia 6,551 20 1,797 17 2,788 33

Kenya 5,165 44 4,252 55 6,801 70

Somalia 5,141 100 13,773 100 12,269 100

Sudan 30,570 82 36,539 80 25,596 73

Uganda 1,415 23 163 17 873 16

TotalTotalTotalTotal 50,55350,55350,55350,553 53535353 58,42358,42358,42358,423 71717171 49,74449,74449,74449,744 68686868

Source: FAO, 2004

Table 6.2Table 6.2Table 6.2Table 6.2: Mixed Crop – Livestock Production Systems - Animal Numbers (2000)

Mixed Crop Mixed Crop Mixed Crop Mixed Crop ---- Livestock Production (‘0Livestock Production (‘0Livestock Production (‘0Livestock Production (‘000)00)00)00)

CattleCattleCattleCattle SheepSheepSheepSheep GoatsGoatsGoatsGoats

CountryCountryCountryCountry NumbersNumbersNumbersNumbers %%%% NumbersNumbersNumbersNumbers %%%% NumbersNumbersNumbersNumbers %%%%

Djibouti ... ... ... ... ... ...

Eritrea 831 37 767 35 853 48

Ethiopia 25,958 78 9,069 83 5,764 67

Kenya 2,389 20 3,517 45 2,941 30

Somalia 0 0 0 0 0 0

Sudan 6,530 18 9,396 20 9,377 27

Uganda 4,176 69 770 83 4,583 84

TotalTotalTotalTotal 39,88339,88339,88339,883 42424242 23,52023,52023,52023,520 29292929 23,51823,51823,51823,518 32323232

Source: FAO, 2004


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 103

Further categorization of the production systems, taking into account variation in

climatic conditions have been carried out by FAO (FAO, 2007). According to this

approach, the Horn of Africa has at least seven different production systems. Figure 6.1

shows these production systems.

FigFigFigFigureureureure 6.1: 6.1: 6.1: 6.1: Livestock production systems in the Horn of Africa

(Source: FAO, 2007)

Table 6.3 summarizes the distribution of the various production systems within the GHA

and the number of cattle supported under each system.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 104

Table 6.3Table 6.3Table 6.3Table 6.3:::: Production Systems within the GHA

CountryCountryCountryCountry Estimated Cattle Numbers by Production System (millions)Estimated Cattle Numbers by Production System (millions)Estimated Cattle Numbers by Production System (millions)Estimated Cattle Numbers by Production System (millions)

LGA LGH LGT MIA MRA MRH MRT Other Total Total Total Total

Djibouti 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 0.0 n.a n.a 0.0 0.00.00.00.0

Eritrea 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 0.0 n.a n.a 0.0 0.00.00.00.0

Ethiopia 5.29 0.05 0.31 0.0 11.64 1.75 30.15 1.72 50.9550.9550.9550.95

Kenya 3.94 n.a 0.71 n.a 2.82 1.38 5.35 2.02 16.2216.2216.2216.22

Somali 5.89 n.a n.a 0.18 0.52 n.a n.a 0.87 7.467.467.467.46

Sudan 23.02 1.32 0.08 0.00 0.12 0.01 0.03 4.27 28.8628.8628.8628.86

Uganda 0.36 0.29 0.01 n.a 2.12 3.78 1.15 0.60 8.318.318.318.31

TotalTotalTotalTotal 38.4938.4938.4938.49 1.671.671.671.67 1.121.121.121.12 0.180.180.180.18 17.2217.2217.2217.22 6.926.926.926.92 36.6736.6736.6736.67 9.499.499.499.49 111.80111.80111.80111.80

Source: Adapted from FAO, 2007

6.1.16.1.16.1.16.1.1 Grassland Based Systems (LG)Grassland Based Systems (LG)Grassland Based Systems (LG)Grassland Based Systems (LG)

Grassland based livestock production systems account for the bulk of meat production in

the world. In sub Saharan Africa, these systems account for 12.5% of the total beef

produced. The systems have mainly indigenous livestock though increasingly cross

breeding is taking place. Grass land based livestock production systems within the GHA

contribute significantly to the total livestock in the region. The following section

discusses the three main grassland based systems practiced within the GHA region.

Livestock Only, Arid/ Semi arid tropics Livestock Only, Arid/ Semi arid tropics Livestock Only, Arid/ Semi arid tropics Livestock Only, Arid/ Semi arid tropics and subtropics (LGA) production systemand subtropics (LGA) production systemand subtropics (LGA) production systemand subtropics (LGA) production system

The LGA system is a land based system in tropical and subtropical regions with growing

periods of less than 180 days per year and where grazing ruminants are the dominant

form of land use. Livestock production in these regions account for more than 90% of the

overall production of the regions while 10% or less of the dry matter eaten by animals is

provided by crop production5 (crop by-products, stubbles or annual crops).

This is the dominant livestock production system within the region. The system is mainly

pastoral due to scarcity of rainfall, water and pastures. The region hosts a herd of about

38.5 million cattle (or up to 35%). Managing production risks caused by feed variability is

the single most important problem facing this production system.

As a coping strategy to the feed variability problem, pastoralists attach a lot of importance

to small patches of wetlands that exist within these areas. Lately, Governments of the

5 FAO, 1995


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 105

region are putting financial resources in the development of water supply systems for

domestic, livestock and irrigation use. Environmental concerns and problems of land

degradation that are common within these production systems are discussed later in this

report.

Humid and SubHumid and SubHumid and SubHumid and Sub----Humid Tropics aHumid Tropics aHumid Tropics aHumid Tropics and Subnd Subnd Subnd Sub----Tropics (LGH) production systemTropics (LGH) production systemTropics (LGH) production systemTropics (LGH) production system

This production system is mainly found within the regions of GHA that enjoy more than

180 days of pasture growing period. Such regions include South west Sudan, Northern

Uganda and parts of Southern Ethiopia. This system is home to about 1.7 million cattle

within the GHA. The main challenges hindering expansion of livestock production under

the system are; the prevalence of trypanosomiasis due to tse tse fly infestation, poor feed

quality, poor road infrastructure, limited room for horizontal expansion due to

environmental concerns.

Temperate Zones and Tropical Highlands (LGT) Production SystemTemperate Zones and Tropical Highlands (LGT) Production SystemTemperate Zones and Tropical Highlands (LGT) Production SystemTemperate Zones and Tropical Highlands (LGT) Production System

This system is practiced mainly within the highlands of Central Kenya, Southern and

central highlands of Ethiopia, parts of Southern Sudan and the Uganda highlands where

daily mean temperatures range between 5 – 20°C. This system has seen the introduction

of temperate livestock breeds in the specified regions within the last few years. However,

local breeds still play an important role. Cross breeding through Artificial Insemination

has been promoted as a way of improving the local varieties.

Range is the primary feed resource of the system making the livestock vulnerable to

changing weather patterns. These regions have potential for greater forage production as

has been experienced in the more intensive and similar systems of New Zealand and

Oceania. The system can accommodate various types of livestock especially dairy and beef

cattle and wool sheep.

The overall production from this system is however low as it supports majorly subsistence

production. The main economic contribution to regional livestock production would be

its support to biodiversity, environmental conservation and water catchment. The

balance between intensive production and ecosystem protection remains the biggest

challenge for increased productivity under the LGT system.

6.1.26.1.26.1.26.1.2 Mixed Irrigated Husbandry (MI) Production SystemsMixed Irrigated Husbandry (MI) Production SystemsMixed Irrigated Husbandry (MI) Production SystemsMixed Irrigated Husbandry (MI) Production Systems

Mixed irrigated system of production offers great opportunities for the region. This

system is widely practiced in Asia and industrialized countries and is a strategy to delink

production systems from recurrent weather changes. Africa contributes about 0.1% of the

total world livestock production from the MI systems. The GHA region makes negligible

contribution to the MI system with only Somalia reported to have an estimated 180,000

cattle under the Arid and semi arid tropics and subtropics (MIA) production system.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 106

Arid and semi arid tropics and subtropics (MIA) production systemArid and semi arid tropics and subtropics (MIA) production systemArid and semi arid tropics and subtropics (MIA) production systemArid and semi arid tropics and subtropics (MIA) production system

The MIA production system is a mixed system of arid and semi arid regions in which

irrigation makes year round intensive crop production feasible. The system is resource

intensive given that water resources are scarce in these regions.

Development of the MIA production system in the GHA is thinly spread with efforts

currently going on in Ethiopia and Sudan. Kenya has, on the other hand put in place

policies that are geared at promoting the system in the dry lands of eastern and North

Eastern provinces. Private investments in parts of northern Somalia has made some

production possible under the system.

6.1.36.1.36.1.36.1.3 Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed Rainfed Systems (Rainfed Systems (Rainfed Systems (Rainfed Systems (MRMRMRMR))))

There are three main categories of MR systems practiced within the Horn of Africa.

These are; Temperate Zones and Tropical Highlands production system (MRT), Humid

and sub-humid tropics and sub tropics (MRH) and arid and semi arid tropics and

subtropics. Mixed rainfed production system is a combination of rainfed crop and

livestock farming in temperate and tropical highlands through which crops contribute

not more than 10% of the value of the total farm output. The system is dominant within

the OECD and other developed countries.

The whole of sub-Saharan Africa contributes to less than 4 percent of meat production

output from this production system. Within GHA, the production system is found in all

the GHA countries except Djibouti and Eritrea. The system supports close to 60% of the

cattle population within the region.

Temperate Zones and Tropical Highlands production system (MTemperate Zones and Tropical Highlands production system (MTemperate Zones and Tropical Highlands production system (MTemperate Zones and Tropical Highlands production system (MRT)RT)RT)RT)

Within GHA, this system is practiced in the tropical highlands of Ethiopia where the

large numbers of livestock provide a variety of services in support of crop production,

Kenya where dairy development and dairy cattle improvement has taken root and a little

bit in Sudan and Uganda. Under the system, livestock provide a range of services meant to

aid crop production such as ploughing and supply of manure under less intensive

production systems. In Ethiopia, the system supports over 30 million heads of cattle

compared to about 5 million in Kenya and just about 1.1 million in Uganda.

This system of production has been the most versatile in the region in response to

technological innovation, adaptation to the negative impacts of climate change and

changing land use practices. The future challenges to MRT production system within the

GHA is the adoption of cleaner production practices that conserve the environment while

at the same time coping with the increasing demand for livestock products.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 107

Humid and Humid and Humid and Humid and ssssubububub----humid Tropics and Subtropics (MRH)humid Tropics and Subtropics (MRH)humid Tropics and Subtropics (MRH)humid Tropics and Subtropics (MRH)

This production system is based on a mixed farming method under varying socio-

economic and climatic conditions. Within the GHA, the system is prevalent in Uganda,

Ethiopia and Kenya in that order. About 6.9 million cattle are reared under the MRH

productions system within the Horn of Africa. As with the MRT system, this production

system also depends on livestock from traction and manure.

As population pressures increase in the region, the challenge for the MRH production

system is to devise ways of increasing productivity under reduced land resource

availability. The environmental concerns within the GHA make this requirement

necessary.

Arid and Arid and Arid and Arid and Semi Arid Tropics Semi Arid Tropics Semi Arid Tropics Semi Arid Tropics and sub and sub and sub and sub TropicsTropicsTropicsTropics (MRA) (MRA) (MRA) (MRA) Production SystemsProduction SystemsProduction SystemsProduction Systems

The MRA is a mixed production system in tropical and subtropical regions with a

vegetation growth period of less than 180 days. The soils in these regions are normally

less productive and rainfall is usually too low to sustain a complete cropping period.

Livestock production is normally the primary income generating activity.

Worldwide, the system supports about 11 percent of world cattle population and 14

percent of sheep and goats. Within the GHA, this systems supports close to 18 million

heads of cattle and over 50 million goats and sheep. Crop production in this system is very

low and normally for subsistence only. Rangeland degradation resulting into low fuel

wood availability make livestock dung a significant source of fuel.

The other environmental concern within this system is the high methane production per

animal. Methane production from this system is high per unit of meat or milk produced.

There is therefore room for research with respect to livestock breeding and husbandry

practices within these regions.

6.1.46.1.46.1.46.1.4 Production TrendsProduction TrendsProduction TrendsProduction Trends

Figures 6.2 and 6.3 show the production trends of meat and milk across the GHA region.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 108

Meat production trendsMeat production trendsMeat production trendsMeat production trends

Figure 6.2: Figure 6.2: Figure 6.2: Figure 6.2: Meat Production Trends, Tonnes


From the above diagram, most the countries in the GHA, except Uganda, show

improvement in meat production. However the improvement is very small as compared

to more developed countries. In 2007, the average meat production in the GHA was less

than 500,000 tonnes. This figure is very small compared to South African, who produced

more than 2,000,000 tonnes.

Milk production trendsMilk production trendsMilk production trendsMilk production trends

FigureFigureFigureFigure 6.3: 6.3: 6.3: 6.3: Milk Production Trends, Tonnes



P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 109

The milk production in the GHA is also very low, compared to the amount produced in

more developed countries such as New Zealand. However, all the countries in the region

have shown positive improvement between 1980 and 2007, with Kenya and Sudan

recording the greatest growth.

6.1.56.1.56.1.56.1.5 Livestock Livestock Livestock Livestock Breeds aBreeds aBreeds aBreeds and Performancend Performancend Performancend Performance

The GHA region has a large and diverse reservoir of animal genetic resources, the

majority of which are indigenous and are classified according to the communities and

regions where they are found. The pastoral communities in the region predominantly

own indigenous breeds of livestock whose contribution to livelihood can still be

enhanced if the genetic pool was improved. However, a part from providing basic

livestock products, one other important contribution of the livestock to the pastoral

livelihood systems is draft power. Table 2.6 summarises the merits of indigenous and

exotic cattle breeds within the pastoral ecosystems.

Table Table Table Table 6.46.46.46.4:::: Merits of Indigenous and Exotic Cattle and their Crosses

Relative potentialRelative potentialRelative potentialRelative potential Adaptation and survivalAdaptation and survivalAdaptation and survivalAdaptation and survival

Cattle typeCattle typeCattle typeCattle type Milk Meat Draft power Disease and drought

resistance

LocalsLocalsLocalsLocals Poor Excellent Excellent Excellent

CrossesCrossesCrossesCrosses V. Good V. Good Good Good

ExoticExoticExoticExotic Excellent Medium Medium Poor

Source:Source:Source:Source: Addis Ababa chamber of commerce, 2008

Findings6 in Ethiopia revealed that the country is dominated by the indigenous blood

groups of cattle. Crossbred and exotic animals account for less than 1% of the total herd.

As in the cattle herd, almost all the Ethiopian sheep and goats are of indigenous blood.

Exotic and crosses contribute to a negligible portion, more so in the case of sheep than

goats. Research7 shows that these negligible numbers of improved genotypes in the

Ethiopian national herd composition have a profound impact on the productivity of the

herd.

In Uganda, it is estimated that 95% of the cattle population is composed of indigenous

breeds and only 3% are improved or exotic. Small numbers of exotic breeds exist on

commercial ranches, most notably Boran, and to a lesser extent, the Bonsmara.

In Kenya, however, exotic and cross breeds are present in larger numbers than in any

other GHA state. The Ministry of Livestock Development (MoLD) estimates that 3

million dairy and dairy crosses cattle are kept. Friesian cattle are the dominant breed but

6 Focus Group Discussions held in Ethiopia in May, 2009 7 Addis Ababa Chamber of Commerce, 2008


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 110

Ayrshire and Channel Island breeds are also found in Kenya. In some areas, improved

Boran and Sahiwal bulls have been introduced. About 10% of the adult animals are

breeding males. Zebus are kept by pastoralists in mixed herds with indigenous breeds of

sheep, goats, and camels in the northern rangelands.

Cattle in Somalia8 are mainly indigenous species that descended from Bostaurus, or Zebu.

Productivity is low but can be improved with good management in more favourable

conditions. The Low levels of production characterize most of these species which are

being replaced slowly by slowly. Indigenous breeds especially dairy cattle (Kenana and

Butana) are currently under severe pressure as to the introduction of foreign breeds like

Friesian

6.1.66.1.66.1.66.1.6 Conservation of Indigenous Livestock BreedsConservation of Indigenous Livestock BreedsConservation of Indigenous Livestock BreedsConservation of Indigenous Livestock Breeds

The GHA region generally consists of a rich animal diversity that comprises the bovines,

camels, small ruminants, poultry, pigs and other emerging livestock. This diversity is

important is important in a wide range of environmental, socio-economic and cultural

conditions. Pastoral communities specifically rely heavily or almost entirely on domestic

animal diversity for their subsistence and livelihoods. This diversity provides several

benefits to the pastoral communities. Such benefits include:

i. Food security and household nutrition

ii. Contribution to improved rural livelihoods and economies

iii. Agro ecological management

iv. Animal power and labour management

v. Cultural values and social services

By allowing use of marginal environments, indigenous livestock provide maximum

production from these otherwise low productive ecosystems. They are also valuable

reservoirs of genes for adaptive and economic traits, providing diversified gene pool,

which can help meeting future challenges that may result from changes in production

sources and market requirements.

In terms of knowledge requirements, indigenous livestock breeds and associated

indigenous knowledge have advantages in animal healthcare, with notable economic

benefits. Indigenous breeds are often tolerant to local diseases, whilst herders can easily

solve their animal health problems with traditional ethno-veterinary remedies. In

essence, the use of indigenous breeds and the associated indigenous knowledge entails a

number of labour, economic and environmental values that are critical for livestock

production among pastoral communities.

8 Final Report “Towards a Livestock Sector Strategy” in Somalia, 2004


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 111

6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 Livestock Management PracticesLivestock Management PracticesLivestock Management PracticesLivestock Management Practices

6.2.1 6.2.1 6.2.1 6.2.1 Livestock Management SystemsLivestock Management SystemsLivestock Management SystemsLivestock Management Systems

The type of management practices in livestock production greatly affects yields and

output in the GHA region. Traditionally, livestock production has been an important

source of income for the rural poor in all the GHA countries. It is anticipated that

expansion of livestock production will offer one of the best opportunities for improved

livelihoods and economic integration between pastoralists and farmers in the region

under the improved management systems. Research done in Ethiopia,9 for example,

discloses that the improved scales of animal products such as milk and meat can be

achieved through improving livestock management systems. This research has also shown

that the productivity of indigenous livestock resources that are under traditional

management can be increased, while the cost per unit of output can be reduced if their

management is improved and commercialized. This is also true for chicken and small

ruminants.

Further information on the same indicates that strengthening and expansion of

institutions of higher learning is one way of directly improving livestock management

systems. Production of trained human resource in animal husbandry and health fields in

particular should therefore be done in order to improve productivity and quality.

Findings indicate that individual animal output and output from the national herd as a

whole is low in Somalia. This situation arises from traditional management practices

including relatively poor animal welfare, lack of feed and poor quality feed, and

inadequate provision of health inputs.

6.2.2 6.2.2 6.2.2 6.2.2 Livestock Information ManagementLivestock Information ManagementLivestock Information ManagementLivestock Information Management

Informed planning and decision-making is key for the success of livestock production,

health and management. In the GHA region, it is a major problem affecting livestock

production. Quality and timely information on disease pattern, production levels,

genetics and pastures and feed regimes is mandatory for improved livestock production

and sustainable livelihoods. Hence, capacity in collecting, collating and analysing

livestock data and sharing of generated information are of paramount importance.

Transparency in the animal health matters and traceability or follow up of animals from

“stable to table” is key issues in animal trade and this is made possible by well planned

management of information system. This can be achieved through publishing scientific

journals as Bulletin of livestock production, health and management, development of a

website to be used as one of the main mediums of disseminating information to all

9 Livestock Resource Potentials in Ethiopia: Constraints and Opportunities for intervention by the

private sector, 2008


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 112

stakeholders, establishment of data banks, documentation of experiences and best

practices from the animal production programmes and establish a data base and inventory

of animal and feed resources.

6.3 Emerging Livestock6.3 Emerging Livestock6.3 Emerging Livestock6.3 Emerging Livestock

Emerging livestock are animals that have not received adequate attention in terms of

research and development. These include ostrich, guinea fowls, donkeys, crocodiles and

snakes. Ostrich and crocodile farming seem to be taking root in the region both as a

tourist attraction and as sources of foreign exchange. In some instances, snake farming has

also bee adopted.

To-date there are about sixty (60) ostrich farmers in Kenya concentrated in the arid and

semi arid lands with a population of approximately 10,000 birds valued at about KSh 1

billion. One of the main Ostrich farms in the country is located in Kitengela in Kajiado

(in ASAL) district which acts both as a tourist site and a source of Ostrich meat. The farm

earns the country foreign exchange from its operations. A number of similar farms exist

within the peri-urban areas of the ASALs.

Mamba Village near Bamburi Cement factory in Mombasa is the largest crocodile farm in

Africa. The crocodile is reared largely for its meat and skin. The donkey and the buffalo

are important draft animals and future plans aim at addressing their nutrition, breeding

and disease control. Other non-conventional livestock like the quails, guinea fowls, snails,

snakes and frogs exist in the wild and are a source of meat and skin for export markets.

Uganda Crocs Limited (UCL) is a private crocodile farm in Katebo village in Uganda. The

farm export crocodile products mainly skins to Europe earning the country foreign

exchange. In Ethiopia, Arba Minch is a Government-owned crocodile ranch located in

the southern town of Arba Minch next to the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa.

6.3.1 6.3.1 6.3.1 6.3.1 Developing Developing Developing Developing Emerging Livestock SubEmerging Livestock SubEmerging Livestock SubEmerging Livestock Sub----SectorSectorSectorSector

From the above, it is clear that most strategies on emerging livestock have been left in the

hands of the private sector. Whereas this could be a good case of public private

partnership, the following gaps still remain:

1. Existing government policies across the GHA do not give adequate attention to

emerging livestock. A lot of concentration at policy level has been on the

traditional types of livestock leaving out emerging livestock as part of ‘private

investments’. This approach will need to change to enhance the contribution of

emerging livestock to the economies


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 113

2. Due to the above, sourcing for finance for the development of the emerging

livestock sub-sector remains a difficult exercise and a purely private venture with

government regulations designed more to hinder than to support such investments

3. Licensing procedures for these investments are usually lengthy and complicated.

There is therefore need to streamline the licensing requirements for investments

in emerging livestock

4. Local consumption of emerging livestock products remains low due to cultural and

other beliefs. There will therefore be the need to sensitize communities and

societies on the potential of emerging livestock as normal human food.

6.46.46.46.4 Livestock Composition and DistributionLivestock Composition and DistributionLivestock Composition and DistributionLivestock Composition and Distribution

Most GHA member countries do not have reliable livestock data and as such, livestock

planning is based on approximations and extrapolations of data collected several years

back. Uganda is the only member country with up-to-date livestock data, having carried

out a livestock census in 2008. Table 6.5 shows the livestock population distribution

across the GHA.

Table Table Table Table 6.56.56.56.5:::: Livestock Population

Livestock Livestock Livestock Livestock

typetypetypetype

Population by Country (millions)Population by Country (millions)Population by Country (millions)Population by Country (millions) TotalTotalTotalTotal

Djibouti Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Somalia Sudan Uganda

Cattle 0.04 1.96 40.4 14.0 4.6 41.3 11.4 113.7

Goats

1.0

1.72 16.3 12.0

31.3

42.1 12.5

202.14 Sheep 2.12 20.7 8.0 51.0 3.4

Poultry

(chicken)

- 1.38 32.2 25.8 - 45.3 37.6 142.28

Camels 0.05 0.076 0.4 0.9 6.2 4.4 0.03 12.056

Pigs - - - 0.4 - - 3.2 3.6

Beehives* - - 4.0 1.1 - - 0.8 5.9

Sources: Various

The GHA region has a broad range of livestock species comprising camels, cattle, goats

and sheep, donkeys, pigs and poultry. Most of the livestock are the indigenous breeds.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 114

Some cross breeds and exotic breeds are also found. This heterogeneity in the genetic

composition of livestock poses major challenges in developing and implementing a

coherent breeding and development programme.

Figure 6.4Figure 6.4Figure 6.4Figure 6.4:::: Livestock Distribution Across the GHA

(Source: FAO, 2007)

6.5 Pastoral Farming Systems6.5 Pastoral Farming Systems6.5 Pastoral Farming Systems6.5 Pastoral Farming Systems

Pastoralism is both a production system and a livelihood support system where livestock

breeding mainly uses spontaneous vegetation resources for pasture mostly in an extensive

fashion either on farm site or in the context of transhumance or nomadism. Pastoralism

in the GHA accounts for about 60% of livestock production.

Pastoral production systems are defined as those in which 50% of the households gross

service comes from primary livestock production or livestock related activities. It has

been observed that pastoralists use dry land natural resources sustainably where other

land use systems cannot thrive. Pastoralists keep mixed herd of grazers and browsers to

ensure that livestock use different resources (grass and shrubs). They also predominantly

have communal ownership and management of land and natural resources so that they

can move freely in search of pasture in different locations at different times of the year.

Figure 6.5 shows a typical pastoral settlement system in Mandera district of Northern

Kenya.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 115

FiFiFiFigure 6.gure 6.gure 6.gure 6.5555:::: Pastoral settlement in Mandera District

(Source: ALLPRO Project)

The pastoral production systems in Kenya are increasingly being challenged by emerging

socio-economic trends and changes in climate and land use patterns. For example, in

Kajiado District, the movement of pastoralists is restricted due to land subdivision and

titling of already overused lands. In North Eastern Province, a similar trend is emerging

where individuals are fencing off land for private use. Young boys and girls who go to

school from the pastoral communities are also loosing the necessary coping skills for

sustaining pastoral livelihoods. It is important, therefore, to address the challenges of

change management among pastoralists to ensure sustainable livestock development and

sustainable livelihoods.


The AfDB’s Pastoral Development Study documented extensively the challenges of

pastoralism in Ethiopia. As common across the region, pastoralists in Ethiopia are found

at the periphery of decision making process. In Ethiopia, the federal constitution

recognizes pastoralism as a way of life and protects the pastoral system from negative

attacks. However, other challenges to the pastoral system still exist. These include:

i. Water scarcity and lack of pastures

ii. Poor physical and social infrastructure

iii. Policy initiatives that are not responsive to the needs of the pastoral systems

iv. Environmental degradation of the rangelands

v. Inadequate veterinary services

vi. Poor marketing infrastructure

vii. Lack of financial capital


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Several interventions are ongoing within the various GHA member countries to address

the various challenges facing pastoralism.

SudanSudanSudanSudan is putting in place a programme to establish water harvesting within the known

livestock corridors. EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia is adopting a more integrated approach to pastoral

development by putting in place integrated and multifaceted programmes meant to

address the issues of water, social infrastructure and animal health issues among the

pastoralists while KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya has established a Ministry in charge of the Arid and Semi arid

Lands with a specific mandate to design strategies and interventions necessary to boost

pastoralists contribution to the mainstream economy. UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda has developed extensive

Water for Development strategy targeting water stress areas.

With the above interventions across the

region, pastoral lifestyles are bound to change

as most pastoralists become semi sedentary

agro-pastoralists settling around water points,

business centres and social infrastructures.

Experience elsewhere shows that pastoralists

who are semi-sedentary enjoy better

livelihoods compared to those who are

nomadic.

Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.6666a: a: a: a: Paddocked cattle in Djibouti

For example, the Maasai in Kenya who are nomadic pastoralists enjoy somewhat inferior standards of living compared to their Tanzanian counterparts who are semi sedentary.

This shows that there is need to adopt an approach that encourages the pastoralists to

accept modern husbandry systems.

6.6 Livestock Marketing6.6 Livestock Marketing6.6 Livestock Marketing6.6 Livestock Marketing, Trade and Infratructure, Trade and Infratructure, Trade and Infratructure, Trade and Infratructure

The significance of marketing in the development of sustainable livestock sector cannot

be overstated as effective marketing is a key driver of any sustainable production process.

An analysis of the sector showed that the GHA region suffers from dilapidated livestock

marketing infrastructure (quarantine stations, veterinary checkpoints, stock routes,

holding grounds) and poorly organized livestock market information systems which

constitute major constraints for livestock producers. This lack of market infrastructure

has hampered access to market information by livestock farmers. Improvement of this

infrastructure coupled with a modern market information system has the potential of

improving market access and profitability of the livestock enterprises.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 117

Livestock market within the

region may be looked at from

three perspectives namely, the

external market characterized by

stringent OIE rules and bilateral

agreements, the regional market

within which countries can

negotiate and agree on various

standards and internal markets

within the individual countries.

Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.6666b:b:b:b: Camels housed at the regional quarantine station in Djibouti

6.6.16.6.16.6.16.6.1 External External External External MarketMarketMarketMarket

Case study of the Regional Quarantine Facility, DjiboutiCase study of the Regional Quarantine Facility, DjiboutiCase study of the Regional Quarantine Facility, DjiboutiCase study of the Regional Quarantine Facility, Djibouti

The livestock quarantine facility in Djibouti is one of the facilities within the region

linking the GHA livestock sector to the market, mostly in the Middle East. The facility

facilitates the export of live animals from Ethiopia, Somalia and Djibouti. Table 6.6 shows

the percentage of various types of livestock received by the facility for the period May

2007 to April 2009.

Table 6.6:Table 6.6:Table 6.6:Table 6.6: Livestock Exports at the Djibouti Quarantine Station

Type of livestockType of livestockType of livestockType of livestock Country of originCountry of originCountry of originCountry of origin Mean weightsMean weightsMean weightsMean weights

Somalia Ethiopia

Sheep and goats 92 8 25-40 kg

Cattle 32 68 Ethiopia: 300-450kg

Somalia: 150-300 kg

Camels 61 39 Ethiopia: ≥ 400 kg

Somalia: ≤ 300 kg

Figure 6.8 shows the number of live animals exported from the facility between March

2007 and April 2008. In terms of numbers, sheep and goats composed 92% of all live

animals exported from the facility during the period.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 118

Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.7777:::: Live Animals Exports from the Regional Quarantine Centre, Djibouti

(Source: Regional Livestock Quarantine Centre, Djibouti)

Assessment of the Djibouti Marketing ModelAssessment of the Djibouti Marketing ModelAssessment of the Djibouti Marketing ModelAssessment of the Djibouti Marketing Model

The livestock marketing model adopted by the quarantine facility in Djibouti is presented

in Figure 6.8. The facility acts as a linkage between the livestock producers and the

market. Transport of livestock, facilities and services form an important part of the model.

The model is dependent, to a greater extent, on the legal and regulatory framework posed

by the host country and by several other international players. It is further dependent on

the infrastructure on the ground for its transport system.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 119

Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.8888:::: Regional Quarantine Station Marketing Model

Lessons from the Regional Quarantine FacilityLessons from the Regional Quarantine FacilityLessons from the Regional Quarantine FacilityLessons from the Regional Quarantine Facility

i.i.i.i. Public Private Partnerships in Livestock DevelopmentPublic Private Partnerships in Livestock DevelopmentPublic Private Partnerships in Livestock DevelopmentPublic Private Partnerships in Livestock Development

It is possible to develop a working public-private sector partnership in the livestock

sector. Such a partnership can be at the level of production, value addition or marketing.

The public sector however, must do more to create a conducive policy, legal and

regulatory framework to facilitate such partnerships.

ii.ii.ii.ii. CrossCrossCrossCross----Border Livestock TradeBorder Livestock TradeBorder Livestock TradeBorder Livestock Trade

The regional livestock quarantine facility obtains livestock for export from Ethiopia and

Somalia. These transactions are properly documented and the necessary revenues paid to

the host country. This is an important lesson that can help curb informal cross-border

trade through which governments lose substantial revenues.


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iii.iii.iii.iii. Dealing with Punitive Terms of TradeDealing with Punitive Terms of TradeDealing with Punitive Terms of TradeDealing with Punitive Terms of Trade

Certain trading conditions posed by Western countries have serious negative impacts on

livestock production across the region. Adoption of the model above may reduce a

country’s vulnerability to the general bans that are sometimes imposed by the western

markets on local livestock and livestock products.

