Regional Quarterly Bulletin on Wildlife and National Parks … · 2021. 2. 8. · Regional...

Regional Quarterly Bulletin on Wildlife and National Parks Management

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP), BANGKOKFOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Vol. XXXII : No. 1

Featuring

Vol. XIX : No. 1

January-March 2005

REGIONAL OFFICEFOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

TIGERPAPER is a quarterly news bulletindedicated to the exchange of information

relating to wildlife and national parksmanagement for theAsia-Pacific Region.

ISSN 1014 - 2789

Address

TIGERPAPERFAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific

Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit RoadBangkok, 10200, Thailand

Tel: (662) 697-4000Facsimile: (662) 697-4445

E-mail: [email protected]

Editor: Janice NaewboonnienAdvisors: M. Kashio and P. Durst

Contents

TIGERPAPER

Small Wildcat Status and Threats to theirConservation ..............................................................1

More on the Indian Chamaeleon in Aravalli hills ............5Population Status and Habitat use of Barasingha

in Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve ......................6Threatened Mammalian Fauna of Andhra Pradesh........ 11Crane Breeding in Bannu, NWFP, Pakistan ..................18Yor Ngone — Tiger Trapper ..........................................19Censusing Tiger and Leopard in Similipal

Tiger Reserve ..........................................................22Ichthyofauna of Bellanwila-Attidiya Sanctuary and its

Environs in Colombo, Sri Lanka ..............................26

TIGERPAPER is dependent upon your free and voluntarycontributions in the form of articles, news items, and announcements inthe field of wildlife and nature conservation in the region. In order tobetter serve the needs of our readers please write to us and send in theinformation you have or let us know if there is any information that youneed. We appreciate receiving your letters and make all efforts torespond.

Cover: Leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis)Photo: K.S. Shekar

The opinions expressed by thecontributing authors are notnecessarily those of FAO. Thedesignations employed and thepresentation of the material in theTIGERPAPER do not imply theexpression of any opinion on the partof FAO concerning the legal orconstitutional status of any country,territority or sea area, or thedelimitation of frontiers.

FOREST NEWS

Responding to the Tsunami Disaster:FAO’s Activities .........................................................1

Regional Coordination Workshop on Rehabilitation ofTsunami-Affected Forest Ecosystems:Strategies and New Directions ...................................3

Progress in Improving Forest Harvesting in Asia ...........6Introducing RILSIM to Viet Nam ....................................8National Forest Programmes—Support from the

Facility.........................................................................9Asia-Pacific Forestry Chips and Clips ............................ 11New RAP Forestry Publications .....................................14FAO Launches Online Forestry Newsroom ..................15FAO Asia-Pacific Forestry Calendar ..............................16

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Vol. XXXII: No. 1 January-March 2005

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NOTES ON SMALL WILDCAT STATUS AND THREATS TOTHEIR CONSERVATION - A SURVEY IN THE EASTERNGHATS OF INDIA

by K.S. Shekhar

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Natural history of the study area

The Eastern Ghats are located between 11º30’ and22º N latitude and 76º 50’ and 86º 30’E longitudeextending north-east to south-west. The Ghats(meaning “pass” – not mountains) spread over threestates of India, namely Orissa, Andhra Pradesh andTamilnadu. They cover an area of about 75,000 km2,with an average width of 200 km in the north and100 km in the south. They extend over 1,750 kmbetween the rivers Mahanadi and Vaigainal alongthe east coast. (Pullaiah and Rao, 2002). The el-evation in the study area varies between 20 m and1,100 m above mean sea level. The Eastern Ghatsand the Western Ghats converge in the state ofTamilnadu, forming the Nilgiri Hills. Six species ofwildcats are reported to inhabit the Eastern Ghats(Prater, 1988). They are as follows:

Small wildcats:Leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis):

female weight c. 2.5-3 kg,male weight c. 3.3 - 4 kg

Rusty spotted cat ( Prionailurus rubiginosus):female weight c. 1.5 kgmale weight c. 1.5 kg

Fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus):female weight c. 6 –7 kg,male weight c. 11- 12 kg

Jungle cat (Felis chaus):female weight c. 4 kg,male weight c. 6 kg (IUCN, 2004)

Large cats:Tiger (Panthera tigris):

female weight c.100-160 kg,male weight c. 180- 258 kg

Leopard (Panthera pardus):female weight c. 25-40 kg,male weight c. 40-75 kg

The region’s forests can be classified as:1) dry and moist mixed deciduous forests;2) small patches of semi-evergreen forests; and3) dense thorn scrub and bamboo patches. Coastalforests and inland fresh water swamps were alsosurveyed to determine the status of the wildcats.(Champion and Seth, 1968)

The study site in the Eastern Ghats of AndhraPradesh supported nearly all the different vegeta-tion types found in the Eastern Ghats. Locations inthe districts of Visakhapatnam and Vizianagaramwere surveyed between October 2003 and January2004 for small wildcats and other meso-carnivores.

Data was collected by several methods, e.g. throughsystematic photo trap surveys to establish the pres-ence of wildcats (Henschel, 2003), scent stationsurveys, night surveys using powerful beams of light,surveys at weekly local shanties (bazaars) to iden-tify the species of wild meat being traded, accom-panying local hunters during their hunting runs, aninventory of road kills, detailed questionnaire sur-veys, etc. Data collected on the wild cats is given inthe tables below.

It was found that even though the species diversitywas high in the region, the frequency with whichthe various species were encountered varied dras-tically. Certain species like the jungle cat (Felischaus) that seemed to tolerate constant human pres-ence and preferred open habitats, were sighted mostoften, while species like the fishing cat(Prionailurus viverrinus) and leopard cat(Prionailurus bengalensis) were restricted toniches in pockets of the jungle. Similar informationon the cats was revealed by the local hunters whoclaimed that they trap jungle cats just on the periph-ery of the village but capturing leopard cats is achance occurrence. A preference as to habitat was

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Species Presence/location Coordinates Habitat

Jungle cat (Felis chaus ) Kambala Konda sanctuary N17°58’ E 82°77’ Animal trailHighway crossingHuman trail

Konda Karla Awa swamp N17º36’ E 82º59’ Paddy fieldsHuman trail

Narsipatnam forest division N17º39’ E 82º26’ Along the roadSitting in a bush

R.V. Nagaram N17º60’ E 82º19’ Human trail in coffee plantation

Gudem N17º64’ E 82º12’ In fieldsSapparla N17º68’ E 82º01’ Coffee plantation

In fieldsDownuru Not recorded Road Kill

Leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) Kambala Konda sanctuary N17º58’ E 82º77’ Dense mixed forestPaderu N18º05’ E 82º40’ Forest cleared out

area (2 orphaned pups found

Fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus ) Coringa Sanctuary N16º41’ E 82º14’ Dried up water bodyDegraded mangroves

Leopard (Panthera pardus ) Kambala konda Sanctuary N17º58’ E 82º77’ Major walking trailHighwayDense thorn thicket

Sapparla N17º68’ E 82º01’ Near forest streamTracks through coffee plantation

R.V. Nagaram N17º60’ E82º19’ Bamboo thickets

Species Immediate threats

Other threats for conservation

Jungle cat* Feral dogsHunting

Low awareness levels about species; jungle cats are considered pests near urban settlements and a delicacy in tribal areas.

Leopard cat Habitat destruction

Lack of knowledge on the exact distribution of the species in the region. Most of the leopard cat habitats in the Eastern Ghats also harbor anti-government nexalites and they are difficult to access and conduct surveys. Forest fragmentation is another main cause for the disappearance of leopard cats from many areas.

Fishing cat Habitat destruction

Most of their habitats close to the coast have disappeared or have become surrounded by farming, thus leaving no corridors and restricting the animals’ movement. No surveys have been conducted on the river basins and other interior areas of the Eastern Ghats.

Rusty spotted cat Not known Little or no data available on the species distribution in the Eastern Ghats.Leopard Habitat

destructionRoad killsHunting

Lack of adequate funds for leopard conservation.

Tiger Habitat destruction

Too many people and very little natural tiger habitat left.

Table 2: Threats to their conservation.

Table 1: Small wildcat sightings during the study period. |

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Species Common name Hunted forManis crassicaudata Indian pangolin ScalesAxis axis Chital MeatCervus unicolor Sambar MeatMuntiacus muntjac Barking deer MeatParadoxurus hermaphroditus Palm civet SkinHystrix indica Porcupine MeatLepus nigricollis ruficaudatus Rufous tailed hare MeatMacaca radiata Bonnet macaque Meat Sus scrofa Wild boar MeatPresbytis entellus Hanuman langur Not huntedVandeleuria oleracea Long tailed tree mouse MeatGolunda ellioti Indian bush rat No dataFunambulus palmarum Three striped palm squirrel Meat and SkinFunambulus pennanti Five striped palm squirrel Meat and SkinAnathana ellioti Indian tree shrew MeatViverricula indica Small Indian civet Scent gland secretionCanis aureus Jackal PestLutra lutra Common Indian otter Skin and MeatTetracerus quadricornis Four horned antelope MeatTragulus meminna Mouse deer MeatRatufa indica Giant squirrel Meat

Barking deer - rare but highly prized for its meat. (Photo: Shekar Kolipaka)

Table 3: Other wildlife species documented in the region during the study period. | N

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also found among the ungulates. The slopes ofthe Eastern Ghats supported various species ofungulates. However, the frequency rates of en-countering individual species varied. The fourhorned antelope (Tetracerus quadri-cornis) wasrecorded just once and the Cheetal deer (Axisaxis) was only found in some pockets where ithas been introduced and special protection is of-fered. Signs of the presence of the mouse deer(Tragulus meminna) were recorded most often(tracks and droppings) and further evidence ofits presence was confirmed by the sale of theanimal’s meat in the markets. The interviewedhunters did not seem to have a particular speciestargetted before they left for the hunt; instead,they shot or trapped at random. However, if signsand tracks revealed the regular occurrence of alarge herbivore like the sambar deer (Cervusunicolor) in their area, then they would methodi-cally set lures (salt licks) to capture the animal.Civets are another species that was specificallyhunted. The palm civets (Paradoxurushermaphroditus) were more visible outside hu-man settlements and close to the trails, but thesame was not true of the Small Indian civet(Viverricula indica) which preferred denser,undisturbed bush. Both species were sighted anequal number of times during the study. Threeindividual sightings each of the Palm civet andSmall Indian civet during 8 (7.5 km) night walksin the Kambala konda sanctuary were reported.

Like most carnivores, small wild cats naturallyoccur in low densities (pers comm. Dr. ShomitaMukherjee) and are hard to sight because of theircryptic and secretive nature. Their presence inan area cannot be detected except by a chancesighting or if they have developed a habit of raid-ing human settlements. Hunting, trapping and dog-related mortalities may have a drastic influenceon wild cat populations, and due to their secretivenature the effects could remain unseen. It hasbeen observed in Central India that some speciesof wild cats have completely disappeared fromareas where they were known to exist earlier (In-dia caracal project; (Shekhar, 2002).Unsystematic, random killing of wildlife speciesby the ever-growing tribes and villagers of East-ern Ghats will have a drastic impact on the wild-

life. Hunting in Western Ghats was not found to becompatible with large carnivore conservation (Hunt-ing for sustainability, 2003).

The species sightings and records of their presencemay have been high in this study because of the di-verse forest types surveyed. The study did not at-tempt to understand the populations of individual spe-cies, firstly because of lack of adequate knowledgeon the site occupancy of the species in the region andsecondly because it was not an objective of the study.Hence, estimates of populations or the densities ofspecies in this region remain unclear.

The presence of the Rusty spotted cat (IUCN-VU)could not be established during the study period be-cause no sightings were reported. However, the spe-cies was recognized by a group of hunting tribes (whohunt with dogs) and they refer to it as Namala pilli(meaning cat with white stripes on its forehead) intheir local vernacular. The status and distribution ofthis species remains unclear. At least for now, thelocals seem to know more about the species than thescientific community. This has to change if we are toensure the survival of the species in the Eastern Ghats.

References:

Champion, H.G. & Seth, S.K. 1968. A revised sur-vey of the forest types of India.Government of India Press, Delhi.

Pullaiah, T. and D. Muralidhara Rao. 2002. Flora ofEastern Ghats: Hill Ranges of South EastIndia: Vol. 1: Ranunculaceae—Moringaceae.New Delhi, Regency, vi, 340 p.

Henschel, P. and J. Ray. 2003. Leopards in AfricanRain forests survey and monitoring tech-niques. Wildlife Conservation Society Global Car-nivore Program 2003.

Prater, S.H. 1988. The book of Indian mammals,Bombay Natural History Society publication.

Robinson, J. and Bennett, E. 2000. Hunting forsustainability in the tropical forests. Colum-bia University Press.

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MORE ON THE INDIAN CHAMAELEON IN ARAVALLIHILLS

by Sunil Dubey

Shekhar, K.S. 2001. India Caracal Project.M. Phil thesis, Indian Institute of Forest Man-agement, Bhopal India.

Shekhar,K.S. 2002. Status of small wildcats inCentral India, IUCN CAT News Spring,36:16-18.

Websites

IUCN. 2004. Red List. http://www.redlist.org/

Tigerpaper Vol.31:No.3 contained the report“Discovery of the Indian chamaeleon in theAravalli Foothills of Rajasthan (India)” by ShaliniGaur. One of the Tigerpaper readers, Mr. SunilDubey, a Lecturer in Environmental Studies at

IUCN Species Accounts. http://lynx.uio.no/catfolk/sp-accts.htm

Taxonomy of Animals, adopted from the CAMPworkshop 2003, Zoo Outreach Organisation,India. www.zooreach.org

Pacific College Udaipur, wrote to inform us of asighting of the Indian chamaeleon 25 years earlierin the same area by Dr. Raza H. Tehsin in No-vember 1979, as reported in the Times of India.

Author’s e-mail address:[email protected]

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Introduction

Swamp deer or barasingha (Cervus duvauceli)(Cervidae family) is one of the endangered spe-cies endemic to the Indian sub-continent (Schaller,1967; Schaaf, 1978). Among the three recognizedspecies, Cervus duvauceli duvauceli (the north-ern sub-species) is found in Nepal (Ellerman andMorrison-Scott, 1951; Sankaran, 1989). Until thelast century, barasingha were widely distributed inareas of suitable habitat throughout the northernIndian Gangetic plains and the lowlands of thesouthern Himalayas. Now, however, Barasinghapopulations are restricted to a few isolated pock-ets, mainly due to habitat alteration, habitat frag-mentation and illegal hunting. Today, an estimated5,000 individuals remain in the wild, mostly in pro-tected areas of Nepal and India (Wemmer, 1998).At present, only two populations of Cervusduvauceli duvauceli are known to survive inNepal, each one isolated from the other. Of these,the Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve (RSWR)contains the world’s largest population (Hensaw,1994). A little over 90 animals are reported to bepresent in the Royal Bardia National Park (RBNP)in mid-western Nepal (Parajuli, 2000). The presentstudy aims to generate some data, especially aboutthe population status and habitat preference ofbarasingha in RSWR, which will be helpful in con-servation endeavors on its behalf.

This paper deals with the current status and distri-bution of the barasingha population within the re-serve and its habitat preferences.

Study areaRoyal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve is located inthe far western lowland of Nepal (28º45’16" to28º57’23"N and 80º06’04" to 80º21’40"E) and en-compasses an area of 305 km2. The Reserve is

bordered by the Mahakali River in the west andthe Nepal-India border in the south. The Reserveextends up to the Syali River in the east and to thecrest of the Churia hills in the northeast corner(DNPWC, 2000). The area extends from the flatlands in the south to the Churia hill range in thenorth and contains many different ecosystems(Velde, 1997).

The vegetation in the reserve is of the sub-tropi-cal type and consists of three forest types: i) Salforest (Shorea robusta); ii) riverine forest; andiii) Khair-Sisso forest (Acacia catechu-Dalbergiasisso) (Thapa, 2003). Grasslands are establishedon the riverbeds and there are also previously cul-tivated fields and phantas. The grasslands in theriverbeds are dominated by tall grass species suchas Saccharum spontaneum and S. bengalensis.The phantas are dominated by Imperatacylindrica, Vetivera zizanoides andDesmostachia bipinnata .

The Reserve is famous for hosting the largest popu-lations of barasingha, tigers (Panthera tigristigris) and wild elephants (Elephas maximus) inNepal (DNPWC and PPP, 2000). Other protectedwildlife species found in the Reserve include Ben-gal florican and hispid hare (Caprolagushispidus). A newly established sub-population ofrhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) also occupiesthe southern section of the Reserve.

The present study was concentrated inSuklaphanta and nearby forest areas of the south-western section of the Reserve.

Materials and methods

The population status of barasingha was deter-mined by using the direct ground count method.

POPULATION STATUS AND HABITAT USE OFBARASINGHA (Cervus duvauceli duvauceli) INROYAL SUKLAPHANTA WILDLIFE RESERVE

by Nabin Gyawali and S.R. Jnawali

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The count was conducted during April and May2003. Barasingha congregate annually in greatestnumbers on the newly burned grasslands ofSuklaphanta between February and April (Schaaf,1978). This made it possible to obtain a reliabletotal population count. Counts were made in themorning before 10.00 hrs and in the evening after16.00 hrs. Vehicles used in the counting wouldcruise along the grasslands and over forest roadsuntil herds of barasingha were spotted and thenthe count was made using binoculars. Large herds(>1,000) were split to make counting easier. Dur-ing the total count, elephants were also used tosearch all potential barasingha areas in the reserve,including areas formerly occupied by barasingha.

The group size was estimated by using the methoddescribed by Martin (1977). The total number ofbarasingha observed during the study period wasdivided by the total number of groups observed.The mean of the two-month’s group size gave theaverage number of animals per group.

