Regional ecologyRegional ecologyMajor Ecosystem Types and

Biomes

Major Ecosystem Major Ecosystem Types and BiomesTypes and Biomes

1. Marine Ecosystems

2. Freshwater Ecosystems

3. Terrestrial Biomes

4. Human-Designed and Managed Systems

1 Marine Ecosystems1 Marine Ecosystems

Marine EcosystemsMarine Ecosystems70% of the Surface of the Earth

Weather and climate of the Earth

The OceanThe OceanOceanography

Organic matter food chains are important in the ocean

Largest three-dimensional ecosystems

Many of the major phyla are found only in the ocean

Deep seas are characterized by high diversity and evolutionary adaptations

Dependent on detritus coming from above

Continental ShelfContinental Shelf

Marine life is concentrated near the shore

Inshore plankton is enriched with meroplankton

Consists of pelagic larvae

Benthos

Epifauna

Infauna

FishingFishingFisheries are usually located on or near the continental shelf

Threat of overfishing

Upwelling RegionsUpwelling Regions

Creates productive marine ecosystems

Characteristics

high concentration of nutrients

high productivity and short food chains

high organic content

adjacent land area is a coastal dessert

Deep Sea Deep Sea Hydrothermal VentsHydrothermal Vents

Continental Drift Theory

Mid-oceanic ridges

hydrothermal vents

chemosynthetic bacteria

EstuariesEstuariesSemi-enclosed body of water

Intermediate between salt and freshwater

Fertile

Major life forms

phytoplankton

benthic microflora

macroflora

Efficient nutrient trap

MangrovesMangrovesTolerance

Can have a biomass equal to a terrestrial forest

Coral ReefsCoral Reefs

In warm, shallow waters

As barriers

Most productive and diverse among biotic communities

Superorganism

Bleaching

2 Freshwater 2 Freshwater EcosystemsEcosystems

Freshwater ecosystemsFreshwater ecosystems

Lentic – standing water (from lenis, “calm”)

ex. Lakes and ponds

Lotic – Running water (from lotus, “washed”)

ex. Streams and rivers

Wetlands – water levels fluctuate up and down

ex. Marshes and swamps

Lentic ecosystemsLentic ecosystems This is divided into five zones

Littoral zone – contains rooted vegetation along the shore

Limnetic zone – open water dominated by plankton

Profundal zone – contains only heterotrophs

Compensation depth – where light penetration is so reduced

Benthic zone – dominated by bottom dwelling organisms

Lakes often become thermally stratified during summer and winter

Epilimnion – warmer upper part of the lake

Hypolimnion – the cooler, deeper water

Thermocline – acts as barrier to the exchange of materials.

Photic zone – lighted portion of a lake or ocean inhabited by phytoplankton.

Lotic ecosystemLotic ecosystem

Difference in between running and standing water:

Current is a mahor controlling and limiting factor in streams.

Land-water exchange is relatively more extensive in streams

Oxygen tension is generally high and more uniform in streams

Lotic ecosystemLotic ecosystem

Rapid zone – has a current to keep the bottom clear of silt and other loose material.

Pool zone – has a deeper water, where velocity of the current is reduced, so that sand and salt settle.

Freshwater WetlandsFreshwater Wetlands

Riverine wetlands – located in low-lying depressions and flood-plains associated with rivers

Lacustrine wetlands – (lacus, “lake) associated with lakes, ponds or dammed riveres channels.

Palustrine wetlands – (palus, “marsh”) includes marshes, bogs, fens, wet prairies and temporary ponds.

Forested WetlandsForested Wetlands

Tidal Freshwater Tidal Freshwater MarshesMarshes

Tidal Freshwater Tidal Freshwater MarshesMarshes

Tidal Freshwater Tidal Freshwater MarshesMarshes

3 Terrestrial Biomes3 Terrestrial Biomes

TERRESTRIAL BIOMES

BIOMES

1) Major regional ecological organization

2) Classification of world vegetation patterns

2) It includes both major plant formations together with its animal life.