Importation of Livestock ProductsImportation of Livestock ProductsImportation of Livestock ProductsImportation of Livestock Products

Table Table Table Table 6.6.6.6.7:7:7:7: Main Livestock Products Imported by GHA Countries (2007)

CountryCountryCountryCountry LivestockLivestockLivestockLivestock product within top 20 product within top 20 product within top 20 product within top 20

imports into country in 2007imports into country in 2007imports into country in 2007imports into country in 2007

Quantity (Quantity (Quantity (Quantity (tonnestonnestonnestonnes)))) Value (‘000 Value (‘000 Value (‘000 Value (‘000

USD)USD)USD)USD)

Djibouti • Milk

• Cattle meat

• Chicken meat

4,996

7,830

5,786

12,171

13,388

5,348

Eritrea • Milk

• Cattle meat

• Chicken meat

94

1457

Ethiopia No livestock product import ranked

amongst country’s top 20 imports

N/A N/A

Kenya No livestock product import ranked


N/A N/A

Sudan • Whole Milk

• Skim milk

23,266

3,368

153,577

14,423

Uganda No livestock product import ranked


N/A N/A

Source: FAOSTAT 2009

6.6.26.6.26.6.26.6.2 Regional Regional Regional Regional MarketMarketMarketMarket

Cross border livestock trade represents one of the most significant growth areas of

regional trade in Eastern Africa. The trade is now being considered as one of the few

success stories in the regional livestock sector. The overall cross-border trade in the

region is estimated to be in excess of USD 60 million annually with the GHA countries

contributing to over 70% of this trade. Figure 6.9 shows the growth in cross border trade

between Somalia/Kenya, Ethiopia/Kenya and Ethiopia/Sudan between 1991 and 2007.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 121

Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.9999:::: Cross Border Livestock Trade in the IGAD

(Source: COMESA, 2009)

Despite its immense capacity to contribute to national economies and poverty alleviation,

regional cross-border trade within the GHA is poorly understood even by policy makers

and as such remains poorly developed. This has ensured that the trade remains largely

informal. Some of the challenges facing regional cross-border trade in livestock are:

i.i.i.i. Marketing InfrMarketing InfrMarketing InfrMarketing Infrastructure within Pastoral Communities along the Bordersastructure within Pastoral Communities along the Bordersastructure within Pastoral Communities along the Bordersastructure within Pastoral Communities along the Borders

The GHA member countries share long stretches of borderline that is usually poorly

manned and lack basic livestock marketing infrastructure. The borderlines lack livestock

holding grounds, security, customs posts, among other vital facilities. In most cases, basic

facilities like customs posts are situated up to 200 km apart.

ii.ii.ii.ii. Market InformationMarket InformationMarket InformationMarket Information

Small scale traders and patoralists often find themselves vulnerable to brokers at the

borderlines due to lack of market information. This makes them lose to the more

informed traders who exploit their ignorance. However, the use of cellular phone

technology is rapidly sealing this information gap.

iii.iii.iii.iii. Animal HealthAnimal HealthAnimal HealthAnimal Health

It is difficult to for pastoralists to effectively participate in the collection of vital livestock

health data and participate in vaccination programs unless they are adequately

empowered through sensitization and effective coordination within the pastoral regions.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 122

TADs therefore remain a challenge throughout the region due to the capacity lapse at the

borders.

iv.iv.iv.iv. Centralized Decision MakingCentralized Decision MakingCentralized Decision MakingCentralized Decision Making

In most instances, decision making, even at official border points is slow as local

organizations and institutions are entirely dependent on the central government for

decisions related to trade. This encourages local pastoralists to seek alternative and

quicker methods of trading on their livestock.

v.v.v.v. Conflicts and InsecurityConflicts and InsecurityConflicts and InsecurityConflicts and Insecurity

Cross-border conflicts within the GHA have for a long time negatively impacted on trade.

It is reported10 that:

i. CBT between Somalia and Kenya has been halted several times in recent years

due to conflict and by Kenya’s concerns about insecurity in Somalia;

ii. CBT between Ethiopia and Eritrea has been virtually nil since the war between

the countries halted the trade in the late 1990s;

iii. CBT between Uganda/Kenya and southern Sudan was stopped several times in

recent years because of conflict and insecurity.

iv. CBT between Ethiopia and Somalia/Somaliland has been slowed numerous

times in recent years due to conflict, as well as increased confiscations of trade

goods by government officials.

6.66.66.66.6.3.3.3.3 Internal MarketsInternal MarketsInternal MarketsInternal Markets

Over the years, local demand for livestock products has exceeded supply. The GHA

region therefore remains a net importer of most livestock products. Net trade in livestock

products has largely been negative with imports exceeding exports as shown in Figures

6.10a-d.

10 Little, P. D. 2007. Unofficial cross border trade in eastern Africa. Presented at the FAO workshop on “Staple Food Trade and Market Policy Options for Promoting Development

in Eastern and Southern Africa,” March 1-2, 2007, FAO Headquarters, Rome, Italy


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 123

Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.10101010a:a:a:a: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Djibouti

Figure 6.1Figure 6.1Figure 6.1Figure 6.10000b: b: b: b: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Kenya


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 124

Figure 6Figure 6Figure 6Figure 6.1.1.1.10000c:c:c:c: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Sudan

Figure 6.1Figure 6.1Figure 6.1Figure 6.10000d:d:d:d: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Uganda

In Somalia, livestock marketing is mainly a private sector affair through dealers and local

markets. Livestock are used to supply local markets, shipped to various countries in the

Arabian Peninsula, and trekked or transported to markets in Kenya and Ethiopia.

Livestock also enter Somalia through the borders with Ethiopia and Kenya.

6.6.46.6.46.6.46.6.4 InfrastructureInfrastructureInfrastructureInfrastructure

A well developed physical infrastructure is necessary for the development of sustainable

livestock sector. Physical infrastructure across the GHA region and more specifically in

pastoral regions is poorly developed. This has retarded the production and marketing

efforts in the livestock sector leading to widespread poverty.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 125

Road and Rail Road and Rail Road and Rail Road and Rail transport network within the GHA is generally underdeveloped. There is

generally absence of road and rail network in the pastoral regions and where they exist,

they are generally in poor conditions. There are, however, efforts to improve especially

the road network. Some of these efforts include the ongoing efforts to complete the

Addis-Nairobi highway linking Kenya and Ethiopia. Over long distances though, like in

the case of the Sudan, it is more efficient and cost-effective to transport live animals by

rail other than by road. The need for further enhanced investments in road and rail

within the region can however, not be overemphasized.

EnergyEnergyEnergyEnergy, especially electricity is an important factor in supporting production and

marketing activities in the livestock sector. The energy sector within the GHA is quite

underdeveloped. In Ethiopia, for example, 13% of the population is estimated to have

access to electricity grid compared to about 8% in Kenya. Uganda has only about 6% of

the population covered. These figures compare miserably to those found elsewhere. In

Western Europe for example about 98% of the population is covered while in Africa,

Ghana for example, has 35% access to electric power and South Africa enjoys over 80%

access to electricity. Egypt enjoys about 9% connectivity. There is therefore, need to

invest heavily in the sector to enhance its productivity.

Efficient telecommunicationstelecommunicationstelecommunicationstelecommunications system is a useful tool in bridging the information gap

between producers and markets. It is also useful in ensuring the sharing of data necessary

for decision making by the producers. The livestock sector requires an effective

telecommunication system to support its activities. GHA countries are currently

implementing aggressive telecommunications policies. The cellular phone has gone a long

way in ensuring populations is linked to the national telecommunications grid. In Kenya,

over 50% of the populations now have access to cellular phone. Access to the service in

Djibouti is still beyond the reach of most pastoral livestock farmers. The wireless

telephone system provides a tremendous opportunity to expeditiously and effectively

provide 100% access to livestock producers. This system should be pursued for both voice

and data communication in the sector.

On internet infrastructure,internet infrastructure,internet infrastructure,internet infrastructure, GHA countries are making considerable efforts in ensuring

internet services accessible to majority of their citizens. Access to internet infrastructure

would support production activities in the livestock sector. An international consortium

is currently installing undersea fibre optic cable under The East African Marine Systems

(TEAMS) project that is meant to enhance access to internet services in the region. The

countries of Djibouti and Ethiopia are also in the process of installing their own fibre


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 126

optic cable under the SEA ME WE 5 project. The mobile GSM system provides an

opportunity for 100% access to the internet by producers in the sector.

In general, Livestock marketing Infrastructure Improvement Programme in the region

should focus on the following:

i. A special livestock improvement fund, a credit scheme for livestock

farmers

ii. Physical infrastructure development project, targeting pastoral areas

iii. Marketing infrastructure improvement project

MarketMarketMarketMarket access:access:access:access: Existing markets for most of the livestock and livestock products are

usually located in the major towns and cities. However, in most instances, there exists

localized market centres within the ASAL regions (Delloitte, 2006). Livestock have to be

trekked long distances, sometimes hundreds of kilometers to access markets. There is

need for the establishment of bulking sites as temporary holding grounds for livestock

before transportation to the major markets.

Information: Information: Information: Information: Lack of market information makes livestock farmers in the ASALs

vulnerable to abuse by the few middlemen who are their only source of price

information. Expanded extension services, investments in infrastructure and mass media

can play an important role in ensuring market information reaches the livestock farmers.

6.6.5 6.6.5 6.6.5 6.6.5 Value AdditionValue AdditionValue AdditionValue Addition



packaging, conditioned transport, production of cheese, butter, yoghurt and other

products. Production of leather products, dried milk, buttons, dressed poultry, glue,

cooking fat, gun powder are also important to the value addition chain.

It is necessary that infrastructure for primary and secondary value addition be in place in

order to maximize returns from the livestock sector. This infrastructure includes holding

pens, cattle dips, animal housing, abattoirs, tanneries, dairies, cooling plants and other

relevant facilities.

In Kenya, there are private and public sector infrastructure for value addition in the

livestock sector. These include the Government-owned Kenya Meat Commission which

slaughters and processes products from cattle, sheep and goats. Farmers Choice is a


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 127

private sector firm which processes products from pigs, cattle and poultry. The firm

produces sausages, bacon, ham, pork and other products for both local and external

markets. Kenchick Limited processes eggs and broilers for the local and export markets.

In Uganda, Ugachick Limited processes eggs and broilers for the local and export market.

Milk is produced from various animal sources in GHA. These include cows, goats, sheep

and camels. The most developed infrastructure for milk processing exists in Kenya. These

include the state-owned Kenya Cooperative Creameries and private and cooperative

sector firms such as Brookside Dairies Limited, Spinknit Limited, Limuru Dairies, Kwale

Dairies, among others. In Uganda, Sameer Agriculture and Livestock is one of the largest

milk processing firms. Others include Alpha Dairy Products (U) Limited, Jesa Firm dairy

and GBK Dairy Products (U) Limited, among others. Sudan and Ethiopia also have several

private milk processors.

A Delloite/USAID study carried out in 2006, in its analysis of the hides and skins sub-

sector, noted that Kenya has a great potential for value addition. The sub-sector however

experiences the following problems:

i. Low local demand for hides and skins especially for camel hides

ii. Small domestic market due to the closure of tanneries and suppressed market for

domestic leather products sue to uncontrolled importation of second hand

products

iii. Poor quality of hides and skins due to poor flaying and curing methods

iv. High investment costs requirements and stringent standards for environmental

management

The value addition products from the dairy sector include fresh milk, whole milk,

fermented milk, flavored milk, skim milk, condensed milk, dried milk powder, butter,

ghee, cheese and yoghurt, among others. There is tremendous scope for increase in milk

production and amount of processed products. For example, in Kenya, 80% of the milk is

marketed and consumed in the raw form thus reducing the potential for earning higher

incomes. Needless to say, consumption of raw milk also poses health risks. Per capita

consumption of milk within the GHA region is way below the world average at just about

10%. There is therefore, a large potential for investment in value addition capacity in the

region for increased incomes and improved livelihoods.

Quality StandardsQuality StandardsQuality StandardsQuality Standards

In a 2007 study on the Competitive Commercial Agriculture in Sub–Saharan Africa (CCAA) commissioned by the World Bank and the FAO, Sub-Saharan Africa’s inability to


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 128

meet the increasing international demand for animal certification and traceability was

cited as one of the major hindrances to the development of the sector. GHA countries

have suffered a lot in having trade bans imposed on their livestock exports from time to

time. The region continues to put in place measures targeted at helping clear this barrier.

Some of these efforts include:

i. The plans to put up DFZs in Kenya, Uganda and Sudan

ii. Establishment of regional quarantine facilities in Djibouti and Sudan

iii. Continuous bilateral negotiations

iv. Capacity building through participation in Pan-SPSO and other initiatives

v. Construction of new and improvement of existing abattoirs across the region

vi. Efforts to have an integrated livestock information management system for

planning and traceability, among other efforts

6666.7 Financing of the .7 Financing of the .7 Financing of the .7 Financing of the Livestock SectorLivestock SectorLivestock SectorLivestock Sector

6.7.1 Need for Financing6.7.1 Need for Financing6.7.1 Need for Financing6.7.1 Need for Financing

Livestock sector across GHA supports a large section of citizens and livelihoods. The

sector has the potential of attracting rapid economic growth and boosting regional peace

and integration. However, despite its huge potential, the existing financial institutions

within the region do not recognize livestock as possible collateral when providing credit

facilities. No special products are designed by the major financial institutions to target the

livestock sector. Pastoral communities in Ethiopia, for example, have since 2003,

unsuccessfully lobbied for the establishment of a financial institution that would be

responsive to the needs of the pastoralists. This is more disturbing given that no

meaningful economic activity can take effect without a strong financial backing.

Various GHA member countries have recently initiated ambitious programmes meant at

improving the livestock sector. Programmes such as the establishment of DFZs are capital

intensive and may not be adequately financed by the public sector on its own. Donor

support and the support of other private investors may therefore be required if the target

goals are to be realized.

6.7.2 Public Sector Financing6.7.2 Public Sector Financing6.7.2 Public Sector Financing6.7.2 Public Sector Financing

Public sector financing of livestock sector remain wanting throughout the region. It is

surprising that crop production has continued to receive greater attention in financial


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 129

resources allocation from the central government. The following example is a reflection

of public sector financing of the livestock sector within the GHA.

6.7.3 Private Sector Financing6.7.3 Private Sector Financing6.7.3 Private Sector Financing6.7.3 Private Sector Financing

The performance of the livestock sector has largely been dependent on uncoordinated

and spontaneous private sector funding. Consequently, the sector has declined over the

years. One therefore hopes that current efforts by the Government to revive Agricultural

sector in general and the Livestock sector in particular will lead to the provision of

adequate public funds for livestock production and marketing so that the resource-poor

livestock producers particularly in the ASAL areas will receive adequate services.

6.7.4 Cooperative Societies6.7.4 Cooperative Societies6.7.4 Cooperative Societies6.7.4 Cooperative Societies

The cooperative movement has been one of the success stories in Kenya. The sector is

largely financed by the farmers themselves with Government role being largely

regulatory. It has been observed that cooperative societies help farmers benefit from

economies of scale enabling small production systems reduce their costs of production. It

is a potential for the pastoral livestock systems. In this respect, the development of

community ranches is a form of cooperative movement.

6.7.5 Financing of Livestock6.7.5 Financing of Livestock6.7.5 Financing of Livestock6.7.5 Financing of Livestock----related Sectorsrelated Sectorsrelated Sectorsrelated Sectors

Effective financing of the livestock sector must take into consideration the financial

layout of the all the other sectors that input into the livestock sector. These include

related sectors like water, land, environment, pasture, industry and trade. Financing of

these key sectors may be from the public sector, private sectors or from Cooperative

Organisations.

An assessment of the sector financing across the region revealed that the financing of the

livestock-related sectors has been generally low both from the public and private sectors.

Low public sector funding may be associated with low economic growth across the region

while unfriendly investments policies hinder private sector participation. Table 6.8

summarizes the sector financing issues across the GHA.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 130

Table Table Table Table 6.86.86.86.8:::: Financing of Livestock-related Activities

LivestockLivestockLivestockLivestock----related related related related

sector/industrysector/industrysector/industrysector/industry

FinancingFinancingFinancingFinancing

Livestock breeding and

production

• Public financing remains very low

• Donors and NGOs continue to be active in financing activities

• Pastoral livelihoods is less attractive to investors

Water • Largely public financing

• Investment levels remain inadequate

• Underdeveloped infrastructure require huge capital outlay

• Recent developments show GHA member governments increasing

their funding in the sector (See Figure below)

• Strategies for PPPs need to be developed

Pastures • Near-absent public financing

• Private sector involvement still lagging

• Low funding on research

Land • Funding for policy enactment has been on the rise regionally

• Public sector financing of reforms on the increase

• Private sector funding normally targeted to change of use from

pasture to other industries

Environment • Financing of environmental policies by public sector remains low

• Institutional funding from public and private sectors inadequate

Industry and trade • Private sector participation has been on the increase

• Trade and industry policies are still non-responsive to the needs of

the regional market

6.7.66.7.66.7.66.7.6 Donor Financing Donor Financing Donor Financing Donor Financing tttthrough hrough hrough hrough Livestock Development ProgrammesLivestock Development ProgrammesLivestock Development ProgrammesLivestock Development Programmes

The livestock sector in GHA has benefitted from several programmes and projects over

the years. Some of these programmes have been donor-supported while others are

developed and fully supported by the member Governments. The programmes/ projects

normally derive their objectives and relevance form the national Livestock/ Agriculture

policies from time to time.

In Ethiopia, since 1958, there have been in place several livestock development projects

listed below:

i. The First livestock Development project (FLDP), 1958-1973

ii. The Addis Ababa Dairy development Project (AADDP), 1972-1981

iii. The Dairy Development Enterprise (DDE), 1979 to date

iv. The Second Livestock Development Project (SLDP), 1973-1981

v. The Third Livestock Development Project (TLDP), 1975-1992

vi. The Southeast Range Land Project (SERP), 1981-1991

vii. The Fourth Livestock Development Project (FLDP), 1988-1991


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 131

The National Livestock Development Project in Ethiopia is a recently concluded AfDB-

funded project targeting animal production, animal health, capacity building and forage

development. It was a nationwide project covering nine regional states and two city

administrations with a budget of USD 45 million. The Pastoral Community Development

Project (PCDP) is an ongoing 15 years project jointly funded by the World Bank/IDA

(USD 80 million), IFAD (USD 40 million), Communities (USD 14 million) and the

Government of Ethiopia (USD 5 million). These projects derive their strengths from the

Programs and Targets for a Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable development to End

Poverty (PASDEP), which is the overall policy guiding the sector.

In Kenya, the National Agricultural and Livestock extension programme (NALEP) is an

inter-ministerial implementation framework for the National Agricultural Extension

Policy (NAEP), which was published in December 2001. The main features of the new

policy include pluralistic and demand-driven extension services, based on participatory

planning and implementation by a mix of service providers, including Ministry staff, the

private sector, NGOs and Community-Based Organizations (CBOs). NALEP does retain

some of the features of the Training and Visit system, notably an administration based on

Districts and the maintenance in each District of a cadre of Subject-Matter Specialists

(SMS) and field staff, known as Frontline Extension Workers (FEW). The GOK has opted

for the Unified Extension Service Approach, which uses field extension workers to

deliver advice and assist farmers in the transfer and adoption of technologies. Although

the policy of the GOK is to have a demand-driven partnership type extension service,

which promotes research-extension-farmer linkages, this approach has not been effective

among nomadic pastoral communities in Northern Kenya.

Currently, the AfDB has several ongoing projects in Uganda targeting the livestock and

fisheries sector with budgetary allocation of over USD 52 million. These include:

i. National Livestock Productivity Improvement Project

ii. Tse Tse-Fly Eradication Project

iii. Fisheries Development Project

Southern Sudan Livestock and Fisheries Development Project operates in Sudan at a cost

of USD 42 million. The World Bank-funded project has the following five components:

(1) institutional development and capacity building of Ministry of Animal Resources and

Fisheries (MARF) and State Directorate of Animal Resources and Fisheries (SDARF); (2)

improvement of service delivery for animal health; (3) livestock marketing support; (4)

development of fisheries production and marketing; and (5) rural livelihood support for

vulnerable groups.

Several NGOs continue to support various livestock development programmes across the

region. These include Land-O’ Lakes, ACDI VOCA, Netherlands Development


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 132

Organisation (SNV), Heifer International, ADRA International, USAID, GTZ, Care

Kenya, Care Somalia South Sudan, Oxfam, World Vision, FARM Africa, among others.

6.7.76.7.76.7.76.7.7 Recent and Ongoing InterventionsRecent and Ongoing InterventionsRecent and Ongoing InterventionsRecent and Ongoing Interventions

The AfDB is one of the major development partners in the livestock sector in the GHA

region. Several other development partners have also been crucial in supporting the

sector. The GHA, through the LPI has initiated several livestock

development/improvement initiatives across the region.LPI Similar initiatives by the

AU-AIBAR within the region are given in Table 6.9

Table Table Table Table 6.96.96.96.9:::: AU-AIBAR and Donor Supported Interventions

ProjectProjectProjectProject Countries coveredCountries coveredCountries coveredCountries covered FFFFundingundingundingunding

PACE/SERECU (Pan African

Program for Control of Epizootics

/ Somali Ecosystem)

Ethiopia – Kenya – Somalia EU (4.0 million Euro),

Governments of Ethiopia and

Kenya, FAO, OIE

Rinderpest Eradication and

Control Unit) Final Rinderpest

eradication plan

22 Countries in West, Central

and East Africa

EU (6.0 Million Euro)

NEPDP (North Eastern Pastoralist

Development Program)

Kenya – Ethiopia – Somalia

USAID (2 million USD)

Avian Influenza Emergency

Program Emergency Control of

HPAI in affected countries

(Human & Avian)

13 countries African Dev Bank (6.5 million

USD)

DLWEIP (Dryland Livestock

Wildlife-Environment Interface

Project)

Kenya, Burkina Faso GEF (1 million USD)

SPINAP – AHI (Support

Programme for Integrated

National Action Plans - Avian &

Human Influenza)

47 ACP Countries EU (21.5 million Euro + 1,1

million Euro AU/IBAR)

PANSPSO (Participation of

African Nations in Sanitary &

Phyto-sanitary Settings Office)

47 ACP Countries EU (3.85 million Euro)

SOLICEP (Somali Livestock

Certification Project)

Somalia EU (2.8 Million Euro + 0.3 million

Euro AU/IBAR)

Source: AU-AIBAR, 2008


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 133

6.7.86.7.86.7.86.7.8 Opportunities for InterventionOpportunities for InterventionOpportunities for InterventionOpportunities for Intervention

The funding environment for the livestock sector has been characterised by:

i. Strategic and focussed approach on specific livestock production aspects including

health, trade, environment, livelihoods, among others

ii. The main players in financing the livestock sector within GHA have been the EU,

AfDB, WB, GTZ, DFID, USAID, France, China, Denmark and Thailand. However,

the level of funding has generally been low

iii. Key technical assistance for the region’s livestock sector has been from OIE, FAO,

ILRI, FARA, NEPAD, IAEA and Galv.Med. need to develop local (regional)

capacities for technical support is therefore necessary

iv. Regional Economic Communities (RECs) play an important role in determining

key areas of intervention. Regions with higher capacity for representation at the

RECs are able to mobilise resources much more effectively. There is therefore

need for GHA to develop stronger political and economic ties to enhance the

block’s participation at the REC level

As discussed, there exists a large financing gap in the livestock sector within the GHA.

Several options may be adopted to help bridge these gaps. These include:

i. Advocacy for higher budgetary allocations from the national budget

ii. Mobilisation of resources from development partners for both development and

budgetary support

iii. The donor community should be encouraged to facilitate the growth of the private

sector initiatives through the provision of concessional funds through private

sector financial institutions for the borrowing by the private sector

iv. Development of strategies for Public Private sector Partnerships (PPPs) in specific

projects such as the construction of abattoirs and livestock bulking sheds

v. Creation of incentives for the private sector to get involved in processing and

value addition

vi. Strengthening SACCOs, Cooperatives and other financial institutions to make

credit facilities available for the sector


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 134

6.7.9 6.7.9 6.7.9 6.7.9 A Case for HighA Case for HighA Case for HighA Case for High----input Highinput Highinput Highinput High----output Breedsoutput Breedsoutput Breedsoutput Breeds

The above argument for indigenous breeds in pastoral systems does not in any way

undermine the significance of high-input high-output livestock varieties. While it is

certainly the case that the argument for maintaining biodiversity includes a thread that

regards their indiscriminate promotion as responsible for long term damage to the

environment and a likely incubator for a series of epizootics, HIHO breeds are integral in

feeding the world and therefore need to have a defined place (Blench, 2005).

These breeds have been found to function well in areas where input supply chains are

short and long-term socio-economic stability is assured. This is because HIHO breeds

depend on reliable infrastructure and relative predictability of price of inputs which

partially explains why they have been more successful in Europe and Asia than in Africa

and around cities rather than in rural areas.

Apart from the obvious advantage of high yields expected from the HIHO livestock

breeds, these livestock breeds have other advantages too that include:

i. The breeds can be modified to respond to changing global demand for livestock

products

ii. Ease of standardization of livestock products from different parts of the world and

from varying production systems

iii. At policy level, it is easier to plan for production systems within which HIHO

breeds are produced and managed

iv. Breeding of these HIHO livestock varieties promotes scientific innovation and

research which are vital for planning for new challenges.

6.7.10 Opportunities for 6.7.10 Opportunities for 6.7.10 Opportunities for 6.7.10 Opportunities for InterventionInterventionInterventionIntervention

At policy level, the challenges with respect to AGR include:

i. The development of livestock biodiversity strategies that are in line with regional

policies

ii. Development of a framework of implementation of the above strategies that

allows for input from evolving science, and

iii. Mobilization of adequate resources to support the policies and strategies and to

ensure all stakeholders comply

iv. Development of adequate institutional capacity to drive the above processes

So far, no GHA member country has adequate capacity to carry out the above.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 135

6.8 Animal6.8 Animal6.8 Animal6.8 Animal----HHHHuman uman uman uman Health ImpactHealth ImpactHealth ImpactHealth Impact

6.8.1 6.8.1 6.8.1 6.8.1 Animal Animal Animal Animal HealthHealthHealthHealth

Diseases and parasites reduce the productivity of livestock in all the agroecological zones.

Epidemic diseases such as RVF, contagious bovine pleura-pneumonia, rinderpest and New

castle disease, fowl pox and the infectious coryza constitute a region wide risk and can

cause high mortalities and severe economic loss, FAO (2004).

The impact of these diseases on livelihoods of the pastoral communities cannot be

overstated. The disease negatively impact on livelihoods at two levels, namely by

disrupting the market end of the supply chain and by lowering productivity and thus

affecting household incomes. Disease prevalence also influences livestock breeding within

the pastoral systems ensuring that only certain breeds are able to survive. Figure 6.11

shows the overall impact of livestock diseases on pastoral livestock production process.

FigFigFigFigureureureure 6.6.6.6.11111111: : : : Impact of Livestock Diseases

(Source: Notenbeart, 2000)

Livestock diseases and poor health are both production and marketing constraints which

must be effectively tackled to enhance sustainable livestock production for improved

livelihoods. The GHA region suffers low livestock disease control and handling


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preparedness. The situation is further complicated by informal cross border trade

characterized by uncontrolled movement of livestock across the regional borders. Table

6.10 shows the top ranked livestock diseases across the GHA.

Table Table Table Table 6.106.106.106.10 Major Diseases/Pathogens in the GHA

Disease/ pathogenDisease/ pathogenDisease/ pathogenDisease/ pathogen RegionRegionRegionRegion

overalloveralloveralloverall

PastoralPastoralPastoralPastoral MixMixMixMixed (Agroed (Agroed (Agroed (Agro----

pastoral)pastoral)pastoral)pastoral)

PeriPeriPeriPeri----urban(small urban(small urban(small urban(small

scale)scale)scale)scale)

RuminantsRuminantsRuminantsRuminants

Ectoparasites A A A

Gasyro-innestinal

Helminthes

A A A A

Respiratory complexes A A B B

Rift valley fever A - D A

East coast fever A A C C

Trypanosomiasis B A B B

Contagious bovine

pleuro pneumonia

B D A B

PoultryPoultryPoultryPoultry

Infectious coryza A B C C

New castle disease A B A C

Fowl pox B B D C

Coccidiosis B E B C

Source: FAO, 2004

Notes on Disease classifications: A: Top 10 ranked disease

B: 11-20

C: 21-30

D: 31-40

E: 41-50

TrTrTrTripanosmiasisipanosmiasisipanosmiasisipanosmiasis is arguably one of the most important animal diseases within the GHA

affecting the survival of especially the small ruminants in the tse tse infested humid and

sub humid zones. Figure 6.12 shows the distribution of tse tse fly within the GHA.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 137

FigFigFigFigureureureure 6.16.16.16.12222: : : : Tse tse fly Distribution within GHA Region

(Source: FAO, 2007)

Table 6.11 shows the potentially number of cattle across the GHA potentially at risk from

tripanosomiasis.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 138

Table 6.11Table 6.11Table 6.11Table 6.11:::: Numbers of Cattle Exposed to Trypanosomiasis in GHA

PrPrPrProduction systemoduction systemoduction systemoduction system DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya SomaliSomaliSomaliSomali SudanSudanSudanSudan UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda TotalsTotalsTotalsTotals

LGALGALGALGA 0 0 425,545

11%

865,345

30%

344,500

8%

2,694,820

16%

39,280

15%

4,369,490

15%

LGHLGHLGHLGH n.a. n.a. 42,770

98%

n.a. n.a. 958,060

99%

75,300

36%

1,076,130

88%

LGTLGTLGTLGT n.a. n.a. 16 190

7%

130,830

25%

0 6210

98%

4,700

44%

157,930

20%

MIAMIAMIAMIA n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. 53,030

40%

0 n.a. 53 030

11%

MRAMRAMRAMRA 0 0 1,277,160

15%

1,582,800

77%

146,440

39%

622,200

4%

449,810

29%

4,078,410

13%

MRHMRHMRHMRH n.a. n.a. 1,750,250

100%

889,965

88%

n.a. 10,000

100%

1,635,930

59%

3,814,375

75%

MRTMRTMRTMRT n.a. n.a. 2,209,075

10%

784,360

20%

n.a. 18,930

95%

251,650

30%

3,264,015

12%

OtherOtherOtherOther 0 0 327,430

26%

531,800

36%

128,230

20%

93,910

3%

187,230

43%

1,268,600

18%

TotalTotalTotalTotal 0 0 5,578,420

15%

4,785,110

40%

672,200

13%

4,402,360

11%

2,643,900

43%

18,081,990

17%

Source: FAO, 2007

N/B:N/B:N/B:N/B: Percentages indicate the number of animals at risk as a proportion of the total number of cattle occurring in that stratum


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 139

Livestock trade in DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti is seen as only being sustainable through strengthening of

disease surveillance to respond to importer country needs. Djibouti faces severe drought

conditions due to the consequences of consecutive failed rainy seasons, where erratic

rainfall patterns adversely affect the replenishment of water catchments and the

regeneration of pastures. Delayed rains result in abnormal pastoral migration patterns and

a further depletion of already exhausted pasture and browse in all grazing areas. These

frequent migrations of the Djibouti pastoralists have led to various livestock diseases like

Rift Valley Fever, Foot and Mouth disease, Rinder Pest and what is locally known as

Sougudud. Sougudud is a locally known disease in Djibouti which is caused by a blood

parasite that is transmitted by ticks and is associated with a 30-50 % case fatality rate

according to the governmental veterinary department. Rift Valley Fever, Foot and Mouth

disease in Djibouti are normally predominant during the heavy rain falls.

Livestock diseases in EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia are the major cause of economic losses to the peasant

farmer and pastoralists amounting to hundreds of millions of birr annually. Livestock

diseases are an important cause of reduced productivity in about 80% of the highland

livestock cropping system. This loss of productivity affects the key livestock products

including meat and milk as well as draft, hides and dung fuel. Although many of the

diseases could be controlled by available vaccine technology, timely recognition of the

disease followed by acquisition of the pharmaceuticals are lacking due to the remoteness

of the livestock holder and the shortage of infrastructure facilities to support health

services delivery. Consequently, the majority of disease interventions consist of mass

inoculations following outbreaks rather than preventive measures.

The most common livestock disease in Ethiopia is trypanosomosis. Trapanosomiasis

mainly affects the Southern part of Ethiopia. In Konso district in South Ethiopia for

example, 16% of cattle die each year, 20% of cows abort and more than half the calves die

due to tsetsefly infestation which causes trypanasomosis.

The Borana pastoral communities of Southern Oromia in Ethiopia south of Addis Ababa

are also highly affected by various livestock diseases. Haralo, Dhasi and Gololcha

communities too are highly affected.

The most important notifiable diseases in KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya are Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD),

Anthrax, Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP), Lumpy Skin disease, Contagious

Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP), New Castle Disease, East Coast Fever and

Trypanosomiasis. There are, however, emerging notifiable diseases, like Avian Influenza,

which are of great economic and public health importance. Of more significance also are

the non-notifiable diseases like worms, reproductive disorders, mastitis, scours, zoonotic


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 140

and tick borne diseases that affect large number of livestock in the country and which

need sustained vigilance and surveillance in order to control.