The distribution of barasingha was determined bydirect observation. The geographic locations ofobserved groups or individuals were recorded us-ing a global positioning system (GPS).

Habitat preference was determined by using thefecal pellet observation through the line-plottransect method (Wegge, 1976). Ten meter square(r=1.78m) circular plots were laid along eachtransect and the presence or absence of pelletswas recorded for each plot. Habitat preferencewas calculated by using the following formula(Pokharel, 1996):

Results and discussion

Population statusThe present study revealed a minimum of 1,607individuals in RSWR – all of which were recorded

in grassland patches in Suklaphanta. The popula-tion trend in the area is shown in Table 1.

The total number of barasingha recorded in thepresent study (1,607) indicates that there has beena decline in the barasingha population since theprevious census. The decrease in numbers mightbe due to poaching during the state of emergencyin 2001/2002. However, no poaching incidentswere recorded during the study period. In addi-tion, high predation pressure might have also af-fected the population growth as the number oflarge predators has increased over the years. Pre-dation has been identified as the key factor in lim-iting wild ungulate populations in two South Asianreserves, i.e. Gir Forest Sanctuary (Berwick, 1974)and Kanha (Schaller, 1967). Barasingha was foundto be the main diet for the tigers in Dudhwa Na-tional Park (Singh, 1978). Since RSWR harbors asignificant tiger population of 19 individuals (Regmi,2000), one of the highest density tiger populationsin Nepal, one can easily assume the relativelyhigher predation pressure on barasingha.

Sex composition of the populationAmong the 1,607 animals observed in the Reserve,30.6% were adult males and the remaining 69.3%

were females and calves. Schaaf (1978)recorded adult males up to 32.7% of thetotal count (lower than the female popu-lation) in 1976 in RSWR. Based on sexratio and past trends, the higher propor-tion of females and calves indicates the

increasing population in RSWR. However, its in-crease would also depend on several factors otherthan the sex ratio.

Pellets present (%) in each habitatHabitat preference = Total pellets present (%) * 100

of all the habitat types

Table 1: Population of barasingha in RSWRYear Estimated number Source1968 1,250 Byrne (In: Bhatta &

Shrestha, 1977)1976 1,000 Schaaf1994 1,850 Hensaw2003 1,607 Present study

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meadow during the rutting season; however, nosuch evidence was noted during the present study.

Habitat preferencePellets of barasingha were sighted in five differ-ent habitat types in the main study area. Plots withthe highest proportion (52.8%) of pellets were re-corded in the short grassland, whereas the lowestproportion was recorded in the marsh (14.25%).Among the five different habitats used bybarasingha, short grassland was most preferred(HP value of 37.65%), followed by wooded grass-land (HP value 27.14%). The lowest HP valueswere for riverine forest (10.79%) and marsh(10.15%). Pokharel (1996) also found similar re-sults in Bardia where phanta (open short grass-land) was most preferred and moist riverine for-est had the lowest HP value. The habitat prefer-ences are given in Table 3.

The highest preference for short grassland mightalso be attributed to the availability of preferredfood plants such as Imperata cylindrica, Sac-charum spontaneum and S. bengalensis (Schaaf,1978; Pokharel, 1996) and waterholes. In addi-tion, deer species, and in particular barasingha, tendto favor open areas over close tall grassland toavoid the risk of predation. Barasingha also showeda high preference for wooded grassland. They fa-vored this habitat for resting during the hot day-time hours. The infrequent use of riverine forestby barasingha could be explained by the scarcityof water, as well as preferred food plants.

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| Group sizeBarasingha were seen to congregate inSuklaphanta during the study period (April-May),forming herds of varying sizes. The average groupsize observed in the present study was 278.7 ani-mals per group during the hot, dry season and isshown in Table 2.

The herd size of 298.4 animals seen during Aprildecreased to 261.4 during early May. The herdsize ranged from 3 to 1,213 animals. The largestgroup size was recorded during the first week ofApril. The formation of such large groups occurredwhen forage conditions improved in the short grass-lands during April-May after controlled burning. Itwas observed that the herd size never remainedconstant, indicating a loose social structure. Manyindividuals were found to readily join and split fromthe groups. The only stable relationship was be-tween mother and calf.

DistributionDuring the study period (hot, dry season), almostall groups were observed exclusively in the opengrassland in the southern and western sides ofSuklaphanta along the Nepal-India border. Mostof the time, the herds were confined to around theold Suklaphanta post and near Purano Tal (lake) inSuklaphanta.

The congregation of barasingha in Suklaphanta wasmainly due to the availability of new grasses dur-ing the study period. Schaaf (1978) and Moe (1993)also recorded barasingha concentrations in opengrass patches when new sprouts of grass specieswere available. The congregation could be for rut-ting too. At Kanha National Park, Schaller (1967)observed the congregation of barasingha in the

Month Total no. of groups

Total no. of barasingha

Mean group size

Range

April 14 4,178 298.4 3-1,213May 16 4,183 261.4 7-1,010Total 30 8,361 287.7

Table 2: Group size of barasinghaobserved in RSWR

Habitat types

Total no. of plots

Plots with pellets

HP

SGL 70 37 37.65TGL 15 3 14.25WGL 21 8 27.4RF 33 5 10.79Marsh 7 1 10.15Note: SGL: short grassland; WGL: wood grass-land; TGL: tall grassland; RF: riverine forest

Table 3: Habitat preferance value fordifferent habitats

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Barasingha showed the lowest preference formarsh areas. Tall grasses like Narengaporphyrocoma and Phragmitis karka dominatethis habitat, which gives less suitable escape coverfor the barasingha.

Conclusions

With the establishment of Royal Suklaphanta Wild-life Reserve in 1976, and with the subsequent man-agement system put in place, the population ofbarasingha has been increasing steadily, eventhough the present study shows a slight decline inthe population since the last census done in themid-1990s. A total of 1,607 animals were countedinside RSWR. Barasingha were basically observedin the open short grassland areas of Suklaphanta,congregating to form large herds. Poaching, tigerpredation and habitat alteration have been foundto be the main causes for declines in the barasinghapopulation. Among the five habitat types wherebarasingha were found, the barasingha showed the

highest preference foropen, short grassland.Forested areas weremostly avoided.Wooded grasslandswere also a preferredhabitat over tall grass-land, riverine forest andmarshes.

Acknowledgments

The authors wouldlike to thank the De-partment of NationalParks and WildlifeC o n s e r v a t i o n(DNPWC) for grant-ing permission tocarry out the researchin Royal SuklaphantaWildlife Reserve.Suresh K. Shresthaand SantoshRayamajhi from theInstitute of Forestry;

Naresh Subedi, KMTNC and Tika RamAdhikari, Chief Warden, RSWR, provided valu-able suggestions throughout the study. KMTNCprovided financial and technical supportthrough its Bardia-based Bardia ConservationProgram and Kanchanpur-based SuklaphantaConservation Program.

References

Berwick, S.H. 1974. The community of wildruminants in the Gir Forest ecosystem,India. Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University,USA.

Bhatta, D.D. and T.K. Shrestha. 1977. The en-vironment of Suklaphanta. Curriculum De-velopment Centre, Tribhuvan University,Nepal.

Figure: Distribution map of Barasingha in Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve

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DNPWC and PPP. 2000. Royal SuklaphantaWildlife Reserve Management StrategyFramework. Department of National Parksand Wildlife Conservation and Park PeopleProgramme, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Ellerman, J.R. and T.C.S. Morisson-Scott. 1951.Checklist of Paleartic and Indian Mam-mals. British Museum (Natural History), Lon-don. 810 pp.

Hensaw, J. 1994. The barasingha, or swampdeer, in Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve,Nepal. Oryx 28(3):199-206.

Martin, C. 1977. Status and ecology of thebarasingha (Cervus duvauceli branderi) inKanha National Park (India). J. BombayNat. Hist. Soc. 72(1):60-132.

Moe, S.R. 1994. Distribution and movementpattern of deer in response to food qual-ity and manipulation of grassy habitat: Acase study with emphasis on Axis deer(Axis axis) in lowland Nepal. Ph.D. thesis.Agricultural University of Norway. 112 pp.

Parajuli, K. 2001. Ecological assessment ofSwamp deer with particular emphasis onthe conservation problems of the samein the western lowland of Royal BardiaNational Park . Project Report, B.Sc.Kathmandu University, Nepal.

Pokharel, C.P. 1996. Food habit and habitat uti-lization of swamp deer (Cervus duvauceliduvauceli) in the Royal Bardia NationalPark, Nepal. M.Sc. thesis. Tribhuvan Uni-versity, Nepal. 38 pp.

Regmi, U.R. 2000. Status of Tiger (Pantheratigris) and Livestock depredation inRoyal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve,Nepal. M.Sc. thesis. Agricultural Universityof Norway. 51 pp.

Sankaran, R. 1989. Status of Swamp deer(Cervus duvauceli duvauceli) in DudhwaNational Park (1988-1989). Bombay Natu-ral History Soc. Technical Report No.14.

Schaaf, C.D. 1978. Population size and struc-ture and habitat relation of the barasingha(Cervus duvauceli duvauceli) inSuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve, Nepal.Ph.D. thesis. Michigan State University, USA.370 pp.

Schaller, G.B. 1967. The Deer and the Tiger.University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA.370 pp.

Singh, A. 1978. The status of the Swamp Deer(Cervus duvauceli duvauceli) in the DudwaNational Park. In: Threatened deer. Pp.132-142. IUCN, Morges, Switzerland.

Thapa, R. 2003. Study on Habitat Structure ofRoyal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve,Western Lowland, Nepal. Draft. B.Sc. the-sis. Institute of Forestry, TU, Pokhara.

Velde, P.F. 1997. A status report of Nepal’s wildelephant population. WWF Report.Kathmandu, Nepal.

Wegge, P. 1976. Terai Shikar Reserves. Sur-vey and management proposals. FAO,NEP/72/002, Field Document No.4:1-78.

Wemmer, C. (editor). 1998. Deer Status Surveyand Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSCDeer Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Swit-zerland and Cambridge, UK. 106 pp.

Authors’ addresses: Nabin Gyawali, P.O. Box4823, Kathmandu, Nepal, E-mail:[email protected]; Dr. S.R. Jnawali, KingMahendra Trust for Nature Conservation,Kathmandu, Nepal.

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Introduction

Andhra Pradesh is India’s fifth largest state, withan area of 275,068 km2. It encompasses a greatpart of the Deccan Plateau, sloping down to theBay of Bengal. It is bordered by Orissa andMadhya Pradesh to the northeast, Maharashtrato the north, Karnataka to the west, Tamil Naduto the south, and the Bay of Bengal to the east.

Andhra Pradesh has a forest cover of 63,814 km2,which is 23.19% of the total geographical area ofthe state (ICFRE, 1995). This places AndhraPradesh in fourth position in India in terms of for-est cover. The principal forest types are: tropicaldry deciduous forest (5A/C1), southern tropicalthorn forest (6A/C1), southern tropical moist de-ciduous forest (3B/C2), littoral forest (4A/L1) andtidal swamp mangrove forest (4B/TSL).

The state is broadly divided into three regions,namely, Telengana (northern region), CoastalAndhra (eastern region) and Rayalseema (south-ern region). Telengana occupies 45.80% of thegeographical area and has 25.43% of the forestcover, while Coastal Andhra occupies 30.67% ofthe geographical area and has 21.06% of the for-est cover. The Rayalseema region occupies25.53% of the geographical area and has 22.30%of the forest cover. All 23 districts in the state haveforests of one or more types.

Andhra Pradesh has 4 national parks and 20 wild-life sanctuaries. The wildlife sanctuaries cover anarea of 11,346.54 km2 and the national parks cover525.1 km2, or 4.12% and 0.19% of the total areaof the State respectively.

Threatened mammalian fauna

The mammalian fauna of Andhra Pradesh is rep-resented by a total of 73 species (Srinivasulu,1999). Forest Department documents and pro-

tected area and district management plans carryaccounts of the mammalian diversity recorded intheir respective areas. Scientific literature (SubbaRao et al., 1982; Kishan, 1990; Subba Rao et al.,1994; Rao, 1996; Nagulu et al., 1998; Nagulu etal., 1999; Nagulu et al., 2000), though meager,carries accounts of mammalian distribution in se-lected areas. However, there is a lack of informa-tion concerning the present status of threatenedmammalian species. This paper attempts to presentthe status, habits, distribution, threats and generalnotes of selected threatened mammals of the state.The status accorded to each of the species fol-lows Molur et al. (1998): EN=Endangered;Vu=Vulnerable; LRnt= Lower risk near threat-ened. Rodentia and chiropterans were not includedin the present account.

Anathana ellioti (Waterhouse, 1850) Indian(Madas) Tree Shrew[Primates: Tupaiidae]Terrestrial, arboreal and diurnal in habit, inhabitingscrub jungle and dry deciduous forested tracts.Fragmented populations. Threats include habitatloss and fragmentation and road kills. Found dis-tributed throughout the State. Sizeable populationsrestricted to forested tracts along the GodavariRiver. Status: LRnt

Bos gaurus (Smith, 1827) Gaur (Indian Bison)[Artiodactyla: Bovidae]Terrestrial, inhabiting dry deciduous forested tractsalong the Godavari River. Fragmented populations.Recorded from Kawal, Eturnagaram, Kinnerasaniand Papikonda wildlife sanctuaries. Threats includedisease, livestock competition and habitat loss.Status: Vu

Canis lupus palipus (Sykes, 1831) Indian Wolf[Carnivora: Canidae]Terrestrial, inhabiting dry deciduous forested tracts,thorny scrub, grassland patches and cultivated ar-eas. Population is rapidly depleting and threats in-

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clude habitat loss and poisoning, as they are noto-rious for being sheep- and goat-lifters. Status: LRnt

Cuon alpinus dekhanensis (Pallas, 1811) Asi-atic Wild Dog[Carnivora: Canidae]Terrestrial, inhabiting dry deciduous forested tractsand teak mixed bamboo forests. Population patchilydistributed throughout the State. Surviving well inKawal, Pakhal, Nagarjunasagar Srisailam, GundlaBrah-meshwaram and Sri Venkateshwara wild-life sanctuaries. Threats include habitat loss, hu-man interference (poisoning) and disease. Status:LRnt

Elephas maximus (Linnaeus, 1758) IndianElephant[Proboscidae: Elephantidae]Terrestrial, inhabiting dry deciduous forestedtracts. Recorded from Kaundinya Wildlife Sanc-tuary, and represented by a resident migrant popu-lation in Chittoor District that has dispersed wellinto the adjacent Cuddapah District in recent times.Another population is found in Srikakulam Districtwhere they seasonally and intermittently migratefrom the adjacent state of Orissa. Threats includehabitat loss and fragmentation, man-animal con-flicts, human interference, disease and genetic iso-lation. Status: Vu

Felis chaus (Schreber, 1777) Jungle Cat[Carnivora: Felidae]Terrestrial, crepuscular and nocturnal, inhabitingdry deciduous forest and scrubland. Threats in-clude habitat loss and fragmentation. Distributedthroughout the state, but commoner in northerndistricts. Status: LRnt

Felis silvestris (Schreber, 1715) Desert Cat[Carnivora: Felidae]Terrestrial, crepuscular and nocturnal, inhabitingdry deciduous forest. Only a few sight recordsexist. The author has recorded it from Kawal Wild-life Sanctuary, Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary,Mahadevpur Forest (Karimnagar District), andthere is also a report of its sighting fromNagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve (K. ThulsiRao, pers. comm.). Threats include habitat loss,fragmentation and hybridization. Status: LRnt

Hyaena hyaena (Linnaeus, 1758) StripedHyena[Carnivora: Hyaenidae]Terrestrial, inhabiting dry deciduous forest, scru-blands and open forest. Population patchily dis-tributed throughout the state, but rapidly depletingdue to habitat loss and fragmentation, and poison-ing. Status: LRnt

Loris tardigradus (Linnaeus, 1758) SlenderLoris[Primates: Lorisidae]Arboreal, inhabiting tropical dry deciduous forest,scrub jungle and orchards. Threats include habitatloss and fragmentation, and hunting. Found in thesouthern districts of Chittoor, Nellore andCuddapah. Status: LRnt

Lutra lutra (Linnaeus, 1758) (Eurasian Otter)[Carnivora: Mustelidae]S.A. Hussain of the Wildlife Institute of India,Dehradun, reported that he examined a Eurasianotter skin from Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary in 1991(pers. comm.). No further reports of its occur-rence within the State. Status: Not evaluated

Lutra perspicillata (I. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire,1826) Indian Smooth-coated Otter[Carnivora: Mustelidae]Semi-aquatic, inhabiting larger reservoirs, riversand estuaries. Threats include habitat loss, over-fishing, increased pollution levels, and deaths dueto net entanglements. Distributed patchily alongthe Godavari and Krishna river basins. Status: Vu(IUCN International criteria)

Manis crassicaudata (Gray, 1827). IndianPangolin[Polidota: Manidae]Terrestrial, fossorial and nocturnal in habits, inhab-iting scrub and dry deciduous forests. Rapidlydwindling in number. Threats include habitat lossand killing. Patchy distribution throughout the State.Status: LRnt

Melivora capensis (Schreber, 1776) Ratel[Carnivora: Mustelidae]Terrestrial, fossorial and nocturnal, inhabiting drydeciduous forested tracts. Rapidly dwindling innumber. Threats include human-induced distur-

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bances and habitat loss. Found mostly along theEastern Ghats and in forested tracts along theGodavari River. Status: LRnt

Melursus ursinus (Shaw, 1791) Sloth Bear[Carnivora: Ursidae]Terrestrial and arboreal, inhabiting dry deciduousforests. Surviving well in the protected areas andadjacent reserve forests of the State. Threats in-clude habitat loss and killings as a result of in-creased bear-human conflicts. Status: Vu