BIOMES

According to: C. HART MERRIAM (1894)

*it is a LIFE ZONE concept

-relationship between climate and vegetation

- applied to mountainous regions

BIOMES

According to: HOLDRIDGE (1947)

* The HOLDRIDGE LIFE ZONE SYSTEM

- use of gradient of mean annual biotemperatures with ratio

Of potential evapotranspiration to annual precipitation

Holdridge System

THREE CLASSIFICATIONS

1) Life zones

2) Associations

3) Local Subdivisions

BIOMES

According to: WHITTAKER(1975)

*It is the PATTERNS OF WORLD PLANT FORMATIONS

- relationship of the mean of annual temperature & mean of annual precipitation

BIOMES

According to: BAILEY(1976)

*It is concept of ECOREGIONS

-interactions of climate, soil, and topography

-domiains, divisions and provinces

-embraces both terrestrial and oceanic ecosystems

LIFE-FORM

-grass, shrub, deciduous tree, coniferous tree

-key to demarcate and recognize terrestrial biomes

-involves also the mobile animals

-large mammalian herbivores and detritus food chain

A. TUNDRA

ArcticArctic AlpineAlpine

-Low temperatures and short growing seasons

-Precipitation is low but not limiting

-“permafrost”

ARCTIC TUNDRAARCTIC TUNDRA*low-growing vegetation including shrubs,

grasses, mosses, and herbs, covers the plains and coastal regions of the Arctic

1)Low Tundra- spongy and thick decaying vegetation

2)High Tundra- lichens and grasses

ALPINE TUNDRAALPINE TUNDRA

-occur above the timberline in the high mountains of the world

-cushion and mat forming plants

B. POLAR AND HIGH MOUNTAIN ICE CAPS

*ICE CAPS- extreme environment

- additional source of energy (“Aeolian biome”)

- Green ice algae

- Lake Vostok

C. NORTHERN CONIFEROUS FOREST

*Boreal forest/Taiga

- long, cold winters & short rainy summers

-North America and Eurasia

-populations in pulse cycle

C. TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST

-Areas of abundant and evenly distributed rainfall

-Eastern North America, Europe and part of Japan

-Pines

-Pulpy fruits and nuts

CRUCIAL BIOTIC REGION

Deciduous Forest Biome of North

America

Deciduous Forest Biome of North

America1) Beech-maple forest

2) Oak-Hickory fore

3) Pine edaphic Forest

HARVESTING THE FORESTSHARVESTING THE FORESTS

*Timber Production (2 PHASES):

1) Annual timber harvest > Annual Growth

2) Annual timber harvest < Annual Growth

*Timber is cut depending on how timber is taxed

1) Standing timber

2) Cut timber

D. TEMPERATE GRASSLAND

-rainfall is intermediate between desert& forest land

-soil moisture is a key factor

-short lived compared to trees (Humus rich)

-North and South America, Australia and Euroasian continents

North American Grassland

North American Grassland

*Three Classifications of Grass:

1) tall grasses/big blue stem(2-3 m) : switch grass

2) Midsize grass/little blue stem(1-2 m): needle grass

3) Short grass (0.1- 0.5 m): buffalo grass

*Roots:

1) mass

2) growth

a) Sod formers – w/ underground rhizomes

tall grasses, buffalo and wheat grass

b) bunch grasses- grow in clumps

midsize grass, June grass

FORBSFORBS-Non-grass herbs

-Composites and legumes

-Indicators of stress

Tropical Grasslands and Savannas

• Characterized by the amount of rainfall yielded per year (40-60 inches).

•Fires are essential in this biome.

• Due to the temperature and events housed in this biome, lesser number of floral species exists but are well adapted to it.

• Best example that would picture this biome is the African wilderness.

Figure 1. African Savanna

Chaparral and Sclerophyllous Woodland

• Housed mostly in the temperate countries like the USA which has abundant winter rains and dry summers seasonally.

• Vegetation consists of solely tree shrubs with hard thick evergreen leaves.

• This biome is very prone to fire.

• This biome is not conducive for large sized animals. Mostly rodents dominate and adapt to the environment it has.

• This is seen in the California and as well in selected areas of the Australia

Figure 2. Chaparral tree on a forest fire

Deserts

• Best example is the Sahara Desert found in the continent of Africa.

• Characterized by a sandy form of soil (when irrigated may produce good vegetation output) due to extreme climate this biome has.

• Only 10 inches of rainfall is the annual output of precipitation.