The four main diseases affecting livestock production in SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia11 are Guux

(haemorrhagic septicaemia), Gol (trypanosomiasis), Jadeeco (contagious ecthyma) and

Cabeeb (Foot and mouth disease); Gol (trypanosomiasis), Gooryan (helminthiasis), Boh

(pneumonia) and Cadho (mange); Darato (Babesiosis), Jadeeco (contagious ecthyma),

Kaaddhiig (Anaplasmosis) and Banbirig (bacterial enteritis) and Goryaan (helminthiasis),

Banbirig (enteritis), Gol (trypanosomiasis) and Kaaddhiig (Anaplasmosis) in cattle, camels,

sheep and goats respectively in Somali and English languages respectively. The diseases

have been named in reference to clinical signs, organs or part of the body affected.

In SudanSudanSudanSudan, livestock disease problem is complicated by the vast area of the country and the

fact that it is bordered by nine countries. Livestock cross borders to four or five of these

countries in search of grazing and water with the possibility of communicating serious

diseases into the country. In terms of livestock distribution in the country, Western

Sudan has the most livestock (40%), followed by southern Sudan (27%) and central Sudan

(23%).

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), rinderpest and brucellosis are the most common diseases

affecting livestock in SudanSudanSudanSudan. These animal diseases have taken and continue to take

significant toll on the potential benefits of livestock production. The federal government

of Sudan retains responsibility for controlling infectious diseases and other general

livestock diseases. The government produces and distributes vaccines but the private

sector provides animal medicines. Disease control efforts in Sudan are largely conducted

and funded by international organizations e.g. FAO, UNICEF, VSF and local NGO’s with

the co-operation of the government. The Sudanese government co-ordinates its disease

control efforts through the Animal Health and Disease Control General Directorate

which is under the ministry of Animal Resources.

In UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda, a number of diseases remain endemic. These include; Foot and Mouth Disease,

Contagious Bovine Pleurapneumonia, Tick-Borne Diseases, Helminthosis and

Tripanosomiasis for cattle. In small ruminants, contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia, Orf

and Helminthosis are a serious challenge. Poultry suffers from Newcastle Disease,

Gumboro, Coccidiosis and Salmonellosis. Pigs suffer from African Swine Fever and

Helminthosis. There are also Zoonotic diseases such as Tuberculosis, Brucelosis and

Anthrax.

11 Proceedings of the 11th International Symposium on Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics for Somalia, 2006


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 141

Table Table Table Table 6.126.126.126.12 Some Aspects of Disease Control Initiatives across the GHA

CountryCountryCountryCountry Disease control initiativesDisease control initiativesDisease control initiativesDisease control initiatives Key challenges/gapsKey challenges/gapsKey challenges/gapsKey challenges/gaps

DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti • Sensitization programs amongst key sector stakeholders especially on the most important diseases like Rift Valley Fever and

rinderpest

• Development of guidelines for evaluation of rinderpest

• Strengthening of disease surveillance system.

• The Global Rinderpest Eradication Program (GREP) established by the FAO to develop strategies of disease control in high risk

countries, has been working towards eradication of the Rinderpest in Djibouti

• Weather (drought)

• Low spread of veterinary personnel

EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia • Strengthening of Community-based approaches for provision of livestock services

• Promotion of NGO initiatives aimed at expanding access to livestock services.

• Several National and regional programs and projects on livestock health

• Use of local knowledge

• Strengthening of surveillance of TADs

• Country considering the relatively new concept of compartmentalization

• Mobility of pastoral communities

• Drought

• Exclusion of FMD under a compartmentalized

system as per OIE requirements

KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya • Control of Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR)

• Establishment of Disease Free Zones

• Strengthening of country’s disease surveillance system

• Review of policies and regulatory framework

• Control of TADS

• Financing gaps

• Livestock/wildlife interactions

• Weather (drought)

• Inherent challenges to DFZs

SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia • The Somali Animal Health Services Project (SAHSP) aims at enhancing access by Somali livestock sector stakeholders of improved

animal health services that comply with internationally acceptable standards

• SAHSP is providing support for the establishment of livestock disease surveillance and reporting systems as well as emergency

preparedness and response systems for epidemic diseases of livestock.

• Conflict

• Lack of policy, regulatory and institutional

framework

• Thin spread of veterinary services

SudanSudanSudanSudan • Vaccination programs – emergency and preventive

• Livestock movement control in case of an outbreak

• Therapeutic Secondary Infection management

• Screening at quarantine centers prior to export

• Training of community animal health workers (CAHWS) who administer drugs and vaccines on a fee recovery basis.

• Spatial distribution of pastoralists

• Ease of border crossings with neighboring

countries,

• Big size of livestock populations

• Political instability in the West and South

UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda • Policy formulation and reviews in line with SPS measures on animal health.

• Institutional restructuring.

• Strengthening of extension services

• Strengthening of disease surveillance and reporting infrastructure

• TADS

• Cattle rustling in the North East

• Drought

• Infrastructure

Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa September 2009

P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 142

6.9 Human6.9 Human6.9 Human6.9 Human----Livestock InteractionLivestock InteractionLivestock InteractionLivestock Interaction

6.9.1 6.9.1 6.9.1 6.9.1 Zoonotic DiseasesZoonotic DiseasesZoonotic DiseasesZoonotic Diseases

Zoonoses are defined as infectious diseases that can be transmitted naturally between

humans and wild or domestic animals. These diseases are particularly important in the

context of emerging infectious diseases of humans as the majority of these are of zoonotic

origin Slingebergh et al (2004)12. The above definition of zoonoses fits a wide array of

epidemiological situations. These may be classified as:

i. Pathogens that are largely confined to animal reservoirs – human cases are

infrequent or represent dead-end infections such as anthrax and rabies

ii. Well-established pathogens in both animals and humans such as bovine

tuberculosis, salmonellosis

iii. Others present an intermediate situation with animals as the main hosts, but with

occasional outbreaks occurring in humans, but with a transmission chain leading

to eventual extinction such as monkey pox, Hanta, Lassa and Ebola viruses

iv. Zoonotic agents that gradually adapt to human-to-human transmission and are

readily transmissible between humans. An example is the human tuberculosis

v. Pathogens of animal origin that suddenly appear in human populations (Human

Immunodeficiency Virus [HIV], influenza type A and, probably, Severe Acute

Respiratory Syndrome [SARS]).

The factors that influence the spread of livestock (including zoonotic) disease can be

categorized into four main epidemiological domains (Slingebergh et al. 2004).

i. Husbandry factors

ii. Host metapopulation

iii. Transmission pathways

iv. Pathogen characteristics

Within the GHA, there have been several transboundary zoonotic diseases (TZD)

reported. Table 6.13 shows the main TZDs reported within this region.

12 Slingenbergh, J., et al. 2004. Ecological Sources of zoonotic diseases. Rev. sci. tech. int. Epiz., 2004, 23(2)


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 143

Table Table Table Table 6.136.136.136.13:::: Ranking of Zoonotic diseases in GHA13

RankRankRankRank Production system Production system Production system Production system

rankingrankingrankingranking3333

Species rankingSpecies rankingSpecies rankingSpecies ranking

Disease/Pathogen Disease/Pathogen Disease/Pathogen Disease/Pathogen

(alphabetical (alphabetical (alphabetical (alphabetical

within each group within each group within each group within each group

rank)rank)rank)rank)

Global Global Global Global

indexindexindexindex2222

PastoralPastoralPastoralPastoral AgrAgrAgrAgroooo----

pastoralpastoralpastoralpastoral

PeriPeriPeriPeri----

urbanurbanurbanurban

Cattle Cattle Cattle Cattle SheepSheepSheepSheep BuffaloBuffaloBuffaloBuffalo PigsPigsPigsPigs PoultryPoultryPoultryPoultry

AAAA Anthrax 12 A A A A A A A -

Bovine

tuberculosis

15 A A A A - A - -

Brucella abortus 100 A A A A - A - -

Cysticercosis 17 A A A - - - A -

Rift Valley

Fever(RVF)

7 A A - A A - - -

Tryponosomosis 15 A A - A - - A -

BBBB Botulism 1 A B B A - - - -

Cysticercus bovis 2 A B B A - - - -

Mange 1 A - - - - - - -

Notes:Notes:Notes:Notes:

1. A = top 10 ranked diseases; B = 11-20

2.2.2.2. Disease impact scores (weighted by region/production system-specific relative importance of the

affected species, the number of poor, and the specific region) were normalized to an index of 0 to 100

with 100 representing the highest impact

3.3.3.3. Pastoral systems correspond to the rangeland-based systems (LGA, LGH, and LGT; which may

include large-scale commercial beef production); agro-pastoral systems to the mixed crop-livestock

systems (MRA, MRH, MRT, MIA, MIH, MIT), peri-urban systems to the landless farming systems

(LL).

6.9.2 6.9.2 6.9.2 6.9.2 Strategies for Management of Zoonotic DiseasesStrategies for Management of Zoonotic DiseasesStrategies for Management of Zoonotic DiseasesStrategies for Management of Zoonotic Diseases

In a joint report with other players in the livestock sector, the WHO reports several

strategies for combating Neglected Zonotic Disease (NZD) in Africa (WHO, 2007). These

approaches would apply to the control and management of all zoonotic diseases within

the GHA region. They include:

i. Promotion of ‘one health’ approachPromotion of ‘one health’ approachPromotion of ‘one health’ approachPromotion of ‘one health’ approach to integrated surveillance and control

of NZDs which would include the linking of veterinary and medical

13

http://www.ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/Fulldocs/InvestAnim/Book1/media/PDFpages/table7_2.pdf.

9 September 2009


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 144

aspects at all levels with an aim of promoting and facilitating

communication, cooperation and collaboration across sectors and

disciplines

ii.ii.ii.ii. Advocacy and information sharing and coordination through:Advocacy and information sharing and coordination through:Advocacy and information sharing and coordination through:Advocacy and information sharing and coordination through:

a) Establishment of international and regional resource centres

for producing, gathering and distributing educational and advocacy

materials

b) Establishment of a regional secretariat to coordinate

activities in conjunction with a scientific advisory committee tasked

with facilitating and promoting priority research and training

activities

c) Increased awareness among decision makers

iii.iii.iii.iii. Improved research to include:Improved research to include:Improved research to include:Improved research to include:

a) Integration of research activities with surveillance and

control needs

b) Recognition and support to centres of excellence in NZD

research

c) Promotion of pilot studies in various aspects of NZDs

iv. Enhancement of diagnosis and surveillance at national and regional leveEnhancement of diagnosis and surveillance at national and regional leveEnhancement of diagnosis and surveillance at national and regional leveEnhancement of diagnosis and surveillance at national and regional levelslslsls

through:through:through:through:

a) Ensuring availability of diagnostic facilities and trained staff

at both levels

b) Development and management of reporting systems for both

veterinary and medical data

c) Promotion of systematic collection and assimilation of

relevant data

v.v.v.v. Enhanced Enhanced Enhanced Enhanced control of NZDs through such activities as:control of NZDs through such activities as:control of NZDs through such activities as:control of NZDs through such activities as:

a) Formulation and validation of integrated control packages to

address several related disease/health/ livestock problems

b) Targeting of most vulnerable populations such as rural

smallholders, pastoral communities and urban/peri urban livestock

producers


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 145

c) Carrying out of pilot intervention studies to identify most

appropriate, acceptable, cost effective and sustainable strategies

d) Promotion of cost-effective integrated approach to NZDs

within existing health and agricultural systems


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 146

Table Table Table Table 6.146.146.146.14: Transboundary Diseases Transmitted between Wildlife and Livestock

Disease and causative Disease and causative Disease and causative Disease and causative

agentagentagentagent

Domestic/wildlife associationDomestic/wildlife associationDomestic/wildlife associationDomestic/wildlife association StatusStatusStatusStatus

Rinderpest

Morbillivirus

Wide domestic and wild host range in ruminants and suids.

Wildlife species are poor maintenance hosts; most affected are

buffalo, kudu, eland and warthog. Acute disease seen in cattle,

wild ruminants and pigs

Currently restricted to the Somali ecosystem in

Kenya and Somalia with occasional epidemics

Peste des petits ruminants

Morbillivirus

Wild/domestic small ruminants are the hosts. Disease cycles

endemically in nomadic herds and transhumance introduces it

to native populations

Serologicl evidence in sheep and goats in

Kenya, 2001. Significance due to importance of

sheep and goats to food security

Rift valley fever

Phlebovirus

Many species of Culex and Aedes mosquitoes can transmit the disease. No vertebrate reservoir host identified. Reservoir is

drought-resistant eggs of Aedes

Disease agent endemic in eastern Africa and

causes sporadic epidemics after long inter-

epidemics periods. A pathogenic zoonosis

Foot and mouth disease

Aphthovirus

Wildlife species are not reservoirs except buffalo, which are

persistent carriers of SAT1 and SAT2 serotypes. Highly

contagious and spreads rapidly. Cattle, pigs, sheep, goats and

wildlife (e.g. wildebeest n Serengeti) affected. Types A, O, C,

SAT1 and SAT2 have been isolated in Kenya

Widespread and endemic in cattle and wildlife.

Major epizootic potential. Livestock movement

control and vaccination are priorities for

control.

African swine fever

African swine fever virus

Disease of domestic and wild pigs. Maintenance hosts are

argasid ticks (Ornithodorus spp.); secondary role played by free-

ranging porcine hosts ( warthogs are asymptomatic carriers of

the virus)

Has major epizootic potential. First reported in

1921. Reappeared after 30 years and involved

movement of pigs

Contagious bovine

pleuropneumonia

Mycoplasma mycoides mycoides S.c.

Closely associated with livestock movement and not dependent

on a wildlife reservoir. Sources of new outbreaks are chronic

livestock carriers

Endemic in North Eastern Kenya, Ethiopia and

Somalia. Newly infected districts in central

Kenya. Vaccination critical to control spread.

Brucellosis

Brucella spp

Low prevalence of antibodies in wild bovids in Kenya. Not

thought to be a major problem in wildlife. Difficult to eliminate

disease from pastoral livestock

Prevalence and incidence not well

documented. Limited epizootic potential.

Vaccination of livestock possible

Anthrax

Bacillus anthracis

Outbreaks documented in domestic species in absence of

wildlife. Anthrax in wildlife reported as both sporadic cases and

major epidemics. Links between disease in wildlife and

domestic species unclear

Moderate epizootic potential

Tripanosomiasis

Trypanosoma species

Wildlife including elephant, rhino, buffalo, warthog, hippo and

various artiodactyls are maintenance hosts and are

trypanotolerant, but can show high infection rates with various

trypanosome species. Domestic livestock, horses and dogs

affected

Moderate epizootic potential. Important disease

of cattle and horses. Severely hampers livestock

industry in tse tse fly endemic belts as shown in

Table 6.2

Source: Adapted from Wambua, 2007


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 147

7 POLICY, 7 POLICY, 7 POLICY, 7 POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKLEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKLEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKLEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 Policy Policy Policy Policy and Regulatory Framework iand Regulatory Framework iand Regulatory Framework iand Regulatory Framework in n n n WaterWaterWaterWater SectorSectorSectorSector

Water is a scarce resource in the ASAL regions. Its scarcity has caused adverse effects on

the livelihoods of the ASAL communities; put at risk vegetation threatened the very

existence of livestock in the ASALs. As a result each country in the GHA has formulated

policies and regulatory frameworks to address water sector requirements in the ASAL

areas.

7.1.1 7.1.1 7.1.1 7.1.1 DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti

Djibouti is classified as one of the driest countries in the GHA. FAO defines Djibouti as an

extremely impoverished country with few water resources. It is often subjected to

prolonged and repeated drought and floods and hence relays on relief food.

Djibouti has always had a water problem and no viable solutions have yet been found.

The major water policy in Djibouti has been to improve water access. But the main

difficulty is that the only available water sources are groundwater and rain runoff, which

are adversely affected by the arid climate and the salt water wedge flowing in from the

sea (salinity is much higher than the limits set by the World Health Organization). The

alternative solution of seawater desalination is complicated because of the initial

investment required, the considerable energy that is needed but is not yet available in the

country, and the possibility of a high cost per cubic meter produced (PRSP 2005).

The Djibouti government through the Ministry of Agriculture targets to increase water

accessibility in the rural areas. In 2006 it partnered with organizations such as UNICEF,

World Food Programme, and Food and Agriculture Organization to implement a project

meant to increase the number of wells fitted with solar pumps in the country so that the

general livelihoods of the people is improved and at the same time ensure.

Water management is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and the

Sea in charge of Water Resources (MAEM), which has delegated drinking water

management and sanitation to the National Water and Sanitation Authority of Djibouti

(ONEAD).


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 148

7.1.2 7.1.2 7.1.2 7.1.2 EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea

Eritrea main policy objectives are to guarantee food security by introducing modern

technology, irrigation, terracing, soil and water conservation, with less dependence on

rainwater. 20% of Eritrea’s population lives in the urban areas and 57% of the total

population has access to safe drinking water. There is no recorded measurement of runoff

is available but only internally produced renewable water resources are available located

in the western part of the country (Fao 2005).

Draft National Water Policy Framework of (1997) was officially in 2003. Recently

efforts have been made to formulate water policies and strategic approaches developed

which include:

i. Provision of safe, adequate and accessible water for all;

ii. Improved coverage of appropriate sanitation in both urban and rural areas;

iii. Integrated management and fair allocation of the available water resources to

meet the needs of all sectors of the population;

iv. Assessment, conservation, regulated utilization and quality protection (that is,

maintenance or enhancement) of all water resources, and also the mitigation of

water-related hazards;

v. Economically and environmentally sound and sustainable water resources

development, according to a prioritized schedule

The Ministry of Land, Water and Environment (MoLWE) together with the Water

Resources Department (WRD) are mandated to regulate water resources and

environment conservation in Eritrea.

7.1.37.1.37.1.37.1.3 EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia

Ethiopia is endowed with a substantial amount of water resources. Trans-boundary river

basins are estimated at 80-90% of Ethiopia's water resources found in the four river basins

namely, Abay (Blue Nile), Tekeze, Baro Akobo, and Omo Gibe in the west and south-

western part of Ethiopia where the population is no more than 30 to 40 per cent. Most of

the Ethiopia’s water resources are shared which dictates a collective responsibility

between Ethiopia and neighboring countries.

A comprehensive and integrated Water Resources Management Policy (MoWR),

prepared by the MoWR, was adopted in 2000. Some of the guiding principles are: i)

recognition of water as a scarce and vital socio-economic resource to be managed and

planned strategically; ii) recognition of water as an economic good; iii) stakeholders to be

involved in water resources management


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 149

Water Resources Policy is to enhance and promote all national efforts towards the

efficient, equitable and optimum utilization of the available Water Resources of Ethiopia

for significant socioeconomic development on sustainable basis. The Water Sector

Development Programme (WSDP) prepared for 2002-2016 aims to improve the existing

situation; however, the investment required for the implementation of this programme

cannot be financed by national funds alone.

The Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) is responsible for the overall planning,

development, management, utilization and protection of the country’s water resources, as

well as supervising all water development activities carried out by other institutions.

Large-scale water supply is also handled by the ministry through its Water Supply and

Sewerage Department. Other government ministries involved in water regulation are:

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural development, Ministry of Energy and Mining, Ministry

of Environment and Tourism, Ministry of Local Government and Ministry of Foreign

affairs.

7.1.4 7.1.4 7.1.4 7.1.4 KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya

Kenya is classified as a water scarce country. Her water resources have been governed by

the Water Act since independence. The National Development Plan 2002-2008

recognizes Kenya as a water scarce country whereby the water demand exceeds

renewable freshwater sources. It is also clear from the National Water Master Plan of

1992 out of 164 sub-basins with perennial river flows, 90 would continue to suffer from

surface water deficit by 2010 while already 33 sub-basins without perennial river flow

have an apparent water shortage.

The funding of irrigation development is in transition as the emphasis has shifted from

government-led development to participatory and community-driven development. As a

result of the change of approach and policy, irrigation development has been categorized

so that schemes in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) have to be developed through

grants, with the beneficiaries providing contribution in terms of unskilled labour and

local materials. Community-based market-oriented irrigation schemes are currently

developed through cost-sharing rather than full cost recovery on infrastructure. Full cost

recovery approach has been discontinued because it has been found to be a hindrance to

irrigation development especially where major infrastructure is involved. In both cases

operation and maintenance are the responsibility of the community.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 150

The Water Act was reviewed, published and passed by parliament in 2002 to establish

Water Resources Management Authority. Water Resources Management Authority

(WRMA) was created. The WRMA has six catchment based regional offices to undertake

the same exercise at regional level. So that Overall supervision of water services will

consequently be carried out by the institutional framework that gives responsibility for

providing decentralized services to seven regional Water Services Regulatory Board

(WSRB). Environment management in Kenya is carried out by the National Environment

Management Authority.

7.1.5 7.1.5 7.1.5 7.1.5 SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia

Most of the water resources are shared with Ethiopia such as the Setit and Mereb – Gash

rivers, and Shebelle river; Ethiopia carries out upstream developments hence making it

difficult for Somalia to utilize such water resources. This is a great disadvantage to

Somalia which is dry and adorned with limited resources. In the rural areas municipal

water supply is derived from surface dams, boreholes, shallow wells and springs, often

distributed by donkey carts to households.

In Somaliland, a draft water Act and a Water Policy were prepared in 2004. The

ownership of land and water is based on the Somali social organization where each clan is

associated with a particular territory. The law says that water is public property but

allows appropriation and usage is acquired by administrative permits

The adoption of the Somaliland water policy, strategy and act (in 2005) was followed up

in 2007 with assistance to roll out and promote the policy, and in Puntland to develop a

water policy. Building on the successful use of public-private partnerships as a model for

managing water systems, three new towns made concrete progress towards setting up a

water company under municipal/central government oversight. Management support and

training to established water companies, agencies and boards continued, with four billing

systems installed and four water boards trained.

The water regulation body is Somalia Aid Coordinating Body (SACB) was created in 1994

and partners include donor governments, United Nations (UN) agencies and international

and local non-governmental organizations (NGOs). This umbrella body works closely

with Food Security Assessment Unit (FSAU) through regular assessments of vulnerability

and food economy. Bodies that regulate water in at community level Canal committees

and water use associations also exist in some areas, but there is no clear pattern of water

allocation rights and fees


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 151

7.1.6 7.1.6 7.1.6 7.1.6 SudanSudanSudanSudan

In Sudan most of the population lives along the Nile and its tributaries, and some of the

people live around water points scattered around the country. The erratic nature of the

rainfall and its concentration in a short season places exposes Sudan in a vulnerable

situation, especially in rainfed areas. Surface water in Sudan comprises the Nile river

system (nilotic water) and other, non-nilotic streams. 64 percent of the Nile Basin lies

within Sudan, while 80 percent of Sudan lies in the Nile Basin (FAO Statistics 2007).

Sudan water policy is focused on increase of water accessibility to communities that live

away from Nile River System. However,there has limited efforts to implement policies

and strategies in the water sector because of prolonged political instability hence water

access for most of the communities has been limited especially those living in the dry

lands.

The Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources (MIWR) is the federal body in Sudan

legally responsible for all water affairs. It offers technical advice and assistance to water

projects within the states and the private sector. It is in charge of the groundwater, the

non-nilotic streams and valleys under the Groundwater and Wadis Directorate. It

undertakes this task in coordination with the relevant sectors, departments and technical

offices. It also offers technical advice and assistance to water projects within the states

and the private sector. It is in charge of the groundwater, the non-nilotic streams and

valleys under the Groundwater and Wadis Directorate.

Other government organizations that regulate water use include, The Ministry of

Agriculture and Natural Resources (MANR) supervises the Agricultural Corporations that

manage the large irrigation schemes. Other relevant Ministries for the water sector

include, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Ministry of Energy and Mining,

Ministry of Finance and National Economics, Ministry of Environment and Tourism,

Ministry of Local Government and Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

7.1.77.1.77.1.77.1.7 UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda

Water sector is one of the priority sectors in Uganda emphasized in the National Poverty

Eradication Action Plan (PEAP). The Uganda government initiated reforms in the water

sector, in 1997. Reforms advocated for the adoption of a ‘Sector Wide Approach to

Planning (SWAP)’ for the sector which guarantees the participation of all stakeholders in

the planning and implementation of water sector activities. The government targets to

improve a water coverage so that the population can have access to an improved water

source within a walking distance of 1.5 Km in a rural area and 0.2 Km in the urban area

by 2010 (ROU 2005).


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 152

The constitution of the Republic of Uganda provides the broad legal and policy

framework within which all water sector legislation, policies and development plans are

developed. The framework comprises of a set of policies and laws the most notable of

which include: The National Water Policy (1999); The Water Statute (1995); The

National Water and Sewerage Corporation Statute (1995), and the Local Government Act

(1997). It is under this framework that the government of Uganda is involved in projects

for the surface water abstraction, ground water abstraction and drilling of boreholes in

the ASALs to provide water for domestic use and for the livestock found in this areas..

The Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment (MWLE) has the overall responsibility

for initiating the national policies and for setting national standards and priorities for

water development and management. The Directorate of Water Development (DWD) is

the leading Government agency responsible for managing water resources, coordinating

and regulating all sector activities. Other ministries in the water sector are Ministry of

Agriculture, animal industry and Fisheries (MAAIF), Ministry of Energy and Mineral

Development, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Local Government.

7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 Policy and Policy and Policy and Policy and Regulatory Framework Regulatory Framework Regulatory Framework Regulatory Framework in Pasturein Pasturein Pasturein Pasture

Livestock is vital to the economies of many developing countries, and especially those of

the Greater Horn of Africa. In order to ensure food security and poverty reduction in the

ASALs region, countries in the GHA have targeted livestock development. Sustainable

livestock development therefore calls for policies that target livestock production, health,

breading, livestock feed and markets. However, ASALs in the GHA are characterized by

low rainfall and consequently poor vegetation cover which substantially reduces pastures

and forage for livestock consumption. Policy and regulatory frameworks that pastures in

the GHA countries are varied since pasturelands are largely dependent on the land tenure

systems in each country.

7.2.1 7.2.1 7.2.1 7.2.1 DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti

Djibouti experiences prolonged droughts which contribute to the drying up of

pasturelands. Arable land is 0.04% of the total land area while 99.96% comprises of

permanent meadows and pastures, forests and woodlands, built-on areas, roads, barren

land. The government of Djibouti has partnered with FAO in supporting a Technical

Cooperation Programme project which to provide vegetable and fodder crop seed to 7000

vulnerable farming families. The project is also assuring provision of hoes, rakes, watering

cans, and salt licks for livestock.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 153

Rangelands biodiversity forms an extremely important part of community livelihoods in

Djibouti, because they provide pasture and fodder for animals. In the recent past Nomads

have benefitted from some rural development programs, particularly pasture hydraulics

and animal health programs to improve their livestock and the creation of forage

perimeters. However, because of the persistence of drought, which has become cyclical,

nomads live in a state of chronic food insecurity (PRSP 2008).

7.2.2 7.2.2 7.2.2 7.2.2 EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea

Ownership of land in Eritrea is the exclusive right of the government. The government

includes relating to its management as resource from environmental and economic

perspectives is a process by which the resources of land are put into good effect for the

best use of humans. Most of the pastureland in the dry districts are a high risk of drying

up because prolonged droughts.

In order to ensure pasturelands are protected the government has pursued permanent and

temporary closures. The two categories of closures are found throughout the country the

first is implemented for unlimited period of time and is called "Permanent Closure" and

the other is called "Temporary Closure" and is carried out for a limited period of time, for

a few months to a few years. The immediate objectives of the permanent forest and

woodland closures are to create favourable conditions for a vegetation recovery through

natural regeneration, develop pastoral reserves for the growing livestock and woody

biomass for the local people, to protect the endangered tree and avi-fauna species from

extinction; control of runoff and loss of arable land by erosion, and increase infiltration

for water conservation and for more soil moisture.

7.2.3 7.2.3 7.2.3 7.2.3 EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia

In Ethiopia there are Constitutional provisions for pastoral land in Ethiopia therefore

livestock in the ASALs areas benefit from organized pastoral systems.Ethiopia has over

the years practiced the use.The indigenous agroforestry systems that are in operational in

the country are a mix of silvopastoral and agrosilvopastoral systems. Ethiopian drylands

account for more than two-thirds of the total landmass. There are enclosure areas is

common in many parts of Ethiopia, especially in northern Ethiopia Apart from providing

critically needed fodder for livestock, enclosure areas are also important in conservation

of dryland biodiversity.

The local community is involved in delineating the boundaries of the enclosure area.

Northern Ethiopia (Tigray region) is the hillside distribution system, in which communal

hillside plantations in degraded elevations are planted with eucalyptus and set aside as

pasturelands. Individual planting of trees was adopted as the mode of replanting the


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 154

hillsides. The hillside distribution system has been in operation for over a decade now,

and has been adopted by the Tigray Regional government through the Bureau of

Agriculture and Natural Resources as a means of allocating land in degraded hillsides to

landless members of communities.

7.2.4 7.2.4 7.2.4 7.2.4 KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya

Land tenure systems in Kenya are characterized by private/modern,

communal/customary, public/state and open access. Pastureland in the ASAL regions are

communal or customary or at times open access land. These in ASAL regions in Kenya

have degenerated over time destroying the pastureland and forage cover.

Land laws in Kenya entrenches policies on land and natural resources management.The

government of Kenya has also adopted policies to rehabilitate such areas to enhance

pasture growth through various donor projects. Institution for pasture seed production.

The project operates a technology dissemination system that is hinged on application

extension tools such as Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRA) and Community Action

Plans (CAP). These tools are used for community-based diagnosis and prioritization of the

felt needs of the community as well as planning the implementation schedules and

frameworks of the suggested interventions. Both tools enhance the participation of

farmers and pastoralists in agroforestry programmes. The physical planning act which

guides any physical implementation plan. It guides the creation of Parks, rangelands

7.2.5 7.2.5 7.2.5 7.2.5 SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia

Somalia has one of the highest inter-annual variations of rainfall of any mainland African

state, and it is this variability that has the most pervasive influence on pastoral and

agropastoral production systems. Somalia’s agro-pastoralist and settled farmers live in

villages or small settlements where water resources are reliable, while the nomadic

pastoralists move seasonally with their livestock depending on the availability of pasture

and water. Somalia lacks a central government that would ensure that enactment of a

land policy in the country.

7.2.6 7.2.6 7.2.6 7.2.6 SudanSudanSudanSudan

Rangelands form an immense natural resource and the major source of feed for the

national herd. The various types of grazing land vary from open grasslands to seasonal

water courses, flood plains, river banks and associated islands, woodlands, hills and

mountain slopes.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 155

Desert Zone grazing lands consist of ephemeral herbs and grasses confined to water

courses and flat low lying areas that receive runoff. The valuable ‘Gizzu’ grazing

(succulent plants) is part of this zone and supports sheep and camels during the cool

season without the need for drinking water.

7.2.7 7.2.7 7.2.7 7.2.7 UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda

Some of the problems affecting the drylnands of Uganda have been cited as overgrazing,

deforestation, inappropriate farming systems, land and tree tenure and bush burning.

Enactment of the Land Act (1998) in Uganda is the framework within which Policies on

land and natural resources management. The policy framework for institutionalization of

the concept of agroforestry in Uganda is in place. The Government’s Plan for the

Modernization of Agriculture (2000), the Forest Policy (2001) and the National Forest

Plan (2002) all are supportive of the promotion and adoption of agroforestry as a strategy

for poverty alleviation.

7.2.8 Summary of Policy Interventions7.2.8 Summary of Policy Interventions7.2.8 Summary of Policy Interventions7.2.8 Summary of Policy Interventions

Table 7.2:Table 7.2:Table 7.2:Table 7.2: Policy Interventions in Water and Pasture

CountryCountryCountryCountry ResourceResourceResourceResource Policy reform and objectivePolicy reform and objectivePolicy reform and objectivePolicy reform and objective Country statusCountry statusCountry statusCountry status Priority Priority Priority Priority

S-T M-

T

L-

T

DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti Pasture Harmonization of sector

laws

• Legislative reforms needed

National land policy • Need for national livestock

policy

√ √

Early warning system

droughts

Land use policy mapping

• Link country to the √ √

√ √ √

Water Legislation on water • No clear strategies and policy

on water

Decentralized water

management bodies



areas

√

Coordination of institutions

in water management

• Fragmented functions √ √


implement water projects


water

√ √ √

Form a overall body to

operate water resources

• ONEAD not able to

streamlines operations in the

sector

√ √ √

EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea Pasture Land use mapping • Non existent √ √

Early warning system • Country developing a pilot

that could serve as a useful

model

√ √


mapped

√


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 156


Animal feeds • Strategy for feed

improvement needed

√ √

Water Coordination of water

management institutions

• Functions are fragmented

Amendments on national

water policy to allow for

decentralized water boards

• The ministry Ministry of

Land, Water and

Environment (MoLWE)

centrally operated.