Moschiola memmina (Erxleben, 1777) MouseDeer[Artiodactyla: Tragulidae]Terrestrial, inhabiting dense dry deciduous andsemi-moist deciduous forests. Population rapidlydwindling due to loss of habitat and hunting. Dis-tributed along the high forests of the Eastern Ghats,especially along the Nalamalla Hills inNagarjunasagar Srisailam (right bank) and GundlaBrahmeshwaram wildlife sanctuaries, andSeshachalam Hills in Sri Venkateshwara NationalPark and Wildlife Sanctuary. Status: LRnt

Panthera pardus (Linnaeus, 1758) Leopard[Carnivora: Felidae]Terrestrial and semi-arboreal, inhabiting dry de-ciduous and scrub forests. Well representedthroughout the State, yet patchy in distribution.Threats include habitat loss and fragmentation,electrocution, hunting and poisoning. Status: Vu

Panthera tigris (Linnaeus, 1758) Tiger[Carnivora: Felidae]Terrestrial, inhabiting dry deciduous forest tractsalong the Godavari River basin and on the East-ern Ghats up to the Nalamalla Hills. Populationfast depleting. Threats include loss of habitat, elec-trocution, poisoning, prey base depletion, and trade-related activities. Status: EN

Petaurista phillipensis (Elliot, 1842) LargeBrown Flying Squirrel[Rodentia: Scuiridae]Arboreal and nocturnal in habit, inhabiting dry de-ciduous hill forests. Highly patchy distribution.Populations rapidly dwindling due to loss of habi-tat and killings. Distributed along the EasternGhats. Status: LRnt

Prionailurus bengalensis (Kerr, 1792) Leop-ard Cat[Carnivora: Felidae]Terrestrial to semi-arboreal and nocturnal in habit,inhabiting mixed deciduous and moist deciduoushill forests of the Eastern Ghats. Highly patchydistribution, especially along the Nalamalla andSeshachalam Hills. Populations are rapidly dwin-dling due to loss of habitat and killings. Status: LRnt

Prionailurus rubiginosus (I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831) Rusty-spotted Cat[Carnivora: Felidae]Terrestrial to semi-arboreal and nocturnal in habit,inhabiting scrub to dry deciduous forests, espe-cially along the Godavari River basin area. Re-cently, it has been reported from Nalamalla Hills(Thulsi Rao et al., 1999) in the Eastern Ghats.Highly patchy distribution. Probably rapidly dwin-dling in number due to loss of habitat and roadkills. Status: LRnt

Prionailurus viverrinus (Bennett, 1833) Fish-ing Cat[Carnivora: Felidae]Terrestrial to semi-arboreal and nocturnal in habit,inhabiting scrub jungles, wetlands, marshy areas,tidal creeks and mangroves. Patchy distributionalong the coastal wetlands and mangroves ofGodavari and Krishna. Rapidly dwindling in num-ber due to loss of habitat. Status: Vu

Ratufa indica centralis (Erxleben, 1777) In-dian Giant Squirrel[Rodentia: Sciuridae]Arboreal in habit, found in mixed deciduous for-ests along the Godavari River basin and the East-ern Ghats. Populations highly fragmented and onthe decline due to loss of habitat and hunting. Sta-tus: Vu

Tetracerus quadricornis (Blainville, 1816)Four-horned Antelope[Artiodactyla: Bovidae]Terrestrial, inhabiting dry deciduous tracts ofTelengana region and all along the forested tractsof the Godavari River. Threats include increasinghuman disturbance, loss of habitat, livestock pres-sure, and poaching. Status: LRnt

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Viverricula indica (Desmarest, 1804) SmallIndian Civet[Carnivora: Viverridae]Terrestrial to semi-arboreal and nocturnal in habit,inhabiting scrub jungles, dry deciduous forests andnear fringe villages. Distributed throughout theState. Populations in decline due to loss of habitatand hunting. Status: LRnt

Vulpes bengalensis (Shaw, 1800) Bengal Fox[Carnivora: Canidae]Terrestrial in habit, inhabiting scrub jungles, drydeciduous forest, grasslands and agro-ecosystems.Distributed throughout the State. Populations areunder threat due to loss of habitat and poisoning.Status: LRnt

Acknowledgements

The author is grateful to the officials of theForest Department of Andhra Pradesh, in par-ticular the Chief Conservator of Forests andConservator of Forests (Wildilfe Management)for their encouragement and help. Thanks mustalso go to the Librarian of the Forest Depart-ment of Andhra Pradesh, the Divisional ForestOfficers, and the field staff for their help. Spe-cial thanks to Dr. V. Nagulu and the Head ofthe Department of Zoology, Osmania Univer-sity for encouragement and the use of facili-ties. A financial grant from CSIR (New Delhi)in the form of SRF-ship to the author is ac-knowledged.

References

FSI. 1991. The State of Forest Report. 1991.Forest Survey of India, Government of India,Dehradun, India.

ICFRE 1995. Forestry Statistics. 1995. IndianCouncil of Forest Research and Education,Dehradun, India.

Kishan, V. 1990. Ecology, behaviour and man-agement of elephants in Andhra Pradeshcontext. In: Karunakaran, C.K. (Ed.) Pro-ceedings of the Symposium on ecology,behaviour and management of elephantsin Kerala. Thiruvananhapuram, 23-24 Feb-

ruary 1990. Wildlife Wing, Kerala Forest De-partment.

Molur, S. Nameer, P.O. and S. Walker. 1998. Re-port of the Workshop “Conservation As-sessment and Management Plan for Mam-mals of India (BCPP – Endangered Spe-cies Project)”. Zoo Outreach Organization,Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, In-dia. Coimbatore, India. 176 p.

Nagulu, V., Srinivasulu, C. and V. Vasudeva Rao.1999. Status of otter in southern IndianStates: An updated report – 1999. In:Hussain, S.A. (Ed.) ENVIS Bulletin: Wildlifeand Protected Areas, Mustelids, Viverrids andHespertids of India. 2(2):71-73.

Nagulu, V., Rao, Vasudeva, V. and C. Srinivasulu.2000. Wildlife Heritage of Deccan. In:Gupta, H.K., Parasher-Sen, A, and D.Subramaniana (Eds.) Deccan Heritage. In-dian National Science Academy & Universi-ties Press, Hyderabad. pp.35-76.

Nagulu, V., Rao, Vasudeva, V. and C. Srinivasulu.1988. Biodiversity of select habitats inEastern Ghat region of Andhra Pradesh.In: The Eastern Ghats, Proceedings of theNational Seminar on the Conservation ofEastern Ghats, Visakhapatnam. March 24-26, 1998. EPTRI, Hyderabad and Andhra Uni-versity, Visakhapatnam. pp.6-35

Nagulu, V., Rao, Vasudeva, V., Satynarayana, D.and C. Srinivasulu. 1998. Otter records andotter conservation perspectives in AndhraPradesh. IUCN Otter Specialist Group Bull.15(1):31-37.

Rao, C.N. 1996. Status report of elephants inAndhra Pradesh. In: Daniel, J.C. and H.s.Datye (Eds). “A Week with Elephants” –Proceedings of the International Seminaron the Conservation of Asian Elephant.June 1993, BNHS, Bombay. Bombay NaturalHistory Society and Oxford University Press.pp.94-96.

Srinivasulu, C. 1999. List of mammals of AndhraPradesh. Unpublished Report. 20 pp.

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Subba Rao, M.V., Krishnamurthy, D. and K.Kameswara Rao. 1982. Present distribu-tion of Gaur Bos gaurus in AndhraPradesh. In: Proceedings of the Seminaron Resources, Development and Environ-ment in the Eastern Ghats. Andhra Univer-sity Press.

Subba Rao, M.V., Subba Rao, V.V., Krishna,A.B.M. and P.S. Raja Sekhar. 1984. Themammalian resources in Papikonda Re-

serve Forest (West Godavari District,Andhra Pradesh). In: Subba Rao, M.V. (Ed.)Forest, Wildlife and Environment. pp.143-148.

Thulsi Rao, K., Sudhakar, D., Vasudeva Rao, V.,Nagulu, V. and C. Srinivasulu. 1999. Rusty-spotted Cat Prionailurus rubiginosus, Anew record for Nagarjunasagar SrisailamTiger Reserve, Andhra Pradesh. J.Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 96(3):463-464.

Author’s address: Senior Research Fellow (Wildife), “Prakriti” 2-174/6, Gundla Pochampally, viaHakimpet, Secunderabad – 500 007, Andhra Pradesh, India; E-mail: [email protected]

National parks and wildlife sanctuaries of Andhra Pradesh

# Also notified as a tiger reserve* The area of the sanctuary depends on the water spread area

No. Name District Area (km2)National Park

1 Sri Venkateshwara National Park Chittoor and Cuddapah 352.622 Mahavir Harina Vanasthali Ranga Reddy 4.093 Mrugvani Ranga Redda 3.64 Kasu Brahmananda Reddy Hyderabad 1.42

Wildlife Sanctuary1 Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam# Mehbubnagar, Nalgonda 3,568.002 Gundla Brameshwaram Prakasam, Guntur and Kurnool 1,194.003 Kawal Kurnool and Prakasam 8934 Pakhal Adilabad 8795 Eturnagaram Warangal 803.356 Kolleru* Warangal 6757 Kinnerasani West Godavari 655.418 Papikonda Khammam 5919 Pulicat Nellore 50010 Sri Lankamalleshwara Chittoor 464.4211 Kaundinya Chittoor 374.712 Coringa East Godavari 235.713 Krishna Krishna and Guntur 194.8114 Pranahita Adilabad 136.0615 Pocharam Medak and Nizambad 130.1316 Siwaram (Lanja Madugu) Adilabad 36.2917 Manjira Medak 2018 Nelapattu Nellore 4.5819 Rollapadu Kurnool 6.1420 Sri Venkateshwara Chittoor and Cuddapah 173.94

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Three new wildlife sanctuaries were notified inAssam, north-east India in June 2004. Each isknown for different species of wildlife, as well asfor their overall biodiversity values.

Amchang Wildlife Sanctuary (79 km2) is locatednear Guwahti, the capital city of Assam. Threesmall reserve forests, i.e. Amchang, SouthAmchang and Khanapara, constitute this sanctu-ary. Amchang is easily accessible from Guwahaticity. This area was recommended for the first timefor the protection of its isolated elephant (Elephasmaximus) population (Choudhury, 1985) and laterfor its gaur (Bos gaurus) population and becauseof its proximity to a growing metropolis (Choudhury2002). The slow loris (Nycticebus coucang),Assamese macaque (Macaca assamensis ),Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatto), capped lan-gur (Presbytis (=Trachypithecus) pileata), andhoolock gibbon (Hylobates (=Bunopithecus)hoolock) are the main primates that have beenrecorded in the sanctuary. The presence of twomore species – the stump-tailed macaque(Macaca arctoides) and pig-tailed macaque(Macaca nemestrina) – has also been reported,but needs confirmation. A few tigers (Pantheratigris) occur in the area and leopards (P. pardus)are found all over. Among the lesser cats, the pres-ence of leopard cat (Felis bengalensis) and junglecat (F. chaus) has been confirmed. Small carni-vores recorded so far include the large Indian civet(Viverra zibetha), small Indian civet (Viverriculaindica ), common palm civet (Paradoxurushermaphroditus), grey mongoose (Herpestesedwardsi), common mongoose (H.auropunctatus), crab-eating mongoose (H. urva),Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), and smooth Indianotter (Lutrogale perspicillata). Occasionally,stray rhinos (Rhinoceros unicornis) from thenearby Pabitora Sanctuary come to the fringe ofthis sanctuary. Wild pig (Sus scrofa), sambar

(Cervus unicolor) and muntjac (Muntiacusmuntjak) are also found in the sanctuary area.

Among the threatened bird species, there arerecords of the occurrence of Greater Adjutantstork (Leptoptilos dubius) and White-backedvulture (Gyps bengalensis).

Barail Wildlife Sanctuary (326 km2) is locatedin Cachar Distict of southern Assam. This areawas recommended for the protection of its overallbiodiversity – with special focus on primates(Choudhury 1988, 1989a,b). Seven primate spe-cies are found in the sanctuary, i.e. slow loris,Assamese macaque, stump-tailed macaque, pig-tailed macaque, rhesus macaque, capped langurand hoolock gibbon. Tiger, leopard and cloudedleopard (Neofelis nebulosa) have been recordedin the area. Among the lesser cats, leopard catand jungle cat are common, while there is a singlerecord of fishing cat (Felis viverrinus) from nearthe Meghalaya border. Temminck’s golden cat (F.temminckii) was also recorded, but reports ofmarbled cat (F. marmorata) need confirmation.Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) and Ma-layan sun bear (U. malayanus) are still found inthe sanctury despite poaching pressure for theirbile. Binturong (Arctictis binturong), large Indiancivet, small Indian civet, common palm civet, Hi-malayan or masked palm civet (Paguma larvata),spotted linsang (Prionodon pardicolor), greymongoose, common mongoose, crab-eating mon-goose, Eurasian otter, smooth Indian otter, gaur,serow (Capricornis sumatraensis), wild pig, sam-bar and muntjac are also found in the sanctuary.

Among the threatened birds, there were recordsof Lesser adjutant stork (Leptoptilos javanicus)at the edge of the plains, Rufous-necked hornbill(Aceros nipalensis) and Beautiful nuthatch (Sittaformosa). Near-threatened birds found in the

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sanctuary include Great Pied Hornbill (Bucerosbicornis ) and White-cheeked Hill Partridge(Arborophila atrogularis). The area is hilly andmountainous, and the main vegetation type is tropi-cal wet evergreen (rain forest) in the lower eleva-tions and subtropical broadleaf in the higher areas.

Dihing-Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary (111 km2 )consists of Upper Dihing (west block), Joypur andDirak reserve forests in Tinsukia and Dibrugarhdistricts of eastern Assam. This area was recom-mended for the protection of primates, of whichseven species are found (Choudhury, 1989b), andfor its population of White-winged Wood Duck(Cairina scutulata) (Choudhury, 1996). The pri-mate species that occur here are similar to thosefound in Barial Wildlife Sanctuary. Tiger, leopard,clouded leopard, leopard cat and jungle cat havealso been recorded. Temminck’s golden cat wassighted on a number of occasions in Upper Dihing(west block) and Joypur reserve forests, while onewas killed and the meat sold in adjacent Deomaliin 2003. There is also a record of a marbled catthat was killed at the Joypur-Arunachal Pradeshborder in the late 1990s. Binturong, large Indiancivet, small Indian civet, common palm civet, Hi-malayan or masked palm civet, small-toothed palmcivet (Arctogalidia trivirgata), grey mongoose,common mongoose, crab-eating mongoose Eur-asian otter, smooth Indian otter and small-clawedotter (Aonyx cinereus) are all present in the sanc-tuary. Gaur, serow, wild pig, sambar and muntjacare also found.

Threatened birds which were recorded includeWhite-bellied Heron (Ardea insignis), LesserAdjutant Stork, Rufous-necked Hornbill and Beau-tiful Nuthatch. Near-threatened birds include GreatPied Hornbill, Brown Hornbill (Anorrhinustickellii) and White-cheeked Hill Partridge. The

terrain is covered with low hills and flat plains; themain vegetation type is tropical wet evergreen (rainforest).

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the Forest offi-cials and local villagers who helped during thesurvey and to identify these sites as potentialsanctuaries. Special thanks are due to PradyutBordoloi, the Environment & Forest Ministerof Assam, without whose intervention these ar-eas would not have become sanctuaries.

References

Choudhury, A.U. 1985. Elephants in trouble .The Sentinel, 21 July.

Choudhury, A.U. 1988. Priority ratings for con-servation of Indian primates. Oryx 22:89-94.

Choudhury, A.U. 1989a. Campaign for WildlifeProtection: National Park in the Barials.WWF-Quarterly No.69.10(2): 4-5.

Choudhury, A.U. 1989b. Primates of Assam:their distribution, habitat and status .Ph.D. thesis. Gauhati Univ. 300pp+maps.

Choudhury, A.U. 1996. Survey of the White-winged wood duck and the Bengal floricanin Tinsukia dist. & adjacent areas ofAssam and Arunachal Pradesh. The RhinoFoundation for Nature in NE India,Guwahati. 82pp+maps,illus.

Choudhury, A.U. 2002. Big cats, elephant, rhinoand gaur in Guwahati. The Rhino Founda-tion for Nat. in NE India Newsletter 4:16-19.

Author’s address: c/o The Rhino Foundation for nature in NE India. Home add: c/o Late AlauddinChoudhury, 7 Islampur Road, Guwahati 781 007, India; E-mail: [email protected]

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CRANE BREEDING IN BANNU, NORTH WESTFRONTIER PROVINCE, PAKISTAN

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Bannu is a beautiful agricultural area in Pakistan’sNorth West Frontier Province (NWFP). There aremany undiscovered wetlands in Bannu which arenot on the record because most of them are situ-ated in the tribal areas adjoining with Afghanistan’sPaktia Province.

Of the 15 existing species of cranes, two species,i.e. Common crane (Grus grus lilfordii) and De-moiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) visit Paki-stan. The author conducted a survey of cranehunters in Bannu during September-October 1995,March 1996 and 2001-2003 to study the trappingand breeding of these cranes.

The study

About 1,000 crane hunters and trappers werecounted in Bannu District. Most belonged to theBanochi and Wazir tribes, although a few werefrom the Marwat and Mahsood tribes. Each cranehunter possessed at least 2 or 3 pairs of cranes;some had up to 6 pairs. The birds are kept in spe-cial large wooden cages and are trained as decoyor call birds.