• Exclusive for vegetations like cactus and shrubs (CAM type of respiration)

• Camel and the like were the ones that can live in this biome.

Deserts

HOT DESERT

• Can be observed with very hot temperature (e.g. Sahara, Arabian)

COLD DESERT

• Accommodated in a temperate country like China. Similar features are observed but its temperature can go below 0°C but season is dry whole year. (e.g. Tibet, Gobi)

• Called a desert because of not bearing any living in the said biome

Figure 3. Typical Hot Desert

Figure 4. A Cold Desert

Semi-Evergreen Tropical Forests

Tropical Rainforest

• Annual rainfall varies from 80-90 inches yearly.

• Very favorable for all kinds of life forms (vegetation and creature).

• Philippines itself houses this type of biome.

• This environment has three seasons (rainy, cool-dry and summer)

• Trees dominate the vegetation therefore arboreal animals dominate

Tropical Rainforest

MONTANE RAINFOREST

• Tall type of vegetation (e.g. Mahogany).

• Located at the foot of the mountain.

CLOUD RAINFOREST

• Located at the top most region of a mountain.

• Grasses and other epiphytes contribute the largest biomass

RIVERINE RAINFORESTS

• Also called as Gallery Forest

• Occurs on the riverbanks and river flood plains.

Figure 5. Montane forest of Mt. Kilimanjaro

Figure 6. An Epiphyte taken on a Cloud Forest

Figure 7. Riverine Forest

Tropical Scrub or Thornwoods

• Climate condition is an intermediate of Desert and Tropical.

• Vegetation is mostly bushy and thorny

Figure 8. Scrub Forest

Mountains

• Large and diverse flora and fauna is seen gradient as it is observe through elevation.

• Due to its richness, men dwell in this form of biome.

• Terraces were built to prevent casualties as well adds vegetation source for men.

• The Cordilleras is the best example of it in the country.

Caves

• Not considered as an individual biome.

• Bears unique flora and fauna.

• Very high record of endemicity of species both in flora and fauna.

• Under-sea vents are also considered as a cave.

• The Island of Palawan is rich in the said land form. (under-sea vents mostly evident)

4 Human-Designed 4 Human-Designed and Managed and Managed

SystemsSystems

Human-Designed and Human-Designed and managed Systemsmanaged Systems

AgroecosystemsAgroecosystems• Domesticated ecosystems that are in many ways intermediate

between natural ecosystems

• Solar powered similar to natural ecosystem

• Auxiliary energy (fossil fuels and fertilizers) enhances productivity but also increase in pollution.

• Diversity is greatly reduced by human management to increase the yield of specific crops.

• Domesticated plants and animals are under artificial rather than natural selection

• Control is external and goal oriented rather than internal via subsystem feedback as in natural ecosystem.

AgroecosystemsAgroecosystemsIn less developed countries long standing agricultural practices are energy sufficient ecologically sustainable and provide adequate food for local people.

However these practices do not produce surplus products that can feed large populations and be exported as commodities in exchange for countries

Many countries small countries are pushing to replace traditional agroecosystems with industrial ones with little consideration of their downsides such as pollution and displacing of the independent farm family.

AgroecosystemsAgroecosystems

• Plantation forests (tree farms) are designed to increase wood and fiber production per unit area.

• Consideration of downsides such as loss of soil quality, pest control or artificial fertilizers to replace nutrients removed with the harvest.

• Agroforestry a practice that involves the cultivation of small, fast-growing trees and food crops in alternate rows.

Urban-Industrial Urban-Industrial TechnoecosystemTechnoecosystem

• Cities suburbs and industrial developments

• Energetic islands with large ecological footprints in the matrix of natural and agricultural landscapes

• Parasitic in nature

• Grow rapidly, haphazardly and without regard to life support

• Outstrip infrastructure necessary to maintain their growth

• Urban and landscape planning is needed in maintaining the quality of systems

• Long term management andt restoration of these human-designed systems will require an understanding of conservation and restoration ecology

Conservation EcologyConservation Ecology

Provides an integrative approach and field of study, focusing on the protection and management of biodiversity based on the principles of both applied and basic ecology

Applied ecology which provide exciting challenges in the management and development of sustainable systems