√

Strengthen capacity to

access underground water

• Limited number of sunk

boreholes

√ √

•

EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia Pasture Harmonization of sector

laws

• Proposals for legal reforms

underway

• Need for enhanced regional

cooperation on livestock

health

√ √ √


mapped

√

Animal genetic resource and

breeding


Extension services • Implement the commodity-

based development strategy

√ √

Water •

Strengthen Decentralized

systems

• √

√

Improve Efficiency in

Community water

management bodies

• Exist but access people access

water points

√

√

√

Strengthen capacity on

operation and maintenance

• Maintenance of existing

projects

√

√

√

KeKeKeKenyanyanyanya Pasture Harmonization of sector

laws


Early warning system • Need to strengthen the

country’s EWS and link it

to the GHA EWS

√ √ √


security

• Implementation of the

National land policy

√ √ √

Pasture and rangelands • Pasture and rangelands

improvement policy needed

√ √

Water National water storage

policy to be enacted

• to be enacted √

Strengthen decentralized

water management bodies

• Regional water boards exist

and require

√ √ √

Increase capacity to • Costly to tap √ √


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 157


implement water projects underground/rain water in

ASALs

•

SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia Pasture Conflict resolution • Resolve conflict in the

country to open it up for

policy, legislative and

institutional development

√ √ √

Early warning system • Put in place an EWS for the

country

√ √ √


policy water policy and

strategy endorsed in 2004

Decentralized water

management bodies at

community level


management by UN in

partnership with others

donors

√ √ √




water

√ √ √

Technical support • No government/Ministry of

water is non functional

√ √ √


laws

• Proposals for reform

harmonization already

made at country level

√ √



security

• Proposed law to establish

land commission

• Modification of law on

settlement and registration

of land of 1925

√ √

Pasture and rangelands • Proposed law on the

protection of the

environment

√ √

Animal alternative feeds • Proposed law on forage and

animal feeds

√ √


policy

√

National policy on water

storage

• Formulation on going √

Strengthen capacity of

decentralized water

management bodies



areas

√ √



• Nile basin projects not

enough to meet water needs

√ √


laws

• Significant progress made in

enacting new laws in line

with regional needs

√



P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 158



security

• Policy exists. Pastoral

tenure rights not clearly

articulated

√ √

Pasture and rangelands • Proposed pasture and

rangelands policy

√ √


policy

Decentralized water

management bodies

• One body manages water

resources

√



• Costly to tap

underground/rain water

National water storage

policy

• Non existent √ √





7.3 Livestock Policy and Regulatory Fram7.3 Livestock Policy and Regulatory Fram7.3 Livestock Policy and Regulatory Fram7.3 Livestock Policy and Regulatory Frameworkeworkeworkework

7.3.1 7.3.1 7.3.1 7.3.1 Regulatory FrameworkRegulatory FrameworkRegulatory FrameworkRegulatory Framework

The fact that virtually all GHA states are actual or potential exporters of livestock

products means that the internal aspect of the regulatory framework has to be shaped

around the needs of the external one, thereby necessitating a continual process of

adjustment.

The GHA countries are signatories of the major international regulatory institutions

including the World Trade Organization (WTO) that governs international trade, Codex

Alimentarius that sets international standards for food safety, and OIE which deals with

trade aspects of international animal health. While all GHA countries belong to the OIE,

Djibouti and Somalia are not signatories to Codex while only Djibouti, Kenya and Uganda

are Members of WTO.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 159

(i) Exte(i) Exte(i) Exte(i) External Dimension rnal Dimension rnal Dimension rnal Dimension of of of of Livestock PolicyLivestock PolicyLivestock PolicyLivestock Policy andandandand Regulatory FrameworkRegulatory FrameworkRegulatory FrameworkRegulatory Framework

Table 7.3:Table 7.3:Table 7.3:Table 7.3: GHA Membership in the WTO, Codex and OIE

CountryCountryCountryCountry WTOWTOWTOWTO CodexCodexCodexCodex OIEOIEOIEOIE

Djibouti X X

Eritrea X X

Ethiopia X X

Kenya X X X

Somalia X

Sudan X X

Uganda X X X

GHA countries are members of regional economic blocs which dictate. These economic

blocks promote various terms of trade depending on prevailing conditions. The blocks

also negotiate multilateral agreements on behalf of member countries. Stronger economic

blocks have stronger bargaining power in the international market. Any regulatory

framework adopted by the GHA must therefore take consideration of the variations

within the economic blocks shown in Figure 7.1.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 160

Figure 7.1Figure 7.1Figure 7.1Figure 7.1: : : : Major Economic Blocks across Africa

(Source, IGAD, 2009)

(ii) Internal Dimension of the Regulatory Framework(ii) Internal Dimension of the Regulatory Framework(ii) Internal Dimension of the Regulatory Framework(ii) Internal Dimension of the Regulatory Framework

This is made up of the laws, institutions and practices of the GHA member states

themselves acting alone or as part of a regional initiative.

GHA GHA GHA GHA Level:Level:Level:Level:

• GHA does not yet have a common policy and legal framework for trade in

livestock products and its members are free to pursue their own policies

individually or in cooperation with others

• The result is a rather fragmented regulatory approach to what are fairly similar, if

not identical, policy challenges. Not only are GHA member states not developing

an GHA-wide framework, different countries are pursuing a multiplicity of

different and sometimes overlapping bilateral and regional initiatives

• The absence of a coordinated policy in a situation of porous borders has the

potential to hinder the smooth development of the livestock sector in the entire

GHA region. GHA member states can do more to harmonize their policy

initiatives in the livestock which is vital to their economies;


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 161

At the national level, there are significant differences among the national legal systems of

the GHA member states, particularly those of Ethiopia, Kenya and Sudan;

• There is need for greater convergence, reflecting the commonality of challenges

faced and the often identical requirements that have to be met in order to

participate in the international market.

• Their internal regulatory challenges are also increasingly similar, including:

o Incomplete, out-dated and incoherent sanitary and food safety regulations

o Multiple and excessive taxation of livestock destined for export

o Legal uncertainties, weak and inefficient judiciary,

o Disregard for the rule of law in day-to-day administrative decision making

o lack of effective coordination among different levels of government in the

enforcement of laws

o Absence of established communication channels between stakeholders in

the livestock industry and relevant government institutions, and

o Overall lack of capacity to use law as an instrument to implement policy

decisions.

Most of these problems are mere manifestations of the general underdevelopment of the

countries’ legal systems and they can only be overcome gradually and as part of long-term

overall development objectives.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 162

7.3.27.3.27.3.27.3.2 Institutional FrameworkInstitutional FrameworkInstitutional FrameworkInstitutional Framework

The institutional arrangement of the regional livestock sector is presented in Table 7.4

Table 7Table 7Table 7Table 7.4.4.4.4:::: Institutional Roles within the Livestock Sector

LevelLevelLevelLevel InstitutionsInstitutionsInstitutionsInstitutions RolesRolesRolesRoles

GlobalGlobalGlobalGlobal OIE Setting up of international market standards

FAO Collection and dissemination of information

WHO Monitoring quality standards and designing response mechanisms

ILRI Research

Others Advocacy, research, marketing etc

RegionalRegionalRegionalRegional GHA Policy advocacy

Information gathering and dissemination

NGOs Implementation of livestock development activities

Community sensitization

ILRI Research

Others Advocacy, research, marketing etc

NationalNationalNationalNational Relevant ministries Policy formulation

Regulation

National research institutions Research

Other specialized national

institutions

Advocacy, research, marketing etc

LocalLocalLocalLocal Farmers organizations Capacity building

Implementation

Marketing

Cooperative societies Production

Marketing

NGOs Capacity building

Marketing

Data collection and dissemination


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 163

7.3.37.3.37.3.37.3.3 Proposed Interventions in LivestockProposed Interventions in LivestockProposed Interventions in LivestockProposed Interventions in Livestock Policy and RegulatoryPolicy and RegulatoryPolicy and RegulatoryPolicy and Regulatory FrameworkFrameworkFrameworkFramework

Table 7.Table 7.Table 7.Table 7.5555:::: Policy Interventions




DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti Harmonization of sector

laws

• Legislative reforms needed S-T M-T L-T

National livestock policy • Need for national livestock policy √ √

Early warning system • Link country to the GHA EWS √ √

Livestock census • Livestock census last carried out in 1980 √ √


and breeding

• Need for collaboration at regional level to collect and

preserve genetic resources

√ √ √

Veterinary services • Country needs veterinary personnel √ √ √

Hides, skins, leather and

trade

• Country needs to enhance its position as regional

livestock trading centre

√ √ √

EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea Need for enhanced

regional cooperation on

livestock health

• Policy does not meet pastoralist needs for their livestock √ √ √


security

• Land is government owned √ √ √

Sedentarization of

pastoralists

• Pastoralist move from one place to the other √ √ √

•

•

EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia Harmonization of sector

laws

• Proposals for legal reforms underway

• Need for enhanced regional cooperation on livestock

health

√ √ √

National livestock policy • No national livestock policy √ √

Early warning system • Country developing a pilot that could serve as a useful

model

√ √

Livestock census • Required √ √


security

• Land laws exist and constitution recognizes pastoral

lifestyles. Enforcement of constitutional provisions still

lagging

√ √

Pasture and rangelands • Pasture and Rangelands not mapped √


and breeding


Dairy development • Comprehensive policy required √ √

National meat policy • Required √ √

Animal feeds • Strategy for feed improvement needed √ √

Hides, skins and leather • Enhance operational capacity of existing tanneries from

45% to 90%

• Improve quality of hides and skins

√ √


infrastructure

• Development of livestock holding areas as an alternative

to DFZs

• Improvement of market centres, roads,

telecommunications and electricity supply

• Enhancement of the cooperative movement

• Regulation of live animal transportation

√ √ √

Honey and beeswax

production

• Need to formulate policy to deal with product

adulteration

√ √

Extension services • Implement the commodity-based development strategy √ √

KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya Harmonization of sector

laws


Early warning system • Need to strengthen the country’s EWS and link it to the

GHA EWS

√ √ √


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 164




Livestock census • Required √


security

• Implementation of the National land policy √ √ √

Pasture and rangelands • Pasture and rangelands improvement policy needed √ √


and breeding


Dairy development • Dairy development policy in place -

National meat policy • Required. The meat control bill under discussions √ √

Veterinary services • Veterinary Disease Control Bill drafted. Need for

inclusion of emerging diseases in the bill

√


infrastructure

• Opening up of northern Kenya through establishment of

road network

• Improvement of livestock marketing infrastructure such

as market centres, holding yards, etc

√ √ √

SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia Conflict resolution • Resolve conflict in the country to open it up for policy,

legislative and institutional development

√ √ √

Veterinary services • Boos country’s capacity to manage livestock diseases √ √ √

Early warning system • Put in place an EWS for the country √ √ √


laws

• Proposals for reform harmonization already made at

country level

√ √

National livestock policy • Part of Agriculture Revival Programme, 2008 √ √


Livestock census • Last census in 1976 √ √


security

• Proposed law to establish land commission

• Modification of law on settlement and registration of

land of 1925

√ √

Pasture and rangelands • Proposed law on the protection of the environment √ √


and breeding

• Law on Livestock genetic resources proposed √ √

Dairy development • Proposed law on dairy development products √ √

National meat policy • Proposed law on production of meat and meat products

• Revision of the law on meat health and inspection of

1974

√ √

Animal feeds • Proposed law on forage and animal feeds √ √

Veterinary services Modification of laws on : Modification of laws on : Modification of laws on : Modification of laws on :

• Veterinary quarantines, 2004

• Cattle routes surveillance, 1974

• Contagious livestock diseases, 2001

• Disease free zones, 1973

√ √ √

Hides, skins and leather • Modification of law on Sudanese Hides and skins, 1954 √ √


infrastructure

ProposProposProposProposed laws on:ed laws on:ed laws on:ed laws on:

• Organisation of livestock markets

• Competition and dumping

• Organisation of international trade in livestock and its

products

√ √


laws

• Significant progress made in enacting new laws in line

with regional needs

√

National livestock policy • Required √ √


Livestock census • Done, 2008 -


security

• Policy exists. Pastoral tenure rights not clearly articulated √ √

Pasture and rangelands • Proposed pasture and rangelands policy √ √


and breeding

• Policy in place -

Dairy development • Act in place -

National meat policy • Policy and masterplan in place -


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 165




Animal feeds • Policy in place -

Veterinary services • NAADs requires additional resources to ensure better

extension and veterinary service delivery

√ √

Hides, skins and leather • Animal hides and Leather Development Policy in place -


infrastructure

• Country is net importer of most livestock products.

Interventions to boost production of various livestock

products

√ √ √






P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 166

8. CROSSCUTTING ISSUES8. CROSSCUTTING ISSUES8. CROSSCUTTING ISSUES8. CROSSCUTTING ISSUES

8.1 Peace Building, Disaster Management and Security8.1 Peace Building, Disaster Management and Security8.1 Peace Building, Disaster Management and Security8.1 Peace Building, Disaster Management and Security

8.1.18.1.18.1.18.1.1 Pervasive Conflict in the GHAPervasive Conflict in the GHAPervasive Conflict in the GHAPervasive Conflict in the GHA

Many natural resources, such as water, forests, land and minerals are declining due to

degradation, overuse and threats including climate change. Conflicts among communities in

many parts of GHA occur as communities compete for increasingly scarce resources. Figure

8.1 presents some of these conflicts.

Dinka

Nuer

Figure 8.1Figure 8.1Figure 8.1Figure 8.1: : : : Inter and Intra Pastoral Conflicts within the GHA

(Source: Abebe D. 200214)

14 www.vsf-belgium.org/dzf/download/nl/1348/fileid


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 167

The above conflicts have had serious negative impacts on the livelihoods of the population

and the economies of the various states. The livestock sector is also adversely affected by

these conflicts. The negative impacts of the conflicts are as a result of several factors. Some of

these include:

i. Diversion of resources by the states from other economic activities to manage the

conflicts

ii. Loss of human life as many conflicts result in fatalities

iii. Loss of human capital as local experts get displaced while others move to safer cities

iv. Loss of international goodwill and support for economic activities

v. Loss to economy as businesses shut creating massive unemployment

vi. Shut down of social systems including education and health

Evidence from various studies indicates that there exists a relationship between precipitation,

forage availability and the behavior of pastoralists including occurrence of conflicts amongst

pastoral communities (Meier and Bond, 2005).

8.1.2 F8.1.2 F8.1.2 F8.1.2 Frameworkrameworkrameworkramework for Conflict Managementfor Conflict Managementfor Conflict Managementfor Conflict Management

The GHA protocol on the establishment of conflict early warning and response mechanism

(CEWARN), signed in Khartoum in January 2002 provided the framework for member states

to establish, among other things, the national conflict early warning and response units

(CEWERUs). In response to this, various member states including Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan

and Uganda are currently putting in place mechanisms and policies to facilitate the

implementation of the CEWARN protocol.

It is also important to recognize traditional management systems including conflict recognize traditional management systems including conflict recognize traditional management systems including conflict recognize traditional management systems including conflict

resolution mechanismsresolution mechanismsresolution mechanismsresolution mechanisms. These traditional conflict resolution systems have worked well in the

past and their efficacy have largely been eroded by the introduction of western conflict

resolution models, which are adversarial rather than reconciliatory. New institutional

structures like the District Peace and Development Committees that combine formal and

customary approaches in conflict management should be strengthened.

In the following section, we briefly discuss how the various conflicts within the GHA region

continue to impact on local populations and the various states.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 168

Djibouti and EritreaDjibouti and EritreaDjibouti and EritreaDjibouti and Eritrea

Djibouti and Eritrea continue to suffer cross border conflicts that threaten both countries. A

recent food security alert by USAID and Famine early Warning Systems Network (FEWS-

NET) cited persistent drought and conflict as the main reason for food insecurity in Djibouti.

The main casualties of the conflict being pastoral livestock farmers.

Eritrea is however, not free from the conflict inflicted suffering. The country’s long

protracted war with Ethiopia coupled with persistent droughts continue to define the

livelihood of the citizens. The uneasy calm between the two countries (Ethiopia/Eritrea)

remain a major cause of concern for the productive sectors of the economies.


Pastoral conflicts in Ethiopia seem to be much more complicated than within the rest of the

GHA. An example of these conflicts is the conflict between the Boran and Digodi

communities in the South eastern part of the country.

According to Abdullahi M. 2005, there are many problems that have fuelled the

Boran/Digodi pastoral conflicts. As a consequence of the conflicts, a large part of prime

grazing land together with essential pasture and water points are deserted. This has

aggravated the scarcity of pasture and water as well as overgrazing in other areas. The result

is environmental degradation and infestation of parasites causing animal diseases. In

addition, many pastoralist families have been displaced and have become vulnerable to

starvation. The flow of displaced people has contributed to the destruction of the already

fragile environment. It has become a question of survival for the displaced to cut and burn

trees for firewood. The two pastoralist groups have also become good markets for arms

smugglers, as there is a great demand for weapons.

The Oromiya community, which forms almost 60% of the entire pastoral community in

Ethiopia has began putting in place expansive programmes aimed at addressing the myriad of

issues facing the Oromiya pastoralists. Most of the programmes are integrated and

multisectoral in nature. They include: provision of water, healthcare, education and security,

among others. The community is also addressing governance issues amongst the pastoralists

through establishment of institutions such as the Oromiya Pastoral Commission.


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KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya

Kenya has over the year enjoyed relative calm compared to its GHA neighbours. However,

the pastoral communities within the country continue to suffer both internal and external

conflicts. The Pokots and Marakwet communities are examples of two of the Kenyan

communities constantly in conflict over resources. Consequently, these conflicts, among

other inherent issues, have led to stagnation of development in these areas.

At policy level, the Government is currently finalizing the National policy on peace building

and conflict management to address the issues of conflict within the various communities

within the country and cross border.


The current civil war in Somalia began in 1991 after the collapse of the Siad Barre

Government. According to a study by the World Bank in 2005, before the civil war in 1991,

Somalia was one of the poorest countries in the world with a high level of dependence on

foreign aid. Its gross national product (GNP) per capita was US$170 and its life expectancy

only 47 years. The situation has improved marginally, at best. Somalia continues to bulidgg

one of the poorest countries in the world on development indicators. Table 8.1 shows some

of the basic country indicators.

Table 8.1: Table 8.1: Table 8.1: Table 8.1: Somalia Development Indicators, 2001–02

Indicator Performance

GNP per capita US$226

Extreme poverty 43.2%

Life expectancy 47 years

Infant mortality 132 per 1,000 live births

Under-five mortality rate 224 per 1,000 live births

Unemployment 47.4%

Sources: World Bank. 2003. UNDP Human Development Report, Somalia. 2001.

The Somalia conflict is a complex mix of governance, clan issues and politics. The latest

addition to the conflict, piracy, is a major global concern. According to the WB study, the

following are some of the characteristics of the overall conflict in Somalia.

i. Nearly all armed conflicts in contemporary Somalia break out along clan lines.


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ii. Clan identities are malleable and can be shaped by leaders to pursue control of

resources and power. iii. Clan identities are not the basis for conflict; rather, their deliberate manipulation

creates and exacerbates divisions.

iv. Clan groups can serve as destructive or constructive forces as well as traditional

conflict moderators.

Livestock is one of the largest income-generating exports in Somalia, which before 1991

accounted for around 80 percent of the country’s income earnings. The livestock production

system is mostly pastoralism. However, several bans posed by the major markets due to

various reasons and the continuing civil strife have greatly affected the sector, impacting

negatively on pastoral livelihoods. Most of the economy currently depends on remittance

from the Diaspora estimated to remit about US$360 million annually according to the

Somalia Socio-Economic Survey 2002.

Several efforts are ongoing to address the conflict in Somalia. The IGAD, AU, EU, Arab states

and several African states are helping find ways of reducing the negative impacts of the

conflict and to find a functional Government in Somalia. However, some of these external

forces especially the individual countries attempting to intervene in the conflict end up

taking sides, further aggravating the problem.

The World Bank suggests that interventions in the Somalia conflict would therefore have to

target the establishment of a conflict-sensitive approach to development activities focusing

on the following aspects:

i. Avoid of fuelling of clan/group competition

ii. Encourage and support cross-clan or clan-neutral activities and partners

iii. Help bridge groups

iv. Understand the role of religion

v. Do not create an aid-dependent Somalia.

vi. Encourage Small scale development projects

vii. Build on community strengths

viii. Mobilize Somalia’s human resources

ix. Strengthen the economic backbone of society

x. Fight unemployment, especially among young men

xi. Develop non-partisan governance


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Sudan is Africa’s largest country covering 967,493 sq.miles. the country has a population of

about 34.5 million composed of Black (52 %) Arab (39%) Beja (6%). By religion, Sudan is

70% Sunni Muslim, 25% indigenous beliefs and 3% Christian15.

Sudan has had two main conflicts, the Southern conflict being the longest in the region and

the recent flare-ups in the Western part of Darfur. As expected, these conflicts resulted into

massive destruction on infrastructure, collapsed healthcare, education and welfare systems

and serious negative impacts on the economy.

There are currently several initiatives targeting the conflict regions of Sudan. The signing of

the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in June 2004 in Nairobi has brought relative

calm in Southern Sudan. In the Western part however, interventions by the AU, EU and the

UN are yet to bear fruit. Several NGO activities in these conflict regions are also ongoing.

Organisations such as Oxfam GB, GTZ and Care International remain active in several parts

of the Sudan.


Uganda, like most of its neighbours has not been spared from conflicts, both internal and

external. The country had a long civil war since its independence from Britain in 1964. It

was until 1986 that a military regime established some relative calm in the country.

However, two conflicts, one in the North and North Western part of the country (mainly

political) and the other within the pastoral Karamoja region (mainly over pastures) have

continued to negatively impact on development activities of these regions.

Whereas the country currently seems optimistic that the LRA conflict is finally coming to a

close, reducing intracommunity conflicts over resources in the Western part of the country

will require a lot more effort and resources. The Karamoja/Pokot conflicts caused by

competition for water and pastures require a combined effort between Kenya and Ugandan

authorities through:

i. Establishment of programmes that will ensure adequate water and pastures on both

sides

15 http://www.flashpoints.info/countries-conflicts/Sudan-web/Sudan_briefing.htm


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ii. Expansion of social and governance systems

iii. Disarmament of local communities

iv. Sensitization of communities

Cross Border conflictsCross Border conflictsCross Border conflictsCross Border conflicts

There exist several cross-border conflicts between states and communities living within the

GHA region. The UNDP Human Development Report 2005 titled Kenya and Uganda

Pastoral Conflict Case Study outlines some of the inherent problems facing the communities

of Karamoja in Uganda and their Pokot and Marakwet neighbours in Kenya. This type of

conflict, commonly known as cattle rustling is a classical example of the pastoralists’ struggle

for scarce resources. Figure 8.2 shows the coverage of the Karamoja conflict.

Figure 8.2Figure 8.2Figure 8.2Figure 8.2:::: Coverage of the Karamoja Conflict

(Source: Meier and Bond, 2005)

The conflict in Somalia has certainly impacted negatively on the Kenyan side of the border.

A USAID study on the Kenya Somalia Border Conflict published in 2005 identifies the reason

for the conflict as ethnicity, political patronage, land and water resources and easy access to

firearms and other small weapons.


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The above, are two examples of cross border conflicts within the GHA region. Others are:

i. Kenya/ Sudan/ Ethiopia triangle

ii. Sudan-Ethiopia border

iii. Ethiopia-Eritrea border

iv. Ethiopia-Kenya border

v. Ethiopia-Somalia border

vi. Somalia-Djibouti border

vii. Eritrea-Djibouti border

There are several strategies being adopted by the various states of the GHA in trying to

address these conflicts. These include, but not limited to:

i. Expansion of water infrastructure in the affected regions to reduce competition for

water resources

ii. Formation of inter-clan commissions composed of respectable elders and Government

representatives

iii. Expansion of social services infrastructure including education and health systems

iv. Introduction of alternative livelihoods

v. Improvement of governance systems

Stakeholders in Garissa, Kenya felt that the establishment of water points has been a source

of inter-clan conflicts and pointed out the need to plan for their establishment. They also

noted that the establishment of water points is threatening nomadism as a way of life as it

encourages sedentary lifestyle which causes soil and environmental degradation and

furthermore a decline in pastures that also intensify these conflicts16.

8.1.3 8.1.3 8.1.3 8.1.3 Way ForwardWay ForwardWay ForwardWay Forward

The following interventions if implemented would help reduce the number of conflicts

occurring within the GHA region and help define the way forward.

16 Minutes. Focus Group Discussions


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i. Implementation of the IGAD protocol on conflict resolution and management

by all the member states and establishment of the conflict early warning

system (CEWARN)

ii. Investment in pastoral communities through promotion of provision of water

and pasture resources

iii. Investment in social infrastructure

iv. Improvement in the overall infrastructure within the ASALs

8.2 Gender8.2 Gender8.2 Gender8.2 Gender DimenDimenDimenDimensions in ASAL Livelihoodssions in ASAL Livelihoodssions in ASAL Livelihoodssions in ASAL Livelihoods

In sub-Saharan Africa, women contribute between 60-80% of labour for food production,

both for household consumption and for sale17. The participation and contribution of women

and youth in the livestock sector in most GHA member countries is significant. However,

many communities in GHA are in a transition from traditional to contemporary way of life.

This transition has a direct bearing on gender and youth roles. Somali women are by far the

majority of the participants on the meat value chain while in other GHA countries women

and youth are deeply involved in livestock production and marketing. Despite the immense

contribution, there are disparities in ownership, policy development, education and

employment. The role of women and youth18 in the sector makes it imperative that they are

involved in the policy development process.

There are several factors that impact on equitable involvement of women and youth in

livestock production especially amongst the pastoral communities. These are:

8.2.18.2.18.2.18.2.1 Access and Ownership of ResourcesAccess and Ownership of ResourcesAccess and Ownership of ResourcesAccess and Ownership of Resources

Generally, across the GHA, more resources are owned/ accessed by men than by women, e.g.

land, and livestock, water facilities and financial resources. The gender imbalance that exists

needs to be re-examined. It is important to note that policy formulation processes across the

region have recently evolved to ensure equal participation of gender. However, cultural

barriers to property ownership still play a much bigger role when it comes to policy

implementation. Land tenure systems in application in Kenya and Uganda have left women

17 FAO, 1994. What has AIDS to do with Agriculture. FAO. Rome 18 Mid-Term Review of the IGAD Livestock Policy Initiative Final Report – December 2008


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and youths vulnerable. Land ownership structure in Ethiopia and the Sudan show a similar

bias towards male.

8.2.2 8.2.2 8.2.2 8.2.2 Migration and EmploymentMigration and EmploymentMigration and EmploymentMigration and Employment

The current trend is that more men than women seek employment away from home,

thereby heaping more responsibilities on women. Youths are virtually absent in some

communities, having migrated to the nearby towns in search of economic opportunities. In

order to improve the situation, greater economic opportunities for both men and women

should be through human capital development, improvement of natural resource

management and alternative income generating activities.

8.2.3 8.2.3 8.2.3 8.2.3 EducationEducationEducationEducation

The goal of social development must be to provide equitable access to such basic services as

education, health, water, nutrition, transport and communications, energy, security, etc.

The development of human resources, which is fundamental to achieving sustainable

development, depends on improved literacy and education levels. The provision of

education and literacy is a basic need and an essential prerequisite for economic

development. Across the region, more boys than girls are enrolled in formal education.

Problems hindering the girl child education include traditional roles (e.g. helping

overburdened mothers with domestic tasks); high school dropout rates due to early

marriage/pregnancy; household heads’ (father/male) attitude towards the education of

daughters and women and low economic and employment opportunities for women.

Capacity building and awareness creation need to be promoted in order to improve the

enrolment and education of girls and women in the livestock development, especially where

traditional norms and attitudes discourage their education

8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 HIV/AIDSHIV/AIDSHIV/AIDSHIV/AIDS in GHA Pastoral Communitiesin GHA Pastoral Communitiesin GHA Pastoral Communitiesin GHA Pastoral Communities

8.3.1 Manifestation of the HIV/AID8.3.1 Manifestation of the HIV/AID8.3.1 Manifestation of the HIV/AID8.3.1 Manifestation of the HIV/AIDSSSS Problem Problem Problem Problem

Pastoral communities across GHA are continuously getting exposed to the virus due to their

mobile lifestyle. In addition, certain sexual and behavioural practices amongst pastoralist

groups, e.g. polygamy, wife inheritance, unsafe circumcision practices and births (including

other accepted traditional behaviours) and ‘truck’ routes through ASAL areas, pose major


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risks of contracting the pandemic into areas with otherwise very low infection rates. This

situation is even bound to worsen with improved infrastructure and increased movement of

people within and between districts.

8.3.2 Awareness Levels8.3.2 Awareness Levels8.3.2 Awareness Levels8.3.2 Awareness Levels

There are still low levels of awareness among farmers on the pandemic and the rural –urban

migration of men from the rural into towns to market livestock and in search of wage

employment is a major avenue of infection when they return to the rural areas. The

knowledge gap poses a serious challenge to the sector and will need to be addressed through

focused and strategic interventions. In Khartoum, for example, UNICEF reports that “Only

about a third of all young people between the ages of 18 and 25 know how HIV is caused.

Many of them think, for example, that HIV is caused by a mosquito bite19. There is therefore

a need to address this pandemic in context to improving livestock production in the region.

8888.3.3 Prevalence Rates.3.3 Prevalence Rates.3.3 Prevalence Rates.3.3 Prevalence Rates

HIV/AIDS remains a serious problem to development activities within the GHA. Table 8.2

shows the prevalence rates of HIV/AIDS in the region.

Table Table Table Table 8.28.28.28.2:::: HIV/AIDS prevalence in GHA

CountryCountryCountryCountry HIV/AIDS prevalence (2007), %HIV/AIDS prevalence (2007), %HIV/AIDS prevalence (2007), %HIV/AIDS prevalence (2007), %

Djibouti 3.1

Ethiopia 1.4

Kenya 6.1

Somalia 0.5

Sudan 1.6 (North) – 2.6 (South)

Uganda 6.7

Livestock production has partly been affected by reduced human manpower due to

HIV/AIDs pandemic. It is in recognition of this that IGAD recently established the IGAD

HIV/AIDS Partnership Program targeting the pastoral communities in the region.

A recent study on the impact of HIV/AIDS on livestock production in Eastern and Southern

Africa identified that there is still a wide information gap in understanding the effects of

HIV/AIDS on crops/livestock, pastoral and peri-urban production systems (FAO, 2005). The

study proposed that impact studies be carried out to better assess the impact across the

19 http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/sudan_30478.html


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livestock sector as a whole - from the household level to regional level. The proposed impact

assessment study should capture the following:

i. Assess the impact of HIV/AIDS on overall management , productivity and health of

cattle, sheep and goats

ii. Measure the extent of which slaughter or sales of livestock and the transfer of animals

through inheritance by afflicted households in impacting animal populations, herd

structures and breeding stocks at the local, regional and national levels

iii. Identify specific methodologies and data requirements for future monitoring of the

epidemic on the livestock sector

8.4 Climate Change8.4 Climate Change8.4 Climate Change8.4 Climate Change

8.4.1 Climate8.4.1 Climate8.4.1 Climate8.4.1 Climate Change PhenomenonChange PhenomenonChange PhenomenonChange Phenomenon

The projected climatic changes include changing precipitation patterns and amounts and

rising temperatures. The literature suggests that this will be associated with increasing

magnitude and frequency of extreme events (e.g. IPCC, 2000 & Kasperson and Dow, 2005).

Overall, we would judge the results of climate change impacts identified here to be very

conservative, and so these results should be seen as indicative only

However, it must be noted that the positive effects of the likely increase in rainfall amounts

will be offset to a certain extent by increasing temperatures. The downscaled climate

projections were discussed with pastoralists and representatives of pastoralists’ organisations.

Their reactions confirmed that the trends revealed were already being seen in the areas

analysed. Further analysis of the projections provided some information on the areas of

concern to the pastoralists in terms of the changes to the initiation and cessation of rains,

their intensity during the wet seasons, the variation between years in terms of rainfall, and

the likely increases in extreme weather events. Climate will seriously aggravate the impacts

of current challenges in the drylands. Of all the natural resource-based land uses in the

drylands, pastoralism functions better within the context of wide rainfall variability and

unpredictability. It therefore presents a more logical adaptation route than livelihood

activities and land uses which do not have the advantage of mobility (Nori and Davies, 2006).

The effects of climate change on the drylands of the Horn of Africa poses particular and

difficult policy challenges. The arid nature of the climate together with the poverty levels

faced by those people living in the drylands mean that the increasing temperatures, the

intensifying rains and the increased frequency of extreme weather events that climate

science projects for the region can only exacerbate the problems of development. However,


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as discussed here, the drylands have under-exploited development potential and the

dominant land use system – pastoralism – has unique adaptive characteristics that, together

with the right enabling policies, mean that climate change can be adapted to and the

development of the region and the people achieved.