Both Grus grus lilfordii and Anthropoides virgobreed very well in this area. During the breedingseason they are free to roam the fields, gardensand houses. The total number of breeding pairs ofcommon crane was 50, while 20 Demoiselle cranenests were built in the graveyards or in the farcorners of the houses. The egg-laying period isfrom the first week of April to the first of June.Copulation takes place once a year and usuallytwo eggs are laid, which hatch after 29-30 days.The chicks are precocious and are fed grasshop-pers and wheat flour in the initial days. Duringthis time the mortality rate is very high; whetherthis is due to coccidiosis needs investigation. As

the chicks grow older they feed on wheat, maize,rice and small bits of bread.

If the chicks become infected by diseases, thepractice of the local people is to dose them withseptran and adoxelin. In addition, carthorms arealso given to both the chicks and the adult birdsthroughout the year to keep them healthy.

More than half of the breeding stock flys awayevery year after the completion of their primaryfeathers.

Hunting and keeping cranes is considered to be asign of prosperity in this area. The call birds arevery highly priced, from Rs.10,000 to Rs.50,000per pair (US$168-US$840) and are used for hunt-ing. Birds trapped during the hunting season areeither distributed among the VIP’s or eaten by theparties during the hunting days in the field. Theyare never sold in the market.

Suggestions

According to interviews with crane hunters, thecommon cranes are lesser in number comparedto Demoiselle cranes and have been declining overthe last few years. According to the hunters’ esti-mates, the migratory ratio passing over Pakistanis 5:7.

Between October 2001 and March 2003, 2,000birds were trapped or shot in the field, which isless than recorded in earlier records. So it is timefor the crane hunters to learn about the impor-tance of these birds in the wild as well as in cap-tivity. Conservation education can be easily ap-plied. Pamphlets, articles or booklets written in thelocal languages about the importance of wildlifeand conservation can accomplish this to some ex-tent.

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Yor Ngone was born in Khan Khav village, Baraycommune, Triang district, Takeo province (Takeoprovince is located in the southeastern part ofCambodia). He moved to Banlung, a town inRatanakiri province, northwestern Cambodia, in1968 after the encouragement of the SangkumReah Nyum policy (1954-1970). Yor Ngone wentto Ratanakiri accompanied by his young wife. Now57 years old, he has moved around and lived inseveral places, but all within the Ratanakiri prov-ince. He has 9 children, most of whom work atsimilar jobs as Mr. Ngone, which includes fishingand collecting non-timber forest products.

A few years after he settled in Banlung, Yor Ngonegot a job as fisherman. During his fishing careerhe traveled to many places, wherever he couldfind fish. He went to Sre Pork, Se Kong, and SeSan rivers. Along each river he became familiarwith many locations.

Because of his experience in the area, he wasasked to join the bushmeat supply hunting team ofthe rubber plantation organization in Ratanakiriprovince immediately after the Khmer Rouge tookpower in 1975. At first, Mr. Ngone was not inter-

ested in hunting large animals such as banteng andgaur at all. After a while, however, he tried hishand at it and became an expert shot. He waspart of the bushmeat supply hunting team duringthe Khmer Rough regime from 1975 till 1979. Ofthe bushmeat targets, he preferred to kill bantengor gaur because they can provide much moremeat at one time. However, he and his team killedalso other animals ranging from barking deer upto elephants. He used to hunt in O So and withinthe Prey Khiev areas of Lomphat (which has beena Wildlife Sanctuary since the 1960s). Accordingto Mr. Ngone, elephant meat used to be suppliedto the organization too.

For another few years after the Khmer Rougewas out of power, Mr. Yor Ngone continued beinga bushmeat supplier to the new rubber organiza-tion in the same province. He increased his hunt-ing range up to the southern part of Prey Khieve– called Thmone forests. He continued his careerof bushmeat supplier up to 1984, when the organi-zation stopped employing him. He stayed on inTrapeang Chres village, Kone Mom district,Ratanakiri province until 1985 as a farmer.

YOR NGONE - TIGER TRAPPERby Lic Vuthy

| Crane breeding in B

anu - Pakistan | Yor N

gone - Tiger Trapper |Providing opportunities for captive breeding to thelocal crane breeders can also help the situation,and improvement and research in the presentbreeding techniques are also needed. An investi-gation of the types of diseases that affect the birdsand the proper treatment and control can also re-duce the amount of early deaths among the chicks.Hunters should be encouraged to start captivebreeding of cranes by providing them with fundsand teaching them scientific techniques.

Acknowledgments

The cooperation and assistance of Mr. Asif

Javeed Cashier, Habib Bank Ltd., Bannue, ishighly appreciated.

References

Landfried, S. 1982. Crane Hunters in Pakistan.The Brolga Bugle, ICF Newsletter.

Nawaz, M. 1984. Migratory Cranes in Paki-stan. Tigerpaper 11(4):17-20.

Author’s addresses: c/o Zoology Department,Balohistan University, Quetta, Pakistan.

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He moved to Ibu village, Sdao commune Sesandistrict, Sting Treng Procince in 1986. From thatyear, he became a private hunter, particularly fortiger. He kept crops, the same as other villagers/farmers in his district, but he left for the jungle assoon as possible after the work in the rice fieldwas done.

Mr. Ngone had used wire-traps to capture tigerand other medium-size animals since 1987. Fromtime to time Mr. Ngone would travel from his vil-lage to as far away as the Cardamom Mountainrange (southwestern Cambodia), Dang Rek moun-tain (northwestern country), and up to Virachey(tri-border: Cambodia, Lao, and Vietnam), theDragon-tail sites. He used to visit the eastern partsof the Sre Pork river areas, Mondulkiri provinceduring the last three years. Specific locations thathe mentioned are:- Ratanakiri province: Voeun Say, O Takok,

Andaung Meas, and O Tang-O Leav areas- Stung Treng province: Phnom Kala Poh and

Phnom Thom- Preah Vihear province: Prey Preah Roca,

Chhep district- Mondulkiri province: Lomphat areas, areas

along Sre Pork river, and Yang Por site- Banteay Meanchey province: Prey Sa Ark,

Phnom Poal, Toeuk Khmao of Trapeang PraSat distict

- Koh Kong province: Russey Chrum, ToeukKhmao through mountain range

- Pausat province: Bam Boak, Kbal Tea Hean,and Veal Veng district areas

- Kampong Chhnang province: Khdol and withinOral mountain range

- Kampong Thom province: Phnom Chy, PreyLong, and Phnom Khsach Sor areas

- Kratie province: Kandir mountain range ar-eas.

Some of the main species that he estimated hehad killed during his hunting career include:- Elephant, around 30 individuals (He recalled

that in 1997 he killed one elephant with 12.5kg of ivory in Preah Vihear province. Theivory was sold at about US$240 per kilogram.)

- Tiger, at least 19 individuals- Leopard, more than 40 individuals

- Asiatic Black Bear, up to 3- Sun Bear, about 40- Hog badger, about 10- Banteng and gaur – between 500 to 800 indi-

viduals during the Khmer Rouge regime.

Mr. Ngone reported that tigers still occur in theirrange inside Cambodia. According to him, tigercould be present in the Stung Treng, Raranakiri,Mondulkiri, and Preah Vihear range. He estimatesthat the total number of tiger could be up to 100individuals country-wide. However, he would notestimate the number of tigers in southwesternCambodia because he never saw any wheneverhe was there. He went to Cardamom mountainrange because his friends told that there are tigersin this area.

Although he realized that he was committing un-lawful activities, he continued trapping in order tomake money. However, Mr. Yor Ngone signed awarning contract with the Species Program, WWFConservation Cambodia on 16th August 2004. Hesigned up after more than four years of pursuit byconservation groups such as CWRP/FA, WildAid/FA, and the Species/WWF Team. He promised tostop trapping tiger and other wild animals. He iswilling to join the conservation team, if he is ac-cepted, because he realizes that the tiger popula-tion has been drastically reduced. However, ifhunting pressure, at the current stage, could becracked down on, the tiger population could besafeguarded, he said.

The Species Program, WWF Cambodia Conser-vation Program, along with other local and inter-national NGOs, has been working for the conser-vation and management of wildlife, including tigerand elephant, since 1998. Currently, they are in-vestigating one of the tiger ranges in Phnom PrichWildlife Sanctuary, where Yor Ngone said he usedto see tiger footprints. With the permission of theDepartment of Nature Conservation and Protec-tion, Ministry of Environment, 20 rangers havebeen recruited for the PPWS. The rangers usedto be non-timber forest product collectors and ex-hunters of the areas. The Species Team believesthat Mr. Yor Ngone would follow other ex-hunt-ers to join the conservation team.

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Besides working in Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctu-ary, the Species Team is closely collaborating withthe Forestry Administration to monitor trade inwildlife – particularly tiger and elephant. Thereare four provincial forestry counterparts and sixcommunal counterparts working for the SpeciesProject in Mondulkiri, Kritie, and Stung Treng prov-

inces. The species project is now assisting theSrepork Wilderness Area Project in terms of spe-cies work such as survey techniques. SWAP isone of the WWF projects assisting the ForestryAdministration to manage the Protection ForestAreas in Mondulkiri province.

The author is working part time for WWF Cambodia and part time for the Forestry Administration,MAFF. For further information, please contact Lic Vuthy and the Species Team at:[email protected]

The SAMD project

Information aboutspecies has be-come a prerequi-site for moving to-wards a moresustainable use ofnatural resources,many of whichare threatenedwith extinction.The SoutheastAsia MammalD a t a b a s e(SAMD) projectoffers the oppor-tunity for combin-ing the knowledge of the scientific and conserva-tion community with the power of the lateste GIS-based modelling technology, resulting in detaileddistribution maps of the Southeast Asian mammals.

Project partners

The project is funded by the European Union andthe Istituto di Ecologica Applicata (IEA) and isbeing implemented in collaboration with the IUCNSpecies Survival Commission.

SAMD objectives

The objective of the project is to provide a high-quality data set on Southeast Asian mammals forconservation management.

Outputs

The project will provide:n A databank, based on the IUCN SpeciesInformtion System (SIS), containing informationon distibution, taxonomy, ecology, level of threatand conservation status of the mammals of South-east Asia.n Habitat suitability models describing the poten-tial distribution pattern of the species within theextent of occurence, in relation to the main envi-ronmental factors.

Who will use SAMD

The information is freely available on the internet(www.ieaitaly.org/samd). It will be of benefit to:n Government agencies involved in natural re-source and biodiversity management, developmentpolicy, implementation of international agreements.n Non-governmental conservation organizations(local, regional, international)n Scientists, wildlife managers and educationalinstitutes.

THE SOUTHEAST ASIAN MAMMAL DATABANK

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CENSUSING TIGER AND LEOPARD IN SIMILIPAL TIGERRESERVE - 2004, ORISSA, INDIA

by D. Swain, H.K. Sahu and B.K. Parida

Introduction

India contains nearly 65% of the global populationof tigers. During the last few decades, thepopulations of this magnificent animal havedwindled at a perilously fast pace (Das and Sanyal,1995). The tiger’s survival ultimately hinges onthe people who live in the periphery of the tigerareas (Seidensticker and Hai, 1983). This paperpresents the actual census work carried out fortiger (Panthera tigris) and leopard (Pantherapardus) in Similipal Tiger Reserve of Orissa, India– one of the nine tiger reserves initially establishedin 1973.

Study area

Similipal is a densely forested hill-range in theheart of Mayurbhanj District in Orissa, lying closeto the eastern-most end of the Eastern Ghats.Located in the Mahanadian Bio-geographicalRegion and within the biotic province ofChhotanagpur Plateau, it spreads over an area of2,750 km2. The whole Similipal hill-range comesunder Similipal Tiger Reserve between latitudes20º29’ to 22º09’ N and longitudes 86º04’ to 86º37’E. The highest mountain is the peak of Khairiburu,which rises 1,168 m above sea level. Similipal hasthe richest watershed in the state of Orissa, givingrise to many perennial rivers like theBudhabalanga, Khadkei, Bhandan, West Deo,Salandi, East Deo, Sanjo and Palpala. Due to theuniqueness of its flora, fauna, forests, landscape,waterfalls and tribes, Similipal was declared aBiosphere Reserve in 1994.

Methodology

The whole count (pugmark census) method wasused to estimate the populations of tiger andleopard in 2004 in Similipal. Preparations started

in December 2003 with a training program forthe staff. The actual census was conducted from5-10 January 2004. The month of January wasselected because the weather is usually dry andcool, and the census work can be carried outunhindered. In addition, during this month theforest undergrowth is still very dense, thus limitingthe tigers’ movements.

Roadsides, riverbanks and dry streambeds weresearched for tiger pugmarks. Tigers normally walkalong jeep-able roads, footpaths, animal tracks andother such routes. It is not easy to spot pugmarksin Similipal as the ground is hard soil or rocky.Therefore, along probable routes of tigermovement, the ground has to be prepared to makeit suitable for registering pugmark impressions.This is done by using pug impression pads (PIPs).Fifty-one census units were selected in the censusarea. In each unit a few census routes wereselected and along each one PIPs were laid outin such a manner that at least one should recordthe pugmarks of a tiger that walked along theroute. Each PIP is laid out at such points that awalking animal cannot avoid it. If there are largestones, trees or bushes on the sides of the route,then the animal is almost compelled to keep to themiddle of the road and thus leave its pugmarks onthe PIP. On jeep-able roads when there are twotracks, the animal normally keeps to either one ofthe tracks. At cross roads and at the beginning ofother roads, 3 to 4 PIPs are laid down 50-100mapart from each other. Further on after about 500-1000m, another cluster of 3 to 4 PIPs is laid out.Keeping in mind the importance of a route, theabove number or pattern of PIPs can be increasedor decreased. In order to lay down a PIP, theleader of a census unit needs the assistance of 2-3 other helpers. The equipment needed includestwo pickaxes, a fine mesh wire-net (100 x 75 cm)

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designed to function as a swing to sieve the soil,two wire brushes, etc.Where the route is narrow (e.g. 50 cm in width),it is wiped with the brush, removing small pebbles,and a fine 1-2 cm layer of fine dust is spread overit. In other cases, the entire width of the road isdug up 15-20 cm deep and the soil is beaten todust and then sieved through the fine mesh swing.

The census was carried out over six days. Duringthis period each PIP was checked at least twice(e.g. on days 1 and 4 or days 2 and 5). In a tigerpugmark there are impressions of the paw andfour toes. The paw is trilobed at the back. Whilewalking at normal speed the impression of the frontpug gets overlapped by the impression of the hindpug. While walking at a slower or faster speed,the impression of all four pugs – left-right, front-hind – are visible in a tiger track. For any tiger, thefront pugmark is larger and appears squarish. Fora male tiger, the length and width of a hind pugmarkis almost equal, but for female tigers the lengthand width of the hind pugmark differs by about1.5 cm. The pugmark of an adult leopard is simi-lar in size and appearance to that of a tiger cub.But the stride of a leopard is longer than the strideof a tiger cub. The stride of a leopard is above 90cm (average 100-130 cm) and that of a tiger cubis less than 90 cm (average 70-90 cm). Thepugmarks of a young leopard appear similar tothat of a lesser cat. Generally the pugmark of amother can be seen near the pugmarks of the cub.

The diagram of a pugmark is drawn on a tigertracer. The tracer consists of a clear transparentglass (30/25 cm) fitted to a wooden frame 2 cmwide on all sides. The tracer is gently placed overthe pugmark taking care not to touch the mark. Asketch pen is used to trace the pugmark on theglass of the tracer. By blowing gently on the glass,the surface is moistened and a sheet of tracingpaper is carefully placed over the glass. Using athumb, the tracing paper is gently pressed alongthe line drawing in such a manner that the tracedfigure is transferred onto the tracing paper.

If the pugmark is fresh, the pad and toe impres-sions will appear very clear. In an older pugmark

left some days back the features will have indis-tinct or blurred lines. Where possible, the estimatedage of the pugmark (how many days) should berecorded. The stride is also measured. If there isone hind left and one hind right impression, thedistance between the two (measured from the toeend of the pads) is doubled to get the stride mea-surement. When all four pugmarks are seen, thenthe distance between any two pugmarks is mea-sured. If the measurement is more than 30 cm,then the stride is about three to four times morethan this.

After all the information has been collected in apre-designed proforma, the plaster cast of a goodimpression is prepared. First, a thin layer of plas-ter powder is dusted over the impressions. Usingsand, sticks, cardboard or strips of paper, a rigidboundary is placed around the pugmark. In a 1liter mug, about 200 ml of water is filled. To this,plaster of paris powder is added gradually withconstant stirring until a thick solution (not paste)is made. This is gently poured over the pugmark.After about 15-20 minutes, when the plaster hashardened, the name of the unit leader, date, place,serial number of the plaster and other such infor-mation are written down and the plaster is care-fully lifted out.

Results and discussion

During the survey, a total of 306 pugmark trac-ings were collected from different ranges and di-visions, out of which 247 tracings were collectedfrom the core area of Similipal Tiger Reserve and59 from the buffer area. Tiger pugmarks weretraced for 41 males, 57 females and 34 cubs. Like-wise, 81 male, 73 female and 20 tracings of leop-ard pugmarks were collected.

An analysis of the tracings was made taking allthe evidence and measurement data on pugmarksof tiger and leopard as mentioned in the guide-lines of Singh (1999). During the census a total of101 tigers were counted, including 28 males, 41females and 32 cubs. This is higher than the num-ber recorded in previous censuses and shows anincreasing trend.

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At the same time, a total of 127 leopards wascounted, including 44 males, 64 females and 19cubs. The leopard population also displays an in-creasing trend from 1989 to 2004.