8.4.2 Pastoralism and Climate Change8.4.2 Pastoralism and Climate Change8.4.2 Pastoralism and Climate Change8.4.2 Pastoralism and Climate Change

Drylands are a large part of the Horn and East Africa. Their main defining characteristic is

extreme climatic variability. Despite this variability, the drylands make significant

contributions to national economies and support millions of people. They are also areas of

great untapped potential, and can play an important role in supplying an increasing demand

for livestock, fuels, wild products and sequestering carbon. Despite these opportunities the

drylands in the region receive little investment and continue to be marred by poverty, food

insecurity and conflict. Many lucrative land uses co-exist in the drylands, but some are more

resilient against climatic variability and change than others.

Pastoralism is the most resilient among them, yet it is the form of land use least recognized

and supported. For many years pastoralism has flourished in the drylands because it is a

rational, adaptable, tried and tested production system uniquely suited to them. The climate

of the Horn and East Africa is becoming more variable and less predictable, and trends

towards future changes are emerging. Global climate models predict changes over the longer

term – increased temperature, shifts in rainy seasons, intense rains over much of East Africa

– which will result in a mosaic of changing climate conditions with serious implications for

land use and production systems. In order to appropriately inform policy, it is imperative to

better understand what the ranges of likely effects are going to be in different locations. A

brief review of the National Adaptation Plans of Action prepared over the last three to four

years by the least developed countries in the region – Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda and Tanzania

– show that, although there is a general consensus on the climate vulnerability of drylands

and pastoralists, the planned policy responses differ as to the importance of enabling

pastoralist climate adaptation.

8.4.3 8.4.3 8.4.3 8.4.3 Pastoral AdaptationPastoral AdaptationPastoral AdaptationPastoral Adaptation

Direct ImpactsDirect ImpactsDirect ImpactsDirect Impacts

Abnormal rise in temperatures will have a direct impact on the productivity of the animals.

The ideal temperature for cattle, for example, will be further exceeded. Growth, production

and reproduction will be hampered. Also the magnitude and frequency of droughts and

floods is expected to go up. This will undoubtedly result in higher mortality rates and shorter

recovery periods, possibly too short for the herds to recover naturally to sustainable sizes.


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Indirect ImpactsIndirect ImpactsIndirect ImpactsIndirect Impacts

For all the scenarios, increase rainfall figures have been evident. However, the temperatures

are predicted to rise too, and through increased evapotranspiration and possible long-term

adaptations of plant and animal species

Water and Pasture SituationWater and Pasture SituationWater and Pasture SituationWater and Pasture Situation

Continued showers across most parts of the ASAL areas, improved water availability while at

the same time supported regeneration of pasture and browse.Although pasture availability

and accessibility varied, availability and accessibility was generally good and expected to

improve further as the rains continues. Continued rains led to increased number of water

sources as most water pans and catchments pools are filled with water reducing trekking

distances most noticeably in ASAL areas.

Arable FarmingArable FarmingArable FarmingArable Farming

Many parts of sub- Saharan Africa are likely to experience a decrease in the length of

growing period, and in some areas, the decreases may be severe. To put it another way,

projected increases in temperature and projected changes in rainfall patterns and amount

(increases in rainfall amounts are projected in many areas) combine to suggest that growing

periods will decrease in many places.

Pastoralists employ various coping strategies to deal with climate and non-climate stress.

However, they are increasingly less able to do so, and more pastoralists are losing their

livestock assets and their livelihoods. Wealth and social differentiation also affect the ability

of people to adapt to climate and non-climate stress, with the poor at a distinct disadvantage.

It is important, therefore, to build pastoral capacities to adapt. Evidence suggests it would be

more effective – including cost-effective – to enable and strengthen the inherent adaptive

capacity of pastoralists, and find ways to encourage their autonomous adaptation, than to

provide adaptation strategies for them. It is also recognized that pastoralism is a system

influx, with some pastoralists making a living only from livestock and livestock products,

others practicing supplementary livelihoods alongside pastoralism, and yet others who, for

various reasons, no longer keep livestock at all (for more on this, see the accompanying

report ‘Getting it right: understanding livelihoods to reduce the vulnerability of pastoral

communities’). Enabling autonomous adaptation accommodates this fluidity in the system,

leaving people free to choose the best options to suit their needs. This paper maintains that,

with the right policies, investment and support, pastoralism is a viable and sustainable


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livelihood that will support many, but at the same time recognises that viable and sustainable

alternative or supplementary livelihood activities also need to be accessible.

Improvements in governance, access to markets (infrastructure, providing appropriate credit

facilities, livestock insurance and cash and asset-based assistance rather than food aid), and

provision of basic services like education, which recognize the value and contributions that

pastoralists bring, will help increase the drylands’ resilience against climate change, facilitate

ecosystem management, and allow states to derive benefits from servicing the increasing

global rise in demand for livestock products.

.


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9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

9.1 Summary9.1 Summary9.1 Summary9.1 Summary

ASALs constitute at least 76% of the GHA land area of 5.2 million square kilometers. The

population of GHA countries, estimated at 205 million people in 2009 and growing rapidly at

3.2% per annum, is also one of the poorest on the continent. The GHA is also beset with

civil strife on a scale larger than any other conflicts on the continent. Livelihoods in ASAL

area revolve around livestock. The main drivers in the livelihood systems are water and

pasture as the key determinants of pastoral livestock systems and hence livelihoods.

The GHA region suffers from the severe effects of climate change. The recurring and severe

droughts and other natural disasters have caused widespread famine, ecological degradation,

poverty and economic hardships in the region. The impacts of climate change have been

more severe because of inadequate water management facilities and practices, inefficient

water harvesting facilities, erratic and unpredictable rainfall patterns, and high ambient

temperatures. Their consequences include shortage in water and food for both animals and

humans, resulting in high incidence of famine and losses in both human and animal lives in

the region. In order to overcome this shortfall in food supply, the countries of the region

have resorted to food aid, receiving the highest per capita quantity of food aid in the

continent. Such a level of food aid dependency is not sustainable and makes the region a

humanitarian tragedy which threatens not only peace but also affects conservation of unique

environments and biodiversity and the ability of the region to play its own role in an

increasingly global environment.

Water and pastures are critical for pastoral livelihoods. Pastoral lifestyles are characterized

by frequent movements in search of water and feed during the long periods of scarcity.

Water availability, coupled with its quality, is also important for human consumption. The

problem of scarce natural resources, especially water and pasture has led to violent conflicts

in the Horn of Africa and has thus contributed to the problems of cattle rustling, food

insecurity and poverty. These problems have affected women disproportionately.

Interventions in the water and pasture sector would go a long way in improving the

livelihoods of populations in the ASALs. Such interventions will need to be well targeted and


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will need to put into consideration the environmental, socio-economic and cultural

variations within the ASALs.

9.2 Conclusion9.2 Conclusion9.2 Conclusion9.2 Conclusion

Pastoral livelihoods are not static. In recent decades most pastoralists have significantly

diversified both food and income sources. Whereas in the past milk often made the greatest

contribution to the diet, in all the pastoral examples purchase of cereals now make up the

bulk of diets. In order to finance these purchases, pastoralists exchange livestock and

livestock products for grain. Furthermore, trading, sale of wood and charcoal as well as non-

timber forest products (leaf products or gums and resins) and, in many cases, daily labor have

all become important income sources.

Water is the common thread in the change process in the ASAL areas. But there is strong

competition for water among multiple users: domestic, industrial, agricultural (including

livestock), and the need for a residual for the environment. Pastoral areas will continue to be

marginalized because they do not have voice in any of the countries of the GHA. The main

thrust of development programmes are to feed domestic, industrial and domestic needs with

pastoral needs and the environment being a residual.

The GHA region is dotted with trans boundary water resources. The Nile water system

covers four of the GHA member countries namely Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Sudan. The

Turkana basin is shared between Kenya and Ethiopia while Ethiopia and Sudan share several

river basins between themselves including the Nile Basin. Djibouti’s surface water resources,

through Awash, come from Ethiopia while Somalia and Ethiopia share the Juba-Shebeli

basin, among others. Ground water aquifers within the region traverses through the various

national boundaries and is recharged from the Fey highlands found in Sudan and the

highlands of Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda.

However, with all the above shared water resources, regional institutional capacity to

manage the shared resources is extremely low. Cooperation between economic blocks

namely the IGAD, EAC and SADC, among others in managing the shared resources is

necessary to ensure capacity enhancement.


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The water sector in most parts of the Greater Horn of Africa has lately been undergoing

reforms. These reforms are however at different stages depending on country. The overall

objectives of the reforms have been:

• To improve the efficiency within which the sector is managed through creation of

well structured institutional arrangement

• Attract investments into the sector

• Promote citizen’s participation in sector activities

The distribution of pastures and forage across the region is determined by climatic

conditions. Rangelands form an immense natural resource and the major source of feed for

livestock herds across the region. The various types of grazing land vary from open

grasslands to seasonal water courses, flood plains, river banks and associated islands,

woodlands, hills and mountain slopes.

National policies across the region continue to give second place to issues of forage

production and rangeland management. It is important that governments are sensitised on

the contribution forage and pasture production can have in improving livelihoods of pastoral

communities and ensuring economic development.

9.3 Recommendation9.3 Recommendation9.3 Recommendation9.3 Recommendation

The physical and human ecology in the ASAL areas of the GHA is similar. There is a need,

therefore, for the harmonization of the water related programmes in the ASAL areas of the

GHA. The critical intervention that will affect pastoral livelihoods is in water. While

surface water utilization is governed by treaties, all the countries of the GHA are

underutilizing the water that is available largely because of an inadequate infrastructure to

harness the water. There has also been inadequate attention to water harvesting technology

that would supplement household level water supplies.

Despite the severe scarcity of water, water use efficiency is low and the culture of

conservation including water recycling has not yet been adopted. A major investment

program in water management will provide a powerful entry point to the development of

ASAL regions in the lifelines of pasture improvement and livestock.


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APPENDICESAPPENDICESAPPENDICESAPPENDICES


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APPENDIX 1: TERMS OF

REFERENCE


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TERMS OF REFERENCETERMS OF REFERENCETERMS OF REFERENCETERMS OF REFERENCE

A Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of

Africa.

Background InformationBackground InformationBackground InformationBackground Information: The Greater Horn of Africa comprises 7 countries, namely,

Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda, all of which are members of

the Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD) whose headquarters is in

Djibouti. The region has a total population of 188 million people and occupies a land area of

about 5.2 million square kilometres, with a highly variable Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of

between USD 0.5 and USD 9.9 billion and per capita income. Over 60% of the land is

classified as arid and has less than 500 mm of rainfall a year on average and a growing period

of less than 90 days. The short growing period and the unpredictable rainfall are major

constraints for the promotion of agriculture on a large and commercial scale in the region.

This is one of the poorest regions in the world with high population growth rates and

chronic food insecurity. With continuing population growth, agriculture, which is the main

core sector of the economy of most of the countries in the region, will have to grow at least

at the same pace to maintain the currently already inadequate food supply situation.

Agriculture as the mainstay of the economy of the IGAD countries contributes a major share

of the overall GDP and varies from 3.7% to 52.3%, while employing over three quarters of

the population of the region. Its performance is, thus, the main determinant of the yearly

variations in poverty levels and food security in these countries. Between 19.8% and 88.2%

of the agriculture sector contribution to the GDP comes from livestock as crop production is

limited by rainfall. Therefore, livestock is the major income earner for most households in

the region. However, the share of livestock in the overall GDP varies between 3.1 % and

23%. Besides, livestock production is the only viable form of land use. In the agro-ecological

zones where crop production is feasible, it is mostly practiced in mixed farming systems with

livestock providing important inputs into the farming system and vice versa. The rural

people of the region depend heavily on incomes from livestock production for staples and

other needs. However, recent studies have shown that the growing demand for all livestock

products in the IGAD countries is mainly the result of population growth rather than

increased per capita consumption.

The huge livestock population in the region is varied and comprises 98 million cattle, 173

million sheep and goats and 151 million birds. They represent not only a major source of

income and therefore a pathway out of poverty but also a source of animal proteins for

meeting the food security needs of the people of the region. The numbers notwithstanding,


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livestock productivity is low - beef: 10.4 kg per animal per year, milk: 395.8 kg per animal

per year, sheep and goat meat: 3.5 kg per animal per year, pig meat 47.1 kg per animal per

year and poultry and eggs: 1.4 and 2.6 kg per bird per year, respectively. The reasons for the

low performance are multiple and varied, ranging from poor quality genetics, inadequate and

poor quality feeds and feeding, scarcity in water for production, to poor husbandry practices,

etc. This has contributed to the low economic growth and wealth creation in most IGAD

member countries. The poverty situation in the region is partly due to the increasingly

deteriorating livelihoods and food insecurity coupled with degraded natural resources

(deforestation, overgrazing, over mining, etc), widespread rural poverty and illiteracy,

limited access to safe water, malnutrition and frequent droughts and floods.

Moreover, the region suffers from the effects of climate change and anthropologic and

natural factors. The recurring and severe droughts and other natural disasters have caused

widespread famine, ecological degradation, poverty and economic hardships in the region.

Some reasons for these harsh conditions include poor drainage with heavy runoffs,

inadequate water management facilities and practices, inefficient water harvesting facilities,

erratic and unpredictable rainfall patterns, high ambient temperatures and poor agricultural

practices. Their consequences include shortage in water and food for both animals and

humans, resulting in high incidence of famine and losses in both human and animal lives in

the region. In order to overcome this shortfall in food supply, the countries of the region

have resorted to food aid, receiving the highest per capita quantity of food aid in the

continent. Such a level of food aid dependency is not sustainable and makes the region a

humanitarian tragedy which threatens not only peace but also affects conservation of unique

environments and biodiversity and the ability of the region to play its own role in an

increasingly globalized environment.

The farmers and pastoralists in the arid and semi-arid zones of the region have to contend

with extreme challenges including limited water access and poor soil fertility, few

technology options, limited infrastructure and links to markets. As a result, the region is

unable to maintain and optimally exploit its rich natural productive assets. Water and

pastures are critical for improved animal production and productivity. Unfortunately, the

region as already indicated above suffers from severe scarcity of both of these ingredients.

Their limited supply is partly responsible for the lifestyles of the pastoral people of the

region. Their lifestyles are characterized by frequent movements in search of water and feed

during the long periods of scarcity. Water availability, coupled with its quality, is also

important for human consumption. The problem of scarce natural resources, especially water

and pasture has led to violent conflicts in the Horn of Africa and has thus contributed to the

problems of cattle rustling, food insecurity and poverty. In fact, women have borne the brunt

of these conflicts.


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The people of the region are, therefore, forced to live in extreme poverty with limited

alternative sources of income and the constant mobility of the pastoralists and agro-

pastoralists in search of water and feed for their livestock and for sustaining their livelihoods.

This lifestyle implies that the halving of poverty and sustaining the environment as depicted

in the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) may not be attained in the

region. Furthermore, the efforts of the Bank Group to contribute to poverty alleviation and,

therefore, to the attainment of the goals of the MDG will be in vain unless drastic measures

are carried out to reverse the trend. Similarly, the goals of the New Partnership for Africa's

Development (NEPAD) and its affiliated Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development

Programme (CAADP), which are to focus investments in four critical pillars in order to

reduce Africa's dependency on food aid, are less likely to be achieved for the region. There is

evidence that considerable information is available throughout the region and beyond on the

different strategies to intervene in such fragile environments in order to improve rural

livelihood, increase food security and enhance natural resource management and that many

partners are supporting various activities aimed at reversing the trend in the region.

However, this information is scattered in both grey and conventional literature.

There is, thus, an urgent need to collect, compile, analyze and synthesize the available

information and data on the different aspects of sustainable livelihoods in the region in order

to generate implementable strategies, policies and programmes that would serve as a

roadmap for future Bank interventions in the region. It is also important for the Bank to have

an inventory of the different interventions in the drylands, which are aimed at addressing

water- and pasture-related issues in the region and elsewhere.

Objectives: Objectives: Objectives: Objectives: The general objective of the study is to collect, compile, analyze and synthesize

available information and data on different aspects of sustainable livelihood strategies in the

Horn of Africa with the view to distilling and filtering out concrete, practical and

implementable strategic interventions for alleviating the major constraints of water, pasture

and livestock development in the region. The specific objectives of the study are to:

a. Identify and analyse the water and pasture needs of the communities as well as

available water and pasture resources in the region;

b. Identify and analyse the availability technologies and markets for water and pasture

development and exploitation in the region and elsewhere;

c. Review and analyse the challenges and opportunities facing the water, pasture and

the livestock sectors of the Horn of Africa;


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d. Review and analyse current interventions by the member countries and its

development partners in water, pasture and livestock development in the region;

e. Identify and analyse existing institutions in terms of strengths and weaknesses

involved in water, pasture and livestock management both at the national and

regional level;

f. Identify and analyse the policy environment (legal, regulatory, institutional) for the

development and exploitation of water, pasture and livestock;

g. Investigate potential linkages between water, pastures and livestock development in

the region; and,

h. Provide full details of the short-, medium-, and long-term strategic interventions,

including costing and identification of social and environmental impacts of the

interventions

The objectives of supporting these activities are consistent with those of the Multi-Donor

Water Partnership Programme which include the development and enhanced utilization of

water for the human consumption and for production.

Scope of Work: Scope of Work: Scope of Work: Scope of Work: The study will cover the seven member countries of the Greater Horn of

Africa, which include Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda and is

expected to propose short-, medium-, and long-term concrete strategic intervention options

for addressing drought in the region and for enabling the countries of the region to enhance

the contribution of livestock to their national economies while supporting the pastoralists

and agro-pastoralists to adopt more sustainable livelihood systems.

The proposed study seeks to document current water, forage patterns and drought

management strategies in the context of livestock development in the region. It will focus

water and pasture needs assessments, water and pasture resources assessments, technology

assessments including market assessment on availability of water and pasture technologies. In

addition, the study will examine the various aspects of water availability and quality,

accessibility to and affordability of water and pastures by both humans and animals, current

appropriate water and pasture technologies available in the region, best practices for

providing water for production and for human consumption, conflicts due to water and

pasture scarcity and traditional approaches to resolving them, amongst others. The study

would in addition review the status of pastures in the region including traditional practices

and possible best practices with modern methods of pasture management. The study would

review government policies in the water and pasture sectors in the Horn. This proposal is


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consistent with the Bank Group Vision of poverty alleviation and its strategic plan of

selective interventions as well as its agriculture and rural development policy. It is also

consistent with the IGAD Food Security Strategy which focuses mostly on dryland and

drought-prone pastoral areas of the region. IGAD has endorsed this proposal and is willing to

be associated with it. The Multi-Donor Water Partnership Programme (MDWPP) is

financing this study.

There are four major activities of the study, which include (a) comprehensive literature

review, (b) all inclusive consultations with experts and stakeholders, (c) validation of concept

note and recommendations, and (d) report writing and wide dissemination of findings of the

study. The comprehensive literature review will include searching and distilling information

from both the grey and conventional literature sources nationally, regionally and globally.

This activity should enable the consultants to collect, collate, analyze and synthesize data

and information on all aspects of water, pasture and livestock, including the policy and

production environment in the Horn of Africa. The study will not limit its search only those

countries of the Horn, it will extend to those countries around the globe with similar

conditions. However, the consultants will undertake visits to only selected IGAD countries

and to the IGAD regional Headquarters as well as the International bodies operating in the

region, like the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), to (i) collect and process

additional information, and (ii) consult with all stakeholders, including experts, farmers,

Government authorities, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Civil Society

Organizations (CBOs) and Development Partners. These consultations should provide the

opportunity for the consultants to identify and analyze priority constraints and opportunities

for services to better respond to vulnerability shocks and to improve policies and agricultural

production and marketing in the region.

The findings of the literature search and the country visits and the preliminary conclusions

of the consultants shall be put together in the form of concept notes. The concept notes shall

be presented for comments and validation at a stakeholders' workshop, which they shall be

organized in Nairobi, Kenya. The investigations will also address the major crosscutting

issues of gender, environment, climate risk management, population growth, HIV/AIDS and

adaptation to climate change. The investigation will review the impact of climate change on

water and pasture resources as well as on livestock production. It will also examine the

impact of gender policies on water and pasture development and exploitation in the region.

The consultants shall be responsible for inviting key representatives of the IGAD countries

and resource persons from different organizations. The Bank Group shall be represented at

this workshop.

Following the validation process, the consultants shall consolidate and synthesize a final

report (the synthesis report) from the validated concept notes. The synthesis report will also

contain the key recommended strategic interventions. The Bank Group shall have the overall


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responsibility for supervising and monitoring the work of the consultants. Meanwhile, the

consultants shall work intimately with the Directorate of Agriculture of the IGAD

Headquarters in Djibouti.

Results and beneficiaries: Results and beneficiaries: Results and beneficiaries: Results and beneficiaries: The indicators of results and the description of beneficiaries are

shown in Table 1 below.

Table 1.Table 1.Table 1.Table 1. Results and beneficiaries

Indicators of Results Description of results and beneficiaries

Outputs

Synthesis Report opportunities on the constraints and opportunities

Outcomes

Improved knowledge of the constraints and opportunities in the region

Strategic interventions which are ready for financing by Development Partners

to address the major constraints in the region

Impacts

Improved rural livelihoods in the region

Increased food security in the region

Improved sustainable natural resources management in the region

Beneficiaries

Direct beneficiaries: farmers, agro-pastoral and pastoral communities of the

region

Indirect beneficiaries: economies of the region, neighbours, International

Organizations, NGOs, CSOs

Implementation Arrangement:Implementation Arrangement:Implementation Arrangement:Implementation Arrangement: The Agriculture and Agro-Industry Department (OSAN) shall

be responsible for implementing the study in collaboration with the Directorate of

Agriculture of the IGAD in Djibouti and the Ministries of Agriculture/Livestock/Water of

the member countries of IGAD. The implementing unit shall work closely with the

Departments of Water and Sanitation and Education and Health in monitoring the execution

of the study.


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APPENDIX 2: FISHERIES


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FISHERIESFISHERIESFISHERIESFISHERIES

The GHA region produces several different types of fish including crustaceans, marine fishes

and mollusks. In 2007, the region produced an estimated 1,045 thousand tonnes of fish.

Regional trend in fish production is shown in Figure 1.

FigureFigureFigureFigure 1:1:1:1: Regional Trend in Fish Production, Tonnes

Source (FAOSTAT 2009)

There is however, large disparity amongst the various countries as shown earlier in the

trends in Figure 1.

Over the last decade, the fisheries sub-sector in the region has experienced several

challenges. These include: Environmental degradation and use of illegal fishing gears, lack of

modern or effective fishing technology, lack of education and organization, inability to

effectively market products, local fishermen are unable to compete with growing foreign and

international competition, especially national and foreign trawlers and ineffective and

inadequate assistance.

Djibouti.Djibouti.Djibouti.Djibouti.

The contribution of fisheries to the country’s GDP was only 0.1% in 2008.There has

however, been growth in Fisheries industry over the years with 2003 seeing the country

achieve a positive trade balance with a total fish catch of 350 metric tons. The per capita food


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supply and fish products are very low at .2 Kg/person compared to Sub-Saharan Africa of 8

and the world 16kg/person showing the level of underdevelopment.


Fish industry contribution to the country’ Gross Domestic Product of the country is

marginal. The estimated potential from freshwater sources is between 30,000-40,000 tonnes

with only 10% presently exploited. In 2001, Gross value of fisheries output was estimated at

USD 3.6 million (MAAIF, 2005).

Fish consumption is estimated at 10kg/person but influenced by supply and is projected to

increase with relatively low prices of fish, high prices of alternative/substitutes and

improvement and expansion of the fishing infrastructure as the major fueling factors. The

projections for the industry are 83,483 tonnes, 94,526 tonnes and 117,586 in 2010, 2015 and

2025 respectively (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries department).

Kenya Kenya Kenya Kenya

The fisheries sub-sector contributes an estimated KSh. 8 billion to the economy every year.

Lake Victoria fish contributes about 80% of the total catch. The sub-sector provides

employment and income to over 500,000 Kenyans engaged in fish production and related

enterprises. In terms of contribution to the gross domestic product (GDP), Kenya's fishing

industry has accounted for about 0.3% of GDP. In 2007, the annual fresh water fish landed

was 167,221 tonnes valued at KSh. 8.7 billion20. Of this, fresh water fish was 160,110 tonnes,

marine fish was 6,123 tonnes, crustaceans and molluscan fishes and other marine products

988 tonnes.

The Fisheries Department is the national institution mandated to manage the fisheries sector

and operates under the Ministry of Fisheries Development. Basic fisheries legislation is set

out in six parts and 26 sections of the Fisheries Act 1989 (Act No. 5 of 1989; revised 1991).

The Act applies to both marine and inland fisheries, and broadly empowers the Director of

Fisheries, with the approval of the Minister, to issue regulations to promote the development

of fisheries and aquaculture and to ensure the proper management of specific fisheries,

including the possibility of declaring closed seasons and/or areas, access limitations, and

restrictions on fishing methods, gear, and the characteristics of fish that may be caught.

20 GoK, Statistical Abstracts 2008


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Somalia has small fishing industry mostly in the Northern part of the country with Marine

fishing being the major source accounting to 95% of the country’s catch. The country’s fresh

water fish account for less than 1% of the total national catch. There was a steady growth

between 1980 and 2003 followed by a decline from then with poaching being blamed as the

major threat to the industry. The major marine fish include Tuna, Shark and other warm

water fish. The country’s potential is estimated at between 180,000 to 200,000 tonnes but

only 1% is exploited. Major export destinations include Italy, France and Saudi Arabia.


Despite Sudan having expansive waters, with inland area totaling 11,400 square kilometers

and a coastline of 717 kilometers, fisheries still contributes marginally to the country’s

economy. The major Inland sources include White Nile (Gebel Aulia Reservoir), Blue Nile

(Sennar Reservoir), Atban river (Khashum El Girba) and Lake Nile. Inland Fishing

contributes 90% of the country’s estimated potential under artisan and non modernized

methods of fishing. Fisheries accounted for only 0.4% GDP in 1999 with a per capita of

1.64kg/year.

According to Food and Agriculture 2003 the trade balance for Sudan was strong and

indicated potential growth exporting a total of 1,629 tonnes of Fish and products valued at

US$ 533,000 while importing only 157 tonnes at US$ 324,000.


Uganda is an Agricultural based economy with about 29% of her GDP being attributed

directly to Agriculture .Fisheries industry is very significant with an export value of US$ 142

million, 50% of which is sent to Europe ( Export Performance Analysis 2005 by Uganda

Export promotion Board July 2006). Lake Victoria accounts for approximately 60% of the

total landed catch, other sources though includes Lake Albert, Kyoga, Wamala and others. Of

the total catch, Nile Perch compose the bulk of the export. The industry has shown a positive

growth rate in the past decade with a growth rate of 38%. However, in the past four years,

there has been a decline in the production levels of the fish industry.


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Discussions with the fisheries Department revealed that the main challenges to the sub-

sector include:

i. Decline in volume and value of fisheries captured. The fisheries stock have reduced

by 5000 in recent past from 32,855 tonnes in 2006 to 28,394 in 2007

ii. Environmental degradation of fish habitats. The vegetative cover, especially in the

islands is badly degraded. The LBC projects are attempting to address this

iii. Regional trade in immature fish. Most fish being traded within the regional markets

are immature. Enforcement of regulations is necessary to address this

iv. HIV/AIDS amongst the fishing communities

v. Standards set by the export market. The current ADBs Fisheries Development Project

is trying to address the infrastructure needs of the sub-sector by improving markets.

Project is however closing in October-December 2009

Challenges to the Fishing SubsectorChallenges to the Fishing SubsectorChallenges to the Fishing SubsectorChallenges to the Fishing Subsector

The fish industry in GHA suffers three major challenges: First, lack of adequate data for

planning and management of the fisheries resources and secondly, the shrinking markets for

fish products due to inability of the industry to meet quality standards (Hazard Analysis

Critical Control Point —HACCP) set by the EU in the early 2000. The third challenge is the

shrinking fish resources due to a combination of issues. To solve the above problems, the

industry is in dire need of:

• A comprehensive study to determine the available fish resources in the country, the

potential for the industry and the challenges facing the industry especially due to

pollution of fresh water bodies, reducing water levels due to upstream environmental

degradation and other emerging threats

• Industry policy guidelines and strategy paper to outline best practices for all the

industry players and ensure various standards are met

Investment opportunitiesInvestment opportunitiesInvestment opportunitiesInvestment opportunities

The following investment opportunities are currently available in GHA fisheries industry:

• A large unexploited capture marine resource, which could find market in EU and

elsewhere. Currently, Kenya alone produces about 6,000 metric tonnes of marine fish

annually. It however has the potential to produce up to 260,000 metric tonnes


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• There is a large unexploited potential for aquaculture to supplement the capture

marine resources. This opportunity is mostly in mari-culture that would be a

profitable endeavour e.g. artemia, oysters etc

• Investment in deep sea fishing logistics including technical support

• Development of a fully-fledged fish processing industry and particularly setting up of

Tuna factories.

• Financing of fish processing plants

• Production of suitable packaging materials for packaging fish for export

Fish production trends (Fish production trends (Fish production trends (Fish production trends (tonnestonnestonnestonnes))))

• • FigureFigureFigureFigure 2222:::: Fish Production Trends (Source: FAOSTAT, 2009)

• From the above graph, Uganda is by far the greatest fish producer in the region. She

also recorded the highest growth among the countries in the GHA.


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APPENDIX 3: FORESTRY


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FORESTRYFORESTRYFORESTRYFORESTRY

Forests play an important role in balancing the gaseous fluctuations especially of CO2, CO

and O2 in the environment. They also fulfill the requirement of furniture, building materials,

water and feed for the livestock through their leaves and pods especially for browsing

animals. Forest cover across the GHA region is generally low. Table 8.1 shows the level of

forest cover as a percentage of total land area in the various GHA countries.

Table 1Table 1Table 1Table 1:::: Forest Cover Across the GHA CountryCountryCountryCountry Total land area (kmTotal land area (kmTotal land area (kmTotal land area (km2222)))) Percentage forest coverPercentage forest coverPercentage forest coverPercentage forest cover

Djibouti 23,180 -

Ethiopia 1,000,000 14.2

Kenya 569,140 1.7

Somalia 637,661 11.4

Sudan 2,376,000 28.4

Uganda 197,100 13.0

TotalTotalTotalTotal 4,803,081 19.2

There have been serious incidences of deforestation across the GHA member states. Most of

the deforestation happened within the last decade. Recent worrying revelations from Uganda

indicated that the country risks losing its entire forest cover in 50 years if no efforts are made

to stop the rapid deforestation21. In Kenya, it is predicted that the country risks losing its

entire coffee and tea subsectors within the next decade if deforestation is not controlled.

21 http://allafrica.com/stories/200808190257.html


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APPENDIX 4: APICULTURE


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APICULTUREAPICULTUREAPICULTUREAPICULTURE

Given that most of the GHA is arid and semi arid tropical climate, apiculture is a viable

economic activity. However, apiculture practices within the region has mostly been

rudimentary and underdeveloped. Traditional methods are still wide spread across the region

with bee keepers adopting beehives traditionally constructed from timber, bamboo or woven

from forest climbers.

In Kenya, beekeeping can be successfully carried out in about 80% of the country. Overall

the country’s potential for apiculture development is estimated at over 100,000 tonnes of

honey and 10,000 tonnes of beeswax. Ethiopia on the other hand produces an estimated 42

000 tonnes of honey, which is well below the country’s potential. Uganda estimates a current

production of 800-1,200 tonnes of honey per year due to lack of bee stock.

Beekeeping in Ethiopia is a major economic activity. Figure 2.9 shows the trend in bee hive

numbers in Ethiopia.

Beeswax production trends Beeswax production trends Beeswax production trends Beeswax production trends

FigureFigureFigureFigure. . . . 3:3:3:3: Beeswax Production Trend, Tonnes (Source: FAOSTAT, 2009)


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The graph above shows the trend of bee-keeping products in the GHA. Ethiopia is the

leading bee wax producer follwed by kenya in 2007. The growth in this sector is positive,

however small. There is great potential not yet tapped over the years.

FigureFigureFigureFigure. 4. 4. 4. 4:::: Trend in Beekeeping Development in Ethiopia

((((Source: FaoStat, 2009)

Apiculture contributes to incomes as well as food security through provision of honey,

beeswax and pollen as food and propolis, bees venom and royal jelly in medicine. There has

been little importance given to these alternative bee products yet they are the premium

products with potential for higher incomes.

It is estimated that only about a fifth of the total potential of bee production is currently

being exploited within the GHA. In recognition of that, the bee keepers association of

Uganda has recently launched a programme aimed at equipping bee keepers with the

technical skills to properly manage their hives.