Censusing tigers and leopards is necessary to ob-jectively evaluate the success or failure of man-agement interventions, to establish benchmarksdata that can serve as a basis for future manage-ment, and to develop a body of empirical and theo-retical knowledge that can potentially improve ourpredictive capacity to deal with new situations(Karanth et al., 2002). The traditional pugmarkcensus technique (Choudhury, 2970, 1972; Singh,1999) was followed in the present study becauseit is the quickest, most cost effective and easy tounderstand by the field staff. It is widely used invarious tiger reserves in India in spite of the bio-logical and statistical weaknesses reported byKaranth (1987) and Karanth et al. (2002).

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the studentsand lecturers of the post-graduate Departmentof Wildlife and Conservation Biology, NorthOrissa University, Baripada, their assistancein collecting data from the field. Thanks arealso given to the field staff of the forest de-partment for their help during the census. Dr.L.A.K. Singh imparted training for the censusand guidance during the analysis of pugmarks.We would also like to acknowledge the over-all support received from the Additional Prin-cipal Chief Conservator of Forests (Wildlife)and the Chief Wildlife Warden, Orissa.

References

Choudhury, S.R. 1970. Let us count tigers.Cheetal 14(2):41-51.

Choudhury, S.R. 1972. Tiger census in India.Part I and Part II. Cheetal 15(1):67-84.

Das, P.K. and P. Sanyal. 1995. Assessment ofstable pug measurement parameters foridentification of tigers. Tigerpaper22(2):20-26.

Hazarika, A.A. 1997. A report on tiger cen-sus conducted in Dibrusaikhowa Sanc-tuary and a prospective Tiger Reservein upper Assam. Tigerpaper 24(1):14-16.

Hazarika, A.A. 2002. A preliminary surveyon the status of tigers (Panthera tigris)in Dibrusaikhowa Biosphere Reserve .Tigerpaper (29(1):17-21.

Karanth, K.U. 1987. Tigers in India: A criti-cal review of field censuses. In: R.L.Tilson and U.S. Seal (Eds.) Tigers of theWorld: The biology, biopolitics, manage-ment and conservation of an endangeredspecies. Noyes Publications, Park Ridge,N.J., U.S.A. pp.118-133.

Karanth, K.U., Nichols, J.D., Sen, P.K. and V.Rishi. 2002. Monitoring tigers and theirprey: Conservation needs and mana-gerial constraints. In: K. Ullas Karanthand J.D. Nichols (Eds.) Monitoring tigersand prey: A manual for researchers,managers, and conser-vationists in tropi-cal Asia. Centre for Wildlife Studies, Ban-galore. pp.1-8.

Seidensticker, J. and A. Md. Hai. 1983. TheSundarbans Wildlife ManagementPlan: Conservation in the BangladeshCoastal Zone . IUCN, Gland.

Singh, L.A.K. 1999. Tracking tigers: guide-lines for estimating wild tiger popula-tions using the pugmark technique.WWF Tiger Conservation Programme,New Delhi.

Authors’ addresses: D. Swain, Director,Similipal Tiger Reserve, Baripada,Orissa – 757003, India; H.K. Sahu, Lec-turer, PG Dept. of Wildlife & Conserva-tion Biology, North Orissa University,Takatpur, Baripada, Orissa – 757003,India, E-mail: [email protected];B.K. Parida, Assistant Conservator ofForests, Similipal Tiger Reserve,Baripada, Orissa – 757003, India.

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Introduction

Despite its small size (65,610 km2), Sri Lanka isrecognized as one of the biodiversity hotspots inthe region. The fresh water ichthyofauna is rep-resented by 107 species which occur in the riversand fresh water bodies. Many of them are salt-water dispersants (Pethiyagoda, 1991). Of the fishthat spend a considerable portion of their lives infresh water, 74 indigenous species and 20 intro-duced species have been identified (Jayaweera& Maduranga, 2002). Nearly 40% of the indig-enous species are endemic to Sri Lanka. The num-ber of the fresh water fish species continues toincrease with the discovery of new species. Twonew species – Monopterus desilvai (Bailey &Gans, 1998) and Stiphodon martenstyni (Watson,1998) – have been recognized. Thus, the SriLankan ichthyofauna is very diverse and supportedby a wide range of aquatic habitat types such as,rivers, reservoirs, shallow ponds, flood lakes,paddy fields, estuaries and wet zone coastalswamps (Pethiyagoda, 1991).

One of the important wet zone coastal swamps isthe Bellanwila-Attidiya marsh, whose ichthyofaunawas first discussed by Nalinda (1988). Thosemarshes represent one of the few wetlands left inthe vicinity of Colombo – the capital city of SriLanka. These marshes provide a habitat for a largenumber of fauna, including fresh water and a fewbrackish water fish, and for a number of water-fowl, both resident and migratory. The area is in-cluded in the Directory of Asian Wetlands pre-pared by IUCN in 1989 and was declared a sanc-tuary under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordi-nance by Gazette Extraordinary No. 620/0 of 25July 1990 (Gunawardana, 1991).

This highly productive marsh supports a large num-ber of plants and animals, including ichthyofauna.

Only a few research studies on ichthyofauna havebeen carried out in the area; therefore, the presentstudy was carried out to provide additional infor-mation on the fishes of the Bellanwila-AttidiyaSanctuary. Unfortunately, while the study wasbeing carried out, the marshes were facing se-vere threats such as aquatic pollution, habitat lossand land reclamation, to name a few. Immediateconservation measures must be taken in order toprotect the fauna and flora, including the ichthyo-fauna, of the sanctuary.

Study area

The Bellanwila-Attidiya Sanctuary is situatedwithin the upper catchment of the Bolgoda Riverbasin. The core study area is roughly 1-2 km x0.5 km (or nearly 60 ha), with a mean elevation of0.6 m (MSL). The study area lies at the intersec-tion of latitude N6º60’ and longitude E79º54’. Thearea is situated in the low country wet zone andhas a tropical monsoonal climate. The mean an-nual temperature is approximately 27ºC. Averageannual rainfall for the study area is 2,500 mm(Wetland Site Report, 1993).

The study area consists of several habitat typeswhich can be categorized under both lentic andlotic ecosystems (Odum, 1959). The lentic (stand-ing water) part of the ecosystem is representedby shallow fresh water ponds, marshes, season-ally flooded grasslands and paddy fields. The lotic(running water) component is mainly representedby irrigation canals. The survey was expanded tothe surrounding areas of the sanctuary to includea man-made reservoir near the site, surroundingcanals, drainage system and paddy fields. Thevegetation of the study area is mainly composedof reeds such as Rhyncospora spp., Eleocharisspp., and grasses such as Brachiara spp. andBacopa sp., which grow extensively along the

ICHTHYOFAUNA OF BELLANWILA-ATTIDIYASANCTUARY AND ITS ENVIRONS IN COLOMBO, SRILANKA

by H.G.S. Maduranga

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fringes of shallow areas. The water surfaces arecovered with Salvinia molesta, Eichorniacrassipes and flowering ornamental species suchas Nymphaea sp. and Nelumbo nucifera(Goonatilake, 1994).

Materials and methods

Data was collected from the study site during anumber of irregular visits between October 1999and December 2002. Data on fish was collectedfrom the catches made by fishermen using castnets, hooks, ropes and gill nets. In addition, fishesin shallow areas were sampled by using small trawlnets and hand nets. The distribution of the fisheswas studied and sampled mainly in the Bolgodacanal, small drainage systems and shallow wa-ters in the marsh. Based on the fishes that werecaught, their relative abundance and distributionwithin the study area were recorded.

Results

A checklist of the fishes from theBellanwila-Attidiya Sanctuary is givenin Appendix I. This wetland system isa highly productive ecosystem withdiverse communities. It supports ahigh biodiversity and the study con-firms the presence of at least 32 spe-cies of fishes, including 4 that are en-demic, 7 introduced species, and prob-ably one new species.

Discussion

Of the 107 species of freshwaterfishes recognized in Sri Lanka(Pethiyagoda, 1991), 32 (almost 30%)are recorded from the Bellanwila-Attidiya Sanctuary. They belong to 13families from 7 orders. The most com-mon species are Tilapia (Oreochromismossambicus), Nile Tilapia (O.niloticus) and Tank Cleaner(Hypostomus plecostomus), all ofwhich were introduced. The shallowareas of the marsh are dominated bySilver Barb (Puntius vittatus),Horadandiya (Horadandiya

atukorali) and Dwarf Panchax (Aplocheilusparvus).

Populations of some species are rapidly increas-ing with seasonal floods and tides. Some es-tuarine species such as Tarpon (Megalopscyprinoides) and several fresh water speciessuch as the Silver Carplet (Amblypharyngodonmelettimus), Swamp Barb (P. chola) and Scar-let banded Barb (P. amphibious) are knownto migrate seasonally upstream from theBolgoda Lake to the study area (see map). Asingle Puntius spp. – probably a new species –was observed from the study area. A previousstudy also mentioned the presence of two “new”Puntius spp., including the above species fromthe same locality (Goonatilake, 1994). Some ofthe large Barb species such as Olive Barb (P.sarana) and Long-snouted Barb (P. dorsalis)

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are popular as food fish in the area. The smallerPuntius species are important as baits in the cap-turing of larger carnivore fishes.

Among Bagrids, the Striped Dwarf Catfish(Mystus vittatus) is still common in suitable habi-tats, but two other species have now become veryrare. The Long Whiskered Catfish (M. gulio) isused as food fish when captured. Walking Catfish(Clarias brachysoma) is an endemic which is alsoedible. This fish migrates to shallow areas duringthe seasonal floods, reaching even flooded homegardens (probably for spawning). It is easily cap-tured by villagers and is also an easy prey for manydomestic animals. Stinging Catfish(Heteropneustus fossilis) is still abundant in theBolgoda canal and used as food fish. On the otherhand, this species forms a bigger portion of thediet of aquatic birds such as Kingfishers, Heronsand Cormorants.

Glass Cleaner or Scavenger (Hypostomusplecostomus) was accidentally introduced to thearea in the early 1990s, but today represents oneof the commonest species in the Bolgoda canal.Full-grown specimens (TL ~30 cm) are numer-ous in the Bolgoda canal, while smaller specimensare found in the shallow areas. The high popula-tion density of the fish may affect the indigenousfauna of the Bolgoda canal and also the local fish-eries activities. This fish has no value as food fish,but smaller specimens are collected for theaquarium trade.

Dwarf Panchax (A. parvus) is mainly found inthe coastal fresh and brackish waters, less com-monly inland within the first peneplain. It is verytolerant of salinity (Pethiyagoda, 1991). In theBellanwila-Attidiya Sanctuary, it is widely distrib-uted in the shallow areas of the marsh. Day’sKillfish (A. dayi) is an endemic species restrictedto a few river basins of the low country wet zone.In the past, the species was much more commonin the study area than it is today.

Several Poecilids have been recorded from thearea by previous workers (Gunawardana, 1989;Goonatilake, 1994). The present study reveals thepresence of only one widely distributed species,

i.e. Guppy (Poecilia reticulata), which is nativeto the West Indies and parts of Central America,and was introduced to Sri Lanka from 1928 to1945 in an effort to control the mosquito larvae bythe anti-malaria campaign (Pethiyagoda, 1991).Now, the Guppy maintains high populations in thearea, mainly along the drainage system and smallcanals.

Orange Chromid (Etroplus maculatus) and GreenChromid (E. suratensis) were very common inthe study area about 15 years ago, but today, bothspecies seem to be either extinct or extremely rarein the area. The present survey was unable torecord even a single specimen of either species,although Goonatilake (1994) had reported bothspecies from the Attidiya Lake and in the Bolgodacanal. A possible reason for this rapid decline ofthe populations of indigenous cichlids could be theincreased competition from the introducedOreochromis species or the water pollution of theBolgoda canal.

The two introduced cichlids in the Bolgoda canal(O. mossambicus and O. niloticus) occur in highdensities. The fingerlings and juveniles of bothspecies invade marshy areas. Both species areregularly harvested by local fishermen for humanconsumption. Additionally, Snake Skin Gourami(Trichogaster pectoralis) has established largepopulations in both Bolgoda canal and in the shal-low marshy areas. It is also fished and eaten bypeople. Between 1999 and 2000, Siamese fight-ing fish (Betta splendens) used to be commonlyfound in the study area, mainly in the shallow banksof Bolgoda canal. This may be due to an acciden-tal introduction of the fish into the ecosystem.Several colored varieties and wild forms wererecorded. The colorful specimens were collectedfor the aquarium trade on such a large scale thatthe fish has become very rare in the study area.

Of the three species of channids recorded duringthe study, the Smooth-breasted Snakehead(Channa orientalis) is endemic and is mainly dis-tributed in small drains and shallow areas of themarsh. The Murrel (C. striata) is a delicacy as afood fish in the area. They are mainly found inshallow marshy areas with dense reed beds.

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In addition to the ichthyofauna recorded, there areother species yet to be identified. Deraniyagala(1952) states that Dehiwala paddy fields (includ-ing the Bellanwila-Attidiya marsh) were one ofthe main habitats of the Blind Eel (Ophisternonbengalense). However, none of the workers couldrecord its presence lately in the study area. But asingle specimen of the species was collected atPepiliyana (adjacent to the sanctuary) by the road-side on the Dehiwala-Pepiliyana road (Fernando& Priyadarshana, 1997). Goonatilake (1994) re-corded some other salt water dispersants fromthe area including Common Glass Fish (Ambassiscommersoni) and Upside-down Sleeper (Butisbutis).

An analysis of the past data on ichthyofauna ofthe area shows a clear decline of the species rich-ness of the indigenous species, in contrast to thepattern shown by the introduced species. Speciesevenness also follows the above relationship.Nowadays, the Bolgoda canal is dominated by afew introduced species such as Tilapia (O.mossambicus), Nile Tilapia (O. niloticus) andTank Cleaner (H. plecostomus). Only a few in-digenous species such as the Stinging Catfish (H.fossilis), Climbing Perch (Anabas testudineus)and Spotted Snakehead (C. punctata) survive inthe Bolgoda canal. There may be several reasonsfor the decreasing diversity of indigenous ichthyo-fauna in Bolgoda canal and the introduction ofexotic species could be one of them.

Hardy exotic species are rapidly increasing andutilizing the available resources such as food andbreeding grounds in the absence of natural en-emies (i.e. predators) to control populations. Theincrease in the population size of exotic speciesmay exacerbate the competition from the indig-enous fishes for the same resources. In general,introduced exotic species are more successful insuch competitions, driving the indigenous speciesto extinction. In the case of O. mossambicus,Maitipe & De Silva (1985) recognized it as a spe-cies of high resilience and fecundity. It is able tobreed throughout the year and withstand a highdegree of pollution and utilize almost all availablesources of food (Pethiyagoda, 1994).

The Tank Cleaner (Hypostomus plecostomus)continuously disturbs the muddy substrate, caus-ing several problems to indigenous fishes. It causesfeeding problems for substrate feeders and leadsto the removal of benthic flora by producing anunstable substrate. This in turn causes breedingproblems among the egg layers and also increasesthe turbidity of the water, causing breathing prob-lems for most of the fish.

Water pollution is another major threat to the sur-vival of fishes. Household garbage, industrial wasteand sewage are directly dumped into the Bolgodacanal and shallow marshy areas. The degree ofwater pollution in the Bolgoda canal was highenough to destroy entire populations of weakfishes such as Horadandiya (H. atukorali). Thelevel of aquatic pollution adversely influences thebreeding of indigenous species, and thereby con-tributes to the decline in populations.

In addition, habitat loss due to the reclamation oflands and destruction of vegetation, adoption ofsome unsustainable fishing methods, leaching ofpesticides into the water from adjacent paddyfields and cultivations are some of the other ma-jor threats to the long-term survival of the ich-thyofauna of the Bellanwila-Attidiya Sanctuary.According to Pethiyagoda (1994), a few endemicfishes have a strong association with still-waterhabitats and some of these are essentially marsh-land species, hence the conservation of wet zonecoastal swamps, such as the Bellanwila-AttidiyaSanctuary, is essential for the survival of the ich-thyofauna of Sri Lanka.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to express his gratitude toMr. Jagath Gunawardena (Society for Envi-ronmental Education), Prof. Upali Amarsinghe(Dept. of Zoology, University of Kelaniya), andProf. Charles Santiapillai (Dept. of Zoology,University of Peradeniya) for their guidanceand encouragement during the study; and toMs Bodini Herath for her help in the prepara-tion of this paper and Mr. Bandula Jayaneththi(Young Zoologists’ Association of Sri Lanka)for photographs.



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References

Bailey, R.M. and C. Gans. 1998. Two newSynbranchid fishes, Monopterus rosenifrom peninsular India and M. desilvai fromSri Lanka. Occasional papers of the Museumof Zoology, The University of Michigan, USA.

Deraniyagala, P.E.P. 1952. Coloured Atlas ofsome Vertebrates of Ceylon, Vol-I(Fishes). National Musuem of Sri Lanka,Colombo.

Fernando, R.H.S.S. and T.G.M. Priyadarshana.1997. A recent record of the rare SwampEel Ophisternon bengalensi(Synbranchidae). Sri Lanka Naturalist1:(Nos.3&4), Young Zoologists’ Associationof Sri Lanka.

Goonatilake, W.L.D.T.P.T.S. de A. 1993. List ofspecies of Attidiya Lake and Marsh. (un-published)

Goonatilake, W.L.D.T.P.T.S. de A. 1994. A pre-liminary ecological site report – AttidiyaLake and Marsh. (unpublished)

Gunawardana, J. 1989. Fish species listing forBellanwila-Attidiya Marsh. Society forEnvironmenetal Education. Technical memo.Field survey summary (unpublished). Depart-ment of Wildlife Conservation.

Gunawardana, J. 1991. Checklist of the Birdsof the Bellanwila-Attidiya Sanctuary .Ceylon Bird Club, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Jayaweera, S. and H.G.S. Maduranga. 2002.Checklist of the Fresh Water Fishes ofSri Lanka. (unpublished)

Maduranga, H.G.S. 1998. Observations onsome migratory shorebirds visiting theNedimala Marsh. Sri Lanka Naturalist,2:(No.4). Young Zoologists’ Association of SriLanka.