Overall, the industry currently suffers several challenges. These include:

Horticulture:Horticulture:Horticulture:Horticulture: a threat from the fast growing horticulture industry especially in peri urban

areas due to chemical pollution of water and air from the insecticides used in

the flower industry. There is however a potential for coexistence between


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beekeeping and flower farming as in New Zealand where beekeeping

contributes between USD 600 million to USD 1.2 billion to the economy

annually where the interrelationship between bees and floriculture is valued.

California – USA presents another good example of where this

interrelationship has been positively developed.

Technology: Technology: Technology: Technology: there has been low adoption of technologies in the industry. Bee keepers

depend mostly on the traditional methods of comb management. Several

local honey processing firms have recentlybeen incorporated across the

region. These firms, however, concentrate on in the processing of honey and

ignoring other premium bee products.

Market information: Market information: Market information: Market information: Most of the regions where bees are produced have very low access to

infrastructure and therefore to markets. In Kenya, for example, these are

mainly in eastern and Rift Valley provinces. In Ethiopia, beekeeping is

mostly developed in Oromiya, SNNPR, Amhara and Tigray, in that order.

Technical Support: Technical Support: Technical Support: Technical Support: Apiculture remains one of the industries where formal technical support

is still difficult to find within the government systems. Only a few

institutions in the region provide technical expertise in beekeeping. In

Kenya, Baraka Agricultural Institute Colleges train experts in apiculture.


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APPENDIX 5: LIVESTOCK TRADE

AND MARKETING

INFRASTRUCTURE


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LIVESTOCK TRADE AND MARKETING INFRASTRUCTURELIVESTOCK TRADE AND MARKETING INFRASTRUCTURELIVESTOCK TRADE AND MARKETING INFRASTRUCTURELIVESTOCK TRADE AND MARKETING INFRASTRUCTURE

Role of Livestock in Role of Livestock in Role of Livestock in Role of Livestock in GHA EconomyGHA EconomyGHA EconomyGHA Economy

OverallOverallOverallOverall

The economic performance within the GHA has been weak over the last decade. With the

exception of Sudan and Uganda, an average economic growth of 3.8% among the rest of

GHA has barely kept pace with a population growth rate averaged at 2.4%. Kenya and

Djibouti have recorded falling per capita incomes within the last decade aggravating an

already bad situation given that per capita incomes within the GHA are some of the lowest in

the world.

As already described, agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of the GHA countries

contributing from 3.7% to 52.3% of GDP while employing over three quarters of the

population across the region. However, between 19.8% and 88.2% of the agriculture sector

contribution to the GDP comes from livestock, averaged at about 57%. Therefore, the

contribution of the livestock sector to the GHA economies cannot be ignored. Table 2.2

shows the contribution of livestock to the overall agricultural GDP and the overall country

GDP across the GHA

4444....2222 MarketingMarketingMarketingMarketing

The significance of marketing in the development of sustainable livestock sector cannot be

overstated as effective marketing is a key driver of any sustainable production process. An

analysis of the sector showed that the GHA region suffers from dilapidated livestock

marketing infrastructure (quarantine stations, veterinary checkpoints, stock routes, holding

grounds) and poorly organized livestock market information systems which constitute major

constraints for livestock producers. This lack of market infrastructure has hampered access to

market information by livestock farmers. Improvement of this infrastructure coupled with a

modern market information system has the potential of improving market access and

profitability of the livestock enterprises.

Livestock market within the region may be looked at from three perspectives namely, the

external market characterised by stringent OIE rules and bilateral agreements, the regional

market within which countries can negotiate and agree on various standards and internal

markets within the individual countries.


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4.24.24.24.2.1.1.1.1 External marketExternal marketExternal marketExternal market

Case study of the Regional Quarantine Facility, DjiboutiCase study of the Regional Quarantine Facility, DjiboutiCase study of the Regional Quarantine Facility, DjiboutiCase study of the Regional Quarantine Facility, Djibouti

The livestock quarantine facility in Djibouti is one of the facilities within the region linking

the GHA livestock sector to the market, mostly in the Middle East. The facility facilitates the

export of live animals from Ethiopia, Somalia and Djibouti. Table 7.1 shows the percentage of

various types of livestock received by the facility for the period May 2007 to April 2009.

Table Table Table Table 2222:::: Country contributions to livestock exports at the Djibouti quarantine station

Type of livestockType of livestockType of livestockType of livestock Country of originCountry of originCountry of originCountry of origin Mean weightsMean weightsMean weightsMean weights

Somalia Ethiopia

Sheep and goats 92 8 25-40 kg

Cattle 32 68 Ethiopia: 300-450kg

Somalia: 150-300 kg

Camels 61 39 Ethiopia: ≥ 400 kg

Somalia: ≤ 300 kg

Figure 7.1 shows the number of live animals exported from the facility between March 2007

and April 2008. In terms of numbers, sheep and goats composed 92% of all live animals

exported from the facility during the period.


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FigureFigureFigureFigure. 5. 5. 5. 5: Live animals exported from the regional quarantine centre, Djibouti: Live animals exported from the regional quarantine centre, Djibouti: Live animals exported from the regional quarantine centre, Djibouti: Live animals exported from the regional quarantine centre, Djibouti ((((Source: Source: Source: Source:

Regional livestock quarantine centre, Djibouti)Regional livestock quarantine centre, Djibouti)Regional livestock quarantine centre, Djibouti)Regional livestock quarantine centre, Djibouti)

Assessment of the marketing modelAssessment of the marketing modelAssessment of the marketing modelAssessment of the marketing model

The livestock marketing model adopted by the quarantine facility in Djibouti is presented in

Figure 7.2. The facility acts as a linkage between the livestock producers and the market.

Transport of livestock, facilities and services form an important part of the model. The model

is dependent, to a greater extent, on the legal and regulatory framework posed by the host

country and by several other international players. It is further dependent on the

infrastructure on the ground for its transport system.

FigureFigureFigureFigure. 6. 6. 6. 6: : : : Regional quarantine Station Marketing Model

LessLessLessLessons from the Regional Quarantine Facility ons from the Regional Quarantine Facility ons from the Regional Quarantine Facility ons from the Regional Quarantine Facility

i.i.i.i. Public Private Partnerships in Livestock DevelopmentPublic Private Partnerships in Livestock DevelopmentPublic Private Partnerships in Livestock DevelopmentPublic Private Partnerships in Livestock Development


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It is possible to develop a working public-private sector partnership in the livestock sector.

Such a partnership can be at the level of production, value addition or marketing. The public

sector however, must do more to create a conducive policy, legal and regulatory framework

to facilitate such partnerships.

ii.ii.ii.ii. CrossCrossCrossCross----Border Livestock TradeBorder Livestock TradeBorder Livestock TradeBorder Livestock Trade

The regional livestock quarantine facility obtains livestock for export from Ethiopia and

Somalia. These transactions are properly documented and the necessary revenues paid to the

host country. This is an important lesson that can help curb informal cross-border trade

through which governments lose substantial revenues.

iii.iii.iii.iii. DeaDeaDeaDealing with Punitive Terms of Tradeling with Punitive Terms of Tradeling with Punitive Terms of Tradeling with Punitive Terms of Trade

Certain trading conditions posed by Western countries have serious negative impacts on

livestock production across the region. Adoption of the model above may reduce a country’s

vulnerability to the general bans that are sometimes imposed by the western markets on

local livestock and livestock products.

Importation of Livestock Products Importation of Livestock Products Importation of Livestock Products Importation of Livestock Products

Table Table Table Table 2:2:2:2: main Livestock Products Imported by GHA Countries (2007) Source: FAOSTAT 2009

CountryCountryCountryCountry Livestock product within top 20 Livestock product within top 20 Livestock product within top 20 Livestock product within top 20

imports imports imports imports into country in 2007into country in 2007into country in 2007into country in 2007

Quantity (Quantity (Quantity (Quantity (tonnestonnestonnestonnes)))) Value (‘000 Value (‘000 Value (‘000 Value (‘000

USD)USD)USD)USD)

Djibouti • Milk

• Cattle meat

• Chicken meat

4,996

7,830

5,786

12,171

13,388

5,348

Eritrea • Milk

• Cattle meat

• Chicken meat

N/A

N/A

94

N/A

N/A

137

Ethiopia No livestock product import ranked


N/A N/A

Kenya No livestock product import ranked


N/A N/A

Sudan • Whole Milk

• Skim milk

23,266

3,368

153,577

14,423


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Uganda No livestock product import ranked


N/A N/A

4444....2222.2.2.2.2 Regional marketRegional marketRegional marketRegional market

Cross border livestock trade represents one of the most significant growth areas of regional

trade in Eastern Africa. The trade is now being considered as one of the few success stories in

the regional livestock sector. The overall cross-border trade in the region is estimated to be

in excess of USD 60 million annually with the GHA countries contributing to over 70% of

this trade. Figure 7 shows the growth in cross border trade between Somalia/Kenya,

Ethiopia/Kenya and Ethiopia/Sudan between 1991 and 2007.

FigureFigureFigureFigure.... 7: 7: 7: 7: Cross Border Livestock Trade in the GHA (Source: COMESA, 2009)

Despite its immense capacity to contribute to national economies and poverty alleviation,

regional cross-border trade within the GHA is poorly understood even by policy makers and

as such remains poorly developed. This has ensured that the trade remains largely informal.

Some of the challenges facing regional cross-border trade in livestock are:

i.i.i.i. Lack of Marketing Infrastructure within Pastoral Communities Lack of Marketing Infrastructure within Pastoral Communities Lack of Marketing Infrastructure within Pastoral Communities Lack of Marketing Infrastructure within Pastoral Communities along the Bordersalong the Bordersalong the Bordersalong the Borders

The GHA member countries share long stretches of borderline that is usually poorly manned

and lack basic livestock marketing infrastructure. The borderlines lack livestock holding


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grounds, security, customs posts, among other vital facilities. In most cases, basic facilities

like customs posts are situated up to 200 km apart.

ii.ii.ii.ii. Market InformationMarket InformationMarket InformationMarket Information

Small scale traders and patoralists often find themselves vulnerable to brokers at the

borderlines due to lack of market information. This makes them lose to the more informed

traders who exploit their ignorance. However, the use of cellular phone technology is rapidly

sealing this information gap.

iii.iii.iii.iii. Animal HealthAnimal HealthAnimal HealthAnimal Health

It is difficult to for pastoralists to effectively participate in the collection of vital livestock

health data and participate in vaccination programs unless they are adequately empowered

through sensitization and effective coordination within the pastoral regions. TADs therefore

remain a challenge throughout the region due to the capacity lapse at the borders.

iv.iv.iv.iv. Centralized Decision MakingCentralized Decision MakingCentralized Decision MakingCentralized Decision Making

In most instances, decision making, even at official border points is slow as local

organizations and institutions are entirely dependent on the central government for

decisions related to trade. This encourages local pastoralists to seek alternative and quicker

methods of trading on their livestock.

v.v.v.v. Conflicts and InsecurityConflicts and InsecurityConflicts and InsecurityConflicts and Insecurity

Cross-border conflicts within the GHA have for a long time negatively impacted on trade. It

is reported22 that:

i. CBT between Somalia and Kenya has been halted several times in recent years due

to conflict and by Kenya’s concerns about insecurity in Somalia;

ii. CBT between Ethiopia and Eritrea has been virtually nil since the war between

the countries halted the trade in the late 1990s;

22 Little, P. D. 2007. Unofficial cross border trade in eastern Africa. Presented at the FAO

workshop on “Staple Food Trade and Market Policy Options for Promoting Development in

Eastern and Southern Africa,” March 1-2, 2007, FAO Headquarters, Rome, Italy


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iii. CBT between Uganda/Kenya and southern Sudan was stopped several times in

recent years because of conflict and insecurity.

iv. CBT between Ethiopia and Somalia/Somaliland has been slowed numerous times

in recent years due to conflict, as well as increased confiscations of trade goods by

government officials.

4444....2.32.32.32.3 Internal MarketsInternal MarketsInternal MarketsInternal Markets

Over the years, local demand for livestock products has exceeded supply. The GHA region

therefore remains a net importer of most livestock products. Net trade in livestock products

has largely been negative with imports exceeding exports as shown in Figures 8a-d

FigureFigureFigureFigure 8888a: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Djiboutia: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Djiboutia: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Djiboutia: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Djibouti


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FigureFigureFigureFigure 8888b: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Kenyab: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Kenyab: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Kenyab: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Kenya

FigureFigureFigureFigure 8888c: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Sudanc: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Sudanc: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Sudanc: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Sudan


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FigFigFigFigureureureure 8888d: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Ugandad: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Ugandad: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Ugandad: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Uganda

In Somalia, livestock marketing is mainly a private sector affair through dealers and local

markets. Livestock are used to supply local markets, shipped to various countries in the

Arabian Peninsula, and trekked or transported to markets in Kenya and Ethiopia. Livestock

also enter Somalia through the borders with Ethiopia and Kenya.

4.34.34.34.3 InfrastructureInfrastructureInfrastructureInfrastructure

A well developed physical infrastructure is necessary for the development of sustainable

livestock sector. Physical infrastructure across the GHA region and more specifically in

pastoral regions is poorly developed. This has retarded the production and marketing efforts

in the livestock sector leading to widespread poverty.

Road and Rail Road and Rail Road and Rail Road and Rail transport network within the GHA is generally underdeveloped. There is

generally absence of road and rail network in the pastoral regions and where they exist, they

are generally in poor conditions. There are, however, efforts to improve especially the road

network. Some of these efforts include the ongoing efforts to complete the Addis-Nairobi

highway linking Kenya and Ethiopia. Over long distances though, like in the case of the

Sudan, it is more efficient and cost-effective to transport live animals by rail other than by


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road. The need for further enhanced investments in road and rail within the region can

however, not be overemphasized.

EnergyEnergyEnergyEnergy, especially electricity is an important factor in supporting production and marketing

activities in the livestock sector. The energy sector within the GHA is quite underdeveloped.

In Ethiopia, for example, 13% of the population is estimated to have access to electricity grid

compared to about 8% in Kenya. Uganda has only about 6% of the population covered. These

figures compare miserably to those found elsewhere. In Western Europe for example about

98% of the population is covered while in Africa, Ghana for example, has 35% access to

electric power and South Africa enjoys over 80% access to electricity. Egypt enjoys about 9%

connectivity. There is therefore, need to invest heavily in the sector to enhance its

productivity.

Efficient telecommunicationstelecommunicationstelecommunicationstelecommunications system is a useful tool in bridging the information gap between

producers and markets. It is also useful in ensuring the sharing of data necessary for decision

making by the producers. The livestock sector requires an effective telecommunication

system to support its activities. GHA countries are currently implementing aggressive

telecommunications policies. The cellular phone has gone a long way in ensuring populations

is linked to the national telecommunications grid. In Kenya, over 50% of the populations

now have access to cellular phone. Access to the service in Djibouti is still beyond the reach

of most pastoral livestock farmers. The wireless telephone system provides a tremendous

opportunity to expeditiously and effectively provide 100% access to livestock producers. This

system should be pursued for both voice and data communication in the sector.

On internet infrastructure,internet infrastructure,internet infrastructure,internet infrastructure, GHA countries are making considerable efforts in ensuring

internet services accessible to majority of their citizens. Access to internet infrastructure

would support production activities in the livestock sector. An international consortium is

currently installing undersea fibre optic cable under The East African Marine Systems

(TEAMS) project that is meant to enhance access to internet services in the region. The

countries of Djibouti and Ethiopia are also in the process of installing their own fibre optic

cable under the SEA ME WE 5 project. The mobile GSM system provides an opportunity for

100% access to the internet by producers in the sector.

In general, livestock marketing Infrastructure Improvement Programme (LMIIP) in the

region should focus on the following:


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i. A special livestock improvement fund, a credit scheme for livestock farmers

ii. Physical infrastructure development project, targeting pastoral areas

iii. Marketing infrastructure improvement project

Market access:Market access:Market access:Market access: Existing markets for most of the livestock and livestock products are usually

located in the major towns and cities. However, in most instances, there exists localized

market centres within the ASAL regions (Delloitte, 2006). Livestock have to be trekked long

distances, sometimes hundreds of kilometers to access markets. There is need for the

establishment of bulking sites as temporary holding grounds for livestock before

transportation to the major markets.

Information: Information: Information: Information: Lack of market information makes livestock farmers in the ASALs vulnerable to

abuse by the few middlemen who are their only source of price information. Expanded

extension services, investments in infrastructure and mass media can play an important role

in ensuring market information reaches the livestock farmers.

4.44.44.44.4 Value AddiValue AddiValue AddiValue Additiontiontiontion



packaging, conditioned transport, production of cheese, butter, yoghurt and other products.

Production of leather products, dried milk, buttons, dressed poultry, glue, cooking fat, gun

powder are also important to the value addition chain.

It is necessary that infrastructure for primary and secondary value addition be in place in

order to maximize returns from the livestock sector. This infrastructure includes holding

pens, cattle dips, animal housing, abattoirs, tanneries, dairies, cooling plants and other

relevant facilities.

In Kenya, there are private and public sector infrastructure for value addition in the livestock

sector. These include the Government-owned Kenya Meat Commission which slaughters

and processes products from cattle, sheep and goats. Farmers Choice is a private sector firm

which processes products from pigs, cattle and poultry. The firm produces sausages, bacon,

ham, pork and other products for both local and external markets. Kenchick Limited


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processes eggs and broilers for the local and export markets. In Uganda, Ugachick Limited

processes eggs and broilers for the local and export market.

Milk is produced from various animal sources in GHA. These include cows, goats, sheep and

camels. The most developed infrastructure for milk processing exists in Kenya. These include

the state-owned Kenya Cooperative Creameries and private and cooperative sector firms

such as Brookside Dairies Limited, Spinknit Limited, Limuru Dairies, Kwale Dairies, among

others. In Uganda, Sameer Agriculture and Livestock is one of the largest milk processing

firms. Others include Alpha Dairy Products (U) Limited, Jesa Firm dairy and GBK Dairy

Products (U) Limited, among others. Sudan and Ethiopia also have several private milk

processors.

A Delloite/USAID study carried out in 2006, in its analysis of the hides and skins sub-sector,

noted that Kenya has a great potential for value addition. The sub-sector however

experiences the following problems:

v. Low local demand for hides and skins especially for camel hides

vi. Small domestic market due to the closure of tanneries and suppressed market for

domestic leather products sue to uncontrolled importation of second hand products

vii. Poor quality of hides and skins due to poor flaying and curing methods

viii. High investment costs requirements and stringent standards for environmental

management

The value addition products from the dairy sector include fresh milk, whole milk, fermented

milk, flavoured milk, skim milk, condensed milk, dried milk powder, butter, ghee, cheese

and yorghut, among others. There is tremendous scope for increase in milk production and

amount of processed products. For example, in Kenya, 80% of the milk is marketed and

consumed in the raw form thus reducing the potential for earning higher incomes. Needless

to say, consumption of raw milk also poses health risks. Per capita consumption of milk

within the GHA region is way below the world average at just about 10%. There is therefore,

a large potential for investment in value addition capacity in the region for increased

incomes and improved livelihoods.

Quality StandardsQuality StandardsQuality StandardsQuality Standards

In a 2007 study on the Competitive Commercial Agriculture in Sub–Saharan Africa (CCAA) commissioned by the World Bank and the FAO, Sub-Saharan Africa’s inability to meet the


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increasing international demands for animal certification and traceability was cited as one of

the major hindrances to the development of the sector. GHA countries have suffered a lot in

having trade bans imposed on their livestock exports from time to time. The region

continues to put in place measures targeted at helping clear this barrier. Some of these efforts

include:

i. The plans to put up DFZs in Kenya, Uganda and Sudan

ii. Establishment of regional quarantine facilities in Djibouti and Sudan

iii. Continuous bilateral negotiations

iv. Capacity building through participation in Pan-SPSO and other initiatives

v. Construction of new and improvement of existing abattoirs across the region

vi. Efforts to have an integrated livestock information management system for planning

and traceability, among other efforts


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APPENDIX 6: STRENGTHS AND

WEAKNESSES OF SECTOR

INSTITUTIONS


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SUMMARY OF STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED IN LIVESTOCK, WATER AND SUMMARY OF STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED IN LIVESTOCK, WATER AND SUMMARY OF STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED IN LIVESTOCK, WATER AND SUMMARY OF STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED IN LIVESTOCK, WATER AND

PASTURE DEVELOPMENTPASTURE DEVELOPMENTPASTURE DEVELOPMENTPASTURE DEVELOPMENT

InstitutionsInstitutionsInstitutionsInstitutions StrengthsStrengthsStrengthsStrengths WeaknessesWeaknessesWeaknessesWeaknesses

Policy level • Flexible macroeconomic policies

• Specific ministries to facilitate policy

formulation

• Policies that support innovation

• Policy revisions indicate adaptability

and progression

• Lack of strong regional policies to enhance cross border

cooperation of various aspects of livestock production

• Lack of strong livestock policy think tanks to influence policy

decisions

• Ministries in charge of livestock, pastures and water resources

are normally separate creating problems of synchronization and

coordination of activities

• Challenges in translating policy statements into workable

strategies for the livestock sector

• Lack of strong national and regional policies to support genetic

resources preservation and improvement

Production and

marketing organizations

(Animal Production

Societies, Dairy Unions,

Chambers of

Commerce, Exporters

Associations, etc)

• Government systems across the region

promote the formation and

sustainability of production and

marketing organizations

• Enthusiastic public interested in

exploring external markets

• Varying synergies across the region with some member

countries having developed fairly strong production and

marketing organizations while others lag behind

• No legal backing to production and marketing organizations to

enforce standards

• Membership to these organizations are largely voluntary

Research institutions

(Universities, ILRI,

NARO, ARC, EIAR)

• Strong technical capacity at ILRI

• Strong regional cooperation in

research between some member

countries (Kenya/Uganda)

• Universities keen on livestock

• Crop research has been promoted at the expense of livestock

research

• Research on forage virtually missing out

• Low collaborative work between institutions in the region

• Low funding


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research

• Strong FAO presence in the region to

facilitate information exchange

• Low dissemination of research information

Extension services

(Ministries, NAADS,

FTCs, ATVET colleges )

• Government in charge of most

extension work

• Ongoing efforts to promote linkages

between research and extension

services in Ethiopia through the

Research Extension Advisory Council

(REAC). These efforts however,

require institutional strengthening

• Non-uniformity in approaches to extension service delivery

• Understaffing

• Poor physical infrastructure affecting accessibility

• Underfunding of agriculture and livestock extension services

Professional associations

(Veterinary

Associations,

Institutions of

Engineers, etc)

• Several associations exist for the

entire spectrum of livestock

production

• There is increasing regional linkages

among individual associations

• Low level coordination between the associations and policy

arms of Government

• Lack of legal backing for their activities

• Pasture development has increasingly been neglected

• Regional policy to enhance free interaction still missing

Veterinary service

delivery (Ministries,

Veterinary Boards,

Pharmacy Boards)

• Strong veterinary support especially

in Ethiopia, Kenya and Sudan

• Adequate expertise within the region

in most of the specialties

•

• Vastness of pastoral regions hamper accessibility to veterinary

services

• Vast borders affect cross-border surveillance of TADs

• Uneven distribution of veterinary officers with pastoral areas

suffering most

Projects and

Programmes (Donors,

NGOs, Governments)

• High enthusiasm among donor

community in support of livestock,

water and pasture development

• Large number of complimentary

projects and programmes are

• Lack of effective Government mechanism to coordinate

projects and programmes in pastoral regions leading to

duplication and sometimes neglect in some regions

• Conflicts within pastoral areas sometimes negate achievements

already made


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underway among pastoral

communities and regions

Finance (Public sector,

Commercial Banks,

Microfinance

Institutions)

• Strong banking sector exists within

the region supported by a strong

regulatory environment

• Emerging microfinance institutions

able to penetrate to the remote

pastoral areas

• Overburdened exchequer

• Commercial banks do not seem to appreciate the specific needs

of the livestock farmers especially pastoralists

• Interest rates that prohibit borrowing

Institutions for water

infrastructure

improvement

(Government ministries

or their agents, private

sector)

• Supportive policy environment is

opening sector to private participation

across the region

• Governments still maintain some

reserve capacity to develop

infrastructure

• Community involvement in water

sector to ensure sustainability of

sector activities

• Low enthusiasm for private sector players due to low-level

incentives

• Inadequate government reserve capacity to implement large

projects

• Communities lack technical and managerial skills to sustainably

manage and maintain water supply infrastructure

• Low water table in pastoral areas

• Poor water quality

Institutions for pasture

development (Research

institutions, produces

associations,

Governments)

• High demand for pasture

• Large rangelands with potential for

pasture development

• Availability of large pasture varieties

• Availability of expertise within the

region

• Water scarcity due to harsh climatic conditions

• Underdeveloped irrigation systems

• Lack of dedicate research institutions to support pasture

research

• Low institutional capacity for pasture seed reproduction

• Low adoption rates even where research and extension services

are available


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 222

Table Table Table Table 3333:::: Contribution of Livestock to Regional GDP

CountryCountryCountryCountry YearYearYearYear GDP GDP GDP GDP

(Billion (Billion (Billion (Billion

USD)USD)USD)USD)

Share of Share of Share of Share of

agricultural GDP agricultural GDP agricultural GDP agricultural GDP

in overall GDPin overall GDPin overall GDPin overall GDP

Share of livestock Share of livestock Share of livestock Share of livestock

GDGDGDGDP in P in P in P in

agricultural GDPagricultural GDPagricultural GDPagricultural GDP

Share of livestock Share of livestock Share of livestock Share of livestock

GDP in overall GDPGDP in overall GDPGDP in overall GDPGDP in overall GDP

DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti 1980 - - 86.3 -

1990 0.5 3.3 89.5 3.0

2000 0.5 3.7 84.7 3.1

2004 0.5 - 82.2 -

EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea 1980 - - - -

1990 - - - -

2000 0.6 17.1 56.5 9.7

2004 - - - -

EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia 1980 - 56.1 36.8 20.6

1990 5.1 49.3 39.1 19.3

2000 7.5 52.3 32.5 17.0

2004

KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya 1980 5.6 32.6 49.4 16.1

1990 8.4 29.1 53.3 15.5

2000 9.9 19.9 52.4 10.4

2004 10.1 25.7 47.0 12.1

SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia 1980 - 68.4 88.0 60.2

1990 - 65.5 82.5 54.0

2000 - - 88.2 -

2004 2.1 60.0 - 40.0

SudanSudanSudanSudan 1980 4.3 32.9 54.1 17.8

1990 4.8 32.8 65.5 21.5

2000 9.9 37.2 61.8 23.0

2004 10.8 - 55.0 -

UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda 1980 - 72.0 24.2 17.4

1990 4.1 56.6 20.9 11.8

2000 7.7 42.5 19.8 8.1

2004 8.8 38.8 14.4 5.6

Source: Adapted from FAO, 2004


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APPENDIX 7: PROSOPIS


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PROSOPISPROSOPISPROSOPISPROSOPIS

The problem of Prosopis trees (sometimes referred to as ‘Mathenge’ species) as invasive

weeds is a widespread issue in many ASAL regions. This brief is of interest to many

individuals and organizations, especially those making decisions concerning land use

directly or the use of resources from the land.

ASALs in the GHoA is not alone in having invasive Prosopis weeds, and a global consensus

of opinion is now emerging on how to deal with this problem. In some countries, Prosopis

has often been called the ‘tree of the poor’, but it could, with a little help, become the tree

which helps lift the poor to a better and sustainable life.

The Prosopis weed problem has had a dramatic impact on the environment and livelihoods

of pastoral communities, and borders on being considered a national disaster. Pastoralists

inhabit most of the areas where Prosopis occurs.

The impenetrable thickets that characterise most Prosopis infestations have mostly out-

competed grass and related rangeland forage – making its threats far outweigh any current

benefits.

Management of ProsopisManagement of ProsopisManagement of ProsopisManagement of Prosopis

Experiences from the Americas, Asia and Australia have shown that eradication of Prosopis

has proven to be very difficult or sometimes considered impossible. This is largely because

the trees re-grow from vegetative buds and from massive underground seed banks, with

seed production in dense stands estimated at 60 million per hectare per year (GISP, 2004).

Seeds usually lie dormant in the soil for up to 10 years. Mass germination is stimulated

when the surrounding vegetation is removed or the soil is disturbed. Prosopis management

and control programmes therefore need to be sustained for long periods to gain total

control of the spread, and are very costly. As part of the effort to identify solutions for

poverty alleviation, utilisation is a crucial strategic option. This will minimise the negative

impacts of the species as a necessary step to make the best of the situation that is hardly

reversible, particularly in the current poor state of knowledge on its management.

Intervention measuresIntervention measuresIntervention measuresIntervention measures

Many people are benefiting from Prosopis tree, by using or selling the fuelwood or pods. In

a number of areas in Kenya, a bushel of firewood sells for Ksh 54 (US$ 0.74) and a 90 kg

bag of pods for Ksh 100 (US$ 1.4) (Choge et al., 2002). By collecting pods and clearing

weedy trees for fuel wood, the spread of prosopis is reduced and jobs are created. This is


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 225

still only scratching the surface, but two problems, what to do with Prosopis and how to

boost the rural economy, are addressed simultaneously.

The value of ProsopisThe value of ProsopisThe value of ProsopisThe value of Prosopis

During a preliminary survey, the Kenya Forestry Research Institute and the Forest

Department found the value of Prosopis-based income in 2002 to be Ksh 154,882 (US$

2,122) per household per year (Choge et al., 2002). This trade developed spontaneously

even without permits needed for transporting charcoal and with no access to invaded

government and communal land. Overcoming these barriers could see a large increase in

revenues earned and land cleared, just for fuel and fodder.

FigureFigureFigureFigure 9999: Prosopis encroaching into homesteads and gathering Prosopis for firewood

Businesses and small industries can develop, as they have in other countries, and with such

a common and ‘free’ resource may need no prompting if some restrictions are lifted or

other help is offered.

Adding valueAdding valueAdding valueAdding value

Prosopis posts and poles, sawn timber, charcoal, gums, honey and human food are also

produced and sold in other countries. All make more money than just firewood and animal

feed. Wood and pods can be turned into a range of products through home-scale and

factory processing and where they are utilized as such; they are managed and are rarely

invasive.


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APPENDIX 8: PAYMENT FOR

ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES


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PAYMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICESPAYMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICESPAYMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICESPAYMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES

Pastoralists render important contributions to environmental conservation that in most

cases is grossly undervalued. Deriving from the above, there has lately been some interest

globally on the PES as a method of sharing environmental conservation costs and benefits

amongst stakeholders. Such payments could be made in consideration of:

• Carbon sequestration in rangeland soils, for climate change mitigation

• Biodiversity, of plants, wild fauna and livestock

• Wind erosion reduction

• Improved water productivity

There are currently very few examples of PES actually being implemented in extensive

livestock production systems, let alone pastoral ones. DFID reports on the GEF-funded

Regional Integrated Silvopastoral Approaches to Ecosystem Management on degraded

pasture land in Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Colombia. Projects which involve benefit-

sharing of wildlife-tourism revenues, most notably the GEF-funded ILRI/African Wildlife

Foundation project and the Novel Forms of Livestock and Wildlife Integration Adjacent to

Protected Areas in Tanzania,23 are also mentioned in this context.

PES in pastoral or rangeland contexts raises immediate questions of to whom payments can

be paid when land is owned and managed collectively, often with overlapping and fuzzy

claims. Payments specifically for carbon sequestration raise a further technical question of

the low carbon sequestration capacity of semi-arid soils, and the subsequent need to

operate at very large scales to realise significant climate mitigation benefits. But PES for

pastoralists and on rangelands appears to be an important topic for research and policy

debates.

4.54.54.54.5 Compliance with Environmental Laws and RegulationsCompliance with Environmental Laws and RegulationsCompliance with Environmental Laws and RegulationsCompliance with Environmental Laws and Regulations

Most countries in GHA have put in place laws and institutions necessary for ensuring that

environmental management standards are adhered to when planning and implementing

development projects. In Kenya, the Environmental Management and Coordination Act,

1999 (EMCA, 1999) and Regulations 2003 is the national law that governs all issues of

environmental management with respect to any proposed projects. NEMA Uganda under

the Ministry of Water and Environment is the statutory body empowered by the

Government of Uganda to enforce environmental laws and regulations. The Ethiopian

Environmental Protection Authority was established under the Environment Policy in an

23 http://www.ilri.org/research/Content.asp?SID=130&CCID=41. 23 August 2009


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 228

effort to harmonise laws governing environmental conservation. The EPA is fully

operational and adequately capacitated to enforce environmental regulations. In Sudan, the

Ministry of Environment and Tourism, through the National Environmental Action Plan

(NEAP) is responsible for enforcing environmental standards.

Given the cross-cutting nature of environmental issues, several other laws and institutions

across the region work together with the Environmental Authorities on specific subjects

such as water, land and health.

AfDB Policy on Environment: AfDB Policy on Environment: AfDB Policy on Environment: AfDB Policy on Environment: AfDB has Environment Policy document for use by the

bank in evaluating its interventions. It outlines AfDB’s internal mechanisms for ensuring

compliance and mainstreaming environmental considerations. The policy also references

AfDB’s Environmental and Social Assessment Procedures and public consultation

requirements. Compliance with these requirements is mandatory for all Bank supported

projects.

World Bank Environmental and Social Safeguards: World Bank Environmental and Social Safeguards: World Bank Environmental and Social Safeguards: World Bank Environmental and Social Safeguards: The World Bank has ten (10)

environmental and social safeguard policies used in the Bank to examine the potential

environmental and social risks and benefits associated with Bank lending operation.

Compliance of all the ten environmental and social safeguards would be mandatory for any

WB financed activity.

European Union Environmental Policy: European Union Environmental Policy: European Union Environmental Policy: European Union Environmental Policy: The overall direction of EU environment policy is

laid out in the organization’s latest action program—“Environment 2010: Our Future, Our

Choice.” It concentrates on four priority areas: climate change; nature and biodiversity;

environment and health; and natural resources and waste. Also, an Environment and

Health Action Plan for 2004-2010 promotes a close relationship between health,

environment and research policy.

Others:Others:Others:Others: It is noted that various financing institutions have their policies that would have to

be complied with. Project implementers would therefore, have to be conscious of the same.

4.5.14.5.14.5.14.5.1 Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP)Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP)Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP)Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP)

The ESMP outlines the environmental impacts identified, the mitigation measures

proposed, timeframe necessary for undertaking the mitigation measures, the cost and the

person(s) responsible for effecting the measures. For each proposed interventions (see

concept notes), a comprehensive ESMP will need to be developed as part of the project

preparation documents.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 229

4.5.24.5.24.5.24.5.2 Resettlement Resettlement Resettlement Resettlement

It is unlikely that any of the measures envisaged in this report would lead to displacement

of persons or disruption of livelihoods. However, it is recognized that in certain cases, it

may be difficult to completely avoid displacement of persons. Every effort shall be made to

avoid displacement of persons. Where this happens, the project implementers would have

to make reference to the relevant policy guidelines on the same. Some of these guidelines

are outlined below:

AfDB Policy on Involuntary Resettlement: AfDB Policy on Involuntary Resettlement: AfDB Policy on Involuntary Resettlement: AfDB Policy on Involuntary Resettlement: The Involuntary Resettlement Policy outlines

the responsibilities of the AfDB and the borrower regarding the forced relocation of people

for AfDB projects. The policy’s goal is to ensure that resettled people receive assistance and

share in the benefits of the project so that their livelihoods are improved. Requirements for

the preparation of a resettlement plan are included in the policy document.

World Bank Policy on Involuntary Resettlement:World Bank Policy on Involuntary Resettlement:World Bank Policy on Involuntary Resettlement:World Bank Policy on Involuntary Resettlement: The World Bank involuntary

resettlement policy states that project planning must avoid and minimize involuntary

resettlement, and that if people lose their homes or livelihoods as a result of Bank-financed

projects, they should have their standard of living improved, or at least restored.

Adherence to the strict requirements of the policy is mandatory for Bank supported

interventions.

Local Legislations:Local Legislations:Local Legislations:Local Legislations: legislation regarding involuntary resettlement in IGAD member states

are scattered in the various statutes. However, the fundamental requirement of

compensation and restoration advocated for the WB and most development partners apply

in all instances.

International Conventions and Treaties:International Conventions and Treaties:International Conventions and Treaties:International Conventions and Treaties: IGAD member states are signatories to several

international conventions on environmental conservation. It is therefore important that

implementation of any projects do not conflict with the region’s global commitments.

Some of these conventions are:

• Convention on Biodiversity

• Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species

• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

• United Nations Convention to Combat desertification

• Important Bird Areas

• International Waters

• Nile treaties


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 230

APPENDIX 9: EFFECTS OF

DROUGHT AND FLOODS TO

PASTORALISTS


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 231

EFFECTS OF DROUGHT AND FLOODS TO PASTORALISTSEFFECTS OF DROUGHT AND FLOODS TO PASTORALISTSEFFECTS OF DROUGHT AND FLOODS TO PASTORALISTSEFFECTS OF DROUGHT AND FLOODS TO PASTORALISTS

DroughtsDroughtsDroughtsDroughts

In a study carried out for the IWMI between 2002 and 2003 in Isiolo district of Kenya,

Mati et al (2005) determined that the total water demand for humans and livestock in the rural areas of Isiolo District was about 6,018 m3 per day, which was equivalent to 2.2

million cubic metres per year. Developed water sources were however, poorly distributed,

amounting to 123 sources/points, of which only 44 (36%) were operational during the dry

season. There was no piped/tap water in the rural areas and the district relied mostly on

boreholes, accounting for 58 percent of all developed water facilities which was an over-

reliance on ground water in a region where only 20% had good groundwater potential.

Supply and demand for water in the ASALs vary widely by season, with critical scarcity

during the dry season. The Isiolo study cited above found that about 93 percent of the

district area lacked water sources for domestic supplies within 5 km distance, affecting 73%

of the villages. At the same time, livestock lacked access to water within 15 km distance in

about 63 percent of the area, affecting 38% of the villages. Within these areas, some

residents were located 50-75 km from the nearest water point. Other constraints include

siltation of water pans, recurrent droughts, lack of fuel to run boreholes where they exist,

poor infrastructure, overgrazing and degradation of areas around water points, high

poverty prevalence and lack of community water management institutions. The above

situation is replicated in al pastoral systems across the GHA.

FigureFigureFigureFigure 10:10:10:10: Impacts of droughts to the pastoral communities


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 232

FloodsFloodsFloodsFloods

During the rainy season, the ASALs suffer from serious flooding. It should be noted that

most pastoral livestock areas have as much problem with rainfall distribution as they do

with its quantity. Floods have been a recurrent incident in these systems.

Livestock losses due to floods have in certain instances surpassed those due to droughts,

especially among the small stock. Table 3.9 shows the estimated livestock losses during the

drought of 1996-97 and the el nino rains of 1997-98 in Marsabit district of northern Kenya

as reported by Little et al (2000).

FigureFigureFigureFigure 11: Flood Impacts in the ASAL Region11: Flood Impacts in the ASAL Region11: Flood Impacts in the ASAL Region11: Flood Impacts in the ASAL Region

Table Table Table Table 4: 4: 4: 4: Livestock Losses during Droughts and Floods

Division/type of cattleDivision/type of cattleDivision/type of cattleDivision/type of cattle % mortality due to drought % mortality due to drought % mortality due to drought % mortality due to drought

(1996(1996(1996(1996----1997)1997)1997)1997)

% mortality due to % mortality due to % mortality due to % mortality due to elninoelninoelninoelnino, 199, 199, 199, 1997777----

1998199819981998

CentralCentralCentralCentral

Cattle

Sheep

Goats

Camels

25

1

3

0

1

66.7

66.7

0

LaisamisLaisamisLaisamisLaisamis

Cattle

Sheep

Goats

Camels

20

25

15

2

6.1

77.0

77.0

28.9

LoiyangulaniLoiyangulaniLoiyangulaniLoiyangulani


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 233

Cattle

Sheep

Goats

Camels

20

25

05

01

9.7

68.3

68.3

16.7

MaikonaMaikonaMaikonaMaikona

Cattle

Sheep

Goats

Camels

15

35

30

01

1

22.8

22.8

18.0

North HorrNorth HorrNorth HorrNorth Horr

Cattle

Sheep

Goats

Camels

10

35

30

2

12.8

48.6

48.6

20.0

Source: Little et al 2000


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 234

APPENDIX 10: CROSS BORDER

ISSUES


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 235

CROSS BORDER ISSUESCROSS BORDER ISSUESCROSS BORDER ISSUESCROSS BORDER ISSUES

There exist several cross-border conflicts between states and communities living within

the GHA region. The UNDP Human Development Report 2005 titled Kenya and Uganda

Pastoral Conflict Case Study outlines some of the inherent problems facing the communities of Karamoja in Uganda and their Pokot and Marakwet neighbours in Kenya.

This type of conflict, commonly known as cattle rustling is a classical example of the

postoralists’ struggle for scarce resources.

The conflict in Somalia has certainly impacted negatively on the Kenyan side of the

border. A USAID study on the Kenya Somalia Border Conflict published in 2005 identifies

the reason for the conflict as ethnicity, political patronage, land and water resources and

easy access to firearms and other small weapons.

The above, are two examples of cross border conflicts within the GHA region. Others are:

i. Kenya/ Sudan/ Ethiopia triangle

ii. Sudan-Ethiopia border

iii. Ethiopia-Eritrea border

iv. Ethiopia-Kenya border

v. Ethiopia-Somalia border

vi. Somalia-Djibouti border

vii. Eritrea-Djibouti border

There are several strategies being adopted by the various states of the GHA in trying to

address these conflicts. These include, but not limited to:

i. Expansion of water infrastructure in the affected regions to reduce competition for

water resources

ii. Formation of inter-clan commissions composed of respectable elders and

Government representatives

iii. Expansion of social services infrastructure including education and health systems

iv. Introduction of alternative livelihoods

v. Improvement of governance systems

9.19.19.19.1 Implications of ConflictsImplications of ConflictsImplications of ConflictsImplications of Conflicts

The implications of conflicts on the livestock sector are adverse and if not mitigated may

lead to collapse of the sector. Some examples are:


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 236

i. During the Uganda civil war of the late 1970s and the early 1980s, the soldiers

invaded livestock ranches and pastoral communities and left away with all the

livestock which they ended up consuming totally destroying the sector

ii. The Samburu (Kenya)-Pokot (Kenya), intrastate and the Pokot (Kenya) –Karamoja

(Uganda), interstate has been persistent hindering the development of the sector

and resulting into loss of human lives and generally retarding development

iii. In Sudan, the conflict in Darfur has substantially destroyed the livestock sector

iv. The case of Somalia, a complex and tragic situation obtains as a result of the

prolonged civil war and collapse of the state. This has resulted in underperformance

of the sector characterized by uncoordinated livestock husbandry, disease control

and marketing infrastructure

9.29.29.29.2 Programme RationaleProgramme RationaleProgramme RationaleProgramme Rationale

It is impossible to carry out any development activity in the absence of peace and

tranquility. As already discussed, the GHA region is covered by several conflict spots.

These conflicts are complex and multidimensional. However, the basic defining

characteristic of most of the conflicts is the fight for scarce resources. An integrated

approach that addresses the socio-economic and governance aspects of these conflicts is

therefore desirable.

The following proposed interventions therefore, try to exploit the interrelationship

between the socio-economic and political aspects of livelihoods as a foundation for

successful entry into these communities.

9.39.39.39.3 InterventionsInterventionsInterventionsInterventions

There are currently several ongoing initiatives within the GHA and the various member

countries aimed at addressing the above conflicts. These include (i) IGAD efforts in South

Sudan and Somalia (ii) Various cross-border commissions and inter-clan committees (iii)

Livestock identity and registrations through individual Governments’ efforts to reduce

cattle rustling and ease recovery of stolen livestock, among others.

Further, drawing upon the field data on pastoral conflict behaviour collected by the

Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanism (CEWARN) of the IGAD, Meier and

Bond, 2005 established a relationship between pastoral conflicts and the environment

focusing on two environmental factors, precipitation and forage. Wassara, 2007 also

identified several other causes of conflict amongst pastoral communities. These included,

but not limited to; grazing pastures, water resources, land and family disputes.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 237

It is possible to build from the above initiatives and findings when developing future

programmes for the sector. A close assessment points strongly to the fact that successful

interventions in resolving conflicts must focus on the environments, source and the actors

as well as be diversified enough in approach to capture the various interrelationships that

exist in these conflicts.

i. Interstate conflicts

ii. Intrastate conflicts

iii. Potential transboundary conflicts

iv. Communal conflicts

Proposed interventions have the following aspects:

Table Table Table Table 5555: : : : Proposed Programme Interventions

Component Component Component Component ActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivities PartnershipsPartnershipsPartnershipsPartnerships

Conflict Resolution 1. Establishing peace building forums

2. Strengthening regional conflict early

warning system

Governments, IGAD, AU,

UN, NGOs, etc

Social amenities

improvement

1. Rehabilitating and constructing of

schools, health centres and other social

amenities

2. Capacity building

Member Governments

Livelihood improvement 5 Improving water supply

6 Supporting livestock health and

identification programmes

7 Upgrade and upscale infrastructure for

enhanced security and livestock

management and marketing

8 Mainstreaming women and youth

9 HIV/AIDS awareness programmes

Member Governments

(Other)

9.49.49.49.4 Programme Implementation FrameworkProgramme Implementation FrameworkProgramme Implementation FrameworkProgramme Implementation Framework

9.4.19.4.19.4.19.4.1 PartnershipsPartnershipsPartnershipsPartnerships

In implementing the proposed programme, the major stkeholders will have to collaborate

with, among others, UN, AU, Governments, the private sector players in the region, NGOs

and local communities

9.4.29.4.29.4.29.4.2 Institutional RequirementsInstitutional RequirementsInstitutional RequirementsInstitutional Requirements


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 238

The GHA countries will have the overall coordination role of the programme, in close

liason with AfDB and other stakeholders. Special offices formed in each of the GHA

countries shall house a desk in charge of the programme.

At national levels, the relevant Ministries will house a special desk fully capacitated with a

National Programme Coordinator and the relevant staff coordinating the relevant

Ministries in charge of Security, Livestock, Arid and Semi Arid Lands, Education, Health,

Water Infrastructure.

9.4.39.4.39.4.39.4.3 Programme PhasingProgramme PhasingProgramme PhasingProgramme Phasing

The proposed programme should be a long-term programme targeting communities most

affected by conflicts in the region. At its onset, the first phase presented here should run

for a seven-year period with lessons learnt being the foundation for the subsequent phases.

9.69.69.69.6 Programme FinancingProgramme FinancingProgramme FinancingProgramme Financing

The financing of the above programme would be from three main sources; the African

Development Bank, other development partners and various member Governments Bank

contributions shall be through loan agreement with the particular member governments. It

will be for financing of the specific activities identified in the Programme Appraisal

Document (PAD). The various governments shall not levy any taxes on all programme

finances.

9.69.69.69.6 Programme Cost EstimatesProgramme Cost EstimatesProgramme Cost EstimatesProgramme Cost Estimates

Table 6 shows some tentative costs associated with the first phase of the programme.

Table Table Table Table 6666:::: Cost Estimates for the First 7-Year Phase of the Programme (USD’000)

ComponentComponentComponentComponent DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia SudanSudanSudanSudan UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda TotalTotalTotalTotal

Conflict

resolution

20,000 50,000 50,000 300,000 400,000 50,000 870,000870,000870,000870,000

Social

amenities

improvement

30,000 250,000 190,000 400,000 150,000 100,000 1,120,0001,120,0001,120,0001,120,000

Livelihood

improvement

40,000 280,000 270,000 200,000 270,000 140,000 1,200,0001,200,0001,200,0001,200,000

TotalTotalTotalTotal 90,00090,00090,00090,000 580,000580,000580,000580,000 510,000510,000510,000510,000 900,000900,000900,000900,000 820,000820,000820,000820,000 290,000290,000290,000290,000 3,190,0003,190,0003,190,0003,190,000


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 239

HIV/AIDS PREVALENCE (2007)HIV/AIDS PREVALENCE (2007)HIV/AIDS PREVALENCE (2007)HIV/AIDS PREVALENCE (2007)

Country Percentage

Djibouti 3.1

Eritrea …

Ethiopia 1.4

Kenya 6.1

Somalia 0.5

Sudan 1.8

Uganda 6.7


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 240

9.79.79.79.7 Summary of Risk Assessment and Mitigation StrategiesSummary of Risk Assessment and Mitigation StrategiesSummary of Risk Assessment and Mitigation StrategiesSummary of Risk Assessment and Mitigation Strategies

Risk Risk Risk Risk

categorizationcategorizationcategorizationcategorization

DescriptionDescriptionDescriptionDescription Risk Risk Risk Risk

ratingratingratingrating

Risk mitiRisk mitiRisk mitiRisk mitigation measures to be gation measures to be gation measures to be gation measures to be

incorporated into projectincorporated into projectincorporated into projectincorporated into project

RemarksRemarksRemarksRemarks

Inherent risks

Country level S Continued support to IGAD

initiatives on conflict

management and resolution

Institutional capacity building

to be part of project scope

Risk arises from weak institutional

capacity to manage various aspects of the

project. Country generally has low

human resources capacity and a weak

private sector

Government currently working to

strengthen revenue leakages and

establish institutions in all other sectors

Instability in Southern and Western

Sudan and inherent insecurity in Somalia

is a hindrance.

Donor level S Recruitment and /or transfer of

various cadres of staff under

the project

Government currently thinly spread

across the ASALs and staff availability to

effectively implement program expected

to be a challenge

Project level S Strategies that involve the

pastoralists in project

implementation without

putting too much premium on

their financial contribution

Poverty amongst the nomadic

communities is expected to hinder

effective community participation in

project implementation.

Control risks M

These risks include

budgeting, accounting,

internal controls,

funds flow, financial

reporting and auditing

M Development of various

operational manuals at various

levels

Training of project staff and

key stakeholders to be effected

under the project

Project to rely majorly on existing

Government procedures and processes

and as such expected to benefit from

Government controls. It is however

recognized that these procedures and

processes have their own in-built

setbacks

Other risks Regional cooperation

and integration

M Support to parallel strategies to

strengthen regional

cooperation shall be

encouraged

Strength of regional institutions to

handle cross border water issues would

depend on ‘strength’ of the integration

process

Development partners M Other development partners

would need to be continually

drawn on board to lend

support to the programme or

to related initiatives

ASALs within the GHA region are vast

regions with extremely high resource

requirements for water infrastructure

development

Social risks. Such risks

include security

concerns, low social

infrastructure such as

education, judicial

systems, among others

S Programmes to have capacity

building components at

institutional and community

levels

It is hoped that current efforts across the

IGAD such as the CEWARN will succeed

in encouraging an integrated approach to

conflict resolution and social

development within the ASALs

H- High, S-Substantial, M-Moderate, L-Low


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 241

APPENDIX 11:AFDB SUPPORTED

PROJECTS ACROSS THE REGION


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 242

AfDB SUPPORTED PROJECTS ACROSS THE REGIONAfDB SUPPORTED PROJECTS ACROSS THE REGIONAfDB SUPPORTED PROJECTS ACROSS THE REGIONAfDB SUPPORTED PROJECTS ACROSS THE REGION

KENYAKENYAKENYAKENYA

Project Location Target Section Estimated Cost

(KShs)

Closing date

ALLPRO Arid and Semi-arid

Lands (ASALs) of

Kenya (55 districts)

Agriculture 2.8 billion

PATTEC Lake Victoria basin,

Lake Bogoria (North

Rift) and the

Meru/Mwea in the

east of the country.

Livestock 680 million

Nairobi Addis

Highway

Isiolo-Moyale Public Utility 10 billion

ETHIOPIAETHIOPIAETHIOPIAETHIOPIA ProjectProjectProjectProject LocatioLocatioLocatioLocationnnn Target Target Target Target

SectionSectionSectionSection

Estimated Estimated Estimated Estimated

CostCostCostCost

Closing dateClosing dateClosing dateClosing date

National Livestock

Development Project

National Agriculture 27 million 30 June 07

Koga Irrigation and Watershed

Management Project

Agriculture 32.5901

million

30 June 08

Rural Finance Intermediation

Support Project

Agriculture 27.17 million 31 Dec 09

Agriculture Sector Support

Project

National Agriculture 21.24million 31 Dec 10

Butajir –Hossaina–Sodo – Road

Upgrading

Transport 41.310

million

31 Dec 09

Wacha-Maji Road Upgrading Southern Nations,

Nationalities and

People Regional

State in Bench

Transport 22.710

million

31 March 10


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 243

ProjectProjectProjectProject LocatioLocatioLocatioLocationnnn Target Target Target Target

SectionSectionSectionSection

Estimated Estimated Estimated Estimated

CostCostCostCost

Closing dateClosing dateClosing dateClosing date

Zone in the South

West of Ethiopia

Jimma-Mizan Road Upgrading Oromiya regional

state, SNNP

regional state of

Ethiopia

Transport 65 million 31 Dec 12

Rural Electrification I Project Lot 1: Northern

Area; - Lot 2:

Eastern and

Central; and - Lot 3:

Western and South.

Public

Utility

37.670

million

31 Dec 08

Rural Electrification II Project Nekemte-Gida

Ayana and Aksta-

Alem Ketema

substations

Public

Utility

87.2 million 31 Dec 13

Harar Water Supply and

Sanitation Project

Harar Public

Utility

19.89 million 30 Sep 10

Ethiopia-Djibouti Power

Transmission Project

Public

Utility


Ethio-Dji Power

Interconnection Project

Public

Utility


Primary Health Care Project National Social 29.72 million 31 Dec 10

Education III Project National Social 32 million 31 Dec 08

UGANDAUGANDAUGANDAUGANDA Project Location Target Section Estimated Cost

(million USD)

Closing Date

North West

Smallholder

North West of Agriculture 17.6 30 June 2009


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Agricultural Project Uganda

Area based

Agriculture

Modernization Project

South Western

Uganda

Agriculture 9.67 31 March 2009

Fisheries

Development Project

Fisheries 22.0 31 Jan 2010

National Livestock

Productivity

Improvement Project

National Livestock 26.1 31 Dec 2009

Farm income

enhancement and

Forest conservation

Project

National Agricultural

Marketing and

Forestry

41.4 31 Dec 2012

Community

Agricultural

Infrastructure

Improvement

Programme

Agricultural

Marketing

30.0 31 Dec 2013

Tse tse Project South Eastern

Uganda

Livestock 6.8 31 Dec 2011


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 245

Other Projects Other Projects Other Projects Other Projects acrossacrossacrossacross the Regionthe Regionthe Regionthe Region

SUDANSUDANSUDANSUDAN ProjectProjectProjectProject LocationLocationLocationLocation Target SectorTarget SectorTarget SectorTarget Sector Estimated Cost (US Estimated Cost (US Estimated Cost (US Estimated Cost (US

million)million)million)million)

Rural development,

rural roads (European

Development Fund)

Water affected states Transport 97

Integrated food

security information

system for policy

support

National Agriculture 11

Recovery of productive

capacities in Sudan

SPCRP

Nile, Red sea, South

Kordofan, Blue Nile

states

Agriculture 22

Livestock Survey

(LESP)

National Livestock 7

Recovery of productive

capacities crop and

pasture project for

improvement of

livelihood in South

Kordofan

South Kordofan Agriculture and Livestock 6.5

Recovery of Blue Nile State Fisheries and Livestock 6.5

Rehabilitation of Red sea Agriculture 6.5

Development of

Livestock systems

National Livestock 20

Development of Gum

Arabic Belt

Gum Arabic Belt Agriculture 7

Development of

agricultural extension

services

National Agriculture 51

ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA ProjectProjectProjectProject LocationLocationLocationLocation Target SectorTarget SectorTarget SectorTarget Sector Estimated Cost Estimated Cost Estimated Cost Estimated Cost

(US million)(US million)(US million)(US million)

Closing DateClosing DateClosing DateClosing Date


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 246

ProjectProjectProjectProject LocationLocationLocationLocation Target SectorTarget SectorTarget SectorTarget Sector Estimated Cost Estimated Cost Estimated Cost Estimated Cost



Koga Irrigation and

Watershed

Management

Agriculture 1.33 30 June 08

Ganale-Dawa Basin

Master plan study

Agriculture 3.93 31 Dec 09

Rural Finance Support

Project

National Agriculture 8.0 31 Dec 09

Awash River Flood

Control and

Watershed

Management study

West of Addis

Ababa in Ethiopia

and along the Rift

Valley into the

Afar triangle


Livestock

Development Master

Plan Study


Agriculture Sector

Support Project


Fisheries Resources

Development Plan

study


Institutional Support

Project to the Ministry

of Women’s Affairs

National Agriculture 1.06 31 Dec 08

Creation of Sustainable

Tse tse and

Trypanosomiasis-free

areas in East and West

Africa


Wacha-Maji road –

ERA- Technical

Assistance

Southern Nations,

Nationalities and

People Regional

State in Bench

Zone in the South

West of Ethiopia

Transport 0.99 31 March 10

Addis Ababa-Nairobi-

Mombasa Road

Corridor Dev Study

Transport 1.35 31 Dec 10


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 247

ProjectProjectProjectProject LocationLocationLocationLocation Target SectorTarget SectorTarget SectorTarget Sector Estimated Cost Estimated Cost Estimated Cost Estimated Cost



Privatization Technical

Assistance Project

Industry 3 30 June 09

Harar Water Supply

and Sanitation Project

Harar Public Utility 1.12 30 Sep 10

Rural Water Supply

and Sanitation Project

National Public Utility 43.610 31 Dec 10

Education III Project National Social 0.3 31 Dec 08

Capacity Building of

MoFED

National Multi Sector 0.52 30 Jun 09

Protection of Basic

Services II (PBS II)

National Multi Sector 110 31 Dec 11

Power Trade Program

Study

Eastern Nile Multi-National

Operations

2.63 31 Dec 09

Irrigation and drainage

Study

Eastern Nile Multi-National

Operations

1.75 31 Dec 09

Creation of Sustainable

Tse tse and

Trypanosomiasis-free

areas in East and West

Africa

East and West

Ethiopia

Multi-National

Operations

1.5 31 Dec 11

KENYAKENYAKENYAKENYA Project Project Project Project LocationLocationLocationLocation Target SectionTarget SectionTarget SectionTarget Section Estimated Cost (KShs)Estimated Cost (KShs)Estimated Cost (KShs)Estimated Cost (KShs)

SNCDP Six Districts of

Southern Nyanza

Integrated 1.4 billion

NALEP National Agriculture and Livestock

MKEPP/CKDAP Eastern side of

Mount Kenya Region

Integrated US 25.7 million


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 248

APPENDIX 12:LIST OF PERSONS

CONSULTED


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 249

LIST OF PERSONS CONSULTEDLIST OF PERSONS CONSULTEDLIST OF PERSONS CONSULTEDLIST OF PERSONS CONSULTED

A.A.A.A. DJIBOUTI DJIBOUTI DJIBOUTI DJIBOUTI

Key informant interviews.Key informant interviews.Key informant interviews.Key informant interviews.

NAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTS ORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONS POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION

1.1.1.1. Djama Mahamoud Djama Mahamoud Djama Mahamoud Djama Mahamoud

DonalehDonalehDonalehDonaleh


Resources and water

Secretary General

2.2.2.2. Mr. Noursa IbrahimMr. Noursa IbrahimMr. Noursa IbrahimMr. Noursa Ibrahim Ministry of Agriculture, Animal

Resources and water

Director

3.3.3.3. Mr. Abdallah BasketMr. Abdallah BasketMr. Abdallah BasketMr. Abdallah Basket Ministry of Agriculture, Animal

Resources and water

Assistant director

4.4.4.4. Mr. Yonis NahamatMr. Yonis NahamatMr. Yonis NahamatMr. Yonis Nahamat Ministry of Agriculture, Animal

Resources and water

Chief Production

Officer

5.5.5.5. Ali Del WaisAli Del WaisAli Del WaisAli Del Wais Ministry of Agriculture, Animal

Resources and water

Manager, Project

Office

6.6.6.6. Prof. Babiker AbbasProf. Babiker AbbasProf. Babiker AbbasProf. Babiker Abbas Djibouti Regional Livestock

Quarantine

Technical Manager

7.7.7.7. Mr. Tabarak MohammedMr. Tabarak MohammedMr. Tabarak MohammedMr. Tabarak Mohammed Ministry of Agriculture, Animal

Resources and water

Head Communication

B.B.B.B. ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA

Key InformantsKey InformantsKey InformantsKey Informants

NAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTS ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/

INSTITUTIONSINSTITUTIONSINSTITUTIONSINSTITUTIONS

POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION

1. H.E. Dr. Abera Ministry of Agriculture and

Rural Development

State Minister


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 250

2. Mulugeta Gelaw Ministry of Federal Affairs Minister

3. Hailemariam Hailemeskel African Development Bank,

Ethiopian Field Office

Agriculture and Rural

development Specialist

4. BaissaMosissa National Livestock

development project

National Project

Coordinator

5. Hablamu Teka Oromiya Pastoral

Commission

Commissioner

6. Dr. Tasfaye Bekele Oromiya pastoral Commission Senior veterinary

Officer

7. Tegegu Gudeta Oromiya pastoral Commission Social Development

Officer

8. Belayhun Hailu Pastoral Communities

Development Project (PCDP)

National Project

Coordinator

9. Tesfaselassie Mezgebe Ministry of Federal Affairs Senior Conflict

management Officer

FGD 1FGD 1FGD 1FGD 1

NAME OF NAME OF NAME OF NAME OF

PARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTS

ORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONS POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION

1. Testaye Cherinet Ministry of African and Rural

Development

Aide to state

Minister

2. Berhe Gebreegziabler Ministry of African and Rural

Development

Director,

A.P.H.R.D

3. Dagnachew Beyere Ministry of African and Rural

Development

Head, N.A.I.C.


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 251

4. Keberu Belayneh Ministry of African and Rural

Development

Expert

5. Wondimagegrehu

Shibru

MOFA Advisor

6. Alemayeku Almariam ALEMA FARMS General Manager

7. Mulngeta Hiluf Ministry of African and Rural

Development

Senior Expert

8. Esayas Kebede Ministry of African and Rural

Development

Director, A.I.S.