Maduranga, H.G.S. and B.J. Herath. 1999. A pre-liminary study on the fauna of Nedimala

Marsh with the Checklist of the Fauna ofStudy Area. (unpublished)

Mendis, A.S. and C.H. Fernando. 1962. A Guideto the Fresh Water Fauna of Ceylon. Bul-letin No.12, Fisheries Research Station, De-partment of Fisheries, Ceylon.

Nalinda, M.A.K. 1988. Checklist of the Fishes(Pisces) of the Bellanwila-AttidiyaMarshes. Occasional Paper 3, Young Zoolo-gists’ Association of Sri Lanka.

Odum, E.P. 1959. Fundamentals of Ecology. 2nd

Edition, W.B. Saunders Company, USA.

Pethiyagoda, R. 1991. Fresh Water Fishes ofSri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust of SriLanka.

Pethiyagoda, R. 1994. Threats to the Indig-enous Fresh Water Fishes of Sri Lankaand Remarks on their Conservation.Hydrobilogia , 285. Kluwer Academic Pub-lishers, Belgium.

Watson, R.E. 1998. Stophodon martenstyni, anew species of fresh water Goby from SriLanka (Teleostei:Gobiidae: Sicydiini).Journal of South Asian Natural History, 3.Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka.

Wetland Site Report and Conservation Man-agement Plan – Bellanwila-AttidiyaMarsh. 1993. Central Environmental Author-ity/Euroconsult, Ministry of Environment andParliament Affairs, Sri Lanka.

Author’s address: Department of Zoology,University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka.

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Appendix-I: A Checklist of the Fishes in theBellanwila-Attidiya Sanctuary

Order: ELOPIFORMESFamily: Megalopidae

1) Tarpon (Megalops cyprinoidesBroussonet, 1782). Rare, salt waterdispersant

Order: ANGULLIFORMES

Family: Anguillidae

2) Level-finned Eel (Anguilla bicolorMcClelland, 1844). Rare, nocturnal

Order: CYPRINIFORMES

Family: Cyprinidae

3) Silver Carplet (Amblypharyngodonmelettinus Valenciennes, 1844). Rare,but common in seasonal floods

4) Flying Barb (Esomus thermoicosValenciennes, 1842). Uncommon,endemic (?)

5) Horadandiya (Horadandiya atukoraliDeraniyagala, 1943). Abundant inshallow areas

6) Scarlet banded Barb (Puntiusamphibius Valenciennes, 1842). Rare,but common in seasonal floods

7) Red side Barb (Puntius bimaculatusBleeker, 1863). Common, especially inshallow areas

8) Swamp Barb (Puntius chola Hamilton,1822). Rare, but common in seasonalfloods

9) Long snouted Barb (Puntius dorsalisJerdon, 1849). Common

10) Filimented Barb (Puntius singhalaValenciennes, 1844). Previously com-mon, but now very rare; endemic

11) Olive Barb (Puntius sarana Hamilton,1822). Scarce, used as food fish

12) Silver Barb (Puntius vittatus Day,1865). Abundant in shallow areas

13) Barb (new Puntius sp.). Scarce,endemic (?)

14) Striped Rasbora (Rasbora daniconiusHamilton, 1822). Uncommon

Order: SILURIFORMES

Family: Bagriidae

15) Long-whiskered Catfish (Mystus gulioHamilton, 1822). Uncommon, but canbe seen especially in seasonal floods;food fish

16) Yellow Catfish (Mystus keletiusValenciennes, 1839). Uncommon, butcan be seen especially in seasonalfloods; food fish

17) Striped Dwarf Catfish (Mystus vittatusBloch, 1794). Common

Family: Clariidae

18) Walking Catfish (Clarias brachysomaGunther, 1864). Uncommon, but can beseen especially in seasonal floods;popular food fish; endemic

Family: Heteropneustidae

19) Stinging Catfish (Heteropneustusfossilis Bloch, 1797). Abundant inBolgoda canal



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Family: Loricarridae

20) Tank Cleaner (Hypostomusplecostomus Linnaeus, 1758). Adultsabundant in Bolgoda canal, juveniles inshallow areas; introduced

Order: CYPRINODONTIFORMES

Family: Aplocheilidae

21) Day’s Killfish (Aplocheilus dayiSteindachner, 1892). Uncommon,especially found in shaded shallowareas; endemic

22) Dwarf Panchax (Aplocheilus parvusRaj, 1916). Abundant in shallow marshyareas.

Family: Poecilidae

23) Guppy (Poecilia reticulate Peters,1859). Abundant; introduced

Order: PERCIFORMES

Family: Cichlidae

24) Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicusPeters, 1825). Abundant in Bolgodacanal; introduced food fish

25) Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticusLinnaeus, 1766). Abundant in Bolgodacanal; introduced food fish

Family: Anabantidae

26) Climbing Perch (Anabas testudineusBloch, 1795). Common in Bolgodacanal; food fish

Family: Belontidae

27) Spike-tailed Paradisefish(Pseudosphromenus cupanus Cuvier,1831). Common in shallow, marshyareas

28) Snake-skin Gourami (Trichogasterpectoralis Regan, 1910). Abundant inBolgoda canal; introduced

29) Three-spot Gourami (Trichogastertrichopterus Pallas, 1777). Uncommon;introduced

Family: Helostomatidae

30) Kissing Gourami (Helostomatemminckii Valenciennes, 1831).Uncommon; introduced; larger speci-mens used as food fish

Order: CHANNIFORMES

Family: Channidae

31) Smooth-breasted Snakehead (Channaorientalis Bloch & Schneider, 1801)Common in shallow areas; endemic

32) Spotted Snakehead (Channa punctataBloch, 1794). Uncommon; popular foodfish

33) Murrel (Channa striata Bloch, 1793)Common, especially in shallow areaswith dense reed cover; popular foodfish

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1

Vol. XIX: No. 1 January-March 2005

1

FOREST NEWSFOREST NEWS


Background

The earthquake and subsequent tsunami thatswept across the Indian Ocean on 26 December2004 will be remembered as one of the worsthuman tragedies in history. The natural disastertook more than 200,000 lives and shattered thelivelihoods of some five million people in SoutheastAsia and East Africa. Parts of Bangladesh, India,Indonesia, Kenya, Maldives, Mozambique,Myanmar, Seychelles, Somalia, Sri Lanka, UnitedRepublic of Tanzania, Thailand and Yemen wereaffected.

The international community has responded withan unprecedented outpouring of public and privatedonations for disaster relief. The United Nationsestimates that a total of US$6.3 billion has beenpledged, committed or contributed, of which nearlyUS$1 billion is in response to the Flash Appeallaunched by the United Nations on 6 January 2005.The Flash Appeal reflects the efforts of some 40United Nations agencies and non-governmentalorganizations (NGOs) to plan and implement astrategic, efficient and coordinated emergencyrelief response for the initial six month period. Thesectors covered by the appeal includecoordination, food, health, water and sanitation,shelter, education, economic recovery andinfrastructure, agriculture, environment, andprotection of human rights.

FAO’s overall response to date

Within a week of the disaster, FAO committedUS$ 1.5 million for needs assessments andrecovery support in Indonesia, the Maldives, SriLanka and Thailand. As part of the UN FlashAppeal, it called for an additional US$26.5 millionto support recovery efforts in the most severelyaffected countries — Indonesia, the Maldives,Myanmar, Seychelles, Somalia and Sri Lanka, andUS$2.5 million for regional activities in partnershipwith the United Nations Development Programme(UNDP) and the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP).

The majority of people affected by the disasterwere involved in agriculture and fisheries or wereemployed in associated enterprises. FAO rapidlyfielded experts to assess the damage and lossesto agriculture and fisheries, and to assist thegovernments in the planning and coordination ofearly recovery in these sectors. More recently,FAO has fielded staff and consultants for similarassistance in the forest sector.

In all, the Organization has deployed several staffand over 70 international and regional experts invarious areas of expertise to assist affectedcountries. It has recruited emergency coordinatorsfor Indonesia, Maldives and Sri Lanka and aregional coordinator to provide necessary

RESPONDING TO THE TSUNAMI DISASTER:FAO’S ACTIVITIES


22


coordination within FAO and with key players.FAO is also providing direct assistance to farmersand fishers in the form of boat repair kits and engineparts for fishing boats, fishing nets and other gear,seeds and farming tools, and repair of irrigationand drainage infrastructure, among other things.FAO’s role in delivery of inputs is particularlyimportant in the case of specialized equipment andin affected areas not adequately served by others.

It has become apparent that FAO’s maincomparative advantage and most essential role inrehabilitation efforts, as perceived by manyaffected countries, partners and donors, is inproviding technical guidance, technicalspecifications and coordination in the areas offisheries, agriculture and forestry and its relatedcross-cutting programmes (nutrition, land tenure,etc.). Coordination among actors within countriesis crucial, as the unprecedented level of donationsand number of actors poses a serious risk ofoversupply and inappropriate and fragmentedassistance for recovery. FAO is also working toenhance cooperation, coordination andcommunication at regional level. In early March,FAO’s Regional Office for Asia and the Pacificorganized two workshops on regional coordinationin the tsunami response in the fisheries and forestsectors (see below). At the international level,FAO supports a coordinated approach throughparticipation in the UN Flash Appeal. FAO hasalso held two briefings at Headquarters forPermanent Representatives to FAO of affectedand donor countries.

FAO is also playing a role in information collectionand dissemination. It maintains a website thatprovides continually updated information on FAO’sanalysis of the evolving situation and response(http://www.fao.org/ tsunami). Linked to this, areFAO’s three technical tsunami websites – foragriculture, fisheries and forestry, which providemore detailed information.

FAO has also prepared a Tsunami Atlas, whichincludes satellite images, topographic and thematicmaps and statistics (http://www.fao.org/tsunami/environment/maps.html). The FAO Tsunami Atlas

is well advanced for Indonesia and Sri Lanka andwork is under way for the other affected countries.

In order to ensure that its tsunami response isinternally well coordinated, FAO has set up twotask forces, at technical and management level,consisting of all relevant departments of theOrganization. These meet on a regular basis.Weekly conference calls are held betweenHeadquarters and FAO Representations inIndonesia, the Maldives and Sri Lanka and withthe Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific inBangkok. In addition, an interdepartmentaltechnical group has been formed to facilitate acoordinated approach to integrated coastal areamanagement.

Activities in the forest sector

FAO has embarked on various forest-related ac-tivities to date, including providing technical sup-port in the field, developing a programme forFAO’s support to affected countries, encourag-ing cooperation and coordination among countriesand organizations involved in the tsunami response,and collecting and disseminating relevant infor-mation.

Although many of the necessary interventions inthe forestry sector will begin later, as part of therehabilitation phase, FAO has begun to identifyelements of its assistance programme. It has de-veloped a broad framework for its support to thetsunami response in the forest sector based oninformation provided by staff in the FAO Repre-sentations and field teams in the affected coun-tries and from various other sources. This will befurther refined when more information becomesavailable, national plans for reconstruction emerge,and after technical expertise for programming canbe fielded. The main objective of a mission cur-rently under way in Sri Lanka is to develop theoutlines of FAO’s programme for rehabilitationassistance in the sector.

The Forestry Department has launched a tsunamiwebsite (http://www.fao.org/forestry/ tsunami). Itprovides information on the forest-related issues,

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FAO organized a regional coordination workshopon Rehabilitation of tsunami-affected forestecosystems: strategies and new directions, 7-8March 2005, at the FAO Regional Office for Asiaand the Pacific in Bangkok, Thailand. In conven-ing the workshop, FAO responded to a need forexchange of information on existing and plannedimpact and damage assessments, rehabilitation andreconstruction activities related to forests and treesand for strengthening coordination and collabora-tion of national, regional and international agen-cies involved in forest rehabilitation and manage-ment of tsunami-affected areas.

The workshop brought together 15 governmentrepresentatives from 7 countries, i.e. Indonesia,India, Malaysia, Maldives, Myanmar, Sri Lanka,and Thailand (Bangladesh’s participant could notattend) affected by the 26 December 2004 tsu-nami in Asia. They were joined by about 30 rep-resentatives of international, regional and sub-re-gional organizations, including non-governmentalorganizations. The workshop provided participantsthe opportunity to share information, collectivelyassess initial findings related to rehabilitation needsand opportunities, share plans and proposals for

future rehabilitation work, and develop mecha-nisms for collaboration and joint activities.

The overall goal of the workshop was tostrengthen and enhance rehabilitation efforts inthe tsunami-affected areas to provide for a bet-ter future for people living in coastal areas.The objectives of the workshop were to:§ exchange information and knowledge related

to the impacts on forest ecosystems and theeffective rehabilitation of forest ecosystemsin tsunami-affected areas;

§ strengthen coordination and collaboration ofnational, regional and international agenciesinvolved in forest rehabilitation and manage-ment of tsunami-affected areas; and

§ develop a mechanism for coordination andaction to be taken at the regional level to sup-port the rehabilitation of tsunami-affectedforest ecosystems and to address other for-est-related issues in the rehabilitation and re-construction phase.

After a welcome by Mr. He Changchui, FAO’sAssistant Director-General and Regional Repre-

REGIONAL COORDINATION WORKSHOP ONREHABILITATION OF TSUNAMI-AFFECTED FORESTECOSYSTEMS: STRATEGIES AND NEW DIRECTIONS

country information on needs assessments andresponse, news releases and clippings, and linksto useful technical information.

FAO is in contact with many regional and inter-national organizations concerning tsunami needsassessments and response, with a view to encour-aging collaborative activities and a coordinatedresponse. With regard to this, the FAO RegionalOffice for Asia and the Pacific convened a re-gional coordination workshop in Bangkok on 7 and8 March, which brought together parties involvedin post-tsunami forestry assessment and rehabili-tation work. About 40 representatives from af-

fected countries, regional and international orga-nizations, NGOs, and donor countries attended.Participants exchanged information on the impactson forest ecosystems and forest resources in tsu-nami-affected areas, shared plans for forest-re-lated actions in rehabilitation and reconstructionefforts; and discussed mechanisms for collabo-ration and joint activities in forest-related reha-bilitation efforts within the region. The report ofthe meeting will be made available on the For-estry Department tsunami website (http://www.fao.org/ forestry/tsunami).


44


sentative for Asia and the Pacific, and an intro-duction to the workshop by Mr. Patrick Durst,Senior Forestry Officer FAO Regional Office forAsia and the Pacific, four invited speakers setthe scene. The topics of their presentations in-cluded: the role of mangroves and other vegeta-tion in protecting against tsunamis and tidal surges;the role of trees and forests in integrated coastalzone management; assessment of the impacts ofthe tsunami on coastal vegetation; and assess-ment of wood use and needs for reconstruction.

During an open forum, participants from seventsunami-affected countries described rehabilita-tion and reconstruction activities related to treesand forests. They highlighted overall rehabilita-tion approaches taken in their respective coun-tries and the role of forests and trees in the over-all plans, ongoing and planned activities, key chal-lenges to be addressed, and the potential role of,and expectations from strengthened regional co-ordination from a national perspective.

Many international, regional and sub-regional or-ganizations have responded to the relief and re-habilitation needs since the disaster. Representa-tives of several organizations at the workshopoutlined ongoing and planned activities. In addi-tion, several speakers presented ideas for bettercoordination at national and regional levels.

Critical issues raised at the workshop

Recognizing that situations vary country to coun-try, participants raised the following issues:§ There is a need to further assess the effec-

tiveness of mangroves and other coastal veg-etation in protecting coastal areas from ma-jor natural disasters.

§ Where coastal vegetation was severely af-fected, more precise impact assessments areneeded, which also consider the characteris-tics of the sea bottom close to the coastline.

§ A rigorous analysis of the factors influencingthe protective function of coastal forests isneeded and guidelines need to be developedto assist countries that plan to establishgreenbelts and other forests for (mainly) pro-tective purposes.

§ Rehabilitation/reforestation efforts must becarefully planned and implemented and theforests subsequently managed properly. Fullstakeholder (from different levels and sectors)involvement is necessary in this process toensure success.

§ Problems preventing cost-effective methodsof rehabilitation of coastal forests include in-sufficient technical knowledge, limited humanresources and capacities for implementing re-habilitation activities, and ambiguous land ten-ure and unclear demarcation of land.

§ Initiatives aimed at rehabilitation and manage-ment of coastal forests for protection purposesmust be linked to socio-cultural and economicneeds and aspirations of local people. Protec-tion forests also require management andmany production forests, if properly managed,can also fulfill protection functions.

§ There is a critical need for sound technical in-formation on workable practices for rehabili-tating coastal forests, suitable sites for plant-ing, and proven approaches for involving localpeople in decision making, planning and imple-mentation. Policy makers and the donor com-munity also require solid advice to avoid “quickfixes,” with potential negative consequences,and to ensure that their decisions and assis-tance enhance sustainable development.

§ Integrated coastal area management is par-ticularly challenging because of the tremen-dous diversity of livelihoods that depend onfisheries, aquaculture, tourism, forestry andagriculture. Long-term rehabilitation shouldfocus on creating sustainable livelihoods andrestoring productive use of coastal resources.Integrated approaches to coastal zone man-agement need to balance ecological, social,cultural and economic consid-erations, and theimportance of community participation andadequate governance. Inter-sectoral coopera-tion and coor-dination are needed as well asappropriate policy formulation and strategicplanning mechanisms to balance trade-offsamong different, and often conflicting, inter-ests.

§ Detailed calculations of the wood needs forreconstructing infrastructure have yet to becarried out in most places. In some countries,

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wood demand may be met from domesticsources. There is a risk of over-exploitationof local forests (some of them protected ar-eas) to meet the wood demand for reconstruc-tion. In some cases, large quantities of woodwill have to be imported.

§ Some donor countries are offering to exportwood to affected countries. Care must betaken to ensure that wood used for recon-struction has the necessary characteristics tomeet specific needs and is adequately treatedto ensure durability. Some species may alsonot be acceptable for socio-cultural reasons.The potential of using salvage wood and al-ternative construction materials, such as bam-boos, needs to be further explored.

§ Conflicting demands for use of the affectedlands (green belts, aquaculture, agriculture,tourism, residential and industrial sites) arecausing controversies and tensions in a num-ber of locations, especially where land titlesand tenure arrangements are ambiguous. Insome cases, “land grabbing” has particularlyaffected poorer sections of society.

§ Although several countries have passed zon-ing laws, prohibiting development of coastalareas within a certain distance of high-watermarks and beachfronts, in general law en-forcement requires strengthening.

§ The international community has helped coun-tries with emergency relief and early responseassistance, impact assessments, developmentof rehabilitation plans, and wood needs as-sessments. NGOs have raised substantialfunds to assist in tsunami rehabilitation effortsand are moving quickly with delivering assis-tance. There are tremendous needs and op-

portunities to improve effectiveness of effortsthrough improved coordination and the provi-sion of relevant information in a timely man-ner.

Recommendations

The participants recommended that a regionalpartnership to foster collaboration and coordina-tion of forest-related initiatives in rehabilitationefforts in the tsunami-affected countries shouldbe established. The proposed partnership wouldaddress the current needs and challenges pre-sented by the tsunami disaster and would includeaffected countries, international and regional or-ganizations, NGOs, research organizations, andother stakeholders as well as donors supportingthe partnership. The objective would be to sup-port a forestry response to the tsunami that is costeffective, comprehensive, technically sound anddeveloped within the context of integrated coastalarea management and sustainable livelihoods.

The functions of the partnership would be the fol-lowing:§ provide access to information;§ furnish technical knowledge, expertise, guide-

lines and tools;§ support capacity building; and§ strengthen partnerships, coordination arrange-

ment and access to financial resources.

“Does any crime against nature draw down a more dreadful curse thanthat of stripping mother earth of her covering?”

– Champollion –


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In recent years, society has become increasinglyconcerned over the fate of forest resources in theAsia-Pacific region. In fact, the public has startedto demand that forest harvesting be carried out inways that limit damage. Responding to concernsover the environmental and the economic impactsof poor forest harvesting, many international andnational organizations, and government agencieshave formed partnerships and are pooling their re-sources to build consensus and strengthen capaci-ties to reduce the negative impacts of logging.

Enhancing Sustainable Forest Harvesting inAsia (GCP/RAS/192/JPN) is one such effort.Launched in 2003 and supported by a grant fromthe Government of Japan, FAO is executing thethree-year project in collaboration with Lao PDR,Myanmar and Viet Nam. Each of the three projectcountries is at various stages of applying improvedforest harvesting, and there is plenty of scope forlearning from each other.

From 31 January – 3 February 2005, FAO and theLao Department of Forestry organized the firstTri-Partite Review (TPR) and Regional ProjectAdvisory Committee (RPAC) Meeting of theproject in Vientiane, Lao PDR. The meeting wasfollowed by a field trip to a test and demonstrationsite in Khammouane Province. While the TPRinvolves traditionally only representatives of thedonor, project countries and FAO, the RPAC meet-ing opened its doors to everybody with an interestin sustainable forest management.

Efforts in improving forest harvesting continue toattract considerable interest and a variety of or-ganizations sent representatives to present, listenand discuss. The Tropical Forest Foundation, theSarawak Timber Association, the Tropical ForestTrust, the Indochina Office of the Worldwide Fundfor Nature and the Sustainable Forestry and Ru-ral Development Project were all represented and

greatly enhanced the sharing of experiences, es-pecially the ones not directly related to the project.All the presenters convinced the audience thatprogress towards achieving sustainable forest man-agement in Asia is being made. At the same time,the consensus remains that achievements comeabout only slowly and that some steps forwardare unfortunately followed by some steps back-wards. This is mirrored by the progress in the threeproject countries. Overall good progress has beenmade in Lao PDR and Myanmar in a number ofaspects, particularly with respect to training. Theimportance of proper awareness about the impor-tance of sustainable forest management and re-duced impact logging (RIL) has been recognizedin both countries. Raising awareness through dif-ferent means remains high on the agenda, to en-sure that political commitment is continuously built.In the implementation of project activities, VietNam is a step behind the other two countries as aresult of starting later.

Conducting effective training

There is broad agreement that currently forestoperators at all levels are inadequately preparedto improve harvesting and reduce impacts. Ca-pacity strengthening is therefore a major compo-nent of the project.

Participants noted that, among all the training ac-tivities conducted, the on-the-job training conductedin Lao PDR in pre-harvest inventory, tree loca-tion mapping and road and skid trail alignment wasmost effective. Involvement of villagers and log-ging companies through field-level meetings in LaoPDR provided an interesting lesson. Such lessonscan be extended to other project countries as de-veloping strong linkages with communities and theprivate sector is an important element for the suc-cess of the project, and essential to achievesustainability.

PROGRESS IN IMPROVING FOREST HARVESTING IN ASIA

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The initial training needs assessment conductedin the project countries indicates the need for de-veloping capacities for training of trainers. Theimportance of proper planning for effective train-ing was addressed during a workshop organizedin September 2004. The preparation of carefully-targeted training programs and strategies will re-quire more attention. Driven by a collaborativespirit, several resource persons from outside theproject (e.g. Tropical Forest Foundation, WWF,Sarawak Timber Association) offered assistancein training forest workers. The project needs tomake good use of such opportunities.

Awareness raising

Bringing about change does not only require skilldevelopment. It needs the right attitude and ap-preciation of the benefits of sustainable forestmanagement. This is easier said than done, as allparticipants confirmed.

Awareness raising is the other major componentof the project. The project countries have all takenseveral steps in raising awareness about the codeand RIL through in-country meetings and mediaactivities. However, more efforts need to be madein reaching out more effectively to decision mak-ers to obtain their support not only for project ac-tivities but, more importantly, for better forestmanagement. To meet this challenge, field dayswill be organized for policy makers and key stake-holders to visit demonstration sites. Participantsalso suggested that the project newsletter that ispublished in English be complemented by news-letters in local languages.

Field visit

The Department of Forestry organized a field tripto visit a test and demonstration site in NaphakeoVillage, Khammouane Province. The participantsobserved the demonstration of pre-harvest plan-ning, tree mapping, tree marking and directionalfelling. The demonstration of directional fellingprovoked an interesting debate on the felling andutilization of (partially) hollow trees.

When the scarf or undercut was completed, thetree feller noticed that the tree was hollow andupon consulting with a superior officer it was de-cided not to cut the tree. This decision does notonly have occupational safety and silviculturalimplications. The tree, with an estimated dbh ofabout 150cm, most likely contains a considerableamount of solid wood. It could be used by localpeople who would be in the position to produce asignificant amount of sawnwood and other prod-ucts and generate much needed income. How-ever, the existing logging quota cannot be ex-ceeded. During the course of the project, this willhave to be looked into more closely. The morecomplete use of tops and branches by local com-munities in Viet Nam is similarly on the project’sagenda. Through such approaches, the project canmake direct links to poverty reduction.

Want more information?

There are a number of ways to keep abreast ofwhat is happening in the project and the projectcountries. The easiest is to subscribe to the re-gional project newsletter. An assessment of cur-rent logging practices (Field document 1) andTraining needs assessment (Field document 2)inform on particular aspects in the project coun-tries. To get on the mailing list, to obtain the docu-ments or to receive the report of the TPR/RPACmeeting, plus a CD with all the presentations, pleasecontact Patrick Durst (Patrick.Durst @fao.org).

For the latest information you can contact theProject Coordinator, Patrick Dugan([email protected]) or the project counter-parts in Viet Nam, Ms. Pham Minh Thoa ([email protected]), in Lao PDR, Mr. OupakoneAlounsavath ([email protected]), or inMyanmar, U Khin Zaw ([email protected]).


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The demand for a user-friendly tool for calculat-ing the costs of alternative logging practices (e.g.conventional logging and reduced impact logging)and systems appears to be increasing. Since therelease of the second version of RILSIM (Re-duced-Impact Logging SIMulator) in October2004, the software has been downloaded more than400 times. Hundreds of copies of the softwareand the user’s guide have also been distributed bymail.

The demand for training in the use of RILSIM isalso on the rise. A number of training coursesthroughout the region are planned for this year.The first one was held in Ho Chi Minh City, VietNam, on 28 February and 1 March 2005. Twenty-three participants from various government insti-tutions, harvesting companies, the Tropical ForestTrust and the Indochina Office of the WorldwideFund for Nature attended the training course thatwas jointly conducted by Gary Man of the USDAForest Service and Thomas Enters of FAO’s Re-gional Office for Asia and the Pacific.

The earlier training courses, held in Sarawak andSabah, Malaysia, in November 2003, had a dura-tion of only one day each. The new course hasbeen extended to two days to provide more timefor practical experiences with the software, andto introduce a practical example comparing RILwith conventional logging and a case study thatthe trainees are supposed to conduct with only mini-mal guidance.

The workshop as a whole was judged by mostparticipants as “very good”, although the need fortranslations reduced the speed with which instruc-tions could be provided. Despite this handicap,most participants learned how to use the softwarequite easily.

Any software that can calculate costs, ben-efits, revenues and net present values can onlybe as good as the available data or input. Thelack of reliable data continues to be a problem.This is no more evident than with regard toequipment. The software developers assumed

that most equipment, such as chainsaws, bulldoz-ers and trucks, have a predetermined lifespan. Forexample, rubber-tired skidders are judged to havean expected useful lifespan of between 7,000 to10,000 operating hours, depending on terrain con-ditions. Tracked skidders can be operated a bitlonger, and the useful lifespan of excavators canbe twice as long.

In many operations in Asia’s tropical forests, thelifespan of equipment appears to be indefinite. Infact, some equipment may make excellent addi-tions to any museum on forestry. Hence, manyparticipants had difficulties in grasping the con-cept of depreciation, which is a measure of thedecline in value of an asset over time. For trainingpurposes, it is probably necessary to develop ex-amples with the equipment cost close to zero, butwith much higher running and maintenance costs.While this would probably better reflect the real-ity of forest harvesting in many countries of theAsia-Pacific region, the next question is whethermaintenance costs are known.

A very useful aspect of RILSIM is that it stimu-lates those people who usually are not confrontedwith thinking in terms of costs to look at theseissues more closely. Participants clearly started toappreciate RILSIM when they understood that itcan also be used to calculate cost increases dueto new government regulations such as environ-mental impact assessments or the introduction ofbuffer zones, in other words, to simulate antici-pated changes. The positive response translatedinto a request for a second training course in HaNoi later this year. Further training courses arealso planned for Fiji, Indonesia, and Myanmar.

INTRODUCING RILSIMIN VIET NAM

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NATIONAL FOREST PROGRAMMES —SUPPORT FROM THE FACILITY

The National Forest Programme Facility (in short,Facility) has been providing support for the devel-opment and implementation of national forestprogrammes (nfp) for about three years. The num-ber of countries that benefit from the Facility con-tinues to expand. In January 2005, the SteeringCommittee of the Facility extended partnershipsto an additional six countries: Viet Nam, Zambia,Nicaragua, Kyrgyzstan, Palau, and Armenia. Sup-port is now provided to 42 countries. The numberof sub-regional organizations that have a partner-ship agreement doubled to four, which includes theSecretariat of the Pacific Community, based inSuva, Fiji.

There continues to be some confusion about whatnfps actually are. In fact, it is very simple. Gov-ernments in the Intergovernmental Panel on For-ests (IPF) agreed to use the term “national forestprogramme” to describe a wide range of ap-proaches to sustainable forest management atnational and sub-national levels. Hence, it is aframework for country-led processes to formu-late, implement and coordinate related policies,strategies, plans and actions in a participatorymanner.

But perhaps it is not so simple, especially if youare told that nfps should be seen as cyclical, con-tinuous, long-term and iterative processes. Admit-tedly, many definitions only add to the confusion.Let’s therefore turn to a small selection of activi-ties that are currently funded or planned in part-ner countries of the Facility. The purpose of pro-viding the examples is dual. First, it is hoped thatthey will increase the understanding of what nfpsare all about, and what can be done to further andimplement them. Second, we provide contact de-tails of nfp focal points, so that more informationcan be requested directly from the source. Let’scheck out a couple of examples:

Pakistan

The Ministry of Environment has proposed a se-ries of activities geared at increasing the involve-ment of civil society and other economic sectorsin forestry, raising the awareness of all forestrystakeholders on important forestry issues and pro-viding up-to-date information on forestry issuesthrough different media.

During the first year of the three-year partner-ship, one activity is directed at the establishmentof a forum, for forest policy analysis, formulationand monitoring its implementation. The basic ob-jective of the forum is to institutionalize the provi-sion of inputs from a variety of stakeholders intopolicy-making, increase the involvement of stake-holders in monitoring forest policy implementation,and assist the Ministry of Environment in its policy-related tasks. Terms of reference for the prelimi-nary work have been drafted and national organi-zations are currently called upon to express theirinterest in the activity by providing proposals.

For more information on the nfp in Pakistan pleasecontact Dr. Bashir Wani ([email protected]).

Philippines

The Department of the Environment and NaturalResources (DENR) intends to develop a newimplementation strategy for its Community-BasedForest Management (CBFM) Programme. Since1995, CBFM has been the main strategy forachieving sustainable development of the country’sforest resources and social justice. By 2004, theCBFM Programme covered nearly 6 million hect-ares and involved about 700,000 families.The progress made since 1995 looks impressive.Yet, the DENR is convinced that it can do betterand that the contribution to poverty reduction should


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be larger. It therefore called upon a number ofnon-governmental organizations to help it look intoconstraining factors and provide practical recom-mendations for key stakeholders involved in theprogramme. This translated into research at sixCBFM sites and a series of workshops to build aconsensus and consolidate the long list of recom-mendations into a manageable number that canbe addressed by the implementation strategy. Thefinal synthesis of the six studies was published inJanuary 2005.

For a copy of the report or more information onthis activity, please contact Ms. Remy Evangelista([email protected]) or visitwww.fao.org/forestry/nfp, where you will findcopies of the study reports on the Progress page.

Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC)

In most of the Pacific Island countries and territo-ries (PICTs), forests and trees support the liveli-hoods of the many rural people through the provi-sion of diverse products and services. Most of thesecontributions do not appear in financial accountsand their real contribution tends to be underesti-mated by relevant stakeholders, especially Minis-tries of Finance, Economic Planning and Devel-opment, Budget Allocation, Prime Minister’s Of-fices and the Public Service Commissions. In par-ticular, many such stakeholders do not appear tobe aware of the potential implications of furtherdegradation of the countries’ forest resources.

SPC aims to raise awareness of the contributionof forests and trees to poverty reduction, the envi-ronment and sustainable development of PICTsthrough a regional workshop and related activitiesduring the second half of 2005, as well as nationalworkshops at a later date. In particular, SPC andthe SPC/GTZ-Pacific German Regional ForestryProject, a partner in organizing the regional work-shop, aim to raise the participants’ understandingand perception of:§ the role of forests and trees in livelihood

strategies;§ the potential contributions forests and

trees can make to alleviate poverty;

§ the provisions of forests and trees to en-vironmental stability; and

§ cross-sectoral policy effects and the im-portance of multi-stakeholder processesin programming, planning and implemen-tation.

The regional workshop will be organized for policymakers and planners from key government de-partments and other relevant stakeholders. Theindoor sessions will be complemented by field vis-its, a feature on SPC’s regional TV magazine “Pa-cific Way”, newspaper articles and the produc-tion of a CD for wide distribution.

If you would like to learn more about this particu-lar activity and SPC’s support to sustainable for-est management and national forest programmesthroughout the Pacific, please contact Mr. SairusiBulai ([email protected]).

Similar (as well as some that are quite different)activities are being carried out throughout the Asia-Pacific region, with and without support from theFacility. Even if not directly stated, they are partof this process called “nfp.” So, it’s not that diffi-cult after all, is it?

For more information on nfps in the Asia–Pacificregion and/or the National Forest Programme Fa-cility, please contact:

Mr S. Appanah, NFP Advisor for Asia and thePacific, Bangkok, Thailand. Tel: 66-2- 697-4136;Fax: (66-2) 697-4445; EM:[email protected]. T. Enters, NFP Facilitator, Bangkok, Thailand:Tel: 66-2-697-4328; Fax: (66-2) 697-4445; EM:[email protected]

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ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRYCHIPS AND CLIPS

LARGE FIRES CREATED AUSTRALIANDESERT?