9. Girma Balcha I.B.C Director General

10. Seyoum Bedeye E.I.A.R Livestock

Research Director

11. Getu Zegiye MOWR

12. Ermi8as Haili E.P.A Senior Expert


NAMES OF NAMES OF NAMES OF NAMES OF



1.1.1.1. Tarekegi TsegieTarekegi TsegieTarekegi TsegieTarekegi Tsegie Ministry of African and Rural

Development

Head, Public Relation

Department

2.2.2.2. Estaye DrerinetEstaye DrerinetEstaye DrerinetEstaye Drerinet Ministry of African and RuraMinistry of African and RuraMinistry of African and RuraMinistry of African and Rural l l l

DevelopmentDevelopmentDevelopmentDevelopment

Aide to State minister

3.3.3.3. Befikodu AlemayekuBefikodu AlemayekuBefikodu AlemayekuBefikodu Alemayeku C.R.D.A. R.D.F.C.

4.4.4.4. Theowdros MengistuTheowdros MengistuTheowdros MengistuTheowdros Mengistu Ethiopia Livestock Traders Association General Service

5.5.5.5. Gezahesna TadesseGezahesna TadesseGezahesna TadesseGezahesna Tadesse Ethiopian Beekeepers Association President

6.6.6.6. Yirdawuel Semayat Yirdawuel Semayat Yirdawuel Semayat Yirdawuel Semayat E.A.F.I.A. Executive Director


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 252

7.7.7.7. Thomas CherenetThomas CherenetThomas CherenetThomas Cherenet Ethiopian Vetinary Association President

8.8.8.8. Tamnat EjiguTamnat EjiguTamnat EjiguTamnat Ejigu Ethiopian Meat Producers and Exporters

Association

Secretary General

9.9.9.9. Wondwosen AsfawWondwosen AsfawWondwosen AsfawWondwosen Asfaw S.P.S.-L.M.M. SPS- Coordinator


1. Mahammad Adam

2. Dance Tamitiet

3. Tregaw Chechle

4. Berekadu Solomon

5. Selabu Bena

6. Hiluf Mengistu

7. Berhu Belilu

8. Testaye Ibrahimu

9. Tegegu Gudeta

10. Dilu Mohammed Sajei


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 253



NAMENAMENAMENAME ORGANIZATIONORGANIZATIONORGANIZATIONORGANIZATION POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION

1.1.1.1. James OpioJames OpioJames OpioJames Opio----OmodingOmodingOmodingOmoding AfDB – Nairobi

Office

Principal

Country

Programme

Officer

2.2.2.2. Mr. Kizito SabalaMr. Kizito SabalaMr. Kizito SabalaMr. Kizito Sabala IGAD Liaison

Office- Nairobi

Political Officer

3.3.3.3. Alexander K. CheropAlexander K. CheropAlexander K. CheropAlexander K. Cherop Ministry of

livestock

development

Deputy secretary

4.4.4.4. Eng. R. K. GaitaEng. R. K. GaitaEng. R. K. GaitaEng. R. K. Gaita Ministry of water

and irrigation

Director of

irrigation,

drainage & water

storage

5.5.5.5. Philiph N. GichukiPhiliph N. GichukiPhiliph N. GichukiPhiliph N. Gichuki Ministry of

cooperative &

marketing

Deputy

commissioner for

cooperative

development

6.6.6.6. Abbas Sheik MohamedAbbas Sheik MohamedAbbas Sheik MohamedAbbas Sheik Mohamed Kenya livestock

marketing council

Chief executive

officer

7.7.7.7. Charles N. Ng’ang’aCharles N. Ng’ang’aCharles N. Ng’ang’aCharles N. Ng’ang’a Kenya livestock

producers

association

Secretary

8.8.8.8. Dr. Bengat KigenDr. Bengat KigenDr. Bengat KigenDr. Bengat Kigen KLPIA member

9.9.9.9. Mary W. Gaithuma Mary W. Gaithuma Mary W. Gaithuma Mary W. Gaithuma Ministry of

livestock

development

Deputy

provincial

director of

livestock

production

10.10.10.10. Patric Kuria WaidhimaPatric Kuria WaidhimaPatric Kuria WaidhimaPatric Kuria Waidhima KENFAP District

coordinator

11.11.11.11. Dr. Isaac Sanga KosgeiDr. Isaac Sanga KosgeiDr. Isaac Sanga KosgeiDr. Isaac Sanga Kosgei Egerton University Dean faculty of

agriculture,

Livestock

researcher

12.12.12.12. Dr. H. K. KirigiaDr. H. K. KirigiaDr. H. K. KirigiaDr. H. K. Kirigia Kenya veterinary Chief executive


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 254

board (KVB) officer KVB

13.13.13.13. Dr. H. S. N. KiniiyaDr. H. S. N. KiniiyaDr. H. S. N. KiniiyaDr. H. S. N. Kiniiya

Kenya veterinary

association

privatization

scheme (KVAPS)

General manager

14.14.14.14. Prof. Reuben O. MosiProf. Reuben O. MosiProf. Reuben O. MosiProf. Reuben O. Mosi

University of

Nairobi

Professor

department of

animal

production,

Researcher

15.15.15.15. Dr. Amos Dr. Amos Dr. Amos Dr. Amos OmoreOmoreOmoreOmore

International

livestock research

institute (ILRI)

Livestock

epidemiology,

economics &

production

16.16.16.16. Dr. George Keya Dr. George Keya Dr. George Keya Dr. George Keya

Kenya agricultural

research institute

(KARI)

Asst. Director

Range research

17.17.17.17. Dr. Nicholas OgugeDr. Nicholas OgugeDr. Nicholas OgugeDr. Nicholas Oguge

Samburu

conservation

research initiative

Centre director,

18.18.18.18. Josiah CheruyotJosiah CheruyotJosiah CheruyotJosiah Cheruyot

Ministry of

livestock

development

Chief of project

planning,

monitoring and

evaluation

19.19.19.19. Dr. Christopher WangaDr. Christopher WangaDr. Christopher WangaDr. Christopher Wanga Kenya veterinary

association (KVA)

chairman

20.20.20.20. Dr. Jalang’oDr. Jalang’oDr. Jalang’oDr. Jalang’o Veterinary public

health

Deputy director

21.21.21.21. Dr. IdDr. IdDr. IdDr. Idhondeka hondeka hondeka hondeka Veterinary services Director

22.22.22.22. Dr. Philiph K. CheronoDr. Philiph K. CheronoDr. Philiph K. CheronoDr. Philiph K. Cherono Kenya Dairy Board Technical

services manager

23.23.23.23. Ann NjugunaAnn NjugunaAnn NjugunaAnn Njuguna Care Kenya Lipfund Manager

24.24.24.24. Bakari MasoudBakari MasoudBakari MasoudBakari Masoud IFAD-funded

SNCDP

Project

Monitoring and

Evaluation

Officer


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 255


1) Dedan otiato

2) W. O. Ogara

3) Ali Adan Ali

4) N. O. Ayore

5) Florence Mutua

6) Vincent Makonjio

7) Vitalis Too

8) Reuben O. Mosi

9) Dave Anyona

10) Bedan Kigotho

11) John Nyongesa

12) Lawrence Gumbe


1. Dr. Muthui S .k

2. Dr. Isaac Kosgei

3. Lorna Mbatia

4. Geoffrey Muttai

5. Michael Gota

6. Stanley Bii

7. Patrick kuria-

8. Dr. Bengat

9. Mary Gaithuma

10. Charles Ng’ang’a


1. Hashim sheikh

2. Mohamed Aboi

3. Gedi mohamud

4. Hussein Abdi Abdullah

5. Moulid Hassan Abdi

6. Madobe Hassan

7. Mohamed shable


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 256

8. Aden ismail

9. Kadhija Abdi Rage

10. Abdullah Abdi

11. Idriss Sahal kolon

12. Mark Odhiambo

13. Joseph Mukiira

14. Rashid Mohamed

15. Dubat Amey

16. H. M Khalif

17. Mohamed Kaji

18. Mohamud Abdi

19. Bernard Muti

SUDANSUDANSUDANSUDAN





Prof. Dr. A. Aziz Prof. Dr. A. Aziz Prof. Dr. A. Aziz Prof. Dr. A. Aziz

MakhawiMakhawiMakhawiMakhawi

Sudan University College of

Agriculture Ex Dean Dept of

Animal Science

Mohamed AbdelazizMohamed AbdelazizMohamed AbdelazizMohamed Abdelaziz Financial Investment Bank Director Marketing

and Business Dev

Hana Elhakim El Hana Elhakim El Hana Elhakim El Hana Elhakim El

AmnineAmnineAmnineAmnine

Pastoral Env. Network in the Horn of

Africa Volunteer

Dr. Ali AlRaziq Ali Dr. Ali AlRaziq Ali Dr. Ali AlRaziq Ali Dr. Ali AlRaziq Ali

LutfiLutfiLutfiLutfi

Ministry of Animal Resources Manager, Dept. of

Animal Production &

Development

Dr. Elrasheed A. AliDr. Elrasheed A. AliDr. Elrasheed A. AliDr. Elrasheed A. Ali University of Khartoum Asst. Prof. Food

Hygiene

Prof. Ahmed Ali IsmailProf. Ahmed Ali IsmailProf. Ahmed Ali IsmailProf. Ahmed Ali Ismail Sudan University of Science and Tech.,

Vet. Medicine

Professor of

Parasitology

Ms. Chaha FatihaMs. Chaha FatihaMs. Chaha FatihaMs. Chaha Fatiha Agence Science Presse, Canada Journaliste


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 257

UGANDAUGANDAUGANDAUGANDA





1. Asaph Nuwagira ADB’s Agriculture and Rural

Development

Specialist

2. Mr. D. M. Maholo Ministry of Agriculture,

Animal Industry and Fisheries

3. Francis Odokrah Oxfam, Karamoja Region/

Pastoralist

Programme Officer

4. Joseph Wangolo Oxfam, Pastrolist-Karamojo

Region

Programme manager

5. James Wamahe Oxfam

6. Mr. Augustine Mwendya Agribusiness Development,

Uganda National Farmers

Federation.

Director

7. Mr. Denis Maholo SPA, MAAIF

8. Mamerto Mugerwa Kiira Town Council Mayor,

9. Sebadduka Authman Kiira Town Council Principal Town Clerk

10. Betty Nalwyima Kiira Town Council Speaker

Mohamed EltMohamed EltMohamed EltMohamed Eltayel ayel ayel ayel

AbdelazizAbdelazizAbdelazizAbdelaziz

Privare Sector Dairy Farmer

Dr, Khitma Hasan Dr, Khitma Hasan Dr, Khitma Hasan Dr, Khitma Hasan

ElMalikElMalikElMalikElMalik

University of Khartoum/Vet Council Vice President Sudan

Veterinary Council

Dr. MohamedDr. MohamedDr. MohamedDr. Mohamed Ministry of Animal Resources and

Fisheries

Under Secretary,

Prof. Seif Eldawla Prof. Seif Eldawla Prof. Seif Eldawla Prof. Seif Eldawla

BarakatBarakatBarakatBarakat

Sudan University of Science and Tech.,

Vet. Medicine Lecturer


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 258

11. George Iyaba Kiira Town Council Extension worker

12. Paul Segawa Kiira Town Council Extension worker

13. Eng. Richard Cong Directorate of Water

Development

Commissione

14. Eng. Bob Ahindisiwe Ministry of Water and

Environment

15. Dr. Cyprian Ebong NARO Director, Quality

Assurance

16. Dr. Kajuri Stephen Ministry of Agriculture,


National Project

Coordinator (Principal

Veterinary Officer in

charge of Dairy Meal,





1.1.1.1. Dr. C.S. RutebarikaDr. C.S. RutebarikaDr. C.S. RutebarikaDr. C.S. Rutebarika Ministry of Agriculture, Animal

Industry and Fisheries

Acting Commissioner,

Disease control

2.2.2.2. Dr. J.T. OdimimDr. J.T. OdimimDr. J.T. OdimimDr. J.T. Odimim Ministry of Agriculture, Animal


Senior Vetinary Officer

3.3.3.3. Dr. Denis AndroaDr. Denis AndroaDr. Denis AndroaDr. Denis Androa Ministry of Agriculture, Animal



4.4.4.4. Mr. D.M. MaholoMr. D.M. MaholoMr. D.M. MaholoMr. D.M. Maholo Ministry of Agriculture, Animal


S.P.A.

5.5.5.5. Dr. Kiconco DorisDr. Kiconco DorisDr. Kiconco DorisDr. Kiconco Doris Ministry of Agriculture, Animal



6.6.6.6. Mr Jackson WadanyaMr Jackson WadanyaMr Jackson WadanyaMr Jackson Wadanya Ministry of Agriculture, Animal


Assistant Commissioner

of Fisheries

7.7.7.7. Dr. ByekwasoDr. ByekwasoDr. ByekwasoDr. Byekwaso National Agricultural Advisory

Services

Director of Planning


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 259

8.8.8.8. Dr. Aggrey Dr. Aggrey Dr. Aggrey Dr. Aggrey

KyobugusiiKyobugusiiKyobugusiiKyobugusii

National Agricultural Advisory

Services

Director of Vetinary

Extension Services

9.9.9.9. Dr. Sarah MubiruDr. Sarah MubiruDr. Sarah MubiruDr. Sarah Mubiru National Agricultural Research

Organisation

Forage Agronomist

10.10.10.10. Rose OmariaRose OmariaRose OmariaRose Omaria National Agricultural Research

Organisation

Research Officer,

Animal Nutrition

11.11.11.11. Dr. Martin KasiryeDr. Martin KasiryeDr. Martin KasiryeDr. Martin Kasirye Ministry of Agriculture, Animal


Deputy Project

Coordinator, NLPP.

12.12.12.12. Mr. Jackson BwireMr. Jackson BwireMr. Jackson BwireMr. Jackson Bwire Ministry of Agriculture, Animal


Project Accountant,

NLPP

FGD 2.FGD 2.FGD 2.FGD 2.

NAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTS ORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONS

1.1.1.1. Francis OdokrahFrancis OdokrahFrancis OdokrahFrancis Odokrah Oxfarm

2.2.2.2. Joseph WangiloJoseph WangiloJoseph WangiloJoseph Wangilo Oxfarm

3.3.3.3. Dr. Frank MucherezaDr. Frank MucherezaDr. Frank MucherezaDr. Frank Muchereza Centre for Basic Research

4.4.4.4. Tonny KinsambuTonny KinsambuTonny KinsambuTonny Kinsambu IGAD, Liason Officer

5.5.5.5. AuAuAuAugustine Mwendwagustine Mwendwagustine Mwendwagustine Mwendwa Uganda National Farmers Federation

6.6.6.6. Cllr MuchiviCllr MuchiviCllr MuchiviCllr Muchivi Political Leader

7.7.7.7. Dr. Peterson MugoyaDr. Peterson MugoyaDr. Peterson MugoyaDr. Peterson Mugoya Vetinary Extension Officer

8.8.8.8. Mohammed GathuMohammed GathuMohammed GathuMohammed Gathu Livestock Farmer

9.9.9.9. Ayesibe BenonAyesibe BenonAyesibe BenonAyesibe Benon Farmer

10.10.10.10. Nambi BennaNambi BennaNambi BennaNambi Benna Indigenous Farmer

11.11.11.11. Betty NanchaBetty NanchaBetty NanchaBetty Nancha Indigenous Cattle and Pig Farmer


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 260

12.12.12.12. Ssembagye CharlesSsembagye CharlesSsembagye CharlesSsembagye Charles Indigenous Cattle/Goats Farmer

13.13.13.13. Mike SsembogoMike SsembogoMike SsembogoMike Ssembogo Indigenous Cattle/Goats Farmer

14.14.14.14. Agnes NabawaggaAgnes NabawaggaAgnes NabawaggaAgnes Nabawagga Indigenous Cattle/Goats Farmer

15.15.15.15. Mrs. Gatunde SebunyaMrs. Gatunde SebunyaMrs. Gatunde SebunyaMrs. Gatunde Sebunya Pig Farmer


1. George Mwanje

2. John Kiakogabo

3. Joweria Kizito

4. Walibega Luganda

5. Kyeyune Saidda

6. Eriyosi Kaggwa

7. Tuwinawusuko Mubiru

8. Hellen Kyagabba

9. Hajat Hadyal Nabwauke

10. Ismail Kasimya Kudra

11. Tyaba George

12. Miriam Namutebi

13. Segawa Paul

14. Hadija Navawanuka


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 261

C.C.C.C. DJIBOUTI DJIBOUTI DJIBOUTI DJIBOUTI

Key Informant InterviewsKey Informant InterviewsKey Informant InterviewsKey Informant Interviews



ORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONS PPPPOSITIONOSITIONOSITIONOSITION

8.8.8.8. Djama Mahamoud Djama Mahamoud Djama Mahamoud Djama Mahamoud

DonalehDonalehDonalehDonaleh


Resources and water

Secretary General

9.9.9.9. Mr. Noursa IbrahimMr. Noursa IbrahimMr. Noursa IbrahimMr. Noursa Ibrahim Ministry of Agriculture, Animal

Resources and water

Director

10.10.10.10. Mr. Abdallah BasketMr. Abdallah BasketMr. Abdallah BasketMr. Abdallah Basket Ministry of Agriculture, Animal

Resources and water

Assistant director

11.11.11.11. Mr. Yonis NahamatMr. Yonis NahamatMr. Yonis NahamatMr. Yonis Nahamat Ministry of Agriculture, Animal

Resources and water

Chief Production

Officer

12.12.12.12. Ali Del WaisAli Del WaisAli Del WaisAli Del Wais Ministry of Agriculture, Animal

Resources and water

Manager, Project

Office

13.13.13.13. Prof. Babiker AbbasProf. Babiker AbbasProf. Babiker AbbasProf. Babiker Abbas Djibouti Regional Livestock

Quarantine

Technical Manager

14.14.14.14. Mr. Tabarak MohammedMr. Tabarak MohammedMr. Tabarak MohammedMr. Tabarak Mohammed Ministry of Agriculture, Animal

Resources and water

Head Communication


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 262

ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA


NAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTS

ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/



v. H.E. Dr. Abera Ministry of Agriculture and

Rural Development

State Minister

vi. Mulugeta Gelaw Ministry of Federal Affairs Minister

vii. Hailemariam Hailemeskel African Development Bank,

Ethiopian Field Office

Agriculture and Rural

development Specialist

viii. BaissaMosissa National Livestock

development project

National Project

Coordinator

ix. Hablamu Teka Oromiya Pastoral

Commission

Commissioner

x. Dr. Tasfaye Bekele Oromiya pastoral Commission Senior veterinary

Officer

xi. Tegegu Gudeta Oromiya pastoral Commission Social Development

Officer

xii. Belayhun Hailu Pastoral Communities

Development Project (PCDP)

National Project

Coordinator

xiii. Tesfaselassie Mezgebe Ministry of Federal Affairs Senior Conflict

management Officer


NAME OF NAME OF NAME OF NAME OF



13. Testaye Cherinet Ministry of African and Rural

Development

Aide to state

Minister

14. Berhe Gebreegziabler Ministry of African and Rural Director,


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 263

Development A.P.H.R.D

15. Dagnachew Beyere Ministry of African and Rural

Development

Head, N.A.I.C.

16. Keberu Belayneh Ministry of African and Rural

Development

Expert

17. Wondimagegrehu

Shibru

MOFA Advisor

18. Alemayeku Almariam ALEMA FARMS General Manager

19. Mulngeta Hiluf Ministry of African and Rural

Development

Senior Expert

20. Esayas Kebede Ministry of African and Rural

Development

Director, A.I.S.

21. Girma Balcha I.B.C Director General

22. Seyoum Bedeye E.I.A.R Livestock

Research Director

23. Getu Zegiye MOWR

24. Ermi8as Haili E.P.A Senior Expert





10.10.10.10. Tarekegi TsegieTarekegi TsegieTarekegi TsegieTarekegi Tsegie Ministry of African and Rural

Development

Head, Public Relation

Department

11.11.11.11. Estaye DrerinetEstaye DrerinetEstaye DrerinetEstaye Drerinet Ministry of African and Rural

Development

Aide to State minister

12.12.12.12. Befikodu AlemayekuBefikodu AlemayekuBefikodu AlemayekuBefikodu Alemayeku C.R.D.A. R.D.F.C.

13.13.13.13. Theowdros MengistuTheowdros MengistuTheowdros MengistuTheowdros Mengistu Ethiopia Livestock Traders Association General Service


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 264

14.14.14.14. Gezahesna TadesseGezahesna TadesseGezahesna TadesseGezahesna Tadesse Ethiopian Beekeepers Association President

15.15.15.15. Yirdawuel Semayat Yirdawuel Semayat Yirdawuel Semayat Yirdawuel Semayat E.A.F.I.A. Executive Director

16.16.16.16. Thomas CherenetThomas CherenetThomas CherenetThomas Cherenet Ethiopian Vetinary Association President

17.17.17.17. Tamnat EjiguTamnat EjiguTamnat EjiguTamnat Ejigu Ethiopian Meat Producers and Exporters

Association

Secretary General

18.18.18.18. Wondwosen AsfawWondwosen AsfawWondwosen AsfawWondwosen Asfaw S.P.S.-L.M.M. SPS- Coordinator


11. Mahammad Adam

12. Dance Tamitiet

13. Tregaw Chechle

14. Berekadu Solomon

15. Selabu Bena

16. Hiluf Mengistu

17. Berhu Belilu

18. Testaye Ibrahimu

19. Tegegu Gudeta

20. Dilu Mohammed Sajei


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 265



NAMENAMENAMENAME ORGANIZATIONORGANIZATIONORGANIZATIONORGANIZATION POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION

25.25.25.25. James OpioJames OpioJames OpioJames Opio----OmodingOmodingOmodingOmoding AfDB – Nairobi

Office

Principal

Country

Programme

Officer

26.26.26.26. Mr. Kizito SabalaMr. Kizito SabalaMr. Kizito SabalaMr. Kizito Sabala IGAD Liaison

Office- Nairobi

Political Officer

27.27.27.27. Alexander K. CheropAlexander K. CheropAlexander K. CheropAlexander K. Cherop Ministry of

livestock

development

Deputy secretary

28.28.28.28. Eng. R. K. GaitaEng. R. K. GaitaEng. R. K. GaitaEng. R. K. Gaita Ministry of water

and irrigation

Director of

irrigation,

drainage & water

storage

29.29.29.29. Philiph N. GichukiPhiliph N. GichukiPhiliph N. GichukiPhiliph N. Gichuki Ministry of

cooperative &

marketing

Deputy

commissioner for

cooperative

development

30.30.30.30. Abbas Sheik MohamedAbbas Sheik MohamedAbbas Sheik MohamedAbbas Sheik Mohamed Kenya livestock

marketing council

Chief executive

officer

31.31.31.31. Charles N. Ng’ang’aCharles N. Ng’ang’aCharles N. Ng’ang’aCharles N. Ng’ang’a Kenya livestock

producers

association

Secretary

32.32.32.32. Dr. Bengat KigenDr. Bengat KigenDr. Bengat KigenDr. Bengat Kigen KLPIA member

33.33.33.33. Mary W. Gaithuma Mary W. Gaithuma Mary W. Gaithuma Mary W. Gaithuma Ministry of

livestock

development

Deputy

provincial

director of

livestock

production

34.34.34.34. Patric Kuria WaidhimaPatric Kuria WaidhimaPatric Kuria WaidhimaPatric Kuria Waidhima KENFAP District

coordinator

35.35.35.35. Dr. Isaac Sanga KosgeiDr. Isaac Sanga KosgeiDr. Isaac Sanga KosgeiDr. Isaac Sanga Kosgei Egerton University Dean faculty of

agriculture,

Livestock

researcher


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 266

36.36.36.36. Dr. H. K. KirigiaDr. H. K. KirigiaDr. H. K. KirigiaDr. H. K. Kirigia

Kenya veterinary

board (KVB)

Chief executive

officer KVB

37.37.37.37. Dr. H. S. N. KiniiyaDr. H. S. N. KiniiyaDr. H. S. N. KiniiyaDr. H. S. N. Kiniiya

Kenya veterinary

association

privatization

scheme (KVAPS)

General manager

38.38.38.38. Prof. Reuben O. MosiProf. Reuben O. MosiProf. Reuben O. MosiProf. Reuben O. Mosi

University of

Nairobi

Professor

department of

animal

production,

Researcher

39.39.39.39. Dr. Amos OmoreDr. Amos OmoreDr. Amos OmoreDr. Amos Omore

International

livestock research

institute (ILRI)

Livestock

epidemiology,

economics &

production

40.40.40.40. Dr. George Keya Dr. George Keya Dr. George Keya Dr. George Keya

Kenya agricultural

research institute

(KARI)

Asst. Director

Range research

41.41.41.41. Dr. Nicholas OgugeDr. Nicholas OgugeDr. Nicholas OgugeDr. Nicholas Oguge

Samburu

conservation

research initiative

Centre director,

42.42.42.42. Josiah CheruyotJosiah CheruyotJosiah CheruyotJosiah Cheruyot

Ministry of

livestock

development

Chief of project

planning,

monitoring and

evaluation

43.43.43.43. Dr. Christopher WangaDr. Christopher WangaDr. Christopher WangaDr. Christopher Wanga Kenya veterinary

association (KVA)

chairman

44.44.44.44. Dr. Jalang’oDr. Jalang’oDr. Jalang’oDr. Jalang’o Veterinary public

health

Deputy director

45.45.45.45. Dr. Idhondeka Dr. Idhondeka Dr. Idhondeka Dr. Idhondeka Veterinary services Director

46.46.46.46. Dr. Philiph K. CheronoDr. Philiph K. CheronoDr. Philiph K. CheronoDr. Philiph K. Cherono Kenya Dairy Board Technical

services manager

47.47.47.47. Ann NjugunaAnn NjugunaAnn NjugunaAnn Njuguna Care Kenya Lipfund Manager

48.48.48.48. Bakari MasoudBakari MasoudBakari MasoudBakari Masoud IFAD-funded

SNCDP

Project

Monitoring and

Evaluation

Officer


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 267


13) Dedan otiato

14) W. O. Ogara

15) Ali Adan Ali

16) N. O. Ayore

17) Florence Mutua

18) Vincent Makonjio

19) Vitalis Too

20) Reuben O. Mosi

21) Dave Anyona

22) Bedan Kigotho

23) John Nyongesa

24) Lawrence Gumbe


11. Dr. Muthui S .k

12. Dr. Isaac Kosgei

13. Lorna Mbatia

14. Geoffrey Muttai

15. Michael Gota

16. Stanley Bii

17. Patrick kuria-

18. Dr. Bengat

19. Mary Gaithuma

20. Charles Ng’ang’a


20. Hashim sheikh

21. Mohamed Aboi

22. Gedi mohamud

23. Hussein Abdi Abdullah

24. Moulid Hassan Abdi

25. Madobe Hassan


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 268

26. Mohamed shable

27. Aden ismail

28. Kadhija Abdi Rage

29. Abdullah Abdi

30. Idriss Sahal kolon

31. Mark Odhiambo

32. Joseph Mukiira

33. Rashid Mohamed

34. Dubat Amey

35. H. M Khalif

36. Mohamed Kaji

37. Mohamud Abdi

38. Bernard Muti


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 269

SUDANSUDANSUDANSUDAN


UGANDAUGANDAUGANDAUGANDA




Prof. Prof. Prof. Prof. Dr. A. Aziz Dr. A. Aziz Dr. A. Aziz Dr. A. Aziz

MakhawiMakhawiMakhawiMakhawi

Sudan University College of

Agriculture Ex Dean Dept of

Animal Science

Mohamed AbdelazizMohamed AbdelazizMohamed AbdelazizMohamed Abdelaziz Financial Investment Bank Director Marketing

and Business Dev

Hana Elhakim El Hana Elhakim El Hana Elhakim El Hana Elhakim El

AmnineAmnineAmnineAmnine

Pastoral Env. Network in the Horn of

Africa Volunteer

Dr. ADr. ADr. ADr. Ali AlRaziq Ali li AlRaziq Ali li AlRaziq Ali li AlRaziq Ali

LutfiLutfiLutfiLutfi

Ministry of Animal Resources Manager, Dept. of

Animal Production &

Development

Dr. Elrasheed A. AliDr. Elrasheed A. AliDr. Elrasheed A. AliDr. Elrasheed A. Ali University of Khartoum Asst. Prof. Food

Hygiene

Prof. Ahmed Ali IsmailProf. Ahmed Ali IsmailProf. Ahmed Ali IsmailProf. Ahmed Ali Ismail Sudan University of Science and Tech.,

Vet. Medicine

Professor of

Parasitology

Ms. Chaha FatihaMs. Chaha FatihaMs. Chaha FatihaMs. Chaha Fatiha Agence Science Presse, Canada Journaliste

Mohamed Eltayel Mohamed Eltayel Mohamed Eltayel Mohamed Eltayel

AbdelazizAbdelazizAbdelazizAbdelaziz

Privare Sector Dairy Farmer

Dr, Khitma Hasan Dr, Khitma Hasan Dr, Khitma Hasan Dr, Khitma Hasan

ElMalikElMalikElMalikElMalik

University of Khartoum/Vet Council Vice President Sudan

Veterinary Council

Dr. MohamedDr. MohamedDr. MohamedDr. Mohamed Ministry of Animal Resources and

Fisheries

Under Secretary,

Prof. Seif Eldawla Prof. Seif Eldawla Prof. Seif Eldawla Prof. Seif Eldawla

BarakatBarakatBarakatBarakat

Sudan University of Science and Tech.,

Vet. Medicine Lecturer


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 270





17. Asaph Nuwagira ADB’s Agriculture and Rural

Development

Specialist

18. Mr. D. M. Maholo Ministry of Agriculture,


19. Francis Odokrah Oxfam, Karamoja Region/

Pastoralist

Programme Officer

20. Joseph Wangolo Oxfam, Pastrolist-Karamojo

Region

Programme manager

21. James Wamahe Oxfam

22. Mr. Augustine Mwendya Agribusiness Development,

Uganda National Farmers

Federation.

Director

23. Mr. Denis Maholo SPA, MAAIF

24. Mamerto Mugerwa Kiira Town Council Mayor,

25. Sebadduka Authman Kiira Town Council Principal Town Clerk

26. Betty Nalwyima Kiira Town Council Speaker

27. George Iyaba Kiira Town Council Extension worker

28. Paul Segawa Kiira Town Council Extension worker

29. Eng. Richard Cong Directorate of Water

Development

Commissione

30. Eng. Bob Ahindisiwe Ministry of Water and

Environment

31. Dr. Cyprian Ebong NARO Director, Quality

Assurance

32. Dr. Kajuri Stephen Ministry of Agriculture,


National Project

Coordinator (Principal


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 271

Veterinary Officer in

charge of Dairy Meal,




ORGANIZATIONORGANIZATIONORGANIZATIONORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSS/INSTITUTIONSS/INSTITUTIONSS/INSTITUTIONS POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION

13.13.13.13. Dr. C.S. RutebarikaDr. C.S. RutebarikaDr. C.S. RutebarikaDr. C.S. Rutebarika Ministry of Agriculture, Animal


Acting Commissioner,

Disease control

14.14.14.14. Dr. J.T. OdimimDr. J.T. OdimimDr. J.T. OdimimDr. J.T. Odimim Ministry of Agriculture, Animal



15.15.15.15. Dr. Denis AndroaDr. Denis AndroaDr. Denis AndroaDr. Denis Androa Ministry of Agriculture, Animal



16.16.16.16. Mr. D.M. MaholoMr. D.M. MaholoMr. D.M. MaholoMr. D.M. Maholo Ministry of Agriculture, Animal


S.P.A.

17.17.17.17. Dr. Kiconco DorisDr. Kiconco DorisDr. Kiconco DorisDr. Kiconco Doris Ministry of Agriculture, Animal



18.18.18.18. Mr JMr JMr JMr Jackson Wadanyaackson Wadanyaackson Wadanyaackson Wadanya Ministry of Agriculture, Animal


Assistant Commissioner

of Fisheries

19.19.19.19. Dr. ByekwasoDr. ByekwasoDr. ByekwasoDr. Byekwaso National Agricultural Advisory

Services

Director of Planning

20.20.20.20. Dr. Aggrey Dr. Aggrey Dr. Aggrey Dr. Aggrey

KyobugusiiKyobugusiiKyobugusiiKyobugusii

National Agricultural Advisory

Services

Director of Vetinary

Extension Services

21.21.21.21. Dr. Sarah MubiruDr. Sarah MubiruDr. Sarah MubiruDr. Sarah Mubiru National Agricultural Research

Organisation

Forage Agronomist

22.22.22.22. Rose OmariaRose OmariaRose OmariaRose Omaria National Agricultural Research

Organisation

Research Officer,

Animal Nutrition

23.23.23.23. Dr. Martin KasiryeDr. Martin KasiryeDr. Martin KasiryeDr. Martin Kasirye Ministry of Agriculture, Animal


Deputy Project

Coordinator, NLPP.

24.24.24.24. Mr. Jackson BwireMr. Jackson BwireMr. Jackson BwireMr. Jackson Bwire Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Project Accountant,


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 272

Industry and Fisheries NLPP


NAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTS ORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONS

16.16.16.16. Francis OdokrahFrancis OdokrahFrancis OdokrahFrancis Odokrah Oxfarm

17.17.17.17. Joseph WangiloJoseph WangiloJoseph WangiloJoseph Wangilo Oxfarm

18.18.18.18. Dr. Frank MucherezaDr. Frank MucherezaDr. Frank MucherezaDr. Frank Muchereza Centre for Basic Research

19.19.19.19. Tonny KinsambuTonny KinsambuTonny KinsambuTonny Kinsambu IGAD, Liason Officer

20.20.20.20. Augustine MwendwaAugustine MwendwaAugustine MwendwaAugustine Mwendwa Uganda National Farmers Federation

21.21.21.21. Cllr MuchiviCllr MuchiviCllr MuchiviCllr Muchivi Political Leader

22.22.22.22. Dr. Peterson MugoyaDr. Peterson MugoyaDr. Peterson MugoyaDr. Peterson Mugoya Vetinary Extension Officer

23.23.23.23. Mohammed GathuMohammed GathuMohammed GathuMohammed Gathu Livestock Farmer

24.24.24.24. AyeAyeAyeAyesibe Benonsibe Benonsibe Benonsibe Benon Farmer

25.25.25.25. Nambi BennaNambi BennaNambi BennaNambi Benna Indigenous Farmer

26.26.26.26. Betty NanchaBetty NanchaBetty NanchaBetty Nancha Indigenous Cattle and Pig Farmer

27.27.27.27. Ssembagye CharlesSsembagye CharlesSsembagye CharlesSsembagye Charles Indigenous Cattle/Goats Farmer

28.28.28.28. Mike SsembogoMike SsembogoMike SsembogoMike Ssembogo Indigenous Cattle/Goats Farmer

29.29.29.29. Agnes NabawaggaAgnes NabawaggaAgnes NabawaggaAgnes Nabawagga Indigenous Cattle/Goats Farmer

30.30.30.30. Mrs. Gatunde SMrs. Gatunde SMrs. Gatunde SMrs. Gatunde Sebunyaebunyaebunyaebunya Pig Farmer


15. George Mwanje

16. John Kiakogabo


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 273

17. Joweria Kizito

18. Walibega Luganda

19. Kyeyune Saidda

20. Eriyosi Kaggwa

21. Tuwinawusuko Mubiru

22. Hellen Kyagabba

23. Hajat Hadyal Nabwauke

24. Ismail Kasimya Kudra

25. Tyaba George

26. Miriam Namutebi

27. Segawa Paul

28. Hadija Navawanuka


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 274

APPENDIX 13:LIST OF KEY

REFERENCES


P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 275

REFERENCESREFERENCESREFERENCESREFERENCES

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Abdullahi M. 2005. The changing nature of pastoral conflicts in South Eastern Ethiopia. Africa Peace

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