A recent study published by Australian and Ameri-can researchers suggests that settlers who cameto Australia some 50,000 years ago set fires thatmay have triggered cataclysmic weather changesthat turned the country’s interior into the dry desertit is today. Using computerized global climate simu-lations, researchers showed that if there weresome forest in the middle of Australia, it couldlead to a monsoon with twice as much rain as thecurrent pattern. Fossil evidence shows that birdsand marsupials that once lived in Australia’s inte-rior would have browsed on trees, shrubs andgrasses, rather than the desert scrub environmentthat is there today. It also shows large charcoaldeposits most likely caused by widespread fires,dating to the arrival of people.– Source: Reuters –

NUMBER OF FIRES IN CHINA IN-CREASED IN 2004

According to the director of forestry, the numberof forest fires in 2004 increased from the previ-ous year, although the total area affected had de-creased. The Chinese government has been work-ing to enhance its ability to control forest fires byinvesting some 300 million yuan (US$36.28 mil-lion) to initiate 46 key high-tech projects for theforecast, supervision, prevention and control offorest fires.– Source: http://www.chinaview.cn –

ECOTOURISM IN INDIA AFFECTED BYTHE TSUNAMI

The Pichavaram mangroves, billed as one ofIndia’s most enchanting seaside forests, are suf-fering as a result of the tsunami. The groups of

tourists and school children that used to visit theforest are no longer coming. Tamil Nadu officialsadmitted tourism in this southern Indian state hasfallen by as much as 30-40 percent as a result ofthe December 26 tsunami. This has serious con-sequences for the local population that earn a liv-ing from the tourism industry.– Source: Indo-Asian News Service –

WEST BENGAL TO RECEIVE WORLDBANK FUND TO COMBAT NATURAL DI-SASTERS

West Bengal will receive Rs 176 crore (approxi-mately US$40.2 million) from the World Bank inthe next five years to implement the National RiskMitigation Project to combat natural disasters suchas the December 26 tsunami. The project, is partof the World Bank’s programme to reduce theimpact of such disasters in all 13 coastal states inthe country, and was originally aimed at stream-lining the early warning system against cyclones.The project will include the construction of coastalembankments, link roads and shelters for cyclone-and disaster-hit people and preservation of man-grove forests, all of which are designed to helpreduce the impact of such catastrophes in the fu-ture.– Source: http://www.newkerala.com –

INDONESIA ASSESSES THE DAMAGEWROUGHT BY THE TSUNAMI

As the people of Indonesia’s Aceh province try torebuild lives shattered by the tsunami disaster, of-ficials have commenced assessing the environ-mental damage to the coast which bore the bruntof the giant waves. According to an initial assess-ment by the UN Environmental Programme, thewaves damaged 25,000 hectares of mangroves,some 29,200 hectares of coral reefs and 120 hect-ares of seagrass beds. Government experts andUnited Nations officials say it could take yearsand hundreds of million of dollars to restore theenvironmental damage to these marine ecosys-tems.– Source: AFP –


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SOURCING TIMBER FOR ACEH RECON-STRUCTION

According to initial estimates, some 4 to 8 millioncubic metres of logs will be needed for the recon-struction effort in Aceh over the next five years.Greenomics Indonesia, a policy research institute,and WWF, the global conservation organisation,are advocating that alternative foreign sources oftimber should be explored so as not to create fur-ther financial burdens for the Indonesian govern-ment. They propose that some of the aid alreadypledged by donors for the reconstruction of Acehshould be made in the form of timber.– Source: http://thestar.com.my –

TIMBER PROCESSOR SHUTTING ITSDOORS

About 150 people have lost their jobs after a tim-ber processing company in New Zealand an-nounced that its three plants will close. The Tan-ner Group’s two mills in Kaitaia and Coromandeland a timber manufacturing plant in Thames, willbe closed over the next four months. Increasingcosts and the strong New Zealand dollar have beenblamed.– Source: http://tvnz.co.nz/ –

INDONESIA TO REPLANT MANGROVESIN TSUNAMI DEFENSE

Indonesia plans to replant huge swathes of man-grove forest along its vulnerable coastline to helpprovide a buffer against possible future tsunamis.Some 600,000 hectares of mangrove across thecountry have been earmarked for rehabilition, withsome 30,000 in Aceh alone. Following the Decem-ber disaster a number of Asian nations have takena new look at their struggling mangroves. Malay-sia has called for mangroves to be protected fromcoastal development.– Source: http://www.planetark.com/ –

WORK COMMENCES ON CHINESEBIODIVERSITY COLLECTION

Work has commenced in China to build a reposi-tory that will house samples of its biodiversity. Itis hoped that the centre will become one of thelargest collections of its kind in the region, andalso a first-class research centre. The centre willbe based at the Kunming Institute of Botany andwill include some 19,000 species. Eventually thecentre will also house some 200,000 samples ofseeds, DNA banks, a collection of living plantsand specimens of animals and micro-organisms.The building is to be completed in 2006; however,it will take some 10-15 years to collect all thespecimens.– Source: SciDev.net –

INDIAN MODEL LEGISLATION ONNON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCE INPREPARATION

Model legislation for adoption by states is beingprepared, which will recognize the rights of weakersections working in the forests, in respect to non-timber forest produce. The objective of the legis-lation is to safeguard the legal rights of tribal com-munities over mineral and water resources and toprotect their livelihoods. The draft National Envi-ronmental Policy is intended to be a guide for en-vironmental protection throughout the country,while protecting the livelihoods of the rural poor.– Source: Team India –

INDIAN PAPER GIANT BILT TURNS TOFARM FORESTRY FOR PULP

To reduce the cost of landed wood, many papercompanies such as Ballarpur Industries Limited(BILT), are turning to farm forestry close to theprocessing plants for pulp. BILT is supplying farm-ers with seedlings (eucalyptus, acacia and casua-rina) and providing buyback support for the plan-tations, which are mainly established on degradedforestland. The company is currently working with

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some 12,000 farmers and has established about40,000 hectares of plantations. The use of farmforestry helps companies comply with Governmentpolicy ceilings on land ownership.– Source: SIFY.com –

HIGH-TECH SOLUTION TO ADDRESSILLEGAL LOGGING

The Indian state of Kerala is resorting to high-tech methods in order to crack-down on the ille-gal logging of its remaining sandal wood resources.The Forest Department is planning to implant mi-cro-chips in the trees, which will enable the treesto be tracked by satellite. The micro-chips willenable the Department to track the trees if smug-glers try to smuggle them out of the area.– Source: The Independent –

CHINESE FOUNDATION ESTABLISHEDTO PROTECT WOODLANDS

The Chinese government has established a newfoundation to manage a fund for the protection offorests. Under the initiative, anyone working withthe forests under this scheme is entitled to 5 yuan(US$0.60) per mu (1 hectare = 15 mu) of wood-land they manage and protect. Some 27 millionhectares of forest are eligible for funding underthe initiative. Ninety percent of the money is in-tended to compensate for the costs of afforesta-tion, while the rest is to be set aside for controllingforest fires, diseases and pests.– Source: chinadaily.com –

NEW WEAPON IN THE FOREST FIRE-FIGHTING ARSENAL

A Vietnamese scientist has developed a powderthat can be used in fighting large forest fires. Thepowder changes into a liquid at temperatureshigher than 100oC when coming into contact withthe flames. The liquid boils and releases carbondioxide, which extinguishes the flames. A layer of

the porous powder then forms on the surface ofthe burning object preventing it from catching fireagain.– Source: Vietnam News Agency –

VILLAGERS TO PROTECT FORESTS INTHAI RESERVES

The Thai government is planning to abort its planto evict 10,866 villages in 70 provinces from re-served forest zones, and assign them a conserva-tion role instead. Under the scheme, the govern-ment will redraw the forest zones to exclude vil-lages that were already permanent settlementsprior to establishment of the reserves. Each vil-lage will form a resources and environmental com-mittee that will be empowered to fight forest en-croachment and poaching. The government plansto allocate some 1.5 billion baht (approximatelyUS$39.5 million) from 2005-2008, to assist thevillages in protecting their respective forest zones.– Source: The Nation, Bangkok –

CARTER HOLT HARVEY TO SELL ONE-THIRD OF ITS FOREST ASSETS IN NEWZEALAND

Wood products company Carter Holt Harvey hasstarted the process of selling 95,000 hectares ofits forest estate. The company plans to retainaround 220,000 hectares. Large pension funds areconsidered to be the prime contenders for thepurchase, with potential bidders including the US-based Hancock Natural Resource Group and theHarvard Management Company, both of whichhave bought large New Zealand forest estates inrecent years. A strong New Zealand dollar andpoor log prices have spurred many companies toexit forest ownership and concentrate on morelucrative timber processing and marketing.– Source: http://tvnz.co.nz/ –


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IN SEARCH OF EXCELLENCE: EXEM-PLARY FOREST MANAGEMENT IN ASIAAND THE PACIFICRAP Publication 2005/02

“Nothing sells like bad news,” and reports of ram-pant forest destruction in Asia and the Pacific pro-vide ample merchandise for headline-hungry me-dia purveyors and a receptive public. But is thesituation really as bad as portrayed? Are there

perhaps more positive and inspiring stories to berevealed?

In search of excellence: exemplary forest man-agement in Asia and the Pacific shatters themyth that there is no positive forestry being prac-ticed in the region. This book celebrates the tri-umphs of forest managers, farmers and local com-munities in balancing the range of socio-economicand environmental demands made on forests. In

doing so, it reveals monumental ac-counts of innovation, perseveranceand dedication from across the re-gion — stories that should inspireand motivate others to redoubletheir efforts to protect and effec-tively manage the region’s spectacu-lar forests.

This publication reflects the out-come of an ambitious initiative ofthe Asia–Pacific Forestry Commis-sion (APFC) with the same title.The initiative was coordinated by theFAO Regional Office for Asia andthe Pacific and the Regional Com-munity Forestry Training Centre forAsia and the Pacific (RECOFTC).A widespread call for nominationsidentified 172 forests in 21 countriesthat were perceived to be “well-managed.” After careful vetting, 28forests were selected for detailedcase study analysis. The result is akaleidoscope of ideas, approaches,inspiration and perspiration that tellthe stories of people dedicated tobuilding sustainable livelihoodsthrough careful management oftheir forests.

NEW RAP FORESTRY

PUBLICATIONS

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STATE OF FORESTRY IN ASIA AND THEPACIFIC — 2003RAP Publication 2003/22 (REPRINT)

Highlighting a diversity of management ap-proaches that have proven particularly innovativeand successful in meeting challenges, the publi-cation reaches out to foresters, policy-makers,planners and anyone interested in the future offorestry in Asia and the Pacific. This publicationalso marks a significant step forward in FAO’sand RECOFTC’s efforts to bring its forestry lit-erature closer to the general readers who are lessfamiliar with the technical aspects of forest man-agement, but no less concerned about the fate ofthe region’s forests, natural resources and ruralpeople.

The Asia-Pacific region is characterized by di-versity and rapid change. These attributes are re-flected in the forestry sector, where the rapid evo-lution of social, economic and environmental is-sues means policies, legislation, institutions and thebroad forestry community are being challengedto cope with constantly shifting goals and expec-tations.

This publication provides a broad status report andoverview of developments in forestry in the re-gion during the past several years. It has beenprepared to inform and update policy makers, for-

On 7 January 2005, FAO launched a newsroomdedicated to forest issues on its website.

The newsroom, intended for journalists and oth-ers with a specific interest in FAO’s work in for-estry, has links to press releases and other newsitems as well as feature stories on forestry fieldprojects and in depth articles focused on specificforestry issues.

The FAO Forestry Newsroom also has links toinformation useful to the media such as FAO’scountry information website, maps and graphs,

estry officials and others interested in recent de-velopments in the region’s forestry sector.

Popular demand for the first edition of this publi-cation quickly exhausted stocks. FAO is there-fore pleased to announce that a revised 2nd edi-tion of this publication has been produced withreformatted text and many new photographs.

contacts information, fact sheets on the work ofFAO’s forestry department, and a search engine.In the near future the visitor will have access tothe FAO forestry photo database via the news-room.

The FAO Forestry Newsroom is found at: http://www.fao.org/forestry/newsroom/en/news/index.html

This press release was issued by the MediaOffice at the Food and Agriculture Organiza-tion of the United Nations (FAO, www.fao.org).

FAO LAUNCHES NEW ONLINE NEWSROOM


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11-12 April 2005. Makassar, Sulawesi, Indone-sia. National Workshop on National ForestProgrammes, Region Sulawesi. Organized bythe South Sulawesi Coalition Forest Konstan un-der the partnership between Indonesia and theNational Forest Programme Facility. Contact: T.Enters, NFP Facilitator, FAO Regional Office forAsia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra AtitRoad, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel. (662) 697-4328; Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail:[email protected]

26-27 April 2005. Suva, Fiji. Launching the part-nership between the Secretariat of the PacificCommunity and the National ForestProgramme Facility. Contact: T. Enters, NFPFacilitator, FAO Regional Office for Asia and thePacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road,Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel. (662) 697-4328;Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail:[email protected]

6-8 June 2005. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. NationalWorkshop–Developing a National ForestProgramme for Malaysia: Process, Planningand Implementation. Contact: S. Appanah, NFPAdviser, FAO Regional Office for Asia and thePacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road,Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel. (662) 697-4136;Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail:[email protected]

7-8 June 2005. Koror, Palau. Launching thepartnership between Palau and the NationalForest Programme Facility. Contact: T. Enters,NFP Facilitator, FAO Regional Office for Asiaand the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road,

Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel. (662) 697-4328;Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail:[email protected]

26-28 July 2005. Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malay-sia. Symposium on Tropical Rainforest Reha-bilitation & Restoration – Existing Knowledgeand Future Directions. Co-organized by: FAORAP, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF),Yayasan Sabah and the Sabah Forestry Depart-ment. Contact: Patrick Durst, Senior ForestryOfficer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and thePacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road,Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel. (662) 697-4139;Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail:[email protected]. More information aboutthe symposium can be found on the followingwebsite: www.forestrehabsymposium.com

8-13 August 2005. Brisbane, Australia. XXIIIUFRO World Congress. Contact: The CongressManager,PO Box 104, RBH Post Office QLD 4029, Aus-tralia; Tel: +61(0) 7 3854 1611; Fax: +61(0) 7 38541507; E-mail: [email protected]

September 2005 (tentative). Bangkok. APFCExecutive Committee Meeting. Contact: P.Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO RegionalOffice for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Man-sion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand;Tel. (662) 697-4139; Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail:[email protected]

FORESTY CALENDAR

FOREST NEWS is issued by the FAORegional Office for Asia and thePacific as part of TIGERPAPER. Thisissue of FOREST NEWS was compiledby Patrick B. Durst, Senior ForestryOfficer, FAO/RAP.

FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS: FAO REGIONALOFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP)

§ In search of excellence: exemplary forestmanagement in Asia and the Pacific (RAPPublication 2005/02)

§ What does it take? The role of incentives inforest plantation development in Asia and thePacific. Executive summary (RAP Publication2004/28)

§ What does it take? The role of incentives inforest plantation development in Asia and thePacific (RAP Publication 2004/27)

§ Forests for poverty reduction: opportunities forClean Development Mechanism, environmentalservices and biodiversity (RAP Publication 2004/22)

§ Report of the 20th Session of the Asia-Pacific ForestryCommission (APFC), 2004 (RAP Publication: 2004/09)

§ Forests for poverty reduction: can communityforestry make money? (RAP Publication: 2004/04)

§ State of Forestry in Asia and the Pacific – 2003:status, changes and trends (RAP Publication2003/22)

§ Advancing assisted natural regeneration (ANR)in Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2003/19)- 2nd edition

§ Community forestry – current innovations andexperiences (CD-ROM included)

§ Bringing back the forests: policies and practicesfor degraded lands and forests (RAP Publication:2003/14) out of print

§ Community-based fire management: case studiesfrom China, The Gambia, Honduras, India, the LaoPeople’s Democratic Republic and Turkey (RAPPublication: 2003/08)

§ Practical guidelines for the assessment, monitoringand reporting on national level criteria andindicators for sustainable forest management in dryforests in Asia (RAP Publication: 2003/05)

§ Giants on our hands: proceedings of theinternational workshop on the domesticated Asianelephant (RAP Publication: 2002/30)

§ Communities in flames: proceedings of aninternational conference on community involvementin fire management (RAP Publication: 2002/25)

§ Report of the 19th Session of the Asia-Pacific ForestryCommission (APFC), 2002 (RAP Publication: 2002/21)

§ Selected indicators of food and agriculturedevelopment in Asia-Pacific Region, 1991-2001 (RAPPublication: 2002/19)

§ Applying reduced impact logging to advancesustainable forest management (RAP Publication:2002/14)

§ Monograph on benzoin (Balsamic resin from Styraxspecies) (RAP Publication: 2001/21)

§ Proceedings of the International Conference onTimber Plantation Development, 7-9 November 2000,Manila, Philippines

§ Trash or reasure? Logging and mill residues in Asia-Pacific (RAP Publication: 2001/16)

§ Regional training strategy: supporting theimplementation of the Code of Practice for forestharvesting in Asia-Pacific (RAP Publication: 2001/15)

§ Forest out of bounds: impacts and effectiveness oflogging bans in natural forests in Asia-Pacific:executive summary (RAP Publication: 2001/10)

§ Forest out of bounds: impacts and effectiveness oflogging bans in natural forests in Asia-Pacific (RAPPublication: 2001/08)

§ Asia and the Pacific National Forest ProgrammesUpdate 34 (RAP Publication: 2000/22)

§ Regional strategy for implementing the Code ofPractice for forest harvesting in Asia-Pacific (July 2000)

§ Development of national-level criteria and indicatorsfor the sustainable management of dry forests of Asia:background papers (RAP Publication: 2000/08)

§ Development of national-level criteria and indicatorsfor the sustainable management of dry forests of Asia:workshop report (RAP Publication: 2000/07)

§ Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission: the first fifty years(RAP Publication: 2000/02)

§ Decentralization and devolution of forest managementin Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication: 2000/01)

§ Asia-Pacific Forestry Towards 2010 - report of theAsia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study

§ Asia-Pacific Forestry Towards 2010 - executivesummary of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector OutlookStudy (RAP Publication: 1998/22)

§ Trees commonly cultivated in Southeast Asia: anillustrated field guide - 2nd edition (RAP Publication:1999/13)

§ Code of Practice for forest harvesting in Asia-Pacific(RAP Publication: 1999/12)

For copies please write to: Senior Forestry Officer for Asia and the Pacific,FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.

Or visit the FAO website for an electronic version: http://www.fao.or.th/publications/publications.htm